lEUM

f

ifmu,/ /i H if II

A n It AH A M m E E L^ , IX D. F. E , S .

THE

CYCLOPAEDIA;

OR,

UNIVERSAL DICTIONARY

OF

art0, Sciences, anti ILiteraturf.

BY

ABRAHAM REES, D.D. F.R.S. F.L.S. S.Amer.Soc.

WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF

EMINENT PROFESSIONAL GENTLEMEN.

ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS,

BY THE MOST DISTINGUISHED ARTISTS.

IN THIRTY-NINE VOLUMES.
VOL. I.

LONDON:
Printed for LONGMAN, HURST, REES, ORME, & BROWN, Paternoster-Row,

l-.C. AND J. RIVINGTON, A.STRAHAN, PAYNE AND FOSS, SCATCHERD AND LETTERMAN, J.CUTHELL,
CLARKE AND SONS, LACKINGTON HUGHES HARDING MAVOR AND JONES, J. AND A. ARCH,
CADELL AND DAVIES, S. BAGSTER, J. MAWMAN, JAMES BLACK AND SON, CLACK KINGSBURY
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18J9.

Primed hy A. Strahan,
New-Street-Square, London.

12 13
V.I

PREFACE,

'J'HE Cyclopaedia, which has been the production of the incessant labour
o of ahiiost twenty years, is now completed, very much to the relief of

the Editor's mind, and, as he iiopes, to the satisfaction of the Public. To
the candid judgment of its numerous readers, the Editor submits the work,
assuring them, that, on his part, no pains have been wanting to render it
worthy of their approbation. If he had foreseen the time and attention
which the compilation and conduct of it required, and the unavoidable
anxiety which it has occasioned, he would probably never have undertaken
it. But habits of application, and some degree of experience in a work of
this nature, disposed him to embark in it, and enabled him to overcome
the difficulties that presented themselves to his view in his further progress.
He hopes that he may be allowed to say, that an early and long-continued
^ attachment to scientific pursuits, and a desire of serving the cause of

^ Literature and Science, liad no inconsiderable influence in directing his

^ views to this object, and encouraging his perseverance in the accomplish-

\ ment of it. He ought also to acknowledge, that the candour with which

'^' his labours, on this as well as on a former similar occasion, were received

V by the Public, and the expressions of approbation with which they were

, honoured in the course of sixteen years, afforded a very powerful induce-

J]|^ ment to unremitting assiduity and exertion. The Proprietors also, who

^ had undertaken this work without any patronage besides that of the

Public, and who were advancing large sums towards rendering it worthy of
that patronage, were liberal in their co-operation, and in enabling the
Editor to pro(i;ure every kind of assistance, which he might find to be
necessary and useful. They employed artists of the first reputation in
their respective departments, whose performances have given a peculiar cha-
racter to this work. The Proprietors and Editor v/ere likewise honoured by
"^ connection and acquaintance with persons, eminently distinguished in those

branches of science to which they had devoted their talents; and these per-
sons not only consented to be co-adjutors, but to give celebrity to the work
by allowing their names to be annexed to it, whilst they were enhancing its
importance and value by their contributions. Although the Editor cannot
deoline availing himself of the reputation which the Cyclopaedia must
acquire from the established and well-known character of his associates.

\\

Printed ty A. Stralian,
New-Street-Square, London.

V.I

PREFACE.

'T^HE Cyclop/Edia, which has been the production of the incessant labour
ot'ahiiost twenty years, is now completed, very much to the relief of
the Editor's mind, and, aa he hopes, to the satisfaction of the Public. To
the candid judgment of its numerous readers, the Editor submits the work,
assuring them, that, on his part, no pains have been wanting to render it
worthy of their approbation. If he had foreseen the time and attention
which the compilation and conduct of it required, and the unavoidable
anxiety which it has occasioned, he would pi'obably never have undertaken
it. But habits of application, and some degree of experience in a work of
this nature, disposed him to embark in it, and enabled him to overcome
the difficulties that presented themselves to his view in his further progress.
He hopes that he may be allowed to say, that an early and long-continued
attachment to scientific pursuits, and a desire of serving the cause of
Literature and Science, had no inconsiderable influence in directing his
views to this object, and encouraging his perseverance in the accomplish-
ment of it. He ought also to acknowledge, that the candour with which
his labours, on this as well as on a former similar occasion, were received
by the Public, and the expressions of approbation with which they were
hoiioured in the course of sixteen years, afforded a very powerful induce-
ment to unremitting assiduity and exertion. The Proprietors also, who
had undertaken this work without any patronage besides that of the
Public, and who were advancing large sums towards rendering it worthy of
that patronage, were liberal in their co-operation, and in enabling the
Editor to procfure every kind of assistance, which he might find to be
necessary and useful. They employed artists of the first reputation in
their respective departments, whose performances have given a peculiar cha-
racter to this work. The Proprietors and Editor were likewise honoured by
connection and acquaintance with persons, eminently distinguished in those
branches of science to which they had devoted their talents; and these per-
sons not only consented to be co-adjutors, but to give celebrity to the work
by allowing their names to be annexed to it, whilst they were enhancing its
importance and value by their contributions. Although the Editor cannot
decline availing himself of the reputation which the Cyclopaedia must
acquire from the established and well-known character of his associates.

iv PREFACE.

and with this view presenting their names to the Pubhc, he does not wish
to rob them of any portion of iiime that belongs to them, in order to
enrich himself. Notwithstanding all the assistance which he has received,
and which he thus gratefully and respectfully acknowledges, his own
responsibility furnishes a large demand on the candour of the Public ; nor
will those who duly consider, that he has devoted almost twenty years of
his life, measured not by fragments of time, but by whole days of twelve
or fourteen hours, to the completion of his undertaking, and in so doing
impaired his health and constitntion, be indisposed to exercise that liberality
in their estimate of his labours which he solicits. He is not unapprised of
defects and imperfections ; and if he were to begin the Cyclopaedia de novo,
he could improve it. Science is progressive; and since the commencement of
this work, its advances in several departments have not been inconsiderable.
The Editor has endeavoured to watch its steps, and to incorporate in his
pages every discovery and improvement that has attended its progress.
He now presents his work, in its finished state, at the bar of the Public,
anxiously but not timidly waiting a favourable decision. He begs leave,
however, to suggest, that he does not consider himself as responsible for
the opinions advanced by his co-adjutors in the articles which they have fur-
nished, any more than for those which occur in extracts from printed works.
Some of these seem to him to be erroneous ; and they are actually contro-
verted and contradicted in other parts of the Cyclopaedia, where the men-
tion of them occurs. As he could not prescribe limits to the articles
supplied by his co-adjutors, he could not presume to prohibit a statement
of their own sentiments on the subjects of the articles which they contri-
buted. In every case the reader will form his own judgment.

The names of most of his co-adjutors have been already published on the
covers of several parts of the work ; but after he has again recited them, every
reader will be able to assign to each, so well known in the circle of science,
the articles of any extent and of principal importance, which he has furnished.
Under each head, the arts and sciences being arranged in alphabetical order,
will be mentioned the names of those to whom the Editor is indebted for
contributions ; though in some cases the number is small and the articles are
short, whilst in others they are more numerous and more extended. Many
of these articles have been considerably enlarged in consequence of the
Editor's own researches. His own additions are so incorporated with the
communications of his friends, that it would not be easy to distinguish
them without a minuteness of detail, which, as he conceives, would be
tedious and uninteresting. Agriculture, Dr. Dickson. — Algebra and
Anali/sis, Barlow, Bonnycastle, and Pond. —Anatomy and Physiology,

PREFACE.

Abernethy and Lawrence. — Comparative Anatomy, Macartney, Lawrence,
and Clarke. — Annuities, W. Morgan. — Antiquities, H. Ellis and Strutt. —
Architecture, Porden, E. Aikin, P. Nicholson, Dr. Milner, and Webster. —
Astrono7ny, Bonnycastle and Pond. — Astronomical Instruments, Rev. Dr.
Pearson. — Biography, Sir J. E. Smith, Dr. Barney, Dr. Malkin, and Dr. T.
Rees. — Botany, Sir J. E. Smith, Dr. Woodville, Rev. Mr. Wood. —
Canals, Farey, senior. — Chemistry, Aikin, Sylvester, Dalton, Brande,
Dr. Marcet, Sir Humphrey Davy, Dr. C. Taylor, and Dr. Davy. — Conic
Sections and Curvilinear Geometry, Ivory. — Drawing, Howard. — Dyna-
mics, Cavallo. — Education, Dr. Carpenter. — Electricity, Cavallo and Cuth-
bertson. — Engraving, Landseer. — Entomology, Conchology, and several
other articles of Natural History, Donovan. — Exchange, Standard, Coinage,
and Weight, Dr. Kelly. — Blast and Blowing Furnaces, Mushett. — Gen-
logy, Koenig, Bakewell. — Geography, Tooke, Hinckes. — Geometry, Barlow,
Ivory. — Grammar, Dr. Jones. — Heraldry, Sir G. Naylor. — History,
English, S. Turner and Owen Pugh. — Horology, Rev. Dr. Pearson. —
Language, Dr. Carpenter, Dr. Jones. — Magnetism, Cavallo. — Manufac-
tures, Duncan, J. Thomson, Parkes, and Farey, junior. — Mechanics and
Machinery, Cavallo, Farey, junior. — Medicine, Dr. Bateman and Dr. Hen-
derson.— Mental Derangement, Dr. Haslam. — Meteorology, L. Howard,
Dalton, and Dickson. — Midxmfery, Dr. Bland. — Mineralogy, Koenig, Bake-
well. — Mining, Taylor. — Naval Architecture, Glover. — Navigation,
Mackay. — Music, Dr. Burney and Farey, senior. — India Mythology, Mapr
Moor. — Mental and Moral Philosophy, Dr. Carpenter. — Painting, Russell,
Opie, Ottley, and Phillips. — Prosody, H. Parker. — Sculpture, Flaxman,
P. Hoare, and Bacon. — Surgery, Blair, who also furnished the article
Cipher, and S. Cooper, — Topography, Britton. — Versification, H. Parker ;
— and a variety of Miscellaneous articles by Joyce, Ellis, Fletcher, Howard,
Clarkson, and several other gentlemen, who were occasional contributors,
and whose names it is needless to mention. To Mr. S. Bevan and some
other literary and scientific friends, the Editor is indebted for the assistance
which they have afforded him in suggesting articles that had been omit-
ted, and that have been supplied in the Addenda. Dr. Thomas Rees has,
towards the close of the work, paid particular attention to the arrangement
of the Plates. He has also drawn up a digested catalogue of them, together
with an alphabetical index of the subjects which they comprise ; and added
such explanations, and corrections of references, as appeared to be neces-
sary or desirable, after a minute and careful collation, made in conjunction
with the Editor, of every Plate, with the printed letter-press to which it
pertained. The Editor and Proprietors of this work are also indebted f.o

yi PREFACE.

Mr. Donovan, for the General Systematic Arrangement of the Plates of
Natural History.

The "eneral plan upon which this work has been conducted, and which
was stated in the Advertisement that announced the publication of it,
seemed to the Editor, after some experience in this department of literary
labour, and after consulting several competent judges, the most suitable to
the nature and design of a Scientific Dictionary. Whatever may be the
advantafTC resulting from separate dictionaries appropriate to each particular
science, which is the plan of the French Encyclopedie, or from distinct
treatises introduced in a dictionary of one alphabet, according to some
modern compilations of this kind, the inconvenience and perplexity that
attend the multiplication of alphabets, whether they occur in different
serieses of volumes, or in the form of an index at the close of each treatise, will
furnish an objection against this mode of arrangement, which it will not be
easy to obviate. In a work of such magnitude as the French Dictionary, con-
sisting already of between 100 and 200 volumes, and of undetermined extent,
the best treatises that have been written, or that may be written, on each
subject, may be introduced, and the work itself may be a complete library,
and siipersede the necessity of recurring to any other. But in a publication
of limited compass, such as booksellers may undertake, and the general
class of readers purchase, it is hardly possible to combine separate articles,
sufficiently instructive, with treatises equally comprehensive and complete.
To those who usually consult dictionaries for information, this plan, we are
persuaded, is by no means the most eligible. If they wish to extend their
knowledge beyond the limits to which a dictionary must necessarily restrict
it, they will recur to appropriate treatises for the purpose ; and the dic-
tionary should furnish them with the necessary references. A dictionary
is intended for communicating knowledge in an easy and expeditious
manner ; and it is desirable that the several articles should be so full and
comprehensive, as to afford sufficient instruction on the subjects to which
they relate, without the necessity of recurring to another dictionary, or to
an index, for further information. It may be said, indeed, that the sciences
are thus mutilated and mangled ; and that it is impossible to preserve their
unity without discussing each in a separate treatise. We readily allow,
that this is an inconvenience, inseparable from the form of a dictionary ;
but at the same time we think that this may be remedied in a considerable
degree by that kind of ramification of the principal subject, which, with
suitable references, will lead the reader to subordinate articles, that form,
by their mutual connection and dependence, an aggregate or whole, super-
seding in all commoncases the necessity of a distinct treatise. These

PREFACE. vii

references, when judiciously distributed and arranged, will serve, like the
index of a book, but much more effectually, to conduct the reader from one
subject to another : they will enable him to perceive their relation to eacli
other ; and they will direct him how to collect and combine the dispersed
parts of any science into one entire and regular system. Each article will
afford him, as it were, a distinct lecture ; and he may pursue the same
course of study by the means now suggested, or vary it as he thinks proper.
Upon the whole, the advantage of separate treatises under each head of
science, such as the limits of a dictionary will allow, seems to be more
imaginary than real ; more especially as the want of them may be supplied
in the manner that has been mentioned.

In conformity to our proposed plan, it has been our endeavour to give,
under each distinct head of science, an historical account of its rise, pro-
gress, and present state, concisely and yet as comprehensively as our limits
and our sources of information would allow ; to refer to those articles in
which the discussion of them occurs, and to point out such publications as
afford further information. References of this kind are introduced under
each separate article, wherever they are thought to be necessary and useful ;
and thus the reader is able to form his judgment concerning the authorities
upon which the compilers of the several articles depend ; and if he shall
have opportunity or inclination, he may recur to them for himself.

Whilst the Editor and his co-adjutors in this work have availed themselves
of the assistance which other similar dictionaries have afforded them, they
have not contented themselves with mere transcripts ; they have resorted as
much as possible to original writers, which they have been enabled to do by
the facility of their access to large libraries; and by the citations which
they subjoin to the several articles, the Public will judge of the extent of
their research, and of the industry and labour which they have bestowed
on this compilation. In their account of the arts and manufactures, they
have consulted the artisans and manufacturers themselves, and derived from
them every kind of information that was likely to conduce to the credit and
utility of the work : and this they have not been able to do without incur-
ring a very considerable expence.

Some apology may, perhaps, be thought necessary for the extension of
this work beyond the limits first proposed. Wlien it was determined to

VUl

PREFACE.

introduce biography, as well as geography, topography, and history, upon a
lartrer scale than the Proprietors and Editor had at first intended, principally
in compliance with the wishes of intelligent and esteemed subscribers, the
enlargement of it became indispensable. To his co-adjutors, whose assist-
ance was hiohly important, the Editor could not presume to prescribe
limits, which would have depreciated the value of the articles which they
contributed, and within which, for their own reputation, they would not
lia\ e consented to be confined, and of course the work would have been
deprived of the benefit of their contributions. This circumstance could not
fail to occasion an enlargement of the Cyclopaedia ; but it was propor-
tionably enhanced in value ; and the Editor is satisfied, that the purchasers
will not ultimately regret the augmentation of expence. The plates like-
wise have been multiplied far beyond the original intention of the Pro-
prietors, because new and unthought-of subjects were introduced in the
progress of the work ; but as these plates constitute a character of excel-
lence peculiar to this Cyclopaedia, it is thought that the circumstance of
their beino; additional embellishments of the work, besides that of their
being indispensable as explanatory of the articles to which they refer, will
be a sufficient apology for the increase of their number ; more especially
when it is considered, that the augmented number of plates, as well as the
enlargement of the work, have occasioned a diminution of profit to the
Proprietors. It would have been more their interest, as well as more
gratifying to the Editor, to have compiled a Cyclopeedia in fewer volumes,
and to have contented themselves with a smaller number of plates ; as in
all probability the sale would have been greater, and the sum of money
expended upon it would of course have been much less. The Editor must
do the booksellers concerned in this Cyclopaedia the justice to say, that
they have consented to forego part of the possible profit that might have
accrued from it for the sake of its reputation and utility.

CYCLOPEDIA'.

OR, A NEW

UNIVERSAL DICTIONARY

OF

ARTS and SCIENCES.

A

A May be confidered, I. asn letter; IT. as a word ;
and III. as an abbreviation.
I. A, as a LETTER, or the mark of a vocal
found, is the moft I'lmple, and that which the dumb are mofl
eafily taught to utter.

To pronounce it clearly, we need only open the mouth
wider than for any other found, and then emit the air from
our lungs. It is the firft letter of the alphabet in all the
known languages of the world, except in that of the
Ethiopians ; in which, according to Ludolfus, it is the
thirteenth.

We muil feek the origin of this, and the reft of our
letters, in the Oriental languages. See Alphabet and
Letters.

In the Englifh language, the charafter A is the mark of
three different founds, which are termed by our grammarians
the Iroad A, the open A, and xhcJJeiidsr A.

1. Our broad A, refembles the found marked by the
German A, and is found in many of our monofyllables, as
nil, luall, 77uilt,fah, where it is pronounced as au in caufe and
ftiult, or as aw, in laiu. It is probable that this broad found

was that which our Saxon anceftors expreffed by the cha-
rafter A, as it is ilill, almoil unifonnly, retained in the niftic
prommciation and northern dialefts of our language ; as
taulk for talk, maun for mfm, haimd for hand. Sec.

2. The open A of the Englifli, is not unhke the A of
the Italians in adayjo, and is the found marked by this letter
in father, rather, &c.

3. 'Thejlendi'r found marked by the charafter A, is pe-
cuhar to the Englilh language, and refembles the found of
the French e mafeuline, or of their diphthong ai in pais ;
perhaps it is a middle found between tb.cm, or between the a
and e. Such we have in the words pLur,fdu; <zv(ifle, and in
all thofe that terminate in ation-', ?iifaIval:on,prcf;rvatioa, Sec.

The founds of which A is the charafter in our language,
Vol. I.

are fometimes (hort ; as in the words g!a/s, gri/s, Irafs, kc.
at other times long ; as in gfazf, graze, Sec. Their length
is commonly denoted by an i immediately fubjoined to the
a ; as in plain, rain, &c. or by au e added at the end of the
word ; as in plane, crane. Sec.

Some contend that there are four, others, that there are
five diftinifl founds, denoted by the charadler A in the
Englifh language. There are, perhaps, little variations and
diilinftions in the founds marked by the charaftcr A, a8
well as by the other vowel letters in our alphabet ; but they
are fo local or arbitrary, or, after all, lb nice and fubtle,
that they entirely efcape the notice of foreigners, and are
hardly diftinguifhable by the natives. Thofe who defire to
enter more deeply into the iirfl fonnation of founds, and to
fee the elemental^ principles of fpeech treated with philofo-
phical accuracy, will find fatisfacfion in the ingenious
treatifes of Walhs and Holder.

In burlefque poetry, the letter A is fometimes added
after words ; it lengthens them a fyllable, without altering
their fenfe ; as line-a, for line, in Diyden, Sic. It is fome-
times redundant, when prefixed to words, as arlje, a-uiakc ;
the fame with rife, -wake. Sec.

In our Calendar, A is the firft of the dominical letters
which were introduced in imitation of the eight nukdinal
letters of the Romans, of wliich the A was one.

II. A is a WORD. This firft fimple found is ufed in
our language to exprefs moft of the vehement emotions of
the foul. We naturally ufe it on all fudden Oecafions of
admiration, joy, anguifh, apprehcnfion of danger, &c. and
where the emotion is veiy great, the A is enforced by add-
ing an afpirate to it, as ai !

It is fometimes a noun ; for we fay great A and little a ;
but it is moft commonly a definite, or an indefinite article.
It is definite, and denotes the number one, as, a man is
coming, that is, no man than ottt. It is alfo ufed as an m-

B difnite

A A L

AJtnltt arti.lc ; fo wc fay, a man may corae tliis way ; lUat
if, any man.

A, iiled as an article, has no plural (ignification : before
a word beginning with a vowel, jr and w excepted, and
before a filent h preceding a vowel, it is written an, of
which a h the contraftion ; as an harbour, an ox, an hour,
&c. A feems to be a true and genuine prepolition, in the
three following cafes : I. When it is put before a participle
or participial noun, denoting fome action not yet accom-
plilhcJ. ; as I am a writing. 2. When it is placed before
local fumames ; as Thomas a Becket. 3. \\'Tien it is
ufed in compofition ; e. g. <jfoot, afleep, &c. Dr. Wallis
fuppofes it to be a contraction oi at: but Dr. Lowth thinks,
that it is the prepofnion on, and fometimes of. At, he fays,
has relation chiefly to place ; on has a more general relation,
and may be applied to aclijn, and many other things, as
well as />li:cf.

In fome inftanccs, A has a peculiar fignification, denoting
the proportion of one thing to another ; as fuch income a
year, fo many hours a day, fo much a man, &c.

III. A is alfo an abbreviation. A put to bills of
exchange, is in England an abbreviation for accepted., and in
France for the word accepic. It is likewife ufual among
merchants to mark their fets of books with the letters
A, B, C, inftead of the numbers i, 2, 3, &c.

In the Roman Infcriptions, the fenfe of the A is to be
coUefted chiefly from the connexion of the words, and the
fcope of the infcription. A Imgly ftands for AuJus, Au-
^nflui, a^tr, aiunt, ante, <trc, /tdes, ttdills-, adilitas, ararium,
aula, anima, amicut, amisa, alio, alia, atia, &c. and, by a
more modem abbreviation, for arl'ium. Thus, A.M. ftands
for Arlium Magijler, Majler of Arts, and A. B. for Artium
Baccalaureui, Bachelor of Arts, A A. fignifies Augufli, and
A A A. ftands for auro, argentn, tre. A B. ftands for alia
lona, and A C. for aUd caufd, &c. On the Greek and
Roman medals, A denotes commonly the name of the place
where they were ftruck, as Athens, Argos, Antioch,
Aquileia. On French coins A is the mark of the mint of
Paris, and A A fignifies their coinage at Metz.

The Romans in their trials ufed their A to denote abfo-
lutlon ; whence Cicero calls it Ittera falutaris, the fi-oing letter.
Their manner was tliis : Three ballots were given to each
judge, marked one with an A. for abfolvo, I abfohe ; a
fecond with a C. for condemno, I condemn ; and the third
with N. L. which ftood for non liquet, it is not clear. One
or other of thefe each judge, according to his judgment,
put into an urn ; and the prstor acquitted or condemned
the criminal, according to the refpedive number of thefe
letters. If the fuffrages for acquitting and condemning
were equal, the accufed was always acquitted.

The Romans alfo made ufe of the letter A in collefting
their fuffrages in cafes of legiflation. When a new law
was propofcd, or an amendment of an old one was in
agitation, each voter had two ballots put into his hand, the
one marked A. fignlfying antiquo, q. d. antiquum volo, I like
the jold -way ; and the other marked U. R. for uti rogas,
as you defire ; and his fuffrage was given, by putting the
one, or the other, into the urn. A, in the days of Roman
barbarifm, was one of the numeral letters, and llgniiied five
hundred ; when wi-itten with a dafh over it, thus a, it
denoted five thoufand. The letter A is alfo ufed by
Chronologers and Hiftorians as an abbreviation for anno ; fo
they put A.M. for anno Mundi, A.D. (or anno Domini, &c.

The Romans dated from the building of Rome ; and in
their writings A. U. C. ftands for anno ab urhe condita. The
Greeks ufed A, a, prefixed to a word, as a Privative par-
ticle. With them it was alfo a numeral letter denoting unit.

Among Logicians, A denotes an univerfal affirmative
propofition ; according to the verfe,

Afferit A, negat E, •ueriim gencraliter ambit. See Barbara.

In Algebra A or a, and the firft letters of the alphabet,
reprefent hiown quantities ; and the laft letters reprefent
quantities that are unknoii'n.

In the prcfcriptions of Phyficians, A, or a, or S3, denotes
equal parts of the ingredients fpecified, and is a contraciion
of the prcpofition a»a, which is ufed in the fame fcnfe by
medicinal writers in the Greek tongue.

Among Chemifts, AAA fignifies an amalgam a, or the
operation of amalgamating.

In Heraldr)', the letter A is ufed as a bearing in arms.

A A, Peter Vander, in Biography, an eminent bookfeller
at Leyden, who was living in 1729. He publiflicd an atlas
of 200 charts compiled after the long voyages from 1246 to
1696. They are not deemed veiy accurate. They are in-
cluded in the Galerie Agreable du Monde, in 66 vols, folio.
Aa continued Gnevius's Thefaurus, or an account of tlie
modern Italian writers, in fix other volumes, with the
Thefaunis Antiquitatum Sicilice.

AA, in Hydrography, the name of feveral rivers : one in
Weflphalia, which rifcs near Munfter and falls into the river
Enibs ; another, that has its fource in the department of
Somme, in France, becomes navigable by means of fluices
near St. Omer, paflfes on to Gravehnes, and difcharges itfelf
into the Englifli Channel ; a third in Livonia, that falls into
the gulf of Riga ; and a fourth in Switzerland, that rifes in
Mount Brunig, and falls into the lake Lucerne.

AACH, in Geography, a fmali town in Germany, in
the circle of Suabia and Landgravate of Nellenburg, near
the fource of the river Aach, which falls into the Take of
Zell. It belongs to the Houfe of Auftria. E. long. 9°.
N. lat. 47° 55'.

AAGARD, Nicholas and Chrl/lian, in Biography, two.
brothers born at Wiburg in Denmark in the beginning of
the 17th century. The former is known for his philofophical
works and other trails, particularly his difputations upon
Tacitus ; the latter for his excellent poetr)'.

AAGGI-DOGII, in Geography, a mountain of Amafia
in Turkey, on the frontiers of Perfia, which is croffed by
the Caravan:, in their way from Conftantinople to Ifpahan.

AAG - HOLM, a fmall ifland on the coaft of Norway,
near the mouth of the river Lendevand.

AAHUS, or Ah Ausz, i. e. the houfe on the Aa, a fmall
town in the circle of Weftphalia, and bithoprick of Munfter.
It is the capital of the prefefturate of Aahus, and has a
citadel. E. long. 7° 1'. N. lat. 52° 10'.

AAKIAR, a prefefture of the diocefe of Aarhuus
containing 16 parifhes.

AAKIRKE, a town in the ifland of Bornholm,
which has the privileges of a city, and in which are held
the provincial court and the fynod. E. long. 14° 56'.
N. lat. 55° 15'.

AALBURG, the capital of a diocefe of the fame name
in North Jutland, in Denmark, and a bilhop's fee. It de-
rives its name from the number of eels that are taken here.
This city is large and populous, and next to Copenhagen,
the moll opulent and beft built in the kingdom. It carries
on a confiderable trade in herrings and grain, and has dif-
ferent maniifaftures of mufl<ets, piftols, faddles, and gloves.
It has an exchange for merchants ; as well as a fafe and deep
harbour. The population of this diocefe amounts to 80,872
perfons. E. long. 9° 46'. N. lat. 56° 50'.

AALEN, or Ahlen, a free Imperial town belonging
to tlie bench of Suabia, and fo called from the number
of eels which are in that part of the river Kocher that

' nins

A A R

runs through it. This city is Lutheran. It was formerly
under the dominion of the kings of Bohemia, and fold
to Ebhcrhard, Count of Wirtemberg. The Emperor
Charles IV. recovered it, and reilored it to tlic empire in
1360. This, and fimilar cities that are almoil in a ruined
Rate, preferve their franchiles and immunities with care.
E. long. 9° 36'. N. lat. 48-^ 48'.

AALST, or Aelst, Everard, \n Biography, a painter, was
born at Delft in i6o2 and died in 1658. He excelled in
fruit pieces, dead game, and armory. His nephew, named
William, fui-paffed his uncle. He was born in 1620 and
died in 1679. His piftures are chiefly known in Holland.

Aalst, or Alest, in Geography, the capital of a county
of the fame name in the dillrift of Ghent and circle of
Burgundy, and lying between the rivers Schelde and Dender.
This city hes on the latter of thefe rivers. E. long. 3° 54'.
N. lat. 50° 58'.

AAJM, or Haam, is a liquid meafure generally ufed by
the Dutch ; it contains 128 mingles, each mingle weighing
about 36 ounces avoirdupois ; and eonlequently the ylam is
equal to 1485 pints of Paris, or to 288 pints of Englilh
meafure ; the Paris pint weighing 3 1 ounces, and that of
England 1 6 ounces.

AAMA, in Geography, a province of Barbary in Africa,
about 1 5 da)-s' journey from Tunis.

AANSIRE, a fmall illand 0.1 the coaft of Noi-way,
oppofite to Aag-Holm.

AAR, or Aren, in Hydrography, a large river of Swit-
zerland, which has its fource in Mount Grimfel in the fouth
of the canton of Bern, and purfuing a circuitous courfe
towards the north-weil, palfes through the lakes of Brientz
and Thun to Bern, and afterwards changing its direction
towards the north-eaft, flows to Solothurn and Brugg, and
being joined by the Reufs and Limmatt, difcharges itfelf
into the Rhine near \Valdfliut. There is another fmaller
river of the fame name in Weftphaha.

A AR, in Geography, the name of a iinall ifland in the Baltic.

AARASSUS, in Andent Geography, a town of Pilidia
in Afia, which fome have fuppbfed to be the Anafl"us of
Ptolemy. Strabo, Geog. torn. ii. p. 855.

A A RAW, in Geography, a town and bailiwick in
the canton of Bern in Switzerland. E. long. 7*^ 10'.
N. lat. 40° 2'.

AARDENBORG, a fmall town in Flanders fituated on
a canal which communicates with the Zwin. It was once a
fortrefs; but its works were totally razed in 1700. E. long.
3° 14'. N. lat. 51° if.

AARHUUS, the capital of a diocefe of the fame name
in North Jutland, extending from that of Wiburg along the
Cattegat, about 15 miles in length and 8 or 9 in breadth.
This diocefe is extremely fertile, and diverfified with woods,
bays, and lakes abojnding with fifli. It is watered by
feveral rivers, the chief of which is the Guden. The town
lies in a fine plain between the fea and a lake, from which a
ftream of water pafles through it. It is large and populous,
lias 6 gates, 2 principal cliurches, 2 market places, an uni-
verfity, a free fchool, and a well endowed hofpital. It car-
ries on a good trade. The number of inhabitants in this
diocefe is eftimated at 117,942. E. long. 10°. N. lat.
56° 6'.

AARON, in Scripture Hi/lory, the fon of Amram and
Jochebed, and the grandfon of Levi, was born A. M. 2430,
before the ChrilHan aera 1574. He was three years older
than his brother Mofes, and appointed to aid him under the
charafter of his advocate and interpreter, as well as prophet,
in his intercpurfc with Pharaoh, and in the refcue of the
Ifraelites from their bondage in Egypt. With this view

AAR

they both went together into Egypt ; and after many
attempts to overcome the oppofition of the Egyptians, and
the obftinacy of Pharaoh, they accompliflied their objeft
A.M. 2513, ante A. D. 1491. After the Exodus of
Ifracl, and during their peregrination in the Wildernefs,
Aaron and his fons cxercifed the office of priells by a divine
appointment; and as foon as the tabkrnacle was built,
Aaron was confecratcd by Mofes with the holy oil, and
invefted with the pontifical ornaments. When Mofes went
up to the Mount to receive the law, Aaron, accompanied by
the 70 elders, followed him ; but during his continuance
for 40 days on the Mount, the people became impatient
and tumultuous, and Aaron, yielding to their folicitations,
melted down their pendants, and the ear-rings of their
wives and children, and formed tYm golden Calf, to which
they paid homage. He afterwards humbled himfelf for this
offence, obtained forgivenefs, and was continued in the
priefthood. In a fubfequent period, viz. A.M. 2 J 15.
Koi-ah aipired to the prleiUy oflice, and Dathan ar.d Abiraia
claimed a (hare with Mofes in the fovereign authority ; for
which aft of rebeUion, as their hiilory informs us, they were
fignally punifhcd. Aaron was afterwards confirmed in the
prieilhood by the miracle of the almond-rod, which
bloflbmed, and which was depofited in the moft holy place,
in order to pei-petuate his title, and the remembrance of
this prodigy. He married Ehflieba, the daughter of Am-
minadab of the tribe of Judah, by whom he had four fons ;
two of whom were dcftroyed by tire, and from the other
two the race of the high priefts of the Jews was continued
from Aaron in regular fuccelTion. When tlie period of
Aaron's fervice was completed, he afcended Mount Hor
near the encampment of the Ilraelites at Molera, difrobed
himfelf of the pontifical ornaments in the view of tlie
people, and put them, upon Eleazar his eldeil fon, and his
fuccefl'or in the high prieilhood. He then died in the anns
of Mofes and his fon, at the age of 123 years, in the
40th year after the Exodus ; and they buried him in a cave
of this mountain : but the place of his interment was con-
cealed, probably under an apprehenfion that in future ages
he might become an objeft of fuperftltious worfhip. For a
farther account of Aaron the reader is referred to Exodus,
Leviticus, and the book of Num.bers to the 24th verfe
of the xxth chapter ; and for an abftraft, with remarks on
feveral circumilances pertaining to his ftation, charafter,
and office, to Calmet's Diftiona-y of the Bible.

Aaron, in Church Iliflory, a Britiih martyr, who fufTered
a cruel death, together with Julius, under the perfecution of
Dioclefian, in the year 303. It does not appear what were
the Britiih names of thefe two martyrs ; as the Chriftian
Britons took new names from the Latin, Greek, or Heb-
rew, at the time of their baptifm. They were buried at
Caerleon, and each of them had a church dedicated to his
memory in that city. In the Roman msrtyrologv' their feaft
was fixed on ihejiijl of July. Biog. Brit.

Aaron, a prefbyter and phyfician of Alexandria, author
of 30 books in the Syriac tongue, containing the whole
practice of phyfic, called the Pandefts, chiefly colleftcd
from the Greek writings, and fuppofed to be written before
620. They were tranflated into Arabic by a Syrian Jew
phyfician about A. D. 683. He is the firft author that
mentions, and that has clearly defcribed, the fmall-pox and
meafies, which probably firft appeared at Alexandria in
Egypt A. D. 640, and were brought thither by the Ara-
bians when they took that city. He direfted the vein under
the tongue to be opened in the cure of the jaundice, and ob-
ferved Uiat the foeces in that difcafe are of a white colour.
The above-mentioned work and its tranflations are lofl. ; and
*> B 2 we

A A T

we hav« only fragments remaining, colkdled by Moliammed
Rhazis in his Coiitinens.

Aakun, or Hari'm, ^l RnfcbU, in General Biography,
• cekbrali-J calijili of tlic Saracen empire. Sec Bagdad.

Aaron Aitrtjcb-jn, a learned R.ibbi and Caraite in the
thirteenth century, who wrote an Hebrew grammar, printed
»t Conllantinople in 1581. He was prob:ibly the f;imo with
yiaron, wlio wrote a commentary on the Pentateuch, which
is in MS. in the French king's bbraiy, and tranflated by
D-iiiz in 1 7 10 J and MSS. annotations on the Old Tefta-
ment. There was another yiaron, diilinguiflied from the
former by the epithet Hachuron, i. e. pofterior, who was
born at Nicomtdia in 1 346. His writings arc efteemed
oracular by the Caraite Jews. The Garden of Eden, con-
taining thedotlrinis and culloms of his nation, is the principal.

Aaron, a Levite of Barcelona, was the author of 613
precepts on Mofes in Hebrew, printed at Venice in 1523.
He died in 1292.

Aarou, Ben chaim, was chief of the fynagogue of Fez
and Morocco in the beginning of the fcventeenth centuiy.
His commentary on the Prophets, iulitled the heart of
jliirsn, one on the Syphra, and another on the Law, were
printed at Venice in 1609, folio.

Aaron, Ben afer, was a celebrated Rabbi, who is faid to
have invented the Hebrew points and accents towards the
ftfth centur)'. His Hebrew grammar was printed by Bom-
berg in 15 151 folio.

Aaron', \n Geography. See »9/. Maloes.

AARONSBURGH, in Geography, a town of America,
lying at the head of Penn's creek in the county of Northum-
berland, about 30 miles W. from Louifburgh, and 40 \V.
by N. from Sunbui-y.

AARSENS, Francis, Lord of Someldyck and Spyck,
one of the greateft minifters for negotiation in the United
Provinces. He was fent by Barnevelt, who prelided over
tliefe provinces, as agent into France, and was the firft
perfon recognifed, in 1609, as Dutch ambaffadorby the French
court. He was the firft of three extraordinaiy ambafTadors
fent to England in 1620, and the fecond of thofe who were
deputed in 1641, to negotiate the marriage of Prince William,
fon to the Prince of Orange. After having been employed
in feveral other important mifiions, he died in an advanced
age, veiy rich, and left on record memoirs of all the em.balTies
in which he had been engaged.

Aarsens, orAERTSEN, Pf/fr, denominated from his fta-
ture by the Italians PLtro Longo, a celebrated painter, was
born at Amfterdam in 1 5 1 9. He excelled in painting a kitchen
with its furniture, and his altar-pieces were particularly
admired. A famous piece of this kind was deftroyed in the
infurreftion of 1566; and becaufe he complained of this
outrage, he was in danger of being murdered by the popu-
lace. He died in 1575.

AARTGEN, or Aertgen, a painter of eminence, who
was born at Leyden in 1498, and purfued his father's trade
of a woolcomber to the age of eighteen. He voluntarily
lived in meannefs and obfcurity ; and declined offers of ad-
vanccment, alleging that he found more fwcets in his
poverty than others did in their riches. He never worked
on Monday, chufing to devote that day, with his difciples,
to the bottle. It was his praAice to ftroll about the ftreets
in the night, playing on the German flute ; and in one of
thefe frolics he was drowned in 1564.

AASAR, in Ancient Geography, c town of Paleftine,
fituated between Azotus and Alcalon, which in the time of
Jerome was a hamlet.

AATTER, a diftria of the northern part of Arabia
FcLiij oa the Red Sea.

ABA

AAVORA, in Natural Hi/lory, the fruit of a fort of
large palm tree in the Well Indies, and in Africa. It is of
the fize of a hen's egg, and included, with feveral more,
in a large lliell. In the middle of the fruit there is a hard
nut, about the fize of a peach ftone, which contains a white
almond, very allringcnt and proper to check a diarrhoea.

AB, in the Hcbreiu Chronology, the eleventh month of
the civil year, and the fifth of the ecclefiaftical year, which
begins with Nifan. This month anlwered to the moon of
July, comprehending part of July and of Augull, and con-
tained thirty days.

The firft day of this month is obferved as a faft by the
Jews, in memory of Aaron's death ; and the ninth, in com-
memoration of the deftruftion of the temple by Nebuchad-
nezzar, in the year before Chriil 5-87. Jofephus obferves,
that the burning of the temple by Nebuchadnezzar, hap-
pened on the fame day of the year on which it was after-
wards burned by Titus. The fame day was remarkable for
Adrian's edift, which prohibited the Jews to continue in
Judxa, or to look towards Jerufalem and lament its defola-
tion. The eighteenth day is alfo kept as a faft, becaufe
the facred lamp was extinguifhed that night, in the reign
of Ahaz. On the twenty-firft, or according to Scaliger,
the 2 2d "day, was a feaft, called Xylophoria, from
their laying up the neceflary wood in the temple : and
on the twenty-fourth, a feaft in commemoration of the abo-
li'lbing of a law by the Afmoncans, or Maccabees, which
had been introduced by the Sadducees, and which enafted>
that both fons and daughters ihould alike inherit the eftates
of their parents.

Ab, in the Syriac Calendar, is the name of the laft fum-
mer month.

Ab, prefixed to the names of places, generally denotes
that they belong to fome abbey.

ABA, or Abau, Hanifah. See Hanifah.

Aba, Abas or Abus, in Ancient Geography, a rnoun^
tain of Greater Armenia, fituated between the mountains
Niphates and Nibarus. According to Strabo, (Geog.
torn. ii. p. 799.) the Euphrates and Araxes flow from this
mountain ; the one towards the weft, and the other to the
eaft. Euftathius and Dionyiuis Periegetes, call this moun-
tain, which is part of Mount Taurus, Achos.

Aba, or Ab^e, a city of Phocis in Greece, near Heli^
con, famous for an oracle of Apollo, more ancient than
that at Delphi, and alfo for a rich temple, plundered and
burnt by the Perfians. Strabo's Geog. tom. i. p. 647, and
the authors there cited.

ABACA, in Botany, a kind of flax or hemp, gathered
in fome of the Manillas or Phihppine Iflands. This plant
is fown every year ; being gathered, it is fteeped in water,
and beaten as hemp is. It is of two kinds, the white and'
the grey. The white ahaca is ufed for making very fine
linen ; but the grey is employed for nothing but cordage.

Abaca, in Geography, one of the Philippine Hands in
Afia.

ABACjENA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Media,
and another of Cana in the Hither Alia.

ABAC^NUM, a town of Sicily, the ruins of which
are fuppofed to be near Trippi, a citadel on a fteep moun-
tain near Mefllna. Its inhabitants were called Abactnini.
Stephan. de Urbibus, tom. i. p. 2.

Abaca Y, in Natural Hijlory, a name given by the
people of the Philippine Klands to a fpecics of parrot, called
alfo Calangay.

ABACH, in Geography, a market town of Bavaria,
fituated on the Danube. It has an old caftle, in which
Henry II. is faid to have been bom, and is much £re»

quented

ABA

quented on account of its mineral waters. E. long. 1 1° 59'.
N. lat. 48° 53'.

ABACINARE, or AnnAciNARE, derived either from
the Italian bacxno, a hafon, or lacio, a dark place, in IFrihrj
of the Middle Age, a ipccies of punilliment, conllfting in the
blinding of the criminal, by iiolding a red hot bafon, or bow,
before his eyes. Du-Cange.

ABACK, in Sea Language, fignifies the fituation of the
fails, when their furfaces are flatted againft the mails by
the force of the wind. They may be brought aback, either
by a ludden change of the wind, or an alteration in the
Ihip's courie. Thty are laid aback to effeft an immediate
retreat, without turning either to the right or left, in order
to avoid fome imminent danger, in a narrow channel, or
when (he has advanced beyond her ftation in the line of
battle, or othcrwife. The fails are put in this pofition
by flackening their lee-braces, and hauhng in the weather-
ones.

ABACOA, in Geography, one of the Bahama [[lands,
about 54 miles in length and 21 miles in breadth. See
Providence.

ABACOOCHEE, a river of America, called alfoCoosA.

ABACOT, a cap of llate, wrought up in the form of
two crowns, worn by our ancient Britifli kings.

ABACTOR, formed of ab, from, and aclor, a driver,
from agere, to drive, (called by the Roman la\vyers ylbigeus
or Abigevus), one who drives off cattle in herds ; in contradif-
tinftion to one who fteals a fingle (heep, &c. only, who is
called a thief. Nam qui ovem unam furripiierit, ut fur coer-
eetur, qui gregcm ut Abaclor. The punifliment of Abigeat
was more fevere than that of Furtum ; viz. condemnation
to the mines, banifhment, or even death itfelf, according to
the quality of the offender. But fometimes in Spain the
punilliment was more fevere than elfewhere, the people there
being moil addifted to it.

ABACTUS, or Abigeatus, among the Ancient Phy-
jicians, was ufed for a mifcarriage procured by art, or force
of medicines, in contvadiilinction to abortus, which is
natural. But the moderns know no fuch dillintlion. See
Abortion.

ABACUS, among the Ancients, was a kind of cupboard,
or Buffet.

The word is formed from the Greek a^o.^, which, among
that people, fignified the fame thing.

Abacus, among the Mai hema/icians, was a little table
ftrewed over with dull, on which they di-ew their fchemes
and figures.

In this fenfe, the word feems formed from the Phoeni-
cian piJ^j abai, dujf.

ABACUS Pythagoriciis, a table of numbers, contrived for
the ready learning of the principles of arithmetic ; fo deno-
minated from its inventor, Pythagoras.

Hence alfo, from an agrcemer.t in point of ufe, the
names Abacus and Abacj are ufcd, among Latin and Italian
writers, for an alphabet, or ABC, &c.

The Abacus Pyihagoricus was, in all probability, no other
than what we call a multiplication-table.

Ludolfus and Wolfius give us methods of performing
multiplication without the help of the Abacus ; but they
are too operofe in ordinaiy cafes for praftice. See Mul-

TirLICATION.

The Abacus for facilitating the operation of arithmetic,
is an inftrument almoft as ancient, and extenfive, as the art
of arithmetic itfelf: if it be later than the methods of com-
puting by the fingers, and by lapilli, or ftoues (which ob-
tained among the Egyptains), it is at leaft much prior to the
ufe of numeral letters or figures, wrought with the pen.

We find it in ufe, under fome variations, among the

ABA

Greeks, Romans, Chinefe, Germans, French, &c. It
excels in point of facility, and neatncfs of operation, as
working without any llrokes or blots of the pen, or wade
of paper ; fome alfo give it the preference in point of ex-
pedition.

The Abacus is varioudy contrived ; that chiefly ufed in
European countries is made by drawing any number of
parallel lines, at pleafure, at a diftance from each other,
equal to twice the diameter of a calculus, or counter. Here
a counter placed on the firll or lowermoil line, fignifies i ;
on the fecond, 10 ; on the third, 100 ; on the fourth, loco ;
on the fifth, 10,000 ; and fo on. In the fpaces between the
lines, the fame counters iignify half of what they fignify on
the next fuperior line ; viz. in the fpace between the firft
and fecond lines, 5 ; between the fecond and third, 50 ;
between the third and fourth, 500 ; and fo on. Thus the
counters on the Abacus, in the fig\irc here fubjoincd, make
the fum of 37392. — The Abacus is aifo divided crofs-wife
\x\to arcrtle, by means whereof fubtradlions ETC made. Wolf^
Lex. Matlu p. 171, fcq.

0000
1000

0—0 — y j

0

100

O i~) f>

10

0

r> r> n n

I

— ~0 — G

The Grecian Abacus, aSa.%, or counting-board, was an ob-
long frame, divided by feveral brafs-wires llretclied parallel
to one another, and mounted with an equal number of
little ivory balls, hke the beads of a necklace. By the
arrangement of thefe balls, dillinguifliing the numbers into
different claffes, and obferving the relations of the lower to
the upper, all kinds of computations were eafily performed.
Mahudel, in Hift. Acad. R. Infer, tom. iii. p. 390.

The Roman Abacus was much the fame with the Gre-
cian, except that inftead of Rrings, or wires, and beads, in
the Roman, we find pins and groves for them to Aide in.
It is defcribed by feveral authors ; but notwithllanding all
thefe defcriptions, we (hould have had a very obfcure idea
of the ancient manner of reckoning, if figures of it had not
been found among the ancient marbles. Phil. Tranf. N'^ 1 80.

The Chinefe Abacus confifts, like the Grecian, of feveral
feries of beads flrung on brafs wires, extended from the top
to the bottom of the inftniment, and divided in the middle
by a crofs piece from fide to fide ; fo that in the upper row
each firing has two beads, which are each reckoned for
five ; and in the lower row, each firing has five beads of
different values ; the firfl being reckoned as i ; the fecond,
as 10 ; the third, as 100, &c. as among us. Add, that
inflead of four pins for digits, or units, in the Roman
Abacus, the Chinefe has five beads.

We have two different figures, and defcriptions, of the
Chinefe Abacus, one given by F. Martinius, who had lived
many years in China ; the other by Dr. Hooke, who copied
it from a Chinefe didlionai-y of the court-language. Sec
Shwan-Pan.

AiiACUs logijlicus is a rightanglcd triangle, whofe fides,
forming the right angle, contain the numbers from i to
60 ; and its area, the produfts of each two of the op-
pofite numbers. This is alfo called a canon of sexage-
simals.

Abacus Ss" palmult, in tlie And(nt Mufic, denote the

machinery^

ABA

■machinen-, whfreby t1\e ftrings of the polyplcdra, or iii-
Unimciits of many llrings, were ftruck, with a plcclrum
niadi.' o( quills.

Abaci's karmonicuj is ufed by Kirclier for the ftru<fture
and difpofition of tlic keys of a inufical inllrumcnt, whether
to be touched with the hands or the feet.

Abacus, or AbACtscus, in jlrchitcflure, is the iipper-
motl member of the capital of a column ; ferving as a kind
of crowning, both to the capital and the whole column.

Vitnivius, and others after him, who give the hillory of
the orders, tell us, the abacus was originally intended to re-
prefent a fquare tile laid over an urn, or rather over a
balkct. — An Athenian old woman happening to place a
balket thus, covered over the root of an acanthus : that
plant (hooting up the following fpring-encompafredthebaflcet
all around, till meeting with the tile, it curled back, in a
kind of fcroU. Callimachus, an ingenious fculptor, paffing
by, took the hint, and immediately executed a capital on
this plan ; reprefenting the tile by the abacus, the leaves
by the volutes, and the bafliet by the vafe, or body of
the capital. There is fome difference in the form of
the abacus in different orders. In the Tuscan, Doric,
and ancient Ionic, it is a flat, fquare member, well
enough reprefenting its original tile ; whence tlie French
call it lailloir, trencher. In the richer orders it lofes its na-
tive form ; its four fides or faces being arched, or cut in-
wards, with fome ornament, as a rofe, or other flower, or a
filh's tail, in the middle of each arch. See Corinthian
and Composite. But fome architefts take other liberties
in the abacus, in refpeft of its name, place and office.
Thus, in the Tufcan order, where it is the largeft and mod
maflive, as taking up one third of the height of the whole
capital, it is fomctimes caiied the dye of the capital. — In
the Doric it is not always the uppermofl member of the
capital ; a cymatium being frequently placed over it. — In the
Ionic, fome make it a perfeft ogee, and crown it with a
fillet. — The proportion of the abacus, as prefcribed by Vitni-
vius, is, that its diagonal (from comer to corner) be twice
its height ; but the moderns difpenfe with this proportion. —
Scamozzi applies the term abacus to a concave moulding in
the capital of the Tufcan pedeftal, and Palladio calls the
plinth above the echinus, or boultin, in the Tufcan and
Doric orders, by the fame name. — In the /tnctcnt Architec-
ture, Abacus is ufed to denote certain compartments in the in-
ci-ullation or hning of the walls of ftatc-roonis, mosaic
p;ivements, and the like. There were abaci of marble,
porphyry, jafper, alabaftcr, and even glafs ; (haped varioufly,
fquare, triang\ilar, and the like.

ABADA, in Zoology, a fingular kind cS wild animal in
Beiiguela, in Africa. It is about the fize of a half-grown
colt, fhy and fwift-footcd. It has two hoiTis, one in its fore-
head, and another in the nape of its neck, which are of
different length and bulk. The head and tail of this animal
refemble thofe of an ox, and its feet are cloven hke thofe of
a flag, but much thicker. The front horn is deemed an
antidote in many diforders ; and the pihlverifed bones are
made into a poultice, and recommended by the natives as a
fovereign remedy againft all aches and pains, and as effeftual
for purifying the blood and humours. Mod. Un. Hid. v.
13. p. 8. See Rhinoceros.

ABADAN, in Geography, a town of Afia, on the gulph
of Pcrfia, and near the mouth of the river Tigris. It is
dependent on BafTora. E. long. 47° 15'. N. lat. 29° 20'.

ABADAVINE, in Ornithology. SeeSpiNus.

ABADDON, Heb. correfpouding to Apollyon, Gr. ;. e.

Dejlrayer, in Scripture-hijlory, is rcprefented, Rev. ix. II.

as king of the loeufls, and the angel of the bottomlefs pit,

who has been thought by many interpreters to be fatan, or

it

ABA

the devil. Dr. More (Theol. Works, p. 130.) interprets
this title as referring to the profeflion which the Mahome-
tans fliould make of maintaining the doftrine of the unity.
Le Clerc and Dr. Hammond undcrfliand by the locufts in
this paffage, the zealots and robbers who infcfted and de-
folated Jud:ca before Jerufalem was taken by the Romans,
and by AbaiLlon, John of Gifchala, who having trcacher-
oufly left that town before it was furrcndered to Titus,
came to Jerufalem and headed thofe of the zealots who ac-
knowledged him as their king, and involved the Jews in many
grievous calamities. The learned Orotius concurs in opi-
nion, that the locufl;s are defigned to reprefent the feft of
the zealots, who appeared among the Jews during the fiege,
and at the time of the deftruftion of Jerufalem. Mr. J of.
Mede remarks, that the title Abaddon alludes to Obodas,
the common name of the antient monarchs of that part of
Arabia, from which Mahomet came ; and confiders the
paffage as defcriptive of the inundation of the Saracens.
Mr. Lowman (Paraphr. on Rev. p. 118, &c.) adopts and
confirms this intei-pretation. He (liews that the nfe and
progrefs of the Mahometan religion and empire exhibit a
fignal accompliilrnient of this prophecy. All the circum-
ilances here recited correfpond to the charafter of the Ara-
bians, and the hifl;ory of the period that extended from
A. D. 568 to A. D. 675. In conformity to this opinion,
Abaddon may be underftood to denote either Mahomet, who
iffued from the abyfs, or the cave of Hera, to propagate hi*
pretended revelations, or, more generally, the Saracen
power. Mr. Bi-yant fuppofes Abaddon to have been the
nan-,e of the Ophite deity, the worlhip of whom prevailed
very antiently and vei"y generally. See Serpent.

ABADIR, in the Roman Theology, the ftone which
Saturn fwallowed, believing it his new-born fon Jupiter, and
which at length became deified, and the objeiil of religious
worfliip. The Carthaginians gave this title to gods of the
firil order.

ABiE. See Aba.

ABAFT, in the Sea Language, is ufed in fpeaking of
things placed or done towards the ftern, or hinder part of a
veffel ; called alfo aft, and Hands oppofite to fore. — Thus
they fay a thing is abaft the fore-maft, when it is behind it,
or near to the ilern. The poft of the mafl;er, captain, and
other officers, is abaft the main-maft. — The ftern, ftriftly
fpeaking, is only the ontfide; a^j/} includes both infideandout.

Abaft the beam, denotes the relative fituation of any ob-
je£l with the fhip, when the objeft is placed in any part of
that arch of the horizon which is contained between a line at
right angles with the keel and that point of the compafs
which is direftly oppofite to the ihip's courfe.

ABAGI, the fame thing with Abassi, although of dif-
ferent value ; it is worth at Tefflis, and throughout all
Georgia, about 36 fols French money; four chaouris,
which are alfo called fains, make one abagi.

ABAKA // Khan, in Biography, the 8tli emperor of the
Moguls, of the race of Zingis, who fucceeded his father
Hulaku, and commenced his reign, A. D. 1264. He was
prudent and learned, and poffeffed many amiable quahties
which endeared him to his fubjeils, and rendered his govern-
ment profperous. He joined the Chrlilians in celebrating
Eafter-day at Hamadan, whence fome have erroneoufly in-
terred that he was a Chriftian. He reigned 1 7 years. Mod.
Un. Hifl;. V. iv. p. 386.

ABAKANSKOI, \n Geography, a garrifon town of tlie
province of Yenifei, in Siberia. It ftands on the river
Jenifei, and is fo called from the river Abaken, which fiills
into the Jenifei at no conliderable diftance from it. E. long.
94° 5'. N. lat. 53° 5'.

ABALAK, a fmall town in Siberia, about two miles

from

ABA

ABA

from Tobolflc, famous for an image of the Virgin Marj', to
which many pilgrims rcfort, and wliich is annually carried
in procelTion to Tobollk. I'",, long. 68° 20'. N. lat. 58"^ 11'.

ABALIENATION, from ab and n/irnatr, to alienate,
ill the Roman Laiv, denotes a fpecics of alienation ; where-
by thofe goods called res nuDuipi, fuch as cattle, flaves,
lands, and pofieffions, within the territory of Italy, were
transferred to perfons legally capable thereof, either by
t formula, called tradltlo nexu, or a furrcnder in open court.

ADALIENATUS, nlien.jted from, a medical term,
which, when applied to the body, lignifies that the part fo
fpoken of, is in a ftate that requires amputation : and when
applied to the fenfes, denotes their total deftruftion.

ABALITES. See Avalites.

ABALLAT5A,in Gcofra/iAv, the ancien: name oi ylpplchx.
a town in Wcftmoreland, remarkable only for having been
a Roman ftation. V/. long. 1° 4'. N. lat. SS° 38'.

ABALUS, an ifland, as the ancients fuppofed, in
the German ocean, called by Timaeiis Bajd'ia, and by
Xcnophon Lampfacenus Balt'ia, now the penir.fula of
Scandinavia. Amber, according to Pliny, (Hill. Nat.
torn. ii. p. 770. ed. Hard.) was thrown on the fliores of
this ifland by the waves of the fea ; and he reports, that
fome perfons thought this fubllance dropped from the trees
in the adjacent mountains.

ABAN la Ville, a town in the bailiwick of Quingey,
fituate between the town of that name and I^ieu Dieu, in
Franche Comte. E. long. 6'^ 15'. N. lat. 47° 10'.

ABANA, a river of Phoenicia, which riling from Mount
Hermon, walhed the fouth and weft fides of Damafcus, and
fell into the Phoenician fea to the north of Tripolis. The
Abana was one branch of the Barrady, called by the
Greeks Chryforrhoeas. This river is mentioned by Naaman,
2 Kings, V. 12.

ABANGA. See Ady.

ABANO, a village near Padua, in Italy, famous for its
warm baths. In one of thefe baths the patients are covered
with the warm mud. E. long. 10° 47'. N. lat. 45° 30'.

ABANTES, in Ar.clent Hijlory, a -warhke people who
came originally from Thrace, and fettled in Phocis, a
country of Greece, where they built a town, called Aba,
after the name of their leader. Some ancient authors fay,
that the Abantes afterwards fettled in the ifland Eubaa, now
called Negropont : others fay thefe Abantes came from Athens.
Thefe people are called by Homer (II. 1. ii. v. 542.) onriSsn
Koixwilt;, from wearing their long hair behind. They '.vere
called Curetes from their cutting it (hort before.

ABANTIA, or Abantis, m Ancient Geography, a name
given to the ifland Eubosa, in the Egean Sea ; extendmg
along the coaft of Greece, from the promontory Suniura of
Attica to Thefialy, and feparated from Boeotia by a narrow
ftrait called £«ri/>uj-. It derived its name from the Abantes,
according to Slrabo, torn. ii. p. 682. Others fay, that the
inhabitants were called Abantes, from Abas their leader, who
firft reigned in the ifland ; and Reineccius fuppofesthat they
were Arabians, who followed Cadmus into Euboea, and
fettled there.

ABAPTISTA, or Abaptiston, in Surgery, derived
from the privative a. and /Jxwtw, to plunge ; the fhoulder
of a trepanning inftrument. This term is employed by
Galen, Fabricius ab Aquapendente, Scultetiis, and others,
to denote the conical faw with a circular edge (othei"wife
•called MODIOLUS or tereera), which was formerly ufed
by furgeons to perforate the cranium. Modern prafti-
tioners, however, have ufually preferred the cylindrical
form. Various contrivances are recommended, to avoid the
danger that may arife from want of dexterity in the opera-
tion of trepanning, and a new inftrument has been lately

delineated for this purpofe, by Mr. Rodman of Paiflcy j
(Philofopliical Magazine for April 1800;) but as no inven-
tion can compenfate for a defcdl of i1<ill in the furgeon,
thefe precautions are not in general attended to. For a
more particular account of this inftrument, fecTRKPAN and
Trephink.

ABARA, in Geography, a town in the greater Armenia,
under the dominion of the Turks. E. long. 46*^ ij'. N.
lat. 39° 45'.

ABARANER, a town of Turcomania, in Afia, fituated
on the river Alingena, and twenty miles north of Nakfivan.
It is faid that 300 Roman Catholics refide here. E. long.
46° 30'. N. lat. 39° 50'.

ABA RCA, an ancient kind of flioe ufed in Spain to pafs
the mountains, made of raw hides, and boimd with cords,
which fecured them againil the fnow.

ABARIM, in Scripture Geography, a ridge of high
mountains fituate between the rivers Arnon and Jordan,
and nearly oppofite to Jericho, in the land of Canaan.
Nebo and Pifgah, which were fuppofed to have been the
fame mountain, formed a part of this extenfive range of
fteep hills. Here the Ifraelites encamped for the laft time
but one before they palled over Jordan into the promifed
land. The name Abarim was applied to part of tliis ridge
of mountains in the time of Eufebius and Jerome. WcUh's
Geog. of the O. Teft. vol. ii. p. 152, &c.

ABARIMON, in Ancient Geography, a valley of Scythia,
at the foot of Mount Imaus, the inhabitants of which,
according to Pliny, (Hift. Nat. torn. i. p. 370.) were
Anthropophagi, little fuperior in their habits and man-
ners to the wild beafts with which they aflbciated. Their
feet were turned backwards, and yet they were veiy fwift.

ABA R IS, in Biography, the famous Hyperborean Sage,
who is faid to have been the difciple and friend of Pytha-
goras, and to have performed a great number of lingular ex-
ploits. His hiftci-y is fo fabulous, that Herodotus contents
hinifelf with relating (lib. iv. cap. xxxvi. p. 296. ed. Weffel. )
that he travelled through the world on an arrow, without
any fuftenance. Harpocration (art. AiSapi,-) informs us,
that he was fent by his countrymen as an ambaffaJor to
Athens, in conformity to an order of Apollo, who being
confulted at the time of a deftruftive plague that generally
prevailed, replied, that the Athenians fliould offer up
prayers on behalf of all other nations ; on this occaiion, as
we learn from Diodorus Siculus, (lib. ii. c. xlvii. p. 159.
ed. Weffel.) he renewed the friendfliip and intercom le be-
tween his countiymen and the people of Delos, which had
been interrupted. He alfo vifited Laced^mon ; where fome
writers fay, as we are informed by Paufanias, (lib. iii.
cap. xiii. p. 238. ed. Kuhnii,) he built a temple confe-
crated to Proferpine the Salutary. Abarls performed this
long voyage with eafe and expedition, being tianfpoited
through the air, over rivers, fcas, and mountains, on an
enchanted arrow, which, fays Jamblichus, (Vit. Pythag.
p. 118.) he had received as a prcfeiit from Apollo. Some
have fuggefted that this arrow denoted his fliill in aftronomy,
by which he diretled his courfe. He is faid by Strabo
(lib. vii. tom. i. p. 462.) to have gained the efteem of the
learned men of Greece by his politenefs, eloquence, and
wifdom. He particularly excelled, fays Jambhchus, (cap.
xix. p. 131.) in the arts of magic and divination, of which
lie exhibited the moft illuftrious proofs in all the countries
through which he travelled. He adds, that he was taught
by Pythagoras to find out all tnitli by the fcience of arith-
metic. Poqihyr)' ( Vit. Pythag. ) informs us, that he was
capable of foretelling earthquakes, driving away plagues,
laying ftorms, &c. Aharis, fays Bayle, conllnicled- the
famous palladium of the bones of Pelops, and fold it to the

people

ABA

people of Troy. After he had vifitej many countries, and
eollecled n i^reat quantity of jrold, he fet out on his return
home ; and in his way had an interview with Pythagoras at
Crotona.in Italy. Suidas enumerates various books which he
is faid to have written ; and Himerius the Sophill, applauds
liim for fpeakinp pure Greek, which he acquired by means of
the intcrcourfe that fublilled between the Greeks and Hyper-
boreans. In his various peregrinations he impofcd upon the
vulgar by falfe pretenfions to fupernatural powers ; deliver-
ing oracular predlAions, healing difeafes by incantation, and
pradifmg other arts of iinpollurc. Hence the fabulous
ftories concerning /tbarls grew up into an entire hillory
written by Ileraclides. Some of the later Piatoniils, fays
EKfield, (Hillory of Philofopliy, vol. i. p. 103.) in their
zial againll chriftianity, coUecled thefe and other fables, and
exliibited thein, not without large additions from their own
fertile imaginations, in oppofition to the miracles of Chrift.
He concludes upon the whole, that Alans has a better title
to place among impollors than among philofophers, and
that the time in which he llourilhed may, with fome degree of
probability, be fixed about the third olympiad, or B. C. 768.
The age of Pythago;-as is no lefs uncertain, otherwife it is not
likely that they llionld be contemporaries. Mr. Toland in
his PotUiumous works, (vol. i. p. 161.) premiling that the
Hebrides were the Hyperboreans of Diodorus, infers that
Marls was both of that country, and likewife a Druid,
having been the prieft of Apollo. Suidas, fays this
writer, who knew not the diftindlion of Infular Hyper-
borea* s, makes him a Scythian ; whereas Diodorus has truly
fixed his country in the illand, and not on the continent.
Notwithftanding the fitlions and errors that have been
blended with the hillory of ^/J^ru, it is certain, (as he ap-
prehends,) that he travelled over Greece, and from thence
into Italy, where he familiarly converfed with Pythagoras,
who favoured him beyond all his difciples, by imparting his
docftrines to him, (efpecially his thoughts of nature,) in a
more plain and compendious method than to any others.
The Hyperborean in return prefented the Satnian, as if he
had equalled Apollo himfejf in wiidom, with the facred
arrow, on which he had traverfed feas and mountains; ; es the
Tulgar, particularly in the Hebrides, ftill believe, that
wizards and vi'itches waft themfelves whither they pleafe
upon broom-llicks. According to the account given by
Himerius, and cited by Toland, (p. 180, &c.) A/itiris the
fage, was by nation an Hypi."rborean, aGrecinn in fpeech, and
fefembling a Scythian in his habit and appearance. He
came to Athens, holding a bow, having a quiver hanging
from his flioulder, his body wrapt in a plaid, girt about his
loins with a gilded belt, and wearing trowfers feaching from
his waift downward. His habit, therefore, was not that of
the Scythians, vi'ho were always covered with lliins ; but he
appeared at Athens in the native garb of an aboriginal Scot.
As for what regards his abilities, Himerius relates, that he
was affable and pleafant in converfation, in difpatching great
affairs fecret and indnftrious, quickfighted in prefent exi-
gencies, in preventing future dangers circumfpedt, a
fearcher after wifdom, dk;firons of friendlhip, trulling indeed
little to fortune, and having every thing trulled to him for
his prudence. Neitlier the Academy nor the Lyceum, fays
Mr. Toland, could fnniifh out a man with fitter qualities to
go fo far abroad, and to Inch wife nations, about affairs no lefs
arduous than important. But if we attentively confider his
moderation in eating and drinking, and the ufe of all thofe
thnigs which our natural appetites inceffantly crave, adding
tiie candour and fimplicity of his manners, with the folidity
and wifdom of his anfvvers, all v.hic!^ wc find fufficiently at-
telled ; it mud be owned, that the worid at that time' had
few to compare with yJiaris. One of our moil indullnous

ABA

hiftorians has adopted the opinion of Mr. Toland, and taken
great pains to prove that Abar'u was a native of Britain, or of
one of the Britifli ifles. See Carte's Gen. Hift. Eng. vol. i.
p. 52, &c. cited by Dr. Henry in his Hillory of Great
Britain, vol. ii. p. 70, 8vo,

ABARNUS, QY Av,KKit\i,\n Ancient Geography, a city,
country, and promontor)' of Pariana, near the Hellefpont.
Milefius, in his defcription of Alia, fays, that it was a
promontory of l.ampfacus ; and it is faid to have been fo
denominated from Alarms, a Phocian, by the Phocians,
who built Lampfacus. Some writers have called it Aparuis.
Stcphaii. do Urbibus, tom. i. p. 4.

ABARTICULATION, in Anatomy. See Di ar-
throsis .

ABAS, a weight ufed in Perfia for weighing pearls ; be«
ing an eighth part lighter than the European carat.

ABAS, in Mythology, the fon of Hypothoon and Mega-
nira, who entertiiined Ceres, and offered a facrifice to that
goddefs ; but ylbas ridiculing the ceremony, and giving her
opprobrious language, (he fpriakled over him a certain mix-
ture w hich the held in her cup, that transformed him into a
newt or water-lizard.

A'bas, or Abasia, in Entomology, a fpecies of the 5«);n-
bfx of Fabricius, and of the Phalicna of Lina^us, with brown,
fpreading wings, the hinder wings cinereous, and the ocel-
lus reddifh. It is found in Surinam.

ABASA, in Geography, a Imall town of Romania in
European Turkey, 12 miles from Adrianople, in the road
to Conftantinople. N. lat. 42° 8'. E. long. 26° 35'.

ABASED, Abaisse', in Heraldry, is applied to the
vol, or wings of eagles, &c. when the tip, or angle, looks
downward towards the point of the (hield ; or when the
wings are (hut : the natural way of bearing them being fpread,
with the tip pointing to the chief, or the angles. A chev-
ron, a pale, bend, &c. are alfo faid to be alaj'ed when their
points terminate in, or below the centre of the (hield.
Again, an ordinary is faid 10 be abafed, when it is below its
due fituation.

ABASCIA, or Abcassia, in Geography, the northern
diflricl of the wetlern divifion of Georgia, in Afia. The in-
habitants are poor and treacherous. They trade in furs, the
(kins of the buck and tyger, linen yarn, box-wood, and
bee^-wax ; but their principal traffic conlifts in the fale of
their own children to tlie Turks, and to one another. They
are chriflians only in name ; but their cuftoms refemble thofe
of the MiNGRELiANS. The men are robuft and adlive, and
the females fair and beautiful. E. long, from 39° to 43^ .
N. lat. from 43^ to 45°. See Abassa and Abhkas.

ABASCUS, a river of Afiatic Sarmatia, which rifes in
mount Caucafus, and falls into the Euxine, between Pityus
to the ea(l and Nofis to the weft.

ABASITIS, a trad of Afiatic Myfia, in which was
fituated the ancient city of Ancyra.

ABASKAJA, a town in Siberia, on the river Ifchim.
It has a chvirch encompaffed by ramparts, and guarded by
dragoons. E. long. 69^ 5'. N. lat. 50° lo'.

ABASSA, the /mailer and the great, two diftricls
in the vicinity of the Caucafian mountains. T!ie for-
mer, according to the accoimt lately given by Pallas in
his journey to the fouthern departments of Ruflia, is inha-
bited by fix tribes, who were formerly Chriftians, but their
nobles now acknowledge the Mahometan rehgion ; their
manners, clothing, and way of hfe, relemble thofe of the
Circassians; and there is fome fimilitude in their lan-
guage. They likewife praftife agriculture, though they
live more by parturage. They are celebrated on account of
their large and fine breed of horfes ; and they would be rich
(in their own eilimation) if tliey were uot inceflantly

, plagued,

A B A

ABA

plagued by die encroachments of the CircafTian princes.
The nioft powerful inhabitants of the fjreat Alajfa are the
Natuschaki. Sec Adascia and Abhkas.

ABASSI, a filvcr coin current in Perfia, worth two
mammoudis, or four chayts ; the chaye bcinjj tftlmated at
nine fols fix denicrs of French nionev, makes the alajji wortli
thirty-eight fob ; fevcnteen fols of Holland, or from one fliil-
ling and four pence to about eighteen pence Englilh. It de-
rives its name from Shah Abbas II. king of Perfia, under
vhom it was 11 ruck.

ABASSI, in Geography. See Gombroon.

ABASSIA, in Geography. See Abyssinia and
Ethiotia.

ABAT-CHAUVEE, a name given in Poitou, Angou-
mois, Saintonge, La Wnvche, and Limofin, in France, to
a fort of very ordinary wool ; much like that called by the
French, paignons, a\id p/nrfj.

Abate, yhiJrea, in Biography, a Neapolitan mailer,
who excelled in painting inanimate objefts. His colouring
was bold ; he gave a noble relief to the vafes and other orna-
ments, with which he enriched his defign ; and grouped all
his objefts with peculiar judgment and care. He died in
1732. Pilkington's Dift. •

ABATE, in La'-M, from the French allatrc, fignifies to
break down or deilroy ; as, to abate a nuifance ; . and to
ahate a caftle. It is hkewife ufed to denote the aft of one
who fteps into an eilatc, void by the death of the lail pof-
feflbr, before the heir can enter ; and by that means keeps
him out. It alfo means to defeat or overthrow, on account
of fome error or exception. See Abatement. It is alfo
ufed in the neuter fenfe thus : the writ of the demandant
fiiall ahate, i. e. be fruftrated or overthrown ; the appeal
alateth by covin, i. e. the acciifation is defeated by deceit.

Abate, in the Manege. A horfeisfaid to abate, or take
down his curvets, when he puts both his hinder legs to
the ground at once, and obferves the fame exaftnefs in all
the times.

ABATELEMENT, in Commeree, (from the French
abbatre,), a term ufed fov a prohibition of trade to all French
merchants in the ports of the Levant, who will not Hand
to their bargains, or who refufe to pay their debts. It is a
fentence of the French conful, which muft be taken off
before they can fue any perfon for the payment of their
debts.

ABATEMENT, in Heraldry, fomething added to a
coat-aimour, to dillinguifh its proper value and dignity, and
note fome dilhonourable aftjon, or ftain, in the charafter
of the perfon who bears it. Thefe abatements, which are
nine in number, may be made by reverfion or diminution.

Reverfion is either turning the whole efcutcheon upfide-
down, for treafon ; or the adding another efcutcheon, in-
verted, in the former, for deflowering a maid or widow, or
flying from the banner of the fovereign.

Diminution is the blemilhing any part by adding a ftain,
or mark of diminution : fuch are tlie delf tenne for a perfon
who revokes or recedes from a challenge ; a point dexter
parted tenne, for a perfon who boafts of an aft of valour
which he never performed ; a point in point fanguine, for
a perfon guilty of cowardice ; a point champaign tenne, for
him who kills his prifoner after his having demanded quar-
ter ; a plain point fanguine, for one who tells a lie to his
fovereign or commander in chief ; a gore finiller tenne, for
him who behaves in a cowardly manner towards his enemy ;
and a guflet fanguine, for an adulterer or drunkard, the
guffet being on the right fide for the former, and on the left
f»r the latter

It may be added, that thefe marks muft not be of metal.
Vol. I

and always cither tenne or fanguine, otherwifc inftcad of di-
minutions, they become additior.s of honour.

The lalt editor of Cuillim difcards the whole notion of
abatements, as a chiniaMa. He alleges that no one inftance
is to be met with of fueh bearing ; and that it implies a eon-
tradiftion to fuppofe it. Arms, being injignia nobililjtis isf
honoris, cannot admit of any mark of infamy, without cenf-
ing to be arms, and becoming badges of difgrace, \\liieh
all would covet to lay afide. Befides, as no hercdita:y
honour can be aftually diminiflied, fo neither can the marks
thereof. Both indeed may be forfeited ; as in the cafe of
treafon, where the cfcutclieon is totally reverfed, to intimate
a total fuppreffion of the honour.

Some inftances, however, are produced to the contrary
by C'l.'umbiere and others. But thefe, though they may
flu-w fome extraordinary refentmcnts of princes for ofl'enci'?
committed in their prefence, do not amount to a proof of
fuch cuftom or prafticc ; much lefs authoiiie the being of
particular badges in the hands of inferior ofiiccrs, as kings
at arms. Meneftrier calls them Englidi fancies.

In a word, as arms are rather the titles of the dead than
of the living, it would feem, that they can neither fuifer
diminution nor abatement; for thus an equal indignity
would be put upon the anceftor and the defeendant. Dinv-
nution, therefore, and abatement, can only affeft arms lately
granted, and folely when the perfon who obtained them is
yet alive, and has tarniftied his former gloiy by his fubfequent
miftiehaviour. Even in this cafe, where abatement may pro-
perly take place, it can only be made by the fuppreftion of
fome honourable badge, and not by the introduftion of any
degrading emblem.

Abatement, m Laio, is the fruftrating, or fetting afide
a fuit, on account of fome fault, either in the matter, or
proceeding thereof. Thus, Plea in

Abatement, is fome exception alleged, either againft
the plaintiff's writ, as wanting due foi-m, or againft his count
or declaration, as being infuffieicnt, or varying from the writ,
fpecialty, or record; or againft the matter of either, as in-
fuflicient, or being before another court ; or againft the alle-
gations, as being uncertain, on account of fome mifnomer,
or the death of one of the parties, or the marriage of the
plaintiff, being a woman ; to which fome add difability.—
Upon any of thefe, the defendant prays, that the plaintiff's
writ or plaint may abate, i. e. that his fuit may ceafe for
that time ; if it be granted, all writs and proceftes muft be-
gin de novo.

The death of a plaintiff did in all cafes abate the writ before
judgment, until the ftatute 8 and 9 W. III. c. 1 1. by which
neither the death of the plaintiff nor that of the defendant (hall
abate it, if the aftion might be originally profecuted by and
againft the executors dr adminiftrators of the pavues ; and if
there are two or more plaintiffs or defendants, and one, or
more, die ; the writ or aftion (liall not abate, if the caiife, or
aftion, furvives to the furviving plaintiff, againft the iurviv-
ing defendant, &c. See Plea. Abatement alfo denotes an
irrcijular entry upon lands. See Abate.

Kii.\Ti.KT.\iT of Freehold, See Remainder.

Abatement of Nufancc. See Nusance.

Abatement, in Commeree, is a difcretionary allowance
made for damage in goods fold, for a defeft of weiglit or
meafure, on account of bad markets, or to a bauki-upt-debtor,
&c. See Discount and Rebate.

Abatement, in the Ctfloms, is an allowance made upon
the duty of goods, when the quantum damaged is deter-
mined by the judgment of two merchants upon oath, and
afcertained by a certificate from the fui-veyor and land-
waiter.

C ABATIS,

A B A

ABATIS, or Abbatis, in irritcn of ik B.ir'nuroui
jl^t, denotes an orTi vr of tho Ibhlcs, who had the care
aiid dilhihution of ' '.lt. The name is derived

from BuLin, which .. .1 ancient mcsfurc of corn.

Dii-Cangc.

Abati5, or A-iiAT!?, frf^m t!'f French, -ato.'r?, to/////
J :■■:, i'l :' a heap of large trees

(' . . ; or with boughs to

I .1 cutr.uchmcnts, to cover

t. .:troad,^, i:c. bee Line.

AiJA'l''.)N, a llructuie erected at Riiodos, a^ a tcncc
to tlic trophy of Artcniifia, (['.icen of Hahcarnaffiis, Coos,
&c. in memory of her victory ever the Rhodians, or rather
for conceding tlie dhgi-acc of the Rhodians from the pubhc
eye, as tiie eiracing, or Jellropng the trophy is, -i their
cllimalion, a point of religion.

ABATOR, in Z,<ia'. ticeABATF.

ABATOS, in jincienl Geography, an ifland in the kke
Moeris, famous for its papyrus, and for being the burial-
place of Ofiris.

ABAV'I, Abavo, or Abavum; a large tree in Ethio-
pia, wliieli Ijcars a fruit hke a gourd. See Ada n son i a.

ABAUZIT, Firmin, in Biography, was born at Ufez,
in Languedoc, on the nth of November, in 1679. As
his parents were protellants, he was obliged to leave France
by the revocation of the edift of Nantes, and to wander
among tlie mountains of Cevennes, till at length he found
an afvlum in Geneva. His mother, who had fuffered much,
expended the wreck of her fortune in his education. His
chief attention was direftcd to the ftudy of mathematics and
natural hiftorj-, wh.ilil he made a confiderable progrefs in every
department of literature. In 1698 ho vifitcd Holland, and
became acquainted with Bayle, Jurieu, and the Bafnages.
He afterwards came to England, and converfed with St.
Evremor.d and Sir Ifaac Newton. " You," fays Sir Ifaac,
in an epiilolary correfpondence, " are a very fit perfon to
" judge between Leibnitz and me." King William, to
whom he became known, attempted, by a libei-al offer, to
detain him in England ; but he chofe to return to Geneva ;
where, in i?!^, he entered into the fociety formed for tranf-
lating the NewTeftamcnt into the Frenchlanguage ; and where,
in 1723, the univerfity ofTcred him the chair of philoibphy,
whichhe refufed on account of the weaknefs ofhiscouftitution,
andofhis talents. In I727he was prefented with thefreedomoi
the city, and appointed to the office of its librarian. There are
few perfons, whofe mental endowments, natui-al and acquired,
and whofe moral and Chriftian virtues merit higher eftima-
tion than thofe of jibauzit. Of his mathematical and phi-
lofophical knowledge he gave ample evidence in his defence
of Newton againft father Callel, and in his difcovery of an
error in the Principia, which the author correfted in a fecond
edition of that admii-able work ; a work which at the time
of its firft publication few were able to underftand. He
was alfo an excellent linguift, geographer, and hiftorian, and
intimately converfant with medals and ancient MSS. Such
were not only the extent and accuracy of his knowledge,
but the tenacioufnefs of his memor)', that he could readily
avail himfclf of the knowledge he had acquired. To this
purpofe it is mentioned, that when RouITeau pubhfhed his
Di&onary of Mufic, he found xhzt^ylbauzit, who had not
direfted his attention to the mufic of the ancients for thirty
years, could give him a clear and fatisfaftory account of the
fubjeft which he himfclf had invelligated with fo much
labour. To this circumflance it was probably owing, that
the only panegyric which Roufleau ever wrote upon a living
perfon, and one of the fineft of his eloges, was addreffed to
Abau%it, Voltaire is alfg faid to have paid him a very high

ABB

and delicate compliment. A ftranger having told the poet
of Fcrney, tliat he was come to Geneva to iee a great man,
Voltaire alk.d him, \Vhetlier he h.id fcen ytlauzi: >. We may
naturally imagine, that the elKem a;:d attachment of theie-
fcepticai philofophcrs would not be diminilhsd by tiie libe-
rality of his theological f.iitiments. On a lubject that has
been much controverted, yibauzit is faid to have adopted
and promoted tlie Arinn doclrine. He aUo employed him-
fclf in difcovering eiTora in the various tranflations of the
Bible ; and conceiving mathematical demonflration to be ne-
ccllai-y in matters of teftimony, he was led to divtil the
Scrij)ture3 of feveral miracles. But whatever may have
been ills occafional doubts, and the refuh of his inquiiies on
particular topics, he was, ai a valuable biographer deli-
neates his charader, " religious by principle, and a Cliriftian
upon coi'.iclion. He defended reUgion to the time of his
death, and employed fome of his lall days in eftabliftiing its
evidence. Pious witliout hypocrlfy, virtuous without auf-
terity ; he loved mankind ; he fought to be ufeful to
tliein ; and he never blamed others for thinking differ-
ently from himfclf. His love of fimplicity appeared in all
his aclions ; he fhunned ceremony, and retired from flattery.
His converfotion, always heard with eagernefs, was deli-
vered without oftentatidn. Even the exterior of his houfe,
and of iiis perfon, difcovered an unaffected diilike of parade
and luxury. Always himfelf, he was always the modeft,
the wife Abauzlu" This valuable man died, lamented by
the repubhc, and regretted by the learned, on the 20th of
iMarch, 1767, at the advanced age of 87 years. He pub-
liflied, in 1730, a much improved edition of Spon's Hif-
tory and State of Geneva. As a citizen, he was aftive in
the dilTenfions of 173-1- ; and though he was attached to the
ariftocratic paitv, he poiTefied a great degree of repubhcan
zeal. The wiitings he left behind him were chiefly theo-
logical. Of thefe the principal was, " An Effay upon the
Apocalypfe," written to fliew that its canonical authority
is doubtful, and to apply the predictions to the deftruc-
tion of Jerufalem. This work was tranllated by Dr.
Twells, aTid refuted fo much to the fatisfaftion of the
author, that he flopped an impreffion of it, which had been
intended. It was, however, afterwards introduced by the
Dutch editors into their edition of his works, which alfo
comprehends " Refleftions on the Eucharift ;" " oh Idola-
try ;" on " the Myfteries of Religion ;" " Paraphrafes and
Explanations of fundry Parts of Scripture ;" fevei'al critical
and antiquarian pieces, and various letters. An edition,
without the Effay on the Apocalypfe, was printed at Ge-
neva, in 8vo. in 1770. Gen. Biog. by Dr. Aikin and En-
field. Biog. Diet.

ABAY, in Geography, a name given to the Nile, in
the territory of Gojam ; which Come derive from jib, fa-
ther, under which appellation this river, or perhaps the
fpirit refiding in it, is an objeA of worlhip ; but Mr. Bruce
(Travels, vol. iii. p. 655.) fays, that Abay in the Am-
haric language fignifies, " the river that fuddenly fwells, or
overflows periodically with rain."

ABB, among Cluthkri, denotes the yam of a weaver's
waip, whence the wool of which it is made is caOed Mb-
•uiool.

ABBA, in jincitnt Geography, a town of Africa, near
Carthage.

ABBA, in the Syriac and Chaldee languages, literally
fignifie? z father ; and figuratively a fuperior, reputed as a
father in refpeft of age, dignity, or afFedtion. This appella-
tion was not allowed to be ufed by flaves, when addreffing
the head of a family, and this circumflance adds pecuhar force
to the expreflion of the apoftle, Rom. viii. 15. It may alfo
if h«

ABB

ABB

be obftrveJ, that St. Paul and St. Mark ufcd the Syriiic
nbia, which was uiidcrftood in the fynagogucs and primitive
airembUes of Chrillians, but added to it, when writing to
foreigners, by way of interpretation, the tcnn father. The
Jews affumed this denomination as a title of dignity ; in
allufion to which, our Saviour forbade his difciples to call
any man their father on earth.

It was alfo anciently ufcd as a title of honour, which
fome great men, it is faid, ftill retain in the I'yrenean
mountains.

Abba, Aba, or Akba, is more particidarly ufed in
the Syriac, Coptic, and Etliiopic churches, as a title which
the people give to their biiliops.

The biihops themlclvcs bellow the title abha, more emin-
ently, on the patriarch of Alexandria ; which occafioned the
people to give him that of baba, or papa, that is, grand-
father ; a title which he bore before the bifhop of Rome.
It is a Jewith title of honour, given to certain of that clafs
of Rabbins called Tanaites ; and it is alfo particularly ui'cd
by fome writers of the middle age, for the fuperior of a
nionailcry, ufually called abbot.

ABBADIE, James, in Biography, an eminent proteftant
divine, was born at Nay in Berne, in 1654, or 1658. He
ftudiedin various places, but received his degreeof Doflor of
Divinity at Sedan. Difcouraged from the exercife of Iiis pro-
feffion in France, on account of the diilreiTed circuiviftances
of the proteftants, he firft fettled at Berlin under the pa-
tronage of the EleSor of Brandenburg, about the year
1680 or 1 68 1, where he refided for many years with great
reputation. In 16S8 the Eleftor died, and he accompanied
Mar/hal Schomberg, firft to Holland, and then to England
with the Prince of Orange. Lofing his patron, whom he
attended to Ireland, in 1690, he returned to England, and
became minifterof the French church at the Savoy. He after-
wards removed to Ireland, and, by the recommendation of King
William, he obtained the deanry of Killaloo, witli fome
other preferments. He was ftrongly attached to the caufe
of his royal mailer, as appears by his elaborate defence of
the Revolution, and his hiftoiy of the afTairnKition-plot. In
1726 he removed again to England, and died in the pariih
of Mary-le-bonc, in London, in the following year, at the
age, as fome lay, of 69, and according to others 73. He
was a zealous.proteftant, and oiicof the moil eloquent men of
the period in which he Hved. But his imagination and me-
moiy, M hich was lingularly retentive, as well as his learning
and eloquence, feem to have been fuperior to his judgment.
His works were numerous, and much approved at the time of
their publication : the cliief of them were the following, -viz.
Traite dc la Veritc de la RchgionChretieniie, Rotterdam 1 684,
2 tomes 8vo; which work has been tranflated into Englifh
and High Dutch, and has paffed through feveral editions.
Mr. Bayle commends this book, as one of the moft perfeft
in its kind. — Traite de la Divinite de notre Seigneur Jefus
Chrift, Rotterd. 1689, 8vo. — L'Art de fe connoitre foi-
meme, ou la Recherche des Sources de la Morale, Rot. 1692,
I2mo. — Defence de la Nation Britannique, &c. a Londres,
1692, -8vo. — Hiftoire de la Confpiration derniere d'Angle-
teiTe, &c. Londres, 1696, 8vo. This book was written
by order of King William III. and the original papers for
compilingit were furniflied by the Earl of Portland and Sir
\Villiam Trumball, fecretary of ftate. — La Vcrite de la Re-
ligion Refonncc, Rot. 1 718, 8vo. 2 torn. — La Triomphe
de la Providence et dc la Religion, ou I'Ouverture des fept
Sceaux per le Fi!s dc Dieu, &c. Amil. 1723, 4 vols. izmo.
Biog. Brit.

ABBA-GUMBA, \n Ornithology. See Erkoom.
ABBAISSEUR, in Anatomy, a name given by Win-

flow, a'>d other French writers, to one of the nnifclcs of liic
eye, called by others the depriment and hnmi/is ; and by
Fabricius, the retliis inferior ; Cowper and Albinus call it
the depre£or oculi : and it is one of the qiialuor reili oculi of
the lall author.

ABBAS, in Biographv, fon of Abdahnotalleb, and uncle of
Mahomet, was at firll holllle to his nephew as an inipoftor and
traitor to his counlrv ; but being taken priloner in tlie fecond
year of the Hegira, at the battle of Beder, and a large ranfom
being demanded, he reprcfented to Mahomet that the pay-
ment of it would ruin him, and reduce his family to dif-
honour. Mahomet, however, had lieard that lie had Itcrcted
money, and mquired f(n- the purfes of gold which he had
left with his mother at Mecca, ylbbas was thus led to re-
gard him as a prophet, and to embrace his religion. He
afterwards faved i\is life at the battle of Honain, foon after
the reduftion of Mecca. Abbas was not only a great com-
mander, but an eminent doftor of the Muflulman law, and
read kftures upon ever)' chapter of the Koran, as Mahomet
pretended to receive them from heaven. He died in 653,
and his memoiy is held in veneration among the MulTulmcn
to this day.

Akbas AflDAtLAH, Ebn, was the grandfon of Abdal-
motalleb, and the mod confiderablc of all the doftors among
the Muffulmen. He is faid to have acquired from the an-
gel Gabriel a perfefl knowledge of the Koran, when he was
ten years of age, and was honoured with the title of Tar-
giuman al Koran, or interpreter of the Koran. He died in
the 68th year of the Hegira, and was very much lamented.

Abbas I. Shah, fnrnumcd the Great, was the third fon
of Khodabandeh, and the 7th king of Perfia of the race of
the Sofis. He fucceeded Ilhmacl III. v.ho had murdered
their eldefl brother Amir Hamzch, and who was himfclf
put to death after a fhort reign of eight months, in the year
1585. Thefe two princes are not commonly reckoned it»
the number of Perfian kings. His firil thoughts and aftions,
after he aicended the throne, if we exccjit the irmrder of his
tutor Miu-fliid, to whom lie was indebted for his life and crown,
were direfted to the reeoveiy of thofe provinces which the
Turks and Tartars had taken from his predecLifors. By a
feries of vidlories, he defeated Abdallah, khan of the Uf-
becks, who invaded Khorazan, and the Othman Turks, from
whom he took Tauris ; fubdued the provinces of Shirwan
and Ghilan ; took ponefiion of the kingdom of Lar, coni-
priiing a great part of Perfia proper ; invaded and fecnrcd
Georgia, and captured Bagdat, and Ornuiz in the Pcrfian
gulf. After a profperous reign of 43 years, during which he
confolidattd the divided provinces of the Perfinn empire, and
confiderably enlarged its extent, he was fcized with a dan-
gerous diflemper at Ferab.ad, in the proviixe of Mazan-
deran, fuppofed to have been the effeft of pcifon, and clofcd
a life of 70 years in 1628. Having appointed his grandfon
for his fucceflbr, he ordered his death to be concealed till
the throne was fecured to him ; and for this purpofe he
direfted his funeral obfequies to be performed at three dif-
ferent places at once, and that his body (hould be expofcd
every day in the hall of jnllice, feated in a chair of ftate,
with the eyes open, and his i)ack to the hangings, behind
which flood a perfon who contrived to anfwer any queftions
that were propofed. By this artifice his death was kept
fecret for fix weeks. The memoiy of Shah Abloi has been
held in high veneration by the Perfians, and they fpeak of
him as the greateft prince their country has produced for
many ages. He was wife and valiant, attentive to the poor,
and rigorous in the adniiniftration of juftice. He adopted
all poffible meafir.es for promoting the wealth and good go-
vernment of Ui3 dominions ; and took great pains to intro-

C 2 duce

ABB

Jucc and fncourtgc commerce among his fubji-fts. Having
made Ifp.ili.in the metropolis of Perlia, lie built the royal

n- ' ■ • ! palace, a:id cauL'd the nicintains at the diftance

( 1 to be cut through, in order to augment tlieZan-

li 1 ..III, v.iiich runs through tlic city, by turning into it the
dream of another river, ric alfo adorned fevenJ of his other
cities with magnitieent ftniclures. Ncverthcicfs, his cruelty,
of which many notoriouiinftanccsareivcordcd in his hiftory,
e .•.itles liim to rank with t'.iofe ferocious eailcrn tyrants,
wliiiin Providence fccms to fond into the world to harafs,
aggrieve, and dirtroy the human race. Mod. Un. Hiil.
vol. V. p. iiS, &c.

ABUAS. Shah, II. the 9th king of Perfia, oftlicSofi
race, wa3 the great grandfou of the fomier, and fucceedcd
his father in 164.2, at the .ige of thirteen years. His cruel
■nd tyrannical father Ind oixlercd him to be deprived of
light ; but the eunuch, who was charged with the office,
more comp,inion:ite than the favage parent, refrained from
vxccutiiig it. The father relented, aad rejoicing to find,
V. lien he was d\nng, that his command had been difobeyed,
appiiiiittd him for his lucceflbr. The lucccfsful expedition
ol tiiis pnncc, when he was 18 years of age, tor the reco-
covcry of Candahar, which had been furrendered to the
(treat Mogul in che time of his father, and his defence of
it agaii'.ll .ui army of 30x3,000 men, fcem to have been the
principal events of his reign. His charafter has been very
dideieiitly reprefented by tliofe who have profcfled to give an
account of his life. Whilft fome have extolled his jullice
and clemency, and fpoken in the highell tenns of his talents
and niilit2i-y exploits ; other? have reproached him for his
cruelty and debauchery. Upon the whole, he feems to
have been more kitid and tolerant to ftningcrs than to
? s own fubjee^s, and cfpecially to tlie Chriltians, whom
lie dillinguiilied by his protection and favour. He was
very much addicted to drinking, and governed by
paflion : and after a reign of about 24 years, fell a fa-
crifice to his intemperance, and died in 1666. The
Jews were very feveiely perfecuted during his reign ; be-
caufc, as it is pretended, the McfTiah did not appear, ac-
cording to the adurances which tlicy are faid to have given
to Abbas the Great, and which was the llipulated condition of
their toleration. See Mod. Univ. Hill. vol. v p. i i;o. 8vo.

Abbas III. was fucceedcd by the famous Kuli Khan.

ABBASSIDES, in Hifiory, a race of Cahphs, wiio
were tliirty-fevcn in number, and fucceedcd one another
from between A. D. 746 and 750, forabout 523 years with-
out interruption. They were fo called from jILul Albas,
fumamcd Sajfah, with whom tiiis dynafty commenced, ac-
cording to Dr. Blair, (Clironology, pi. -^5.) A. D. 749.

ABBASSUS, in Anc'unt Geography, a town of the
greater Phr\gia, on the borders of the Toliftobojii, a
people who inhabited the northern parts of Galatia in Afia.

ABBE', in a monajlh f:np, the fame with Abuot.

ABBE', in a modern fenft, the denomination of a clafs of
perfons, which has been popular in France, but was not
known among the Romanills till about a century and a
half ago. Alhes are perfons who have not obtained any
fixed (ettlement either in church or ftate, but they are ex-
pectants of any office that may occur, ''f'heir drefs is rather
tJKit of an academic, or of a profeflfed fcholar, than of an
ecclefiaftic. They are a numerous and ufefiil body. In
colleges they are the infti-uftors of youth, and tutors in pri-
vate fai.iilies ; and many of them obtain a decent fubfifttnce
by their writings. They are perfons of univerfal talents and
Naming, and are held in eftcem and rcfpeft by people of
various defcriptions, and particularly by the female fex to
whom they are devoted.

t2

ABB

ABBEFIORD, in Geography, a fea-port town of Norway,
about 60 miles fouth-vveft of Chriftiana, fituate on a fmall
bay, in v.-hich are three illands.

ABBER-LOUGH, a lake of Lome, in Argylethirc,
in Scotland.

ABBESS, the fuperior of an abbey, or convent of
KUNS. The aWc/J has the fame rights and authority over
the nims, that the abbots regular nave over their monks.
Her fex, indeed, does not allow her to perform the fpiritual
funftions annexed to the priclltiood ; but in fome inftances
obbcjfts have the privilege of commiffioning a pried to act for
them : and they have even a kind of epilcopal jurifdittion.

F. Martene, in his treatile on the rights of the church,
obfcrves, that fome aW(^.f have fonncily confeffed their nuns.
But he adds, that their exceffive curiofity carried them
fuch lengths, that there arofc a iieceflity ot checking it.

St. Bafil, in his rule, allows the ablcfs to be prefent VN'ith
the prieft at the confefTion of her nuns.

Before the conqucll abbejfc' were fummoned to the Wit-
tcnagemote, and they affilled in the deliberations of eccle-
fiaiHcal councils.

ABBEVILLE, in Geography, the capital of Ponthieu in
the late province of Picardv, in France. It lies in a pleafant
valley, and is divided into two parts by the river Somnie. This
town carries on a confidcrable trade in grain, oil, hemp, flax,
cordage, foap, &c. by means of the Somine, in which
the tide rifes fix feet, and by which Ihips may come to the
middle of the town. The woollen manufartory was efta-
blilhed here in 1665, and has fucceedcd fo well, that its
cloths are deemed little inferior to thofe of England and
Holland. In this refpeft it has been aided by the clan-
deftine importation of Englilli and Irilh wool, and of work-
men frqm this country. It is conveniently fituatcd for a
fortification, and as it has never been taken, it is fometimea
called the miiidcn town. It lias a collegiate church, thirteen
parilh churches, and other pubhc buildings. It is ^2 milea
fouth of Calais, and 80 N. by W. of Paris. E. long. 1° 49'
45". N. lat. 50° 7' I".

Abbeville is alfo the name of a county in the diftrift of
Ninety-fix, in South Carohna, bounded on the N. E. by the
Saluda, and on the S. W. by the Savannah ; 35 miles in length,
and 21 in breadth, containing 9197 inhabitants, of whora
1665 are llaves.

Abbey, or Abby, a monaflery, or religious houfe,
governed by a fuperior under the title of abbot, or
abbess.

In our ancient ftatutes the word is fometimes alfo written
ahla'.hy. By 31 H. VIII. c. xiii. ablathks are given to the
king.

Abbeys differ from Priories, in that the former are under
the diredion of an abbot, and the latter of a prior ; but abbot
and prior (-ac mean a prior conventual) are much the fame
thing, and difler in little but the name.

One tliirdof the h'.'A. benefices in England were anciently
by the pope's grants, appropriated to abbeys, and other re-
1 gious houfes ; which, upon their diflblution under king
Henry VIII. became lay-fees. For a farther account and
an eftimate of the numbeK and value of religious houfes abo-
hfhcd and furrendered in this reign, fee Monastery.

Abbev-lands. See Fkemunire and Tithe.

ABBEYBOYLE, in Geography, a town of Ireland, in
the county of Roieom:-ion, and province of Connaught,
famous for an old abbey. ^V. long. 8 32'. N. lat. 56 54'.

ABBEYHOLM, a town lu Cumberland, fo cailedfrora
an abbey built by David liing of Scots. It is fituated on aa
arm of the fea, and is i6 miles S. W, of Carlifle. W. iong.
3^ 29'. N. lat. 54° 53'.

ABBEY-

ABB

ABB

ABBEYMILTON, or Middleton, an ancient, but
niean town in Doiietiliirc, which had formerly an abbey
and a niaiket, and which is 1 2 miles N. E. of Dorcheller.
W. long. 2° 2±'. N. lat. 50° 51'.

AB15IAN V, a town on the coaft of Guinea, in Africa,
at the diftance of three leagues from Ttbbo.

ABBIATI, Fil'tppo, m Biography, an eminent painter,
who wa5 born at Milan in 1640, and died in 1715, at the
ape of 75 years. He was diilinguilhed bv fcitility of in-
vention and correiSnefs of defign. His ha;id was free, and
his touch light ; he executed with expedition, and per-
formed with equal beauty, in frefco and in oil. Pilkingtou's
Diei

ABEON, in Bligraphy, a monk of St. Gcrmain-des-
Pres, who cornpofed, in barbarous Latin verfes, a relation
of the iiege of Paris by the Normans towards the clofe of
the 9th century. He was more dilUnguiilied as a faithful
liilloi-ian than as a good poet. His poem is publiflied in the
fecond volume of Duchefne's collection, and h.(s fmce been
more correAly printed, with notes, by Dupleffis, in 1753.
Biog. Did.

ABBON, De Fh-uty, was born in the territoiy of Or-
leans. After devoting liimfelfwith ardour to the ftudy of
almoil eveiy art and icience, and obtaining diftinguilhed re-
putation in the fchools of Paris and Rheims, he was elct'led
abbot of the monafterj' of Fleury, of which he was a monk.
He wrote an Apology for his conduft againil the accufa-
tions of his enemies, which was addrcded to the kings Hugh
and Robert ; to whom he alio dedicated a coUeftion of canons
on the duties of kings and fubjeds. The collection of his
letters ^nd canons, and his apology, were publiilied in
16S7, in folio. He was flain in a quarrel that arufe between
the French and Gafcons at Reole in Gafcony, in 1004.
Geu. Dia.

ABl^OT, or Abb AT, originally derived from the Hebrew
J^h, father, fignifies the fuperior of a monaftei-y of monks
erected into an abbey or prelacy.

Abbots were really diftiiiguiflied from the clergy, though
frequently confounded with them, becaufe they were a
degree above laymen. St. Jerome, writing to Helio-
dorus, lays exprcfsly, alia monachorum ijl caufa, alia clericoruvi.

In thofe eaily davi the abbots were fubjeft to the biibops,
and the ordinary paJlors. Their monafteries being remote
from cities, and built in the fartheil folitudes, they had no
fhare in eeclefiaftical affairs. They went on Sundays to the
parifh-church with the reft of the people ; or, if they were
too remote, a priell was fent to them, to ndminiiler the
facraments, tiU, at length, they were allowed to have
priefts of their own body. The abbot, or archimandrite, was
ufuallv the pried ; but his funftion extended no farther than
to the fpiritual affiftance of his monallery, and he remained
ftiU in obedience to the bilhop. In proccfs of time, as
many of them were perfons of learning, they oppofed the
hereiles that fprung up, which induced the bifliops to fix
them near, and in the cities.

Tlie abbots foon laid afide their former plainnefs and fim-
plicity, and endeavoured to be independent of the biihops,
vhich occafioned fome fevere laws to he made againft them
at the council of Chalcedon : notwithftanding th'S, in time,
many of them carried the point of independency, and got
the appellation of lard, with other badges of the epifcopate,
particularly tlie mitre.

Hence arofe new fpecies and diftinftions of abbots : mitred,
and not mitred ; crozier'-d, and not crozirreJ ; acumenieal ab-
bots, cardinal abbots, lufc.

Abbots, Mi.'red, were thofe privileged to wear the
mitre; and aifo allowed a full epifcopal authority within
their feveral prccincls. — Among us, theie were alto called

abloU fovcnl^n, and abbots general ; and they were lords
of parliament. Of thefe Sir Edward Coke reckons twcnty-
feven, and Selden tweuty-fix, in England, befide two mi'
tred priors.

The reft, who were not mitred, were fubjcdl to the dio-

CESAS.

Abbots, Croziered, are thofe who bear the crozier, or
paftoral ftaft".

Abhots were hkewife diftingui/hed into abbots elefJivr,
and abbois prefentative ; but arc now chiefly dillinguifhed in-
to regular and commendatory.

Abbots, Regular, are real monks, or religious, who
have taken the vows, and wear the habit of the opdfr.

Abbots in eommenrlam, are ficulars ; though they have
undergone the toisfure, and are obliged, by their bulls, to
take orders when they come of age.

Though the temi eommendiim infmuates, that they have
only the adniiniftration of their abbeys for a time ; yet do
they hold, and reap the fruits of them for ever, as well as
the regular abbots.

Their bulls give them a full power tam in fpirilualibut
quam in temporalihus ; and yet it is true that the commenda-
toiy abbots do not perform any fpiritual offices ; nor have
they any fpiritual jurii'diclion over their monks. So that
the phrafe in fpiritualihus, is rather fomcthing of the Romart
flyle than a reality.

The ceremony whereby abbots are created, is properly called
benediction ; or fometimes, though improperly, con feeration.

It anciently confifted in clothing them with the habit called
cuculla, ^i-coiul ; putting the paftoral fta'f in their hands, and
the (hoes called peda/es, or pedules, on their feet. Thefe par-
ticulars we learn from the Orda Romanus of Theodore, arcl^^
biiliop of Canterbury. t

Abbot is alfo a title, which has been given to certain bi-
fliops, becaufe their fees had originally been abbeys ; and
they were even elected by the monks : fuch arc thole of Ca*
tanea and Montreal in Sicily.

Abbot is alfo an appellation fometimes given to the fupe-
riors or genei'als of fome congregations of regular canons }
as that of St. Genevieve at Paris.

Abbot is alfo a title borne by feveral magiftrates, and
other lay-perfons. — Among the Genoefe, one of their prin-
cipal magiftrates was called the abbot of the people.

In France, particularly about the time of Charlemagne,
there were feveral lords and courtiers, who having the fuper-
intendency of certain abbeys committed to them, were ftyled
abbacomites, or abbey-counts.

ABBOT, George, Archbiftiop of Canterbury, \ira3 bom
Oa. 29, 1562, at Guildford in Surrey. Having pafled
through the rudiments of literature in his native town, he
was removed, in 1578, to Baliol college at Oxford. la
1583, he was clefted probationer fellow of his college;
and having paffed through the ufual courfe of graduation,
he took orders and became a celebrated preacher in
that univerfitv; and in 1597 he was elefted Mafter of Uni-
verfity College. In 1600, and again in 1603, he was Vice-
chancellor of the univerilty, and difcharged the duties of
this office with general approbation. In the fucceeding year
the tranflation of the Bible, now in ufe, was undertaken by
the diredlion of kiTig James ; and Dr. yllbot was the fecund
of eight learned divines in the univcrfity of Oxford, to whom
the care of tranflating the whole New Teftament (excepting
the tpiftles) was committed. In 1605 he was aguiu Vicc-
chanceDor. After the deceafe of his patron, the Earl of
Doi-fet, in 1608, he became chaplain to Geo. Hume, Earl
of Dunbar, and accompanied him this year to Scotland,
to aifill in eft:iblilhing an union between the Scots and
liiigliih churches ; and in conducting this bufinefs he ac«

quii-cd

A B n

,- ■ r f>)r pniilincc aiul moderation, wliicli luiJ

,',, ,: all Ills future [jriicniicnU. From this time

he ilouU u. Iiigii ill the kinjj's favour, tliat lie was confccrated
bilhop of the unit, d fei-; ..t Lilchfuld and CoventiT in i6og,
and 111 the hcpnuiiig of the next year he was trandated to Lon-
don ; and in 1611 lie was preferred hy liis majcfty to the archi-
ei>.lVupal fee of Canterbur)-. Thus, before he had arrived at
the a-e of fifty, lie w as exalted to the hi^hell difrnity in the
chun.^i,andcerebratedl)y GoiKvin, (dePreful. Anglia;,p. 225, )
o:ie of his contemporaries, for his learning, eloquence, nnd
indefatigable diligence in preaching and writing, notwith-
ftanding the various duti-.sof his high ofiice, of tlie high com-
mifiion court, over which he prefided,and of his regular attend-
ance on the privy-council. He was at this time in t)ic higheil
favour both with prince and people, and chiefly concerned
in all the great tr^nfaAions of church and Hate. His great
folicilude for the proteilant religion induced him zealoully to
promote the match between the Elector Palatine and the
Princefs tli^abeth, which was folemni/.cd on tlie 14th of
Fcbruan- l6lj, the archbifhop performing the ceremony in
the royal chapel. During the agitation of the divorce be-
tween the Lady Frances Howard, daughter of the Earl of
Suffolk, and Robert Earl of Eflex, which has been confi-
dcred as one of the grtatcfl blemilhes of King James's reign,
tlie archbifliop added much to the reputation he had
acquired for inflexible integrity. He refiftcd tlie divorce,
though the king was vtr)- delirous of its taking place, and
he publifhed his reafons for perillUng in his opinion, to which
the king himf«lf thought fit to reply. Sentence was given
in the lady's favour. In 1618 the king's declaration for
permitting fports and pailimes on the Lord's day gave the
archbifhop great uniafinefs ; and happening to be at Croy-
don on the day when it was ordered to be read, he had the
courage to forbid its being read. This year he did great
fcrvice to the protcftant religion, by employing Mr. N.
Brent to procure the MS. of Father Paul's excellent Hiilory
of the Council of Trent. In 1619, when his health began
to decline, he prepared to execute the benevolent defign in
favour of his native town of Guildford, which he had long
meditated ; he attended when Sir Nicholas Kempe laid the
firft (lone of his hofpital, and afterwards nobly endowed it.
Towards the clofe of this year, when the Elector Palatine
accepted the crown of Bohemia, he took part with thofe
who thought, that natural affeftion for his fon and daugh-
ter, and a juft concern for the protcftant intereft, ought to
have engaged his majefty warmly to fupport the new elec-
tion. Being under a nereffity of ufing exercife, he made a
tour into Hamplhire ; and v^-hen he \\'as hunting in the park of
Lord Zouch at Bramzil, he had the misfortune of killing his
lordlhip's keeper by an arrow from a crofs-bow, which he
fhot at one of the deer. This accident threw him into a
deep melancholy. The day on which it happened he kept
as a monthly fail ever afterwards, and he fettled an annuity
of 20I. on the widow. This accident excited prejudices
againil him in the minds of many perfons, though his majefty
declared, that " an angel might have mifcarried in this fort,"
and WTOte him with his own hand a confolator)^ letter. A
commidion of ten porfons was appointed to inquire into this
matter, and the refult of the whole was, that a pardon and
difpenfation pafled the Great Seal, and he was declared
capable of all metropolitical authority, as if this affair had
cot happened. In the parliament tliat met on the 19th Feb.
172 V4> the archbifhop took an a&ive part in the meafures
which were then purfued for perfuading the king to difTolve
his treaties with Spain, relating to the marriage and the palati-
nate. Though, on account of his increafinginnrmitieshefeldom
alTiftc-d at council, yet in tiic king's laft ficknefs he conttantly
ittended, and was near him when be expired 00 the 27th of

ABB

March 1625. He performed the duty of his rank in putting
the crown on the head of king Charles I. ; but he vifibly
declined in the king's favour, and the Duke of Buckingham
watched for an opportunity of teiliiying the feverity of his
difpleafure againll him. An occalion foon prefented itfelf
in confequcnce of his refufing to licenfe a fcrnion,- preached
by Dr. Sibthorpe, to juflify and promote a loan, which the
king had demanded. Accordingly he was fufpcnded from ;iil
his funftions as primate, and they were exercilld by com-
mifTion appointed by the king. But a parliament being
neceffary, he was again refloied to his authority and juril-
diclion. His prefence at court, however, was unwelcome 1
and Laud, who direfled the rigorous ineafures of the church
party, which the archbilhop difapproved, had the honour,
as dean of the chapel, of baptizing the yoi;ng prince, after-
wards Charles II. The archbifliop, being worn out with
cares and infirmities, died at Croydon on the 4th of Auguft
in 1633, at the age of ftventy-one. He was buried at
Guildford, where a (lately monument was eretted over Ilia
grave, with his effigy in his robes. He was diftinguiflied
by his natural talents, and by a conlidei-able portion of ac-
quired literature, as the various works which were written
by him tedify. He manifefted, in many circumllances, a
great degree of moderation to all- parties ; and he was de-
firous that the clergy fhould engage the rcfpeft of the laity
by the fanftity of their manners and the uprightnefs of their
behaviour, rather than claim it as neceftarily attached to
their funftion. But his fentiments and conduct have not
efcaped reflections ; nor has even Lord Clarendon donejuftice
to his memory. Dr. Welwood has more truly appretiated
his abilities and merit. There was another writer of the
fame name, who publifhed a Paraphrafe on Job, a Vindica-
tion of tlie Sabbath, and a Paraphrafe on the Pfalms. He
died about the year l6jo, and had been a member of the
parliament that was then fitting. Biog. Brit.

ABBOT, Robert, was brother to the former, bom at
Guildford in 1560, and completed his iludies at Baliol col-
lege in Oxford. He took his degree of Matter of Arts in
1582, and became a dillinguiftied preacher, to which his
prefenuent was owing. In 1594 he became no lefs eminent
for his writings. In 1597 he took his degree of Doftor in
Divinity ; and in the beginning of the reign of king James
he was appointed chaplain in ordinai-y to his majelty, who
ordered the doctor's book, De Ant'ichr'ijio, to be printed with
his own commentaiy on the Apocalypfe. He was elected
tnafler of Baliol college in 1609, and in 1612 his majefty ap-
pointed him regius profcflTor of divinity at Oxford. The re-
putation which he acquired by his lectures induced his ma-
jefty to name him for the fee of Salifbuiy, and he was con-
fecrated by his brother at Lambeth, Dec. 3, 161 5. He
found the cathedral falling into decay, and applied the fum
of 500I., which he obtained from the prebendaries, towards
repairing it. Here he devoted himfelf with exemplaiy affi-
duity to the duties of his function ; but his clofe application
to ftudy brought upon him the gravel and Itone, which ter-
minated his life on the 2d of March 1617, in the 58th year
of his age. He was buried over-againil the biihop's feat in
the cathedral. Dr. Fuller (in his Worthies of England)
fays, fpeaking of the two brothers, " that George was the
" more plaufible preacher, Robert the greater fcholar ;
" George the abler ftatefman, Robert the deeper divine ;
" gi'avity did frown in George, and fmile in Robert." His
writings were nuincrous, and many of his MSS. were given
by Dr. Corbet, who mairied his grand-daughter, to the
Bodleian library.

There was another Robert Abhot, a minifter, and author
of feveral devout pieces, who was fcarcely a writer before
the bifhop died.

ABBOTS-

ABB

ABC

ABBOTSrBROMLEY, in Geography, a town of Slaf-
fordfliire, with a market on Tucfday. W. long, i^ 2'. N.
lat. 5.-5'.

ABBOTSBURY, a fmall town in DorfctHiire, wiih a
market on I'hurfday. W. long, i '^ 17'. N. lat. 50" 40'.
The abbey near this town was founded by a Nonnan lady
about the year 1026; and Edward the Confeifor and William
the Conqueror were benefatiors to it.

ABBOTS-CASTLE, or Apewood-Castlf., an old
fortification, in StafFordfhircjfeven miles from Wolverliampton,
on tlte north fide of the road from Shvewfbury to London,
fituatcd on a lofty round proniontoiy, and a lleep ridge of hills,
which extend a mile in length, and are fuppofed to have been
one continued fortification, and a work of the ancient Britons.

ABBOTS-LANGLEY, a village in Herts, four miles
from St. Albans, famous as the biitli-place of pope Adrian
IV.

ABBREVIATE of AnjunicATioN, in Scots law, an
abftraft or abridgment of a decreet of adjudication, which is
recorded in a regiiler kept for that purpofc.

ABBREVIATION, or Abbreviature, a contradion
of a word, or palFage, made by dioppiag fome of the letters,
or by fubftituting certain marks, or charatlers, in their
place.

A late ingenious writer on the fubjeft of grammar dillri-
butes the paits of fpeech into words, necefiary for the com-
munication of our thoughts, which are the notm and verb,
and abbreviations, employed for the fake of difpatch. Thefe
latter, he lays, are in the ftrift fenfe of the term, parts of
fpeech, becaufe they are all ufeful in language, and each has
a different manner of fignification. He inclines, however,
to allow that rank only to the neceffary words ; and to in-
clude all the others, which are not neceffary to fpeech, but
merely fubftitutes of the iirft fort, under the title of abbre-
viations. V/ords, he fays, have been called -wmged, whence
the title of this work, v'i%. etek irlt^osvla ; and they well de-
fen'e that name, when their abbreviations are compared with
the progrefs which fpeech could make without thefe inven-
tiong ; but compared with the rapidity of thought, they have
not the fmallefl claim to that title, y^blrevuiticns are em-
ployed in language three \vays ; in terms, in forts of words,
and in conftrutlion. Mr. Locke's Effay is the belt guide
to the firil ; and the authors who have given particular ex-
planations of the lafl are numberlefs ; the provmce of this au-
thor is confined to the fecund clafs of Mbreviations. See
EnEA nXEPOENTA ; or, The Divcrfions of Puiley, c. I.
p. 39. &c.

Lawyers, phyficians, &c. ufe abundance of abbreviatures ;
partly for the fake of expedition, and partly for that of
myftery. A lift of the principal ahbrevialures, in the feveral
arts and faculties, fee under Character.

Of all people, the Rabbins are the mofl remarkable for
this praftice ; fo tliat their writings are unintelligible, with-
out an explanation of the Hebrew abbreviatures. The Jewifh
authors and copyiits do not content themfelves to abbreviate
words, like the Greeks and LatinSi by retrenching fome of
the letters, or fyllables thereof; but they frequently take
away all except the initial letters. Thus, "1 ftands for rab-
bi, and Jif for ^)*, 'i^^^, or °1?3{<> according to the place
in which it is found.

But ftill furtiier, they frequently take the initial letters of
feveral fucceeding words, join them together, and adding
vowels to them, make a barbarous fort of word, reprefenta-
tive of all the words thus abridged. Thus, Rabbi Schelemoh
yarcbi, in the jargon of Hebrew abbreviatures, is called
Raji ; and Rabbi Mofcs ben Maiemott, is Rambam. Mercerus,
David de Pomis, Schindlcr, Bustorf, 5ic. have given expli-

cations of fuch abbrniiatures. The mod copious collc('lior)
of Roman abbreviatures, is that of Sertorius Urfatus : Ser-
torii UrJ'ati, equitis, tie notis Romanorum commcniiirius.

Abbreviation iif Fradhms, \n j1rtihin:tic mx^ ytl^dra,
IS the reduftion of them to lov.er terms. See Fractiok.

ABBREVIATOR, in a general fenfe, a perfon who
abridges any large book into a more narrow compafs.

Abbreviator is more particularly ufed for an officer in
the court of Rome, appointed an alliilant to the vice-chan-
cellor, for drawing up the pope's briefs, and reducing peli-
tions, when granted by the pontiiT, into proper form, for
being converted into bulls.

The Abbnvialors are fuppofed by Ciampini, in his two
volumes on their inilitution, oilice, S:c. to be the fucceffora
cither of the cancellarii in the imperial houfhold, or of the
feven notarii, faid to have been placed by pope Clement I.
in the fcven quarters of Rome, to write down the aels of the
martyrs within their feveral diilrids.

The abbreviators form a college of feventy-two perfons,
diN-idcd into two ranks ; one called atbrevialorc: de parco ma-
jorc, who are twelve in number, all prelates ; the other, al-
breviatores de parco minore, called alfo examinaton:, who may
be lay-men.

ABBS HEAD (St.), in Geography, a promontory of
Berwicklhire in Scotland, in the fouthcm extremity of tlie
Fritli of Forth. N. lat. 55° 55'. W. long. 1°. 51^/.

ABBT, Thomas, in Biography, v.'as born in 1 7 ^8, at Ulm,
anddiedin i766,at Biickeberg,a privy-counfellor of theCouut
of Schaumburg-Lippe. Befides his tranflation of Sallufl intii
Gennan, he alfo publilhed a volume " concerning Merit,"
and another " concerning Death for one's country," which
are well eilecmed. He is one of the earlieft German wri-
ters, who retain a clalTical rank, and would have probably
excelled as anhiilorian, if his lile had been prolonged. Gen.
Biog.

ABBTENAU, in Geography, a market town in the arch-
bilhoprick of Salzburg, about 20 miles S. E. of the city
of Salzburg. N. lat. 47° 32'. E. long. 12° 56'.

ABBUTALS. See Abbuttals.

ABCEDARY, Abcedarian, or Abecedarian, is
fometimes applied to compofitions whofe parts are difpofed
in the order of the letters of the alphabet.

In this fenfe abcedarian is fynonymous with alphabetical.
Thus we meet with abcedarian pfalms, lamentations, prayers,
and the like ; chiefly among Hebrew writers ; which
makes it probable they were the inventors of this fpecies of
compofition.

This is the firft and mofi manifeft indication of verfe in
the Hebrew poetical books. Poems of this kind con lift of
22 lines, or fyilems of lines, or periods, or ftanzas, accord-
ing to the number of the letters in >;he alphabet ; and every
line, orftanza, begins with each letter in its order. Tliis
artificial contrivance was intended for the affiftance of the
memory, and was chiefly employed in fubjecks of common
ufe, as maxims of morality and fonns of devotion. There
are ftill extant in the books of the Old Teftament twelve of
thefe poems, viz. Pfalms xxv. xxxiv. xxxvii. cxi. cxii. cxix.
cxlv. Prov. xxxi. 10—31. Lament, i. ii. iii. iv. Three of
thefe, viz. Pf. cxi. cxii. Lam. iii. are perfedly alphabetical,
in which every line is marked by its initial letter ; in the
other nine every ftanza only is fo diftinguilhed. With re-
fpeft to the three fonner it may be obferved, that the whole
poctn is diftributed into ftanzas ; two of them, viz. Pf. cxi.
cxii. into ten ftanzas each, all of two hnes, except the two
laft ftanzas in each, whicli are of three lines ; and the third,
viz. Lam. iii. confifts of twenty-two ftanza3,of three lines, the
initial letter of every ftanza being alfo the initial letter of

every

A B D

rrcry line of tlut (lanta. In iliclc three poems, iho lines
lUiis dcUTmin«l by the initial letters, in the fame pocin,
are remarkably etjiial to one another in length, in the num-
ber of words nearly, and probably in the number of fyllablcs,
and the line^ of the fame ll.inza convfpond one with an-
other, in the matter and the form, in the fenfe and the con-
ftr\iC\ion. Of the other nine poems, fix, viz. Pi. xxv. xxxiv.
cxix. cxlv. Prov. xxxi. Lam. iv. confill of ftanzas of two
lines; two, via. Lam. i. ii. of ftanzas of three lines ; and
one, v«s. Pf. xxxvii. of ftanzas of four hncs j allowing for
inejjulaiiticj, which are probably owin^' to the millakcs of
trankribers. Thefe ftan/.ns likewife natiintlly divide them-
fclve« into their di.linci lines, the fenfe and conftrudion
pointing out their limits, and the lines correfponding one
with anotlier in matter and fonn, as in the poems more per-
fectly alidiabetical. In thefe however, two of them, viz.
Pf. cxi. exii. have the lines (horter than thofe of the third.
Lam. ui. by about one-third, or almoil half; and of the
other nine poems, the ftan/as of which are only alphabetical,
three, viz. Lam. i. ii. iv. conlilluf the longer lines, and the
fix othtrs of the (horter.

From thefe examples it may be inferred, that the poems,
pcrfeetly alphabetical, confill of verfes properly fo called,
regulate'd by fome regard to harmony or cadence, meafurc,
numbers, or rhythm. The other poems, which are divided
into ftanzas by the initial letters, arc compofitions of the
fame kind, and equally confift of vcrfcs. We may alfo con-
clude from thefe pcrfeftly alphabetical poems, that the
Hebrew verfedid not confift in rhyme, or liniilar and corre-
fpondent founds at the ends of the verl'cs, but in fome fort
of rhythm, probably fome fort of metre, the laws of
which are altogether unknown and undiicoverable. Never-
thelcfs the peculiar form of compofition is fo obfer\'able, as
plainly to difcriminate in general the parts of the Hebrew
fcr'pturcs which are written in verfe from thofe which are
^aitlen in pvofe. See Lowth's Prelinunary DifTertalion to
his Ifaiah, p. 4, &c.

ABC ED E or Abscede, from abcedo, to Lnp a/under,
a term in Surxcry, fignifying nearly the fame thing as to
fuppurate. An abceded furfacc, is a part whofe texture
has been altered, vitiated, or feparated by the formation of
purulent matter. The mere contiguity of purulent matter
to a folid part of the living body, will lometimes efFeft a
diflblution of its natural fti-u£lure : this may arife either
from the acrimonious quality, or the mechanical prelTure, of
the confined pus. See Adscedentia, Abscess, Pus, and
Suppuration.

ABCOURT, in Geography, a town near St. Germains,
four leagues from Paris, famous for a brifk chalybeat water,
impregnated with fixed air and the foflU alkali, and refem-
bling that of Spa.

ABDALLAH, formed of ald,Jla'oe, and allah, God, and
denoting thcjlave ofGod,mBiograp/jy,zyonnger fon of Abdal-
Motalleb,and thefather of M a h om et. He was the moft beau-
tiful and modeft of the Anibian youth, and when hemamed
Amina, of the noble race of the Zahrites, 200 virgins are faid
to have expired of jealoufy and defpair. Gibbon's Hill. vol. ix.
p. 255. — Several other eminent Arabians bore the fame name.

Abdallah, Ein Salem, was a Jew, intimate ^^^th Ma-
homet, and an early convert to his rehgion. He is laid to
have allifted him in compiling his pretended revelations.

Abuallah, Ebn-Zoleir, having ingratiated himfelf with
the inhabitants of Mecca and Medina, by his religious zeal
and engaging behaviour, was proclaimed Caliph, A. D.
682. Htg- <>2' He was recognized in all the provinces of
the empire, except Syria and Paleftine; and enjoyed his dig-
nity nine years, till the 7 2d year of his age, and 73d of the

A B D

Hegira. At this junfture Mecca was befieged, and the
Caliph's fpirits were fupported by the attention of liis mo-
ther Afcnia, grand-daugliter to the Caliph Abubeker, who,
at the age o? 90, adminiftered rtfrediment to him and his
foldiers at the breach with her own hand. At length, how-
ever, he took leave of his mother, and fallied out on the
enemy. Having killed many with his own hand, he was at
Lift ovei-powered ; and when he found the blood trickling
down his face and beard, he is faid to have repeated this
verfc from an Arabian poet ; " The blood of our wounds
falls not upon our heels, but our feet ;" and he foon died.
The avarice of this Ald/dah gave rife to the proverb : " That
there was never a brave man who was not liberal, till Ah-
dallah the fon of Zobeir." He is reported to have been fo
pious and fo intent on his devotions, that a pigeon once
alighted on his head, whilll he was thus employed, and fat
lon<T there without his perceiving it. Gen. Diet.

ABDALMALEC, the fon of Mirwan, and fifth caliph
of the race of the Onuniades, fucceeded his father in the 65th
year of the Hegira, A. D. 6S5, and reigned 21 years. At
the commencement of his reign he converted the temple of
Jerufidem into a mofque, and direfted his fubjcfts to per-
form their pilgrimage to this place ; becaufe Abdallah libn
Zobeir, who had been eledled caliph by the Arabs, re-
tained pofTefTion of Mecca. In the progrefs of his reign he
concluded a treaty with the Greek emperor, reduced Perfia,
or rath.er Irak, under his dominion, and having failed to
engage the fubmiffion of Abdallah by amicable conference,
laid fiege to Mecca, and took it. By this event he ac-
quired pofTefllon of the peninlula of the Arabs, and became
lole and abfolute mailer of the Modem empire. In the 76th
year of the Hegira, he caufcd dinars, and dirhems, to be
ttruck, with Arabic infcriptions upon them, which pro-
claimed the unity of the God of Mahomet. Before his
time the former, or gold coins, had Greek, and the latter, a
filver money, had Pcrfic cliaraclers upon them. On this oc-
cafion he eftablifhcd a mint for coinage in his own dominions.
Ahdalmahc was deemed brave, learned, and wife, and was
much more powerful than any of his predccefTors ; having
fubdued Abdallah Ebn Zobeir, and annexed Arabia to his
empire ; reduced to his obedience the lettaries of all deno-
minations that appeared in amis again ft him ; conquered In-
dia, or at leaft a coniiderable part of that vail region in the
Eaft ; and in the well, penetrated with liis victorious troops
as far as Spain. He was buried at Damafciis ; and the go-
vernment devolved on Al Walid, the eldeft of his fixteen
fons, who extended the Moflem contmefts, and rebuilt the
temple of Medina in a ftylc of extraordinary magnificence.
Under the reign of this caliph the Greek language and cha-
rafters were excluded from the accounts of the public re-
venue. If this change (fays Mr. Gibbon, Hift. of the De-
cline and Fall of the Roman Empire, vol. x. p. 8. 8vo.)
was produftive of the invention, or familiar ufe of our pre-
fent numerals, the Arabic or Indian cyphers, a regulation
of office has promoted the mofl important difcoveries of
arithmetic, algebra, and the mathematical fcienccs. Ah-
dalmalec was avaricious to fuch a degree as to be denominated
by fome of his fubjefls, in derifion, the fnueat of a Jhne ;
and his breath was fo fetid, that the flies which accider:tally
lighted upon his lips were poifoned by it ; from which cir-
cumftance he was called ih.e father of flies. Mod. Un. Hift.
vol, ii. p. ^2. 8vo.

ABDALMOTALLEB, or Ahdol MotaUeh, the fon of
Ilafhem, the father of Abdallah, and grandfather of Ma-
homet, was, according to Abulfcda, prince, or chief of
the Koreilh, during the war of the Elephant. Upon the
death of the father of Maliomet, he tock charge of his

grandfon ;

A B D

A B D

grandfon ; and at his deceafe committed the care of Iiim to
[lis Ion Abu Tiileb, who w;is the guide and guardian of his
youth. The hfc of Abdul MataUch is faid to have been
prolonged to tlie age of no years ; and he was the fatlicr
of (ix daughters and thirteen fons.

ADDALONYMUS, defoended from king Cinyras, and
of the royal family of Sidon, lived in obfcurity, and fub-
filled by cultivating a garden, when Strato had pofTellion of
the crown of Sidon. Alexander the Great liaving depofed
Strato, wifhed to rellore the race of Cinyras, and Ir.iving
found Abdalonymus, he was convinced of his hii;h dcfccut by
the apparent dignity of his perion. Interrogating hiiu how he
bore his poverty, Abdalonymus replied, " I with I may bear
" my new condition as well. Thefe hands have fupplied my
" necelTities. I have h^d nothing, and 1 have wanted no-
" thing." Alexander was fo nuich pleafed with this reply,
that, befides bellowing upon him what belonged to Strato,
he augmented his dominions, and gave him a large prefent
out of the Perfian fpoils.

ABDALS, in the Eaftern countries, a kind of faintu
fuppofed to be inlpired to a degree of madnefs. The word
comes, perhaps, from the Arabic ahdalLih, the fervant of
God. The Perlians call them ilevanch l-hoda, agreeably to
the Latin way of fpeaking of their prophets and libyls, q. d.
furenles Deo, raging tuifh (hn God.

TheAbdalsare often carried by excefs of zeal, efpecially
in the Indies, to run about the ftreets, and kill all they
meet of a diiferent religion. The EngUlh failors call this
running a muk, from the name of the inllniment, a fort of
poignard, employed on this occallon. D'Herbel. Bib. Or. p. 5.

ABDELAVI, in Botany, an Egyptian plant very like a
melon, except that the fruit is more oblong, and acute at
the extremities.

ABDELEUR, in Geography, an ifland in Africa, fituate
in the countiy of Anian, in the Indian Sea. N. lat. 11°
55'.. E. long. 51 '^ 45'.

ABDERA, or Addara, in yfndent Geography, a town
of Bcctica in Spain, a Phoenician colony ; now yldra or Ala-
dra, to the well of Almeira in Granada.

Abdera, a maritime town of Thrace, not far from
the mouth of the river Neftus, on the eaft. fide. So-
linus fays, that Abdera was founded by the filler of
Diomedes, and took her name ; but Stephanus (de Urb.
torn. I. p. 5.) aicribes the name to Abderus, one of the
companions of Hercules, who was devoured by the fa-
bulous horfes of Diomedes. Herodotus (lib. I. p. 168.)
informs us, that Timefius, the Clazomenian, attempted to
lay the foundation of it, but he was prevented by the Thra-
cians from accomplifhing his purpofe. The Teians afterwards
fucceeded and fettled in this place, in order to avoid the
contumely of the Perfians, which gave occafion to its being
called Abdera pulehra Tejorum colonin, fignifying, that brave
men will live any where rather than fuffer oppreffion and ler-
viiude. To this laying fome fuppofe that Cicero alludes in
his epillles to Atticus, lib. 4. 7. The horfes that fed on
the grafs in the neighbourhood of this city were feized with
madnefs, according to Pliny (Hill. Nat. torn. 2. p. 374. Ed.
Hard.) In the reign of CafTander, king of Macedon, it wna
fo infefted with frogs and rats that the inhabitants were
obliged, for a time, to quit it. The Ahderites were for fome
months, in the reign of L^'fimachus, afflifted with a fingular
difeafe. It was a kind of burning fever, according to the
delcription of it given by Lueian, (Op. torn. 2. p. i. Ed.
Reitz. ) which came to a crifis on the feventh day. During its
continuance, the imaginations of thofe who were feized with
it were diftrafted, and they fancied themfelves players ; and
they continued reciting verfes from fome tragedy, particu-

VoL. I.

larly out of the Andromeda of Euripides, till the cokl of
winter terminated their delirium. Of the caufe of this dif-
eafe Eucian gives the following account. Archelaiis per-
forrned the tragedy of Andromeda before tlie Abdcritcs in a
very hot fummer ; feveral perfons were attacked with the
fever on their leaving the theatre ; and their imaginations
being fully pofleflcd vvith the dramatic incidents which iiad
been exhibited, tliey could not forbear imitating Archelau..'s
a6lion and declamation : and from them the fever was
communicated to others by infe£lion.

The Abderites were reproached for want of wit and judg-
ment ; neverthelefa many eminent peifons, as Protagoras,
Democritus, Anaxarchus, Hecataius thejhitlorian, Kicxne-
tus the poet, and i«veral others, were boni in this cily. It
was formerly famous for its gold and filver mines ; but it in
now reduced to a mean place, on the Aichipelago, called
Polyllilo, Afperofa, and Al?rizzo. There was another
city of the fame name in Iberia, bulk by the Phanicians,
and now c;Jled Alineria.

ABDERAHMA, Audirachman, or Ar.nAi.p.AiiMAN,
a Saracen viccrov in Spain, who revolted and itmned an in-
dependent principality at Cordova. He had feveral fuccef-
fors of the iame name.

A viceroy and captain-general of this name led the Sara-
cens and their followers into France, ravaging the country
wherever they came ; but at length he was met at Touvs
by Charles Martel, v.'ho had been reinforced by a body of
Germans and Gepidx ; and, after many (Ivirmiflies, a gene-
ral aftion took place, in which the Saracen army was totally
defeated, and y/ZY/errt/ima was killed, with 370,000 Moors.
This great event, which firll broke the Saracen power, and
taught the Europeans that they were not invincible, is placed
by moll writers in the year 732, Heg. 114. Mariana (Hid.
Spain, 1. 7. c. 2.) dates this battle in the year 734, twenty-
one years after the conqueft of Spain.

ABDERANA. See Ariana.

ABDl'^ST, among the Mahometans, a peculiar manner
of wafliing, before prayer, entering the molque, or reading
the Afcoran ; pradlifed with fome difference both by Turks
and Perfians. The word is compounded of the Perfian abf
•water, and dejl, hand.

K&'Dlh.'Si oi Babylon, in Biography, a legend-writer, who
had the effrontery to boaft, that he had feen Chrift, was one
of the 70 difciples, had been eye-witnefs of the aftions and
prayers of feveral of the apoilles at their death, and had fol-
lowed St. Simon and St. Jude into Perfia, by whom he had been
made the firll billiop of Babylon. But his forgery is eafily de-
tefted ; as he mentions Hegefippus and Jul. Africanus, one
of whom hved about 130 and the other 221 years after
our Lord's afcenfion. plis book, intitled Hijloria Certaminis
Apojlolici, was publilhed by Wolfgang Lazius at Bafil, in
1 55 1, and has paffed through feveral editions in other places.
It may be feen, with notes, in Fabr. Codex. Apocr. N. T.
part 2. p. 3R8.

ABDICARIA/ro/^/io, in Logic, is ufed for a ncgatiye
propofition.

ABDICATION, Abdicatio, derived from abdicare, to
ren'.unee, the aft whereby a magiftrate, or perfon in oilice,
renounces, and gives up the fame, before the legal term of
fervice is expired.

Abdication is frequently confounded with rej\gnatir,n ; but,
ftriftly fpeaking, there is a difference : abdication being done
purely and fimplv ; whereas rejignaiion is done in favour of
fome other perion.

In this ienfe, Dioclefian is faid to have ald'cnted the
crown ; but Philip IV. of Spain rcfigned it. The parlia-
ment of England voted that king James II. having endea-

D voured

A B D

vr irril to fiibvfrt the conUitiition of t!ie kingdom, by

\ . ii'j llie ori^irial contracl between k'nn; and people, and

i. . ;,;, by the advice of Jel"iiit< and other wicked peilons,

.d the fundamental laws, and witiidniwn himfclf out of

" >;n, has a/nlicueil the jjoveniment, and that the

• irrrhv v-ticant. This vote was palFcd by a great

I.,: ; , ui me commons; but wa< oppofed in the houie ot

loids. They particularly objcdod to the word abi!ka>erl,

and it was carried, tliat ikj'erteJ wai more pioper. The

commons adherod to their vote, and by their perfeverance

obli'^ed the lords to co-nply. 'l"he Scots convention voted

that kint; James, by his mal-adminiilration and his abufe of

power, \\-iii foi-ftUed {(romj'ons-fii^-ia) all title to the crown.

Abdication, among Roman ll'rilers, is more particu-
larly uled for the act whereby a father difcarded or dif-
cluimed his Ton, and expelled him the family.

In this fenfe the word is fynonymous with the Greek
■Toxn^^Ji,-, and the Latin a fumilia ahenatio, or fomctimes
ablegiitio, and nf^tilio ; and llands oppofed to mhption. It is
dillinguifhed from exhkr«datio, or dilinheriting', in that
ihe former was done in the father's life -time, I lie latter
l>y will at his death : fo that whoever was abJicalf^i, was alio
dilinherited, but not vice Vfrfn.

ABDITjE Caufr, are the fccret or remote caufes of
dillempers, which phyficians of the dogmatic, or ration<il
fed, aflinned, were necedary to be known, in order to
cllablilh a right method of cure.

ABDOMEN, in ./^na/om)', derived from aiiLre to iitlf, tlie
/o-:urr Billy, or the cavity that is bounded at its ui)per
part by the diaphragm, or midriff, by which it is fe-
parated from the thorax ; and at its lower part it is diftin-
guifhcd from the jjelvis by a circular ridge of bone, which
is confidered as the brim of the latter cavity. The fpine
and lumbar mulclcs form the back part of the abdomen,
whilll the fides and front are completed by mufcles, named
alilominiil. Tiie abdominal mufeles are the OBLiciui ex-
ttrni and interni, the recti tranf'verjales., and pyrami-
nALES. This great cavity is divided by anatomifts in-
to certain regions or dillridts, that they may be able ealily
and aecurately to defcribe the fituation of tire contained vif-
cera. The divifions are in a great degree arbitrary ; one
imaginary line is drawn acrofs from the greateft convexity
of the cartilage of the 7th or lall true rib ; another from
thofe projecting points of the hip-bones, named the anterior
and fuperior fpinous procefTes. Tiiat part of the cavity,
which is Ikuated above the upper line, is termed the epi-
gaftric region ; that below the lower one, the hypo-
gaftric. The fpace included between the hnes, is called
the umbilical region. Thefe regions are again fubdivided :
the iides of the cpigaftric region, whicli extend beneath
the cartilages of the ribs, being named hypochondria, and
the fmall depreffion at the upper part, juit over the enfi-
form cartilage, being called fcrobiculus cordis by I^atin
writers, and the pit of the ftomnch commonly by the Eng-
li(h. The fides of the umbihcal region are named the iha
or flanks, and the back part the loins. The iides of the
hypogadric region are the groins, and the lower -part in
front, the pubes. The boundaries of the abdomen are eveiy
where lined by a thin and elaftic membrane, named peri-
tonseum, v^'hich is alfo fpread over the contained vifcera.
From the fmooth glofTy furface of this membrane, a fmall
quantity of an aqueous fluid is poured forth, which keeps
the bowels fcparate from each other, and from the fides
of the cavity in which they are contained. All the abdo-
minal vifcera, except the kidneys, are employed in the di-
gellion of our food, the couverfion of it into chyle, and the
cxpuhion of the refidue. The vifcera more direftly em-

I

A B D

ployed in the chylopoietic funftion, are tiie ftomach, and the
fmall and large intellines. The fmall intellines are divided
into the duodenum, the jejunum, ami the ilium; the large
into the cvECum, colon, and rectum.' The liver, with its
gall-bladder, the fpleen, and pancreas, are fubfervient to the
functions of the alimentary canal. Behind the peritonaeum
in the loins, we find the kidneys, which are alfo abdominal
vifcera. Several procelfes of peritonauim prefent themfclves
in the cavitv of the abdomen, and claim attention, as the
great and fmall omentum, the mefentcry, and others of Icfs
importance.

The abdominal vifcera are pre.Ted upwards towards the
hollow cavity of the cheft, by the abdominal mufcles, in
expiration ; they are pufhed down again by the action of
the diaphragm during inlpii-ation. When both the dia-
phragm and abdominal mufcles ait at the fame time, a pref-
fure "is made on all the abdominal vifcera, v.liich is occafion-
ally employed to aid particular parts in performing their
office ; to aflill, for iiillance, in the expulfion of urine and
fcECes, and in parturition. T!ie effort by which this preffure
is made, we call ilraining, and it is often fo forcible as to
protrude fome of the vifcera from their natural fituation in
the cavity, of the abdomen. The parts thus protruded form
external tumors, and are called hernia; or ruptures. Cough-
ing, in which the abdominal mufcles alone comprefs the
vifcera, and tend to diminifh the cavity of the abdomen,
produces, in a gradual manner, fuch protrufions.

The principal nutrient arteries of the parietes of the
abdomen, are the lower intercoftal, the lumbar, and cir-
cumflcded arteries of the ilium, at the fides ; whilft the
epigailric, and internal mammary arteries are diftributed in
front and communicate by their minute branches with the
former vefiels. Thefe arteries have con-efponding veins.
Tlie nerves fupplying the parietes of the abdomen arife'
from the lower dorfal and lumbar nen'es, and their branches
are dillributed in a circular manner round that cavity. For
an account of the large arteries, veins, nerves, and abfor-
bents, which are found at the back part of the abdomen,
in their progrefs to fupply the contained vifcera, and alfo the
pelvis and lower extremities, fee Ramifications 0/' Arteries,
Veins, and Nerves, and Difiribution of ihd Absorbing
Vessels.

Abdomen, in Medicine. This part of the body is liable
frequently to become the feat of feveral important and
dangerous Difeafes. Some of thefe are real affettions of this
cavity, while others, though commonly referred to it by
the patient, more properly belong to the primx •uix, or the
organs of generation and urine.

All thefe difeafes, with the manner of treating them, will
be found under fome of the following heads or terms, viz.

1. Inflammations of the abdominal vifcera, including
Inflammation of the Diaphragm, fee Diaphragmitis ; of
the Liver, Hepatitis; of the Stomach, Gastritis ; of the
Peritoneum, Peritonitis ; of the Intellines or Mefentery,
Enteritis ; of the Bladder, Cystitis ; of the Kidneys,
Nephritis; and of the Womb, &c. Hysteritis.

2. Painful or Spafmodic Affeftions, referred to the abibo-
men by the patients, and not attended by inflammation or
fever, will be found under Cardialgia or Gastrodynia;
pain in the region of the ilomach, under Enterodynia,
Colic, Jaundice, Calculi, Scirrhus, Hysteria,
Gout, and Worms.

3. Other Difeafes of the Prima; Vias, or Intellines, will be
included under Vomiting, Cholera, Diarrhoea, Li-
enteria, and Dysenteria.

4. Dropsies of the abdomen will be treated of under
Ascites, Hydrops ovarii, and Tympanites.

Abdomen,

A B D

ABE

I

Abdomfn, Chlrurr;ical Difaifei mulOpcral'imis of ihc. We do
not here propofc to treat at large of all the local diforders to
which the belly is liable, but only to cinimerate ihofe of more
frequent occurrence, and the operations necell'ary for their
removal. They may be divided into uiiernal and external.
The latter afFeCf the mufcles and common integuments
chiefly ; the former are principally feated among the abdo-
minal vifcera. Many diieaies, however, are common both
to the internal and external parts of the abdomen ; as In-
flammation, Suppuration, Ulcers, HAEMORRHAGES,
Tumors, and Wounds of various kinds, Sic. See each
of thefe articles in their rcfpeftive places.

The abdomen and its contents are iubjeft to certain dif-
eafes, either of a peculiar nature, or requiring peculiar
treatment on account of their iituation. When the exter-
nal teguments, from being dilated or ruptured in any part,
permit the bowels to force their way through them, an
hernia is fonned, which mull be replaced in their natural
pofition. See Hernia. When an accumulation of
fluid happens within the belly, fo as to prove inconvenient or
dangerous, the operation of tapping, technically named
Paracentesis, is required for its evacuation. Sec
Dropsy. Sometimes the inteftinal canal is preternaturally
contrafted, forming a Stricture; or is diftended with
flatus, which conilitutes the Tympanites; or ia re-
flefted within itfelf, forming the difeafe called Intus-
susception. The liver often inflames and fuppurates,
or becomes indurated and fcirrhous. The womb is
liable to be ulcerated and cancerous, or may fuffer during
parturition. See Scirrhus and Cancer. The glands
of the mefentery will likewife inflame, fuppurate, and en-
large to a great degree. CoUcftions of pus may form upon
the mufcles of the loins ; calcuh within the kidneys, or the
urinary and gall bladder ; varicofe fwellings and aneurifms
in the blood-vefliels, &c. &c. See Psoas or Lumbar
Abscess, Lithotomy, Varicocele, and Aneurism.
Several chirurgical operations are alio peculiar to the abdo-
men and its contents ; for example, Gastroraphy, Gas-
TROTOMY, Lithotomy, and the C;esarean Section.

All thele feveral diiorders and operations are particularly
explained in other parts of this work, under their appro-
priate denominations, to which we therefore refer our readers.

A B D o M E N of //(/Jf^j-. See Insects.

ABDOMINAL R'm^, m Anatomy., an aperture through
which the fpermatic vefTels pals in men, and the Hgamenta
rotunda uteri in women. It is formed by the tendinous
fibres of the vtujeuhis ohUrjiius externus abdominis, which are
feparated from each other near the os pubis. See Odli-

ABDOMINALES, in \\k Linnaan Sv/iem of Ichthyology,
an order of fish, having the ventral fins placed behind the
peftoral in the abdomen, and the branchia oiliculaled, and
comprehending fixteen genera, and one hundred and ninety-
five fpecles.

Al'DUCENS laliorum, in Anatomy, a name given bv
Spigelius to a mufele, which he alfo calls the fecundus ad
latera -irahens. This is the levator angtdi oris of Albinus,
and the eaninus elevator or levator labiorum communis of others.

ABDUCENT, in Anatomy. See Abijuctor.

ADDUCTION, in La'w. See Forcible Ahdi,aion,
Kidnapping, and Ravishment.

Abduction, in Logic, a kind of argumentation, by the
Greeks called apagoge ; wherein the greater extreme is evi-
dently contained in the medium, but the medium not fo evi-
dently in the Icfler extreme as not to require fome farther
medium, or proof, to make it appear.

It is called abdu^ion, from ab, from, and due. r.; to

draw ; becaufe from the conclufion, it draws us on to prove
tiie propofition afl'umed.

Thus, in the fyllogifm, " AH whom God abfolves arc
" free of lin ; but God abfolves all who are in Chrift : thcre-
" fore, all who are in C'hiill aie free of fin." The major is
evident ; but the minor, or allinnption, is not fo, witliout
iome other propofition to prove it ; as, " God received latif-
" faftion for fin by the fulferings of Jefus Chrift."

Abquction, or Abruption, in i'ur^crv, denotes a kind
of tranfverfe fracture, in wliich the broken cxtiemitiea
of the bone recede from each other. Cain calls this fpcciti
of fracture xK!,?>J:dcv ; but Crlius Aiirelianus, by the woul
Abdu^iio, means a llrain or violent diiteidion of a mufele,
and ipeaks of it as a caufe of chronical pains.

ABDUCTOR, or Abducent, compounded of n/'-,
from, and ducere, to draiv, in Anatomy, a name common to
feveral mufcles, whofe adlion is tlie withdrawing, opening,
or pulling back, the parts to which they arc fixed. Tlieir
anlagoniils are called Adductores.

Abductor auricularis. See Abductor minimi digiti
manus.

AnnucTOVL Auris, or Bicaudalis. See Retrahens
Auriculam.

AsDUCTOR indieis manus, arifes from the os trapezium,
and from the fupcrior part and inner fide of the metacarpal
bone of the thumb, and is inferted by a (hort tendon into
the outer and back part of the firft bone of the forefinger.
Its ufe is to bring the forefinger towards the thumb. This is
the femi-interofleus of Winflow. Cowper calls it adduHor p:A-
licis ; and Douglas fays, that witlx,refpecl to the thumb, it
may be called adductor, and to the index abduflor.

Abductor indieis pedis, arifes tendinous and fiefhy, by
two origins, from the root of the infide of the metatarfal
bone of the foretoe, from the outfide of the root of the me-
tatarfal bone of the great toe, and from the os cuneifoime
internum ; and is inferted tendinous into the infide ot the
root of the firil joint of the foretoe. Its ufe is to pull the
foretoe inwards from the refl; df the toes.

AhtivcTO?. minimi digili manus, arifes flefhy from the os
pififorme, and from the part of the ligamentum carpi an-
nulare that is next to it ; and is inferted tendincjs into the
inner fide of the upper end of the firft bone of the little
finger. Its ufe is to draw this finger from the reft. This
is the hypothetiar minor of Winflow, the extenfor terlii inter-
nodii minimi digiti of Douglas, and the auricularis of otiiers.

Abductor minimi digiti pedis, arifes tendinous and fltfliy
from the femicircular edge of a cavity in the inferior part
of the protuberance of the os calcis, and from the root of
the metatarfal bone of the httle toe ; and is inferted into the
root of the firll joint of the little toe externally. Its ufe is
to draw the little toe outwards from the reft. This is the
Parathetiar major and Metatarfcus ot Winflow.

Abductor oculi, arifes from the bony partition between
the foramen opticum and lacerum ; and is inferted into the
globe of the eye oppofite to the outer canthus. Its ufe is
to move the globe outwards. It is alfo called Indigna-
torius.

Abductor pollicis manus, arifes by a broad tendinous
and flefhy beginning, from the ligamentum carpi annulare,
and from the os trapezium ; and is inferted tendinous into
the outer part of the root of the firft bone of the thumb.
Its ufe is to draw the thumb from the fingers. Albinus
names the inner portion of this mufele, Abduc'or brevis alter,
and it is called Abduclor and Thenar Riolaui by Douglas.

Abductor longus pollicis. SeelNTEROSSEUS Auricularis.

Abdv cr OK pollicis pedis, arifes flefliy from the infide of
the root of the protlibtrauce of the os calcis, where it forms

D 2 the

A B E

the heel, and tradinotus from the funic bone, where it join*
w:th tho <« invi'-t'.hn; ; iiid is infcrted tendinous into the
internal o- ira and not of the firtl joint of the

j;r,-il toe. - to r;i!l the greit toe from the reft.

This is the 7h:njr ol

Anr'UCTOii meSi .. . arifes tendinous and flefliy

f ide of the root ot the mt-tatnri"al bone of the middle

I : ;i. J i-; infi^rtcdtcndiuouiiinto the infidc of the

root . T the middle toe. Its ule is to pull

the n

A»T>vcTOK ifriit tfr;iii pcJi.', arifes tendinous and fle(hy
fr irn the infide and inferior part of the root of the mctatar-
f:;l '^onc of til ; third toe, and is infcrted tendinous into the
iiiiiJi.- of the root of the firft joii.t of the thii-d toe. Its ule
ii to pull the third toe inwards.

The thijjh has alfo ftrong and remarkable flWu^ormufcles,
whicli are inlcrpofed between the dorfum of the ilium and
the trochanter of the femur ; the form and bulk of which arc
vilible in the external lineaments of the body. Thefc muU
cles will be dcfcribcd under Glut/eus medius el minimus.

Abductorfs, or abducentes ner'A, are names which have
been g-iveii to the 6th pair of nerves, on account of their
being diilributcd to the Abductor mufclcs of the eye.
ABEC Flutf. See Flute.
ABECEDARIAN. See Abcedarv.
ABEII.LE, Gnfpar, in Biography, was bom at RJez,
in Provence, in 164S. He was much admired at Paris, in
early life, for the brilliancy of his wit. He obtained the
confidence of Marflial Luxemburj^h, who appointed him
as his fecretarN- ; and he contributed, by his lively and ani-
mated converfation, to the apiufemcnt of the Prince of Conti
and the Duke de Vendome. A very ugly wrinkled coun-
tenance, fufceptible of a variety of comic expreflions, gave
a ztll to his bon-mots and ftories, and enabled him to pro-
duce mirth on various occafions. Aliille enjoyed a priory,
and a place in the French academy. He wrote fome odes
and epiftles, feveral tragedies, one comedy, and two operas.
A certain prince obferved of bis tragedy of Cato, that if
Cato of Utica fhould return from the grave, he would be
no more Cato than that of the Abbe Abeille. He was held
in low eftimation as a poet. He died at Paris, May the
2 1 ft, 1 718. His brother, Scipio, who died in 1697, was
alfo a poet. He has left a good hiftory of the bones, pub-
liflicd in 1685, in i2mo. ; and he alfo publiilied, in 1669,
a treatife, in 1 2mo. fuitable to his office as furgeon-major,
under the title of the Complete Army Surgeon.

ABEL, in Scripture Hijl'jry, the fecond fon of Adam and
Eve, bom in the fecond year of the world. His hiftory is com-
prilcd in a very narrow compafs. He was a (hepherd, and
offered to God the firftlings of his flock, and his facrifice
was accepted ; whilft that of Cain, his brother, was reitcled.
This diftinttion cxafperated Cain, fo that he flew his bro-
ther. Although no religious refpeft is paid to his memor}'
in the Greek churches, which have eftablifhed feafts for
every other patriarch and prophet, and his name does not
occur in any one of the Roman martyrologies before the
loth century ; he, as well as other faints, is made the objeA
of worfhip in feveral Roman litanies, defigned for perfons
at the point of death. Some calendars commemorate him
on the Z5th of March ; others on the 2d of Januarj- ; and
others on the 30th of July. Among the Ethiopians he is
honoured on the 28th of December. The poem, intitled " The
Death of Abel," written in German by Gefner, and tranf-
lated into various languages, has been much admired.

ABEL, Frederick Gottfried, M. D. the fon of Caf-
par Abel, the hiftorian, was affetror of the college of phyfi-
cians, and member of the literary fociety at Halberftadt.

ABE

He was bom July Rtli, 1714, and after a cbflical education
became a ftudeiit of theology in 1 73 1, under Mofheim, and
afterwards at Halle, under Wolf and Baumgarten, where he
often preached with great applaufe. He declined the theo-
logical profeflTion and applied to medicine at Halle, and in
1744 was admitted to the degree of doftor at Konig{berg
in Pruflia. On his returii to Halberftadt he praclifcd as a
phyfician for half a century, and died Nov. 23, 1794. His
poetical tranflation of Juvenal into German, was publiflied
in 1788. One of his fons, 'jyz. John y^Zr/, a phyfician of
Duficldoif, has diftinguilhed hinifclf as a wri'.er. Gen. Biog.
Ahel, Charles Frederic, an eminent mufical compofer and
performer, was a native of Ger-many, and a difciple of Se-
baftian Bach. He left Drefdcn in a dcftitute condition in

1758, and travelled though Germany, fupplying his necef-
fities by his talents, till at length he arrived in England in

1759, where hj foon gained notice and recompence,
both as a public performer and as a private teacher.
He had a falary of 200I. a year as chamber mufician to her
majefty, and his weekly concert, in conjun(ft:on with Bach,
was liberallv fupported. He perfonr.ed on feveral inftru-
ments ; but he was chiefiy attached to the viol da gamba.
Dr. Bumey, in the 4th volum.e of his Hiftory of Mafic, has
given the following account of his compofition and perform-
ance : " His compofitions were eafy and elegantly fimple ;
for he ufcd to fay, ' I do not chafe to be always ftruggling
with difficulties, and playing with all my might. I make
my pieces difficult whenever I pleafe, according to my dif-
pofition and that of my audience.' Yet, in nothing was he
io fuperior to himfelf, and to other muficians, as in writing
and playing an adagio ; in which the moft pleafing, yet
learned m.odulation, the richeft harmony, and the moft elegant
and polifhed melody, were all exprefied with fuch feeling,
tafte, and fcience, that no mufical produAicn or perform-
ance, with which I was then acquainted, feeraed to approach
nearer perfection. The knowledge Abel had acquired in
Germany, in eveiy part of mufical fcience, rendered him the
imiipire in all mufical controverfies, and caufed him to be con-
fulted in all difficult points. His concertos and other pieces
were very popular, and frequently played on public occa-
fions. The tafte and fcience of Abel were rather greater than
his invention, fo that fome of his later productions, compar-
ed with thofe of younger compofers, appeared fontewhat
languid and monotonous. Yet he prefer\'ed a high reputa-
tion in the profeffion till his death." Abel wasirafcible in
his temper, and apt to be overbearing. He loved his bottle ;
and by exccfs of drinking, when he was labouring under a
fpitting of blood, he put an end to his complaint and to his
life. He died in London, June 20, 1787.

Abe L-Kerami7n, or of tic Vineyards, in Geography, mentioned
Judges xi. 33. was, according to Eufebius, fix m.iles from Phi-
ladelphia, otherwife Rabbath, the capital of the Ammonites.
It was remarkable for its \-ines, whence the name ; and it wa»
probably the fame with Alela, between Jabez and Gadara,
near Pella ; and \X\^ JilUa, mentioned by Polybius, (Hift»
lib. v. p. 414. ed. Cafaub.) among other cities of Galatif.
SeeAsiLESE.

A.^zi.-Meho!ah, the country of EKfha, I Kings, xix. 16.
about fixteen miles fouth of Scythopohs according to Eufe-
bms. Near this place Gideon obtained a viftory over the
Midianites. Judges, vii. 22.

ABEh-Mizraim, the mourning of the Egyptians in allu-
fion to the lamentation for Jacob, called alfo the threftiing
floor of Atad, Gen. 1. 1 1 . was thought by Jerome, and
fome others, to be the place afterwards called Bethagla, at
fome diftance from Jericho and Jordan weftward.

AsEi-Shiilim, or Abel-fattim, was &tuated in the plains

of

ABE

ABE

of Moab, oppofite to Jericho, not far from Jordnn. Here
Mofes eiicainpcd before the Ifraelitss paffeu the Jordan un-
der Jolh 11. Here alio, fediiced by Balak, they worihippcd
Biil-Ppor, and were puniflied by the iridrumeiitality of the
Levites. Numb. \xv. i. &c. xxxiii. ^9.

ABEL-TREE, or Abele-trke, in Botany, a fpecies of
POPLAR, with large leaves. This tree may be propagated by
layers or cutting;>,and alfo by fuckers. Many advantages might
be derived trom planting it in boggy foih, where few othjr
trees will thriv^-. The wood of it is ufeful for flooring or
wainfcoting rooms ; and it is preferred for turnery-ware to
any other, on account of its peculiar whitenels. The
quieknefs of its growth, infomuch that it will yield flioots
of cigiiteen or twenty feet long in a year, renders it eligible
in plantations that are defigned for fhade or fhelter.

ABELA,_7-/-"' Frtincls,'m B'tographv, wascommander of the
order of Malta. His book, intitled Maltha Uliijirata, publilhed
in 1647, in folio, and containing a defcription of Malta, and of
its principal antiquities, is rare and curious. Biog. Dift.

ABELARD, Peter, ah eminent fcholaftic philofopher
of the 1 2th centu'.y. He was the fon of Berenger, of noble
defcent, and born at Palais, near Nantes in Brittany, in the
year 1079. At the age of 16 he had acquired, under Rof-
ctline, the founder of the feft of the Nominalifts, a con-
fidcrable acquaintance with mctaphyfics and logic ; together
with a fubtlety of thought and a fluency of exprcflion, which
qualified him for the literary contells in which he was after-
wards engaged. Ardent in the profccution of fame, and of
that kind of fcience, which then prevailed, he fettled at
Paris, in the 20th year of his age, and devoted himfelf to
the fl;udy of dialeftics under William de Champeaux, called
the •vmcrable dudor. The mafter and the pupil were for
fome time much attached to each other ; but when the difciple
prefumed to contradift his teacher, and to enter into difpu-
tations with him, in which, according to the judgment of
his fellow ftudents, he was viftorious, the vanity of Abelard
was inflamed, and the jealoufy of Champeaux excited ; and
a feparation became neceflai-y. Thus flattered and encou-
mged, and poflefling fuperior talents, both by nature and in
confequence of fedulous apphcation, Abelard, at the age of
22, determined to open a public fchool for himfelf; and the
place which he felected was Melun, a town dillant from
Paris about ten leagues, \^-here the court at that time often
refided. Notwithflanding the competition and hoftility of
Champeaux, the young ledlurer's fchool was thronged
with auditors, who were highly gratified by his public per-
formances. Farther emboldened by this fuccefs, he ap-
proached nearer to Paris, and removed his fchool to Corbeil,
where he had an opportunity of triumphing over his former
mailer, and of compelling him to retire. His application and
aftivity, h.^wever, impaired his health, and rendered it ne-
ceffary for him to withdraw from the pubhc fcene of literary
conteft into his native country. After an abfence of two
years, he returned to Corbeil ; where he renewed his lectures
with fuch reputation, that the fcholars of Champeaux dc-
ferted him ; and where he obtained freih triuinphs over his
envy and oppofition. In the in"ue his vitlory was fo com.-
plete, that Champeaux, who had affuraed the monailic ha-
bit among the regular canons in the convent of St. Victor,
and who was afterwards preferred to the fee of Chalons, was
confl;rained to rclinquifli the conteft and to yield to the ac-
knowledged fupcriority of his rival. Upon this Abelard
quitted the fchool which he had cilabliflied at the abbey of
St. Genevieve, and direiStinpf his views to the lludy and
profefiion of theology, removed to Laon, and placed himfelf
under the tuition of Anfelm. Here again the difciple, by the
fuperiority of his talents and acquirements, excited the jea-

loufy of this celebrated theologian ; and after cdablifhing his
rep;;tation by the lectures which he delivered, he was com-
pelled to retire from Laon, and to remove to Paris. His
leftures in this city, both in theology and philofophy,
were attended by a great number of ftudents, who re-
forted .to his fchool, not only from various parts of
France, but from Spain, Italy, Germany, Flanders, and
Great Britain. At the age of forty Abelard facrificed the
reputation which ho had acquired, as an able difputant and
popular preceptor, to the love of pleafure, and difgraced
himfelf by forming and executing a deliberate plan tor the
fedudion of female innocence. During his refidence at
Paris, where he was acquiring affluence as well as renown,
he boarded in the houi'e of Fulbert, a canon of the cathedral
church, who had a niece called Heloife, about the age of
1 8 years, and erpial'y celebrated for her beauty and literary
attainments. The avaricious canon, wifliing to have his
niece inllrutted without expence, employed Abelard as her
preceptor ; but inftead of improving her in the fciences, he
betrayed his truft, taught her to love, and determined to
feduce her. From this time Abelard became remits in the
perfoi-mance of his public funftions, and wrote nothing but
ainorous verfes. The canon, deluded by his refpeil for the
preceptor of his niece, remained ignorant of an amour, which
became the fubjeft of general converfation. In a little while,
however, the pregnancy of Heloife difcovercd the culpable
conduct of her lover, and roufed the refentment of the infa-
tuated uncle. She was foon removed to the houfe of Abelard's
fifter in Brittany, and there dehvercd of a fon. When the
child was born, Abelard made a propofal to Fulbert of pri-
vately marrying his niece, to which the canon confented.
Heloife, however, hefitated in accepting the offer, partly
from a regard to the honoin- of Abelard, whofe profeffion
bound him to celibacy, and partly from a romantic notion,
that her paffion ought not to fubmit to ordinary reftraints.
Abelard at laft prevailed, and they were privately man-ied at
Paris ; though it is faid, that flie proteiled to her uncle tUat
fhe was not married, and that this was one caule of his un-
kind and fevere treatment of her. Abelard made this a plea
for removing her from his houfe to the abbey of Benedidtine
nuns, in which file had been educated. The uncle meditated
revenge, and hired ruffians, who forced their way into his
chamber by night, and inflicted on his perfon a difgraceful
and cruel mutilation. Abelard refolved that, as Heloife
could no longer be his, (he Ihould never be another's, and
demanded from her a promife to devote herfelf to vehg'on.
She fubmitted to the felfifh and harlh injunction, and pw-
feffed herfelf in the abbey of Argenteuil. On tliis occalion
file exclaimed, in the v/ords of Cornelia :

O maxime conjiix!

O thalamis indigne meis, hoc juris habebit
In tantum fortuna caput! cur impia nupfi.
Si miferum faftura fui ? nunc accipe puenas,
Sed quas fponte luam.
Lucan Pharfal. 1. viii. v. 94, &c. p. 541. Ed. Burman.

" Ah ! my once greateft lord ! Ah ! cruel hour !
Is thy viftorious head in fortune's pow'r \
Since miferies my baneful love purl'ue.
Why did I wed thee, only to undo !
But fee, to death my wi inig neck I bow;
Atone the angry gods by one kind blow."

RowE

Soon after this event Abelard affumed the monadic habit in
the abbey of St. Denys. Hs fcholars in Paris, however,
intreatcd him to return to his fchool ; aad after fome deli-
beration

A B E

baaiion and licl.iy lie rcfumcJ his Iccliire? at a finall village
ill ihc coiintiT, aiij rci^aiiicd his popularity. But liis repu-
tation cxcitcJ envy and expofed liim to a variety of perfccu-
tion». About this time he publilhcd a treatilV, intitled, " The
Theology of Abclard," wliich was faid to contain fomc here-
tical tenets concerning the Trinity. The work was condemn-
ed to be burnt, by a decree of the fynod at Soilfoiis, held
in 1 121, anil Abelard was ordered to throw it into the
flames. He was alfo required to read, as his own confelTion
of faith, the Athanafian creed, and to be confined in the
convent of St. Medaul. His perfecutors became alhamcd of
their conduft, which occnfioned general diflatisfadion ; and
Abelard was foon permitted to return to St. Denys. Here
again lie was purfued by his enemies ; and having aflTerted,
that the patron of the convent and of the French nation was
not Dlonylins the Areopagite, but another St. Dionyfius,
birtiop of Athens, he was aecufed to the bifliop and the
king, as a calumniator of the order and an enemy to his
country. On this occafion he made his efcape, and fled to
the convent of St. Ayoul at Provins in Champagne, the
prior of which was his intimate friend. Hence he foon re-
tired to a retreat in the forell of Champagne, near Nogent
upon the Seine, where, in 1 122, he creeled a fmall oratoiy,
which he dedicated to the Trinity, and which was afterwards
ciJarged and confecrated to the third perfon, the Comforter
or Paraclete. His pupils in this retreat foon amounted to
600 ; but he was compelled to withdraw from this folitude,
and, by the interell of the Duke of Brittany, he was elecled
fuperior of the monafteiy of St. Gildas, in the diocefe of
Vannes, where he remained for feveral years. Tiie nuns of
the convent of Argenteuil being difperfcd about this time,
Abclard invited Heloifc, with her eight companions, to take
polkiTion of the Paraclete. Heloifc accepted the invitation;
was ehofen abbefs of the new inftitution that was eflablilhed;
and in 1127, the donation was confirmed by the king. Whilft
Abelard refided at St. Gildas, the interelliug correfpond-
ence occuiTcd between him and Heloife, which is ilill extant ;
and he tlien wrote the memoirs of his life, which came down
to the year 1134. The letters of Heloife in this conefpondence
abound with proofs of genius, learning, and taile, which mi^ht
have graced a better age. Upon thefe letters Mr. Pope has
formed his " Epiftle from Eloifa to Abelard," a piece that
has been higlily celebrated for its poetical merit, but which
deviates in many particulars from the genuine cliaraifler and
ftoi-y of Heloife, and culpably violates moral propriety, as
Mr. Ben-ington (Hift. Abelard, p. 240, &c.) has fhewn in
his judicious critique. Abelard was, in this fituation, ae-
cufed to pope Innocent II. of noxious errors and mifchievous
<lefigns. His accufer, the Abbot of St. Thieny, was chal-
lenged by Abelard to make good his accufation in a public
aifembly ; and upon his delivering the heads of his accufa-
tion, Abelard, probably apprehending a popular tumult,
rofe up and exclaimed, " I appeal to Rome." The pope,
in confequence of fome perfon's intrigues, anticipated his
arrival by pronouncing his opinions heretical, and fen-
tencing him to pcipetual filencc and confinement. Abelard,
in his way to Rome, called at Cluni, a monaftery on the con-
fines of Burgundy, where he was kindly received by Peter
Maurice, the abbot : and here a reconcihation was efFefted
between him and Bernard, abbot of Clairvaux, who had
prejudiced the pope againil him. Peter intei-pofed with the
pope in his favour, and obtained his pardon ; and he was
pennitted to end his days in the monaftery of Cluni. In this
monaftery, the cloiftcred philofophcr \vas retired, ftudious,
and devout ; and his lectures were renewed and heard \vith
applaufe. But his health and fpirits were too feeble to bear
tlic exertions which this fervicc required. Although he was

ABE

removed to the pure air of the prioiy of St. Marcellus, near
Chalons, his debility and decay increafed, and terminated his
life in his 63d year, on the 2 ill of April 1 142. His body
was fent to Heloife to be inteiTcd in the convent of the Pa-
raclete. Heloife furvived her luilhand 21 years, a pattern
of conjugal affcftion and monaftic virtue. Of the charadler
of Abelard, we Ihall fubjoin the following extrad from En-
field's account of him in the General Biogiaphy, vol. i.
" The amour, which has given Abelard fo much celebrity
in the annals of gallantry, will certainly not entitle his name
to a place in the tablet of moral merit : it will remain an
eternal blot upon his memory. In Heloife, the criminality,
though not obliterated, was palliated by youthful ardour and
inexperience ; and extreme fenfibility, romantic attachment,
noble generofity, and difinterelled invincible conftancy, uni-
ted to throw a veil over human frailty. In Abelard, every
circun-iftancc, inftead of excufing, aggravated the oifence.
At forty, ' the hey-day of the blood is tame, and waits
upon the judgment.' It was not a ju%enile indifcretion of
v.hich Abelard was guilty, but, according to his own con-
feffion, the feduftion of innocence, deliberately planned,
and rcfolutcly executed. It was accompanied with breach
of confidence, violation of duty, and degradation of charactero
Except in the grant of the Paraclete as an afylum to Heloife
and her fifterhood, an uniform felhlhuefs appears in Abe-
lard's condud, which admits of no apology ; unlefs we
transfer the blame from the man to the profeflion, and
reprobate that fyftem of fuperftition, which, by the un-
natural injundiou of clerical celibacy, has given birth to
innumerable in-egularities and enormities. Viewed apart
from this difgraceful affair, Abelard appears with more ad-
vantage. His writings, indeed, will not give the reader a
high idea of his genius or tafte : but it cannot be queftion-
ed, that the man, who could foil the firft mafters of the age
at the weapons of logic, could draw round him crowded and
admiring auditories, and could colled fcholars from different
provinces and countries, whenever he chofe to form a fchool,
muft have pofleffed extraordinary talents. He muft be al-
lowed the credit, not only of having made himfelf mafter of
the phUofophy and theology of the age, fuch as they were,
but of having boldly advanced, beyond the time, into the
region of new opinions. Had his love of truth been equal
to his thirft of fame,andhadh;s courage in adhering to his prin-
ciples been equal to his ingenuity in defending tlicm, his fuf-
ferings and perfecutions might h.'.ve excited more regret,
and his title to honourable remembrance woiJd have been
better eftablilhed. Upon the whole, of Abelard it may,
perhaps, with truth be faid, that he was too vain to be truly
great, and too lelfilh to be eminently good, and that his
charader is rather adapted to excite admiration tiian to com-
mand refped." His principal works, written in Latin, are,
" An Addrefs to the Paraclete on the Study of the Scrip-
tures," " Problems and Solutions," " Sermons on the Fef-
tivals," " A Treatife againil Herefies," " An Expohtion
of the Lord's Prayer," " A Commentary on the Romans,"
" A Syftcm of Theology," and his letters to Heloife and
to others. Thefe, with fome other pieces, were colleded
and edited from the MSS. of Amboife, in 4to. at Paris, in
1616. Bayle. Moreri. Beirington's Hift. of the Lives of
Abelard and Heloife. Gen. Biog.

ABELIANS, Abelonians, or Abelites, in Eccle-
f.ajlical Hyiory, a fed in Africa, not far from Hippo, men-
tioned by St. Auftin, (Oper. torn. vi. p. 14. ) and fuppofed
to have commenced in the reign of Arcadius and terminated
in that of Theodofius. Their diftinguilhing tenet and
pradice were to marry, and yet live with their wives in
a profefled abftinence, without having any carnal commerce

together.

ABE

ABE

together. I Cor. vii. 29. The learned have taken great
pains to afcertain the principle upon which thjv aiScd, and ths
reafon of their denomination, to very little purpofe. But,
in efFedt, it is more than probable, they took their name
from Abel for no other realon, but bccaufe, like that pa-
triarch, they had no ilTue ; not that he lived in continence
after marriage ; but becaufe lie was killed before he iiad
married, or died without ifl'ue. In order to perpetuate the
feet, St. Aullin informs us, (ubi fupra,) that when a man
and woman entered into this fociety, they adopted a boy
and girl, who were to be tlieir heirs, and to many under
the fame obligation of continence, and of adoptiiig two
children of diilerent fexes.

ABELICF.A, \n Botany, the name of a vt-ry tall tree,
growing principally in Crete, called aUo Jliri'ii/us aJultcrhin,
and pfciidofanliiliim.

A BELL, "/{jAnjin/^M^'VrtA/iv.anEnglifh mufieian,who be-
longed to the chapel of Charles ILand coutiniu.d in it till the
revolution, when he was difcharged, becaufe he wasapapilt.
After many rambles on the continent, and fingular adventures,
he returned to England ; and, in 1701, pubhihed a eoUeetion
of fongs in feveral languages, which he dedicated to King
William. It is faid that this artift poflelTed the fecret of
preferving the natural tone of his voice to extreme old age.
Hawkins's Hill. Muf. vol. iv. p. 455.

ABELLA, in Ancient Geography, a municipal town of
Campania, near the river Clams, mentioned by Virgil, lib.
vii. V. 740.) and by Silius (lib. viii. v. 544.) and inhabited,
according to Jullin, (lib. xx. cap. i.) by a colony of Chal-
cidians. The nux Avellana, or hazle-nut, takes its name,
according to Macrobius, from this town. It is now a heap
of luins, near the town and eallle of Avella. The ancient
walls enclofe a circuit of near three miles, and in the
midtlle are the fragments of an amphitheatre ; the environs
are remarkable for the excellent quality of their fruit and
honey. Swinburne's Trav. vol. i. p. 162.

ABELLI,/,("zi'«,inZ?/(?5-/-i7/i/jy,bi{hop and count of Rhodes,
was born in the Vcxin Francjois, in 1 603. Quitting his bifliop-
ric foon after his promotion, he retired to St. Lazare, where
he died in 1691, at the age of _ 88 years. His Me-
dulla Theohg'ica, in 2 vols. 1 2mo. is a book which has been
often cited by proteftants againft Boffuet, becaufe it fuppHed
them with weapons againft the catholic zeal of making con-
verts. He wrote other books in I^atin andFrench. Gen. Di£l.

ABELLINUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of the
Hii-pini, a people of Apiiha, near the river Sabbato, be-
tween Beneventum and Salcnuim. Pliny calls the inhabi-
tants Abellmates Protopi, in order to diftinguilh them from
the AheU'inates Marfi. It is now Avellino. E. long. 15°
20'. N. lat. 21°.'

ABELMOLUCH, a fpecies of the rtc'mus, or Palma
Chr^i.

ABELMOSCH, or Abf.lmusk, the mn{l< feed; a
finall odoriferous feed brought from Egypt, chiefly ufed in
perfumes. The beil comes from Martin ico. The plant
which produces it is the Hibiscus ^i^c/w^/I^w-f of Linnxus.

ABENAS, in Geography, a town in France, in Lan-
guedoc, and in the Lower Vivarais, fituated on the river
Ardefch, at the foot of the Cevennes. E. long. 4° 43'.
N. lat. 44° 40'.

ABENDANA, Jacob, in Biography, a learned Spanidi
Jew, prefeft of a fynagogue in London ; known as the
author of a Spicilegium of explanations on feletl pafiages of
Scripture in Hebrew. Amft. 1685. fol. He died ia 1685.

ABENEL Cauby, a fixed ftar of the fecond or third
magnitude, in the fouth fcale of the conftellation Libra.

ABENEZRA, Abraham, in Biography, a celebrated

Rabbi, born at Toledo, in Spain, and called by the Jews,
the wife, great, and admirable doiHor, was a very able in-
terpreter ol the Holy Scriptures, and well (Icilled in gram-
mar, poetiy, philofophy, allronoiny, and medic iie. He
was alio a perfedl mailer of the Arabic. His principal work
is Commentaries on the Old Teilament, which arc nu ch
efteemed, and printed in Bomberg'.s and Buxlorf's Hebnw
Bibles. His llyle is clear, elegant, coiicife, and much like
that of the Sacred Writings. He gener.iUy adheres to the
literal fenfc, and always man'fells genius and judgment ;
though his fentiments are fometimes erroneous. His 'Jcjiid
Mora, which recommends the lludy of the Talmud, is the
moll rare of alibis writings. His Poem on the game of Chefs
was tranflated by Dr. Hyde. Many other theological, gram-
matical, mathematical, and allrological works of this author
remain in ancient libraries, and have not yet been edited.
He died at Rhodes in I I 74, or 1190, aged 75. MafeKf.
Heb. Oram. vol. ii. p. 30.

ABEN-MELEK, a" learned Rabbi, whofe work, in-
titled. The Perfeftion of Beauty, printed at Amllerdam,
1 66 1, fol. in Hebrew, and tranllated into Latin in 4to. and
in 8vo. is a Commentary on the Bible, in which he confines
himfelf to the explanation of the grammatical fenle.

ABENOW, in Geography, a mountain of Suabia, thir-
teen miles from Fril)urg, remarkable as the fource of the
Danube, and for giving name to a chain of mountains ex-
tending from the Rhine to the Neckar, and from the forell-
towns to the city ot Thorfheim.

ABENRAD, a town of Denmark, in Slefwick, in a
territory of its own name. It is fituated on a fpaciou:; bay
of the Baltic, furrounded by three high mountains, and has
been lately much improved. E. long. 9° 14'. N. lat. 55° 6'.

ABEMSBERG, a fmall town in the circle of Bavaria,
on the river Abens, near the Danube. E. long. 11° 55'.
N. lat. 48° 46'.

ABER, in Natural Hi/lory, the name given by Adanfon
to the Mytilus puniceus of Linna?us, wth a gibbous acumi-
nated fliell, 15 furrows, and a dentated margin. It is found
on the wtftern (liore of Africa.

ABERARTHY. See Cardigan Bay.

ABERAVON, a fmall borough-town in Glnmorgan-
fiiire, in Wales, governed by a portreeve. It is now an in-
confiderable village, fituated at the mouth of the river Avon,
whence its name ; Aber, in the ancient Britifh, denoting fuch
a fituation. W. long. 3° 48'. N. lat. 51° 35'. — The cop-
per-works eftabliflied near this place have given it importance,
and increafed its population.

At a fmall diilance from this town is the charming feat of
Lord Vernon, at Briton feriy, where the Neath river, iffu-
ing from the bold hills which enclofe its vale, pafles be-
tween fevera! majeflic groves,and precipitates itfelf into the fea.

ABERBROTHICK, or Arbroath, one of the Royal
Burghs of Scotland, fituated in the county of Angus, about
forty miles N. N. E. of Edinburgh, at the dilcharge of
the river Brothic into the fea. It is a fmall well-built
town, and is gradually improving. Its manufatlures confiil
of coarfe brown linens, iailcloth, and thread. Its export
trade confills of thefe articles, barley, and wheat ; and its
imports are flax and timber from the Baltic. Coals and lime
form its eoafting trade. This port is veiy ancient, and it is
famous for the ruins of an abbey, founded by William the
Lion, in 1178, and dedicated to Thomas a Bccket. The
monks were oi the Tyronenfian order, and the lad abbot
was Cardinal Beaton. This town has a chalybeate water,
containing iron diffolved in fixed air, and ufed as a diuretic

d corroborative. W. long. 2*^ 29'. N. lat. 56° 36'.

ABERCONWAY. See Conwav.

ABER-

ARE

AUF.RCORN, afmiU town of Gawia, i:i Air.crica, on
the Sav:>nnjli river, alioiit lliirtccn miles N. W. of Savannah.

AUKRCROMHY, rhsma', M. D. in Bhgrnphy, was
born at Forfar, in the county of Antjns, in 1656, anil
educated at St. Andrews and Leyden, in which latter place
he took his degree in i6Sj. I'pon his return he renounced
his religion at the requi-ll of James II. and was appointed
one of the court plivlici.ins. After the revolution he ap-
plied to the iludy of' antiquities, and wrote the Martijl At-
cliievenient3 of Scotland, in i vols. fol. His Treatiie on
Wit is not much ellecmcd. He died at Edinburgh in 1726,
aged 70. Riotj. Diifl.

ADKRCROMCY, D.^vJ, m Uhgraflh, a Scotch phy-
fician, pnbli'hcd, in if)84,a 'I'rep.tire on the Venereal Difeafe,
under the title, Tiit:i et eflie.ix Luis Venerex, fxpe ablqiie
Wercurio, et fcmpcr abfque Snlivatione Mercuriali, curandx
Mcthodin, 8vo. This was followed by another book on
the fame fubJLcl, in the year 16S7. He alio publilhcd, De
Pulfus Variatione, an. 1685; and, in the fame year, Ars cx-
plorandi medicas facultates Plantarum, ex folo fapore.
His works however are of little value.

ABERDARON i9aj', m Geography, is fituated within
the S. W. point of Caernarvon county in Wales, and N. E.
from Bardfoy idaiid.

ABERDAVINE, in Ornithology, a name fometimcs

flven to a fpecies of Fr i s o i l i, A , more generally ciUcd Siskin.
ec Spin us.

ABERDEEX, in Geography, the name of two cities in
Scotland, called the Old and New Toivn, fituated on the
German ocean. This is a place of great antiquity ; as it
appears, that privileges were conferred upon it in the reign
of GregO'.y, about the year S93 ; and a bilhoprick fcund-
ed by Malcolm H. in 1004, at a place in Banffthire,
was transferred to old Aberdeen by David I. ; and, in
1163, a new charter was obtained from Malcolm IV.
Another charter was gianted by Alexander II. in 1217.

Old Aberdeen lies at the mouth of the river Don, over
which is a fine Gothic bridge of a fingle arch, reftlng upon
two oppofite rocks, which has been much admired, and
which is faid to have been built about the year 1290. The
principal building in this town is the King's College, which
is built round a fquare, with cloifters on the fouth fide.
Tl'.is college was founded in 1494, and from the circum-
ftance of King James IV. claiming the paU-onage of it, it
derives its prefent name. This and the Marilchal College
in the new town form one univerfity, called the Uni-verjlty
ef King Charles. The library is large, but has not many
curiofities. The firft principal was Heclor Boethius, who
was fent hither from Paris on an annual falary of 40 Scots
rni-rks, at thirteen pence each.

The Ne-M Town is the capital of the (hire of Aberdeen,
and exceeds in extent, trade, and appearance, any town in
the north of Scotland. It is fituated about one mile from
the old town, on a rifing ground, in a fmall bay formed by
the river Dee, deep enough for a flilp of 200 tons, and
about two miles in circumference. There is an elegant
bridge over the river, confiding of feven arches, which is
faid to have been built by Dunbar, who was bifhop about
the year i joo. The chief public building in this town is
the Marifchal College, founded by George Keith, Earl
Marifchal, in 1594, and augmented fince by many addi-
tional buildings. In this college there are about 1 50 ftudents,
who are inftniaed, as well as thofe of the king's college, by
able profefTors. Befides two pariOi-churches, and the col-
lege kirk, there is an elegant epilcopal chapel, with feveral
meetmg-houfes. The other public buildings are a handfome
town-houfe, a grammar fchool, Gordon's hofpital, and an

2

ABE

infirrtiar)'. The harbour is defended by a fining done pier,
lately erefted under the dircftion of Mr. Smcaton. The
trade of Aberdeen is now confiderable, and capable of im-
provement by an attention to the white filhcries. Its im-
ports are from the Baltic, and a few merchants trade to the
Weft Indies and North America. Its exports are (lockings,
thread, falmon, oatmeal, and pickled pork. The two rirll
articles are very important branches of mnnufaclure in this
town and neiglibourhood. The falmon filherits on the Dee
and Don, and particularly thofe of the Dte, are vei-y produc-
tive; and Mr. Knox oblerves, that if the ir.e chants would, in
addition to the fiih fupplied by thefv, export the cargoes of 50
or6ove{rels,conltaiitly employed in the herring anlwhite lidie-
ries, the port of Aberdeen would in a few yia^'S become the
moll celebrated mart of filh now exilling. The number of
inhabitants in Old and New Aberdeen is eftimated at 25,000.
There are two fprings near this town, one of pure water,
and ;inother of a quality refembling the German Spa. Aber-
deen, with Aberbrothick, Brechin, Montrofe, and Inver-
bervie, returns one member to parliament. Aberdeen is 84
miles N. E. of Edinburgh. W. long. 2^ 8'. N. lat. 57° 9',

ABERDEENSHIRE, a county of Scotland, which
comprehends the diilrifts of Mar, Garioch, Strathbogie,
and the greater part of Buchan. It is w-afhed on the eaft
and north by the German ocean, and abounds in fea-ports,
which are convenient for commerce. The rivers are numer-
ous, and the banks exhibit many natural woods and ex-
tenfive plantations. In the high parts there is much
excellent pafture, and in the level trafl, called Strath-
bogie, there are many well cultivated fields. This county
fends one member to parliament.

ABERDOVEY, a fmall fea-port in Merionethihire, at
the difeharge of the river Dovey into the bay of Cardigan.
Its export trade, which is not confiderable, confifts of flan-
nels, Welch webs, oak bark, and other produclions of the
vale of Dovey.

ABERDOUR, a fmall town of Fifefhire, in Scotland,
on the Frith of Forth, about ten miles N. W. of Edinburgh.

ABEREMURDERjAb ERE MURDRUM, \a Ancient Law
Books, denotes murder that has been proved, or made ma-
nifeft by a judiciary procefs.

The word is Anglo-Saxon, compounded of cbere, proved
or clear, and morlh, killing or homicide.

In this fenfe, aberemiirder, called alfo eberemurder, a-
momits to the fame with probahim murdrum, or murder
ivhich needed proof ; and ftands oppofed to open murder, which
was murder fufficiently known by the notoriety of the faiSl.

Lambard explains abercmurdcr by manifejlum murdrum ;
and Spelman, by csdei manij'ejla : others, by apertum murdrum.

Aberemurdrum was one of thofe crimes which could not be
expiated by money, as moll others might be.

ABERFORD, in Geography, a market-town in the well
riding of Yorkfhire, 1 84 miles N. N. W. of London. W.
long. 1° 2t'. N. lat. 53° 50'.

ABERFRAW, a village in the i(le of Anglefey, where
the princes of North Wales had formerly a palace. W. long.
4° 0'. N, lat. 33° 5^.

Abergavenny, an in-egularly built town of
Monmouthfhire, beautifully fituated in the midll of a range of
meadows, at the confluence of the rivers Ufl< and Gavenny,
and fun'ounded by feveral projefting hills. It contains about
500 houfes. Its public buildings confift chiefly of a long
Gothic bridge, the impertctl fragments of a caille, and an
ancient church adjoining to the priory. It is a place of re-
fort in fummer for goats' whey, and is a great thoroughfare
to the weftern parts of South Wales. It is about 143
miles W. by N. of London. W. long. 3° 5'. N. lat. 51^ 50'.

AsBR.-

ABE

A B K

^hi-g,iv;;u:y ^^icmi to have been the Gilbiiiilum of An-
toninus, and UsK his Burniim. At the diilance of a
few nules from this town ^re the ruins of Llantony Abbey,
htuate in one of the deepeit receffcs of the black mountains,
founded on the fite of a chapel, fuppoi'ed to be the reii-
dence of St. David, the tutelary faint of Wales. It wa?
rebuilt, and the monallcry formed for Auguftine monks by
Sir William de I>acy, in l io8.

ABERNETHY, a town in Strathern, a diftria of
Perthlhire, in Scotland. It is fituated on the river Tay,
and faid to have been the relidence of the Pictilh kings, and
the fee of an archbilhop, fmce transferred to St. Andrews.
It is now much decayed.

Abernethy, John, in Biography, an eminent prelby-
terian divine, was born at Coleraine,in Londonderry, on the
19th of October 1680. His father was adilTenting minitler
in that town. After continuing under the care of liis parents
for nine years, he was feparated from them by a concurrence
of circumllances, which in the event proved favourable. His
father had buiinefs in London, and his mother removed to
Deny. Their fon accompanied a relation to Scotland,
who removed thither to avoid the troubles occailoned by the
infurreftion in Ireland ; and he thus efcaped the danger at-
tending the fiege of Derry, in which Mrs. Abernethy loll
all her other children. At the early age of thirteen he was
fent to the college at Glalgow, where he remained till he
had taken the degree of Mailer of Arts. In conformity to
the advice of his friends, he dechned the profeffion of phy-
fic, to which his views were at firil: diretled, and devoted
himfelf to the iludy of divinity imder ProfelTor Campbell at
Edinburgh. Such was his fuccefs in the profecution of this
objeft, that he was licenfed to preach by the Prefbyteiy of
Route before he was twenty-one years of age. In 1703,
after having been for fome years at Dublin with a view to
farther improvement, he was ordained at Antrim ; where
his public performances were much admired, and where his
sreneral conduit and diftinguifhed attainments recommended
him to the efteem of all who knew him. Y\.t was much re-
fpefted not only by his brethren in the miniftry, but by
many of the laity, who were pleafed with the vivacity of
his difpoiition, and the urbanity of his manners. His ta-
lents and virtues gave him a conliderable afcendancy in the
Synod, fo that he had a large ihare in the management of
public affairs. As a fpeaker, he was confidered as their
chief ornament ; and he maintained his charafter in thefe re-
fpefts, and his intereft in their efteem, to the laft, even
when a change of his religious fentiments had excited the
oppofition of many violent antagonifts. In 17 16 he at-
tempted to remove the prejudices of the native Irifh in the
neighbourhood of Antrim, who were of the popilh perfua-
iion, and to engage them to embrace tlie proteftant religion.
His labours in this laudable delign were not without fuccefs.
Several of them were induced to renounce popery, and con-
tinued firm in their attachment to proteftant principles ;
though others, to his great dlfcouragement, reverted to their
former perfuafion. In the following year he received two
invitations, one from Dublin, and another from Belfaft ; and
the Synod, whofe authority was very great, advifed his re-
moval to Dublin. Such, however, was his attachment to
his congregation at Antrim, that he determined to continue
there, at the riik of incurring the difpleafure of the Synod.
The interference of this aflembly was repugnant to thofe fenti-
ments of religious freedom which Mr. Abernethy had been
led to entertain, by the exercife of his own vigorous faculties,
and by an attention to the Bangorian coniroverfy, which
prevailed in England about this time. Many other minifters
in the north of Ireland formed more enlarged ideas of chrif.

Vol. I.

tian liberty and charity than thiy hjd been aociiftomcd fo
do, by means of the writings of Dr. Hoadly and his .ilfo-
ciates. With a view to the improvement of ufeful know-
ledge, they inftitulcd a fjciety, wiiofc jirou (led aim was to
bring things to the tell of reafon and rcri[)ture. Tliis laud-
able delign was probably fuggetled by Mr. Abernethy
However he was very aiftive in promoting it. As the gen-
tlemen who concurred in this feheme met at Belfaft, the
fociety derived its appellation fro:n the place in which they
aftembled. In the progrefs of this buljnefs, an.l in confe-
quence of the debates and dinenlions that :.ere occalioned
by it, fevcral perfons withdrew from the fociety ; and ihofe
who adiiercd to it were diilinguiihed by the title of non-fub-
fcribers. Their avowed principles were thefe : — " Eirft,
" That our l^ord Jefus Chrift hath in the New Teftament
" deteniiiued and fixed the terms of communion in his
" church : that all ehriitians who comply with thefe have
" a right to communion ; and that no man, or fel of men,
" have power to add any other terms to thofe fettled in the
" gofpel. Secondly, That it is not neceftary as an evidence
" of loundnefs in tlie faith, that candidates for the minilhy
" Ihould lubfcribe the Weftminllcr Confeffion, or any uniii-
" fpired form of articles, or confelFion of faith, as the term
" Upon which they fliall be admitted ; and that no churcli
" has a right to impofe fuch a fubfcription upon tiiem.
" Thirdly, That to call upon men to make declarations
" concerning their faith, upon the penalty of cutting them
" oft" from communion, if they ihould refufc it, and tliis
" merely upon fufpicion and jealoufies, while the perfons
" req\ured to purge themfelves by fuch declarations, can-
" not be fairly convlfted upon evidence of any error or lie-
" rely, is to exercife an exorbitant and arbitrary power, and
" is reallv an inquiiition." Mr. Abernethy was juftlv con-
lidered as the head of the non-fnbfcribers, and he became
of courfe a principal objedl of reproach and perlecution. In
an early period of this controverfy, ws. in 1719, he pub-
liftied a fennon from Romans, xiv. 5. in which he exjjlaincd
the rights of private judgment, and the foundations of chrif-
tian liberty. He afterwards publilhed a Imall piece, in-
titled, " Seafonable Advice to the contending Parties in
the North," which was accompanied with a Preface byr,
the Reverend Meftrs. Weld, Boyle, and Ciiappin, of Dublin.
The defign of this publication was to prove, that there
ought to be no breach of communion among the Proteftant
Diffenters on account of their different fentiments and prac-
tices concerning fubfcription to the Wellminfter Confefilon
The Synod, however, determined, in [726, that the non-
fuljfcribers fhould no longer be of their body, and revived,
with additional force, the aft of 1705, requiring the can-
didates for the minilli-y to fubfcribe the Weftminfter Con^
feflion. From that time the excluded members formed them-
felves into a feparate Prelhytery, and prepared to encounter
many difficulties and harddiips. Mr. Abernethy found that
his jullly acquired reputation, which he had uniformly main-
tained by a moft exemplary life, v/as no fecuiity to him
againll thefe evils. Some of his congregation deferted him,
and under the influence of the Synod foniied themfelves into
a diftinft fociety ; and though moft of his old friends ad-
hered to him, he thought it moft advifeable to accept an in-
vitation which he received from the congregation of Wood-
ftreet, in Dublin ; and accordingly he removed thither in
1730. At Dublin he profecuted his ftudies with renewed
diligence ; and deviated from a praftice which he had pur ■
fued in the north, by writing his fermons at full length, and
conftantly uftng his notes in the pulpit. The diflenlers in
Ireland being at this time deftrous of emancipating them-
felves from the incapacities devolved upon them by the Telt

E Adt,

ABE

Ai\, Mr.' ASerncthy, in 1731, wrote a paper, in fuhrer-
TJcncv to this dcl'ifjn, with a view of Ihcwing the uiircaloii-
ablencfs and injulUce of iiU thofo laws, which upon account of
mcr* difference in religions opinions and fonns of worfhip,
excluded men of intcfrrity and nhihty from ferving their
countr)', and debarred them of thofe privileges and advan-
ta;»ej to which thev had a natural and jutl title as free-born
fubiefts. He particularly infilled that, confidtring the ftate
of Irclaod, it was a great error, in point of policy, to con-
tinue rellraints which weakened the protelbnt intereft, and
were prejudicial to the government. In 1733 the Irifh dif-
fcnters made an attempt for obtaining the repeal of the
obnoxious acl, and Mr. Abernet'iy again appeared from the
prcfs in favour of the fcheme ; but the defigii mifcarried. He
continued his labours in Wood-llrctt for ten years, and en-
joyed great fatisfaclion in the fociety and elleem of his
friends. From the ftrength of his conllitution, the vi-
gour of his fpirit, and the uniform temperance of his life,
there wa« reafon to hope, that his ufefulnels would have
been prolonged. But a fudden .-.ttack of the gout in the
head, to which diforder he had been fubjeft, frullrated the
expectations of his friends, and he died, December 1740,
in the 60th year of his age. For this event he was fully
prepared, and he met it with great compofure and firmnels of
mind, with a chearful acquiefence in the will, and a fixed
truft in the power and goodnefs of the Almighty. Mr.
Abeniethv was twice married ; firll, foon after his fettlement
at .Antrim, to a lady of excellent character, of whom he was
deprived in I 712; and again, after his removal to Dublin,
to another ladv, with whom he lived, in all the tendernefs
of conjugal affection, to his death. The moll celebrated
of Mr. Abernethy's writings were his two volumes of Dif-
courfcs on the Divine Attributes, which were much ad^
miredat the time of their publication, and honourably recom-
mended by the late excellent Archblfhop Herring ; and are
ftill held in the higheft efteem by thofe who are difpofed to
approve the mod liberal or manly fentiments on the great fub-
jefts of natural religion. Four volumes of pofthumous Ser-
mons were likcwife publilhed, the two firft in 1 748, and
the others in 1757; to which is prefixed the Life of
the Author, written, as is generally underftood, by Dr.
Duchal. A volume, intitled, " .Scarce and valuable Trafts
and Sermons, &c." was publiflied in 1751. He alfo left
behind him a Diar^' of his Life, confiding of fix large
volumes in 410. of which the author of his Life has given
a large account, and from which he has made many valu-
able extracts, which bear ample teftimony to the fingular
excellence of his difpofition and character. Biog. Brit.

ABERRATION, in ytjironomy, an apparent motion in
the celeftial bodies, occafioned by the progrefiive motion
of light, and the earth's annual motion in its orbit: the theory
of which is explained by Dr. Bradley : for an account of
whxh, fee Light and Star.

This theory may be illuftrated and applied in the follow-
ing manner. If light be fuppofed to have a progreflive mo-
tion, the pofition of the telefcopc, through which any celef-
tial objeft is viewed, mud be different from that which it
would have been, if light had been inftantaneous; and there-
fore the place meafured in the heavens will be different from
thet rue place. Thus, if S' be a fixed liar (Astronomy,
platei. fig. I.), VF the diredion of the earth's motion, S'F
the direftion of a particle of light, entering the axis ac of a
telefcope at a, and moving through aY whilll the earth
moves from e to F, and if the telefcope be kept parallel to
itfelf, the light will defcend in the axis. For, let the axis
nm, Y'M, continue parallel to ac ; and if each motion be
eonfidered as uniform, that of the fpeftator, occafioned by

ABE

the earth's rotation, being difregarded, becaufe it is fo fmall
as to produce no effecl, the fpaces dcfcribed in the fame time
will preferve the farce proportion ; but ^F and <jF being dc-
fcribed in the fame time, and as we have cY : aY : : en : av,
en and av will be detcribed in the fame time ; and therefore
when the telefcope is in the fituation nm, the particle of
light will be at v in the telefcope; and the cale being the
fame in ever)- moment of its defcent, the place meafured by
the telefcope at F is j' and the angle S'Fj-' is the aberration,
or the difference between the true place of the flar, and the
place meafured by the iuftrument. Hence it appears, that
if we take FS : F/ : : the velocity of light : the velocity of
the earth, join S/ and complete the parallelogram Yt^s, the
aberration will be equal to FS/, S will the true place of the
flar, and s tlie place meafured by the inllrument : and this
latter is the fame with the apparent place of the objedl, as it
would be feen by the naked eye. In order to prove this, let
it be confidered, that if a particle of light fall upon the eye
in motion, its relative motion with regard to the eye will be
the fame as if equal motions, in the fame diretlion, were im-
prefTed upon each at the moment of contact ; for it is well
known to be a principle in mechanics, that equal motions in
the fame diretlion, impreffed upon two bodies, will not affeft
their relative motions, and confequently the effcft of one upon
the other will not be altered. Let VF then be a tangent to
the earth's orbit at F, and reprefent the direction of the
earth's motion at F, and S' a ftar ; join S'F, and produce it to
G, and take FG : Fh : : the velocity of ligbt : the velocity
of the earth in its orbit ; complete the parallelogram FGHn,
and draw the diagonal FH. Since FG and nF reprefent the
motions of light and of the earth, if we conceive a motion
F« equal and oppofite to nY to be impreffed upon the eye
at F, and upon the particle of light, then the eye will be at
reft, and the particle of Hght, by two motions FG and Fa,
will defcribe the diagonal FH, which is its relative motion
with refpect to the eye itfelf. Hence it follows, that the
object appears in the direction HF, and confequently that
its apparent place differs from its true place by the angle
GFH = FS/.

But by trigonometry, fine FS/ : fin. F/S wYt: FS : : the
velocity of the earth ; the velocity of light, and therefore

^, ,, , , . ^ _, _ vel. of earth , . , , -

the line or aberration = fin. r ta X — ; ?^.-r- ; and if thcfe

vel. of hght

velocities be confidered as conftant, the fine of aberration, or
the aberration itfelf, which never exceeds 20", varies as the
fine of F/S, and is therefore greatefl when F/S is a right
angle. Let j- then exprefs the fine of F/S, and we fhall
have I (radius) : s : : 20" : s x 20", the aberration. Hence
when Yt coincides with FS', or the earth is moving direftly
to or from a ilar, there is no aberration. And fince FS/ =
20" when F/S = 90°, we fhall have the velocity of the
earth : the velocity of light : : fin. 20" : radius : : i : 103 14.
It appears that the aberration S's' lies from the true place of
a ftar in a direction parallel to that of the earth's motion,
and towards the fame part.

M. de Maupertuis, in his Elements of Geography, fami-
liarly illuftratcs the aberration by the direftion in which a gun
mud be pointed in order to fiioot a bird in its flight. In-
ftead of pointing ilraight to the bird, the fowler dircfts the
gun a little before it in the path of its flight ; and fo much
the more as the flight of the bird is more rapid with refpeCt
to that of the fhot. M. Clairaut too, in the Mem. of the
Acad. Scienc. for 1746, explains the aberration by fuppof-
ing drops of rain to fall quickly and rapidly after each other
from a cloud, under which a perfon moves with a ven' nar-
row tube ; in which cafe it is evident that the tube muft
have a certain inclination, in order to admit a drop which
2 enter*

ABE

ABE

enters at tli? top, to fall freely through the axis of the tube,
wiihout touching the fides of it: and this inclination nuill
be greater or lels according to the velocity of the drops in
refpeft to that of the tube. In this cafe the angle made by
the direttion of the tube, and that of the falling drops, is
the aberration arifing from the combination of thcle two mo-
tions.

To find the aberration in latitude and longitude. Let
A BCD (AsTRON. pi. i. fi'T. 2.) be the earth's orbit, fup-
prfed to be a circle, with the fun in the centre at x, let P
be in a line drawn from x perpendicidar to AIjCD, and re-
prefent the pole of the ecliptic ; let S be the true place of
a ftar, and apcg be the circle of aberration parallel to the
ecliptic, and abed the ellipfe into which it is projefted ;
let ty^T be an arc of the ecliptic, and PSG a fecondary to it,
which will coincide with the Icffer axis bil^ into which the
diameter y><jr is projefted ; draw GCxA, which is parallel to
fq, and B.vD perpendicular to it muft be parallel to the
greater axis ac ; then, when the earth is at A, the ftar is
in conjundtiou, and in oppofition when the earth is at C.
Eut as the place of the ftar in the circle of aberration is always
90° before the earth in its orbit, when the earth is at A, B,
C, D, the apparent places of the ftar in the circle will be at
a, p, c, q, or in the ellipfe at a, h, c, d: and to find the place
of the ftar in the circle, when the earth is at any point E, take
the angle yiSj ^ E.vB, and j- Mill be the correiponding place
of the ftar in the circle; and to find the projefted place in
the ellipfe, draw jii perpendicular to Sr, and i;/ perpendicu-
lar to Sc in the plane of the ellipfe, and / will be the appa-
rent place of the ftar in the ellipfe; join j- and t, and // will
be perpendicular to vt, becauie the piojeftion of the circle
into the ellipfe is in fines perpendicular to the ellipfe; draw
the fecondary P^l/K, which will, as to fenfe, coincide with
I)/, unlefs the ftar be very near to the pole of the ecliptic.
Now as <ri)S is parallel to the ecliptic, S and v muft have
the fame latitude ; hence vt is the aberration in latitude ; and
as G is the true, and K the apparent place of the ftar in the
ecliptic, GK is the aberration in longitude. To find thefe,
put m and n for the fine and cofine of the angle sSc, or CxE
the diftance of the earth from fyzygies, radius being i ;
and as the angle svt = the complement of the ftar's lati-
tude, the angle vst =r the ftar's latitude, for the fine and
cofine of which put i> and Tt', and put r =^ Sa, or Sj : then
in the right angled triangle Ssv, l : m : : r : sv =: rm ; and
therefore in the triangle I'ts, I : -v : : rm ; tv =^ rvm, the
aberration in latitude. Alfo, in the triangle Ssv, 1 : n : :

rn
r : vS = rn; hence w : 1 : : rn ; GK =— ■ ,the aberrationin

iu

longitude. When the earth is in fyzygies, m =. 0, there-
fore there is no aberration in latitude; and as n is then
greateft, there is the greateft aberration in longitude. If the
earth be at A, or the ftar in conjunftion, the apparent place
of the ftar is at a, and reduced to the ecliptic at H ; there-
fore GH is the aberration, which diminilhcs the longitude of
the ftar, the order of the figns being <x GT. In this cafe the

angle A.rE defcrihed by the earth from conjunifiion, or the
angle j-Sa, ftiews the elongation of the ftar from the fun.
But when the earth is at C, or the ftar in oppulition, the
apparent place c reduced to the ecliptic is at Y, and the
aberration GE increafes the longitude: hence the longitude
is the greateft when the ftar is in oppofition, and Icaft when
in coujiindion. When the earth is in quadratures at D or
B, then n = 0, and m is greateft, therefore there is no
aberration in longitude, but the greateli in latitude ; when
the earth is at D, the apparent place of the ftar is at d, and
the latitude is there incrcafed ; but when the earth is at B,
the apparent place of the itar is at b, and the latitude is di-
miniftied ; hence the latitude is leaft in the quadratures be-
fore oppofition, and greateft in quadratures after oppofition.
Erom the mean of a great number of obfervations. Dr.
Bradley determined the value of ;• to be 20".

From the principles above ftatcd and explained it appears,
that the greateft aberration in latitude is equal to 20" multi-
plied by the fine of the ftar's latitude; and that the aberra-
tion in latitude for any time is equal to 20" multiplied by the
fine of the ftar's latitude, and multiplied alfo by the fine of the
elongation found for the fame time. The aberration is fubftrac-
tive before the oppofition, and additive after it. The greateli
aberration in /otiaitudeh equal to 20" divided by the cofine of its
latitude; and the aberration for any time is equal to 2o" mul-
tiplied by the cofme of the elongation of the ftar, and di-
vided by the cofine of its latitude. This aberration is fub-
tractive in the firft and laft quadrant of the argument, or of
the difference between the longitudes of the fun and ftar, and
additive in the fecond and third quadrants. The application
of thefe rules will be feen in the following examples:

1. To find the greateft aberration of y Urfx minoris, whofe

latitude is 75° 13'. Here m =: I, -u = ,9669 the fin. 75°

13'; confequently 20" X ,9669 = 19", 34 the greateft

aberration in latitude. Alfo, « = !,•«;:= >^55' i ""'^

20"

therefore =: 7S", 4 the greateft aberration in longitude.

)255i

2. To find the aberration of the fame ftar, when the eartli
is 30° from fyzygies. Here m =; ,J, and therefore 19",
34 X ,5 = 9", 67 the aberration in latitude. It the earth be
30° beyond conjimftion or before oppofition, the latitude is
diminilhed; but if it be 30° after oppofition or before con-
junftion, the latitude is increafed. Alfo, n = ,866; con-
fequently 78", 4 x ,866 = 67", 89 the aberration in longi-
tude. If the earth be 30° from conjunftion, the longitude
is diminidied; but if it be 30° from oppofition, it is in-
creafed.

3. Eor the fun, m = 0, n = i, and 10 = 1 : hence it has
no aberration in latitude, and the aberration in longitude = r
= 20" conftantly ; and this quantity of aberration anfwers to
the fun's mean motion in 8' 7" 30'", which is therefore the
time which the light takes to move from the fun to us at its
mean diftance. Hence the fun always appears 20" more
backward than its true place. — The following table will ex-
pedite the calculations:

E2

The

A B E

The Ar;;u'ivnt for tlic Longitude ii, Z,anf. Sun —
/.«»f. 5/j.-. The Arj^iiir.ent for llic Latitude is, Long.
Suft—l-on". Sl.tr — 3 %n/.

o

0. VI.

L VII.

II. VIH.

D

n

- +

- +

—

+

w

O

20", 0

•7". 32

10'

. 0

30

1

20, 0

"7. '4

9.

70

29

2

>9' 99

16, 96

9.

39

28

3

«9. 97

16, 77

9.

8

27

4

«9. 95

16, 5«

8.

77

26

5

19, 92

16, 38

8,

45

25

6

19, 89

16, 18

8,

13

24

t

19, 85

»5. 97

7.

81

23

8

19, 81

»5. 76

7.

49

22

9

'9. 75

>5. 54

7.

17

21

10

•9' TO

'5. 32

6,

84

20

1 1

19, 63

•5. 9

6,

51

19

12

19, 56

14, 86

6,

18

18

n

• 9. 49

14. 63

5.

«5

J7

»4

19' 4'

14. 39

5.

5'

16

'5

'9. 32

14. '4

5.

18

•5

i6

19, 23

13, 89

4.

84

14

»7

19. '3

13, 64

4.

50

'3

i8

19, 2

13. 38

4.

16

12

'9

18, 91

13, 12

3.

81

1 1

20

18, So

12, 86

3.

47

10

21

18, 67

12, 59

3.

12

9

22

18, 54

12, 21

2.

78

8

2^

18, 41

12, 4

2,

44

7

H

18, 27

II, 76

2,

9

6

25

18, 13

II. 47

I

74

5

26

17, 98

11, 18

I

40

4

27

17, 82

10, 89

I

5

3

28

17, 66

10, 60

0

70

2

29

17. 49

10, 30

0

. 35

I

30

17» 32

10, 0

0

I 0

0

i - +

- +

—

+

1 XT. V.

X. IV.

IX

. Ill

To find tlic alerrt

,•«/;.« in |'°^"?;|,^f}, multiply the

quantities taken from this table by -J ^^^^ J- of the

liar's latitude.

Ex. Let the longitude of the fun be 7' 5° 18',

the long, of a ilar 5' 18° 14', and its latitude 31° 10'.

r 5° 18'
5 18 14

>7
31

10 Sec.

-13"
I

62
169

ylbenatlon in longitude

!• 17° 4' — 3' = io« 17° 4'
31 10 Sine

— 15 , 92 Produft.

-i4"/J5
0,5175

Aberration in latitude — 7i58 Produdl.

To find ^vtAherration in declination and right afccnfion.
Dr. Bradley has annexed to his theory the rules or formulas
for tliispuipofc; and thefc ruJi.shave been varioufly de-

ABE

nionftrated, and reduced to other praAical fornu by M.
Clairaut, in the Mem. of the Acad, of Sciences for 1737 ;
by Mr. Simpfon in his Effays in 1 740 ; by M. Fontaine des
Crates in 1744; by M. Euler, Mem. Acad. Berlin, torn.
ii. p. 14. &c. ; and by fevcral other perfons. The refults of
them are as follow : — The greatell aberration in decUiinlion is
equal to 20", multiplied by the fine of the angle of poiitlon
A at the liar, and divided by the fine of B, the difference
of longitude between the fun and (lar, when the aberration
ill dechnation is nothing. And the aberration in declina-
tion at any other time will be equal to the greateft aberra-
tion multiplied by the fine of the difference between the fun's
place at the given time, and his place when the aberration is
nothing. Alfo the fine of the latitude of the ilar is to ra-
dius, as the tangent of A is to the tangent of B. The
greateil aberration in right aj'eenjion is equal to 20" multi-
plied by tiie cofine of A, the angle of polition, and divided
by the fine of C, the difference in longitude between the
fun and liar, when the aberration in right alcenfion is no-
thing. And the aberration in right afcenfion at any other
time, is equal to the greateft aberration multiplied by the
fine of the difference between the fun's place at the given
time, and his place when the aberration is nothing. Alfo,
the fine of the latitude of the liar is to radius as the cotan-
gent of A to the tangent of C. Hutton's Mathem. Dift.
Art. Aberration.

Mr. Vince has purfucd the method given by M. Cagnoli
in his Trigonometry, as the moft convenient in praftice, and
fubjoined the tables computed by M. de Lambre in this way.

We (hall here annex the tables, referring to Mr. Vince's
Aftronomy, [ubi infra,) for the proceffes, whence the ex-
preffions for the aberration in right afcenfion and declination
on which they are formed have been deduced.

Genera

I Tables

fo,

the Aberr

ation of the

Fixed Stars.

Taule I. Arg

.A—S. 1

Ta'Jle II. Arg. A + S.

Tab IIl.Ar)>.A + i;&i-7v|

s

0. VI. I. VII.

lI.VIll

s

D

s

D

0

1). VI.

+ —
o",83

I. VII.

+ —

II. vni

S.

n

D
0

0. VI.

l.VIl.

11. VIII

s

D

— +— +

— +

+ —

— +

— y

— 4-

D

0

i9",i7Ji6",6o

9",59

o'',72

o',.i

3", 9 8

3">45

, ",99130

1

19.17

16,43

9,30

29

■

0,83

0,71

0,40

29

1

3,98

3.42

1.93:29

2

19,16

16,26

9,OG

2X

2

0,82

0,70

0,39

28

2

3-98

3,38

1,87128

3

19,1.5

16,08

8,70

27

3

0,82

0,69

0,38

27

3

3,98

3.34

i,8i!27

4

19,13

15,89

8,40

26

4

0,82

0,68

0,37

26

4

3,97

3,. SO

•.75|26

5

19,10' 15,71

8,10

2 J
2"^

5
1

0,82

0,67

0,35

2_5

24

5
"6

397
3,96

3,26

1,68

25

6

19,07 i5,Ji

7,80

0,82

0,67

0,33

3.22

1,62

24

7

19,03

15,31

7,49

23

7

0,82

0,66

0,32

23

7

3,95

3.18

1,5623

8

18,99

15,11

7,19

22

8

0,82

0,65

0,30

22

8

3>94

3.14

1.49'22

9| 18,94

14,90

6,87

21

9

0,82

0,64

0,29

21

9

3,93

3,io

1. 43*21

10
II

18,88

14,69

6,56

20

"9

10
1 1

0,82

0,63

0,28

20

10

1*^

3,92
3,91

3.05

1.36

20

18,81

M,47

6,24

0,82

0,62

0,27

3.01

1.30

'9

12

i«,7.5

14,25

5,93

18

12

0,82

0,6 1

0,25

18

12

3,90

2.97

1.2318

'3

18,68

14,02

5,6.

'7

'3

0,81

0,61

0,24

«7

13

3,89

2,92

'.1717

14

18,60

13,79

5,28

16

14

0,81

0,60

0,23

16

'4

.3,87

2,87

1,10 16

15
16

18,52

'3,56

4,96

15

15

i"6

0,80

0,58

0,22

14

>5
i'6

3,85
3.83

2,82

1,03

'i

18,43

13,32

4,64

0,80

0,57

0,20

2,77

0,97

■4

17

18.33

n,o8

4,31

13

'7

0,80

0,56

0,19

M

17

3.81

2,72

0,90

13

18

18,23

12,8?

3,99

18

0,79

0,55

0,17

12

18

3.79

2,67

0,83

11

i';

18,13

■2,58

3,66

II

19

0,78

0,54

0,15

I 1

19

3>77

2,62

0,76

II

20
21

18,02

12,32

3,33

10

"9

20
21

0,78

0,53

0,14

10

9

'20

3,74

2,56

0,69

10

9

17,90

12,07

3,00

0,77

0,5 i

0,12

3,72

2,5'

0,63

22

17,78

11,80

2,67

8

22

0,76

0,5 '

0,11

8

22

3,70

2,46

0,56

8

-3

17,65

■1,54

2,34

7

23

0,76

0,50

0,10

7

|23

3,67

2,40

0,49

7

24

17,52

I',27

2,00

6

24

0,75

0,49

0,09

6

24

3,64

2,34

0,42

6

26

17,38

11,00

1,67

4

;25

2"6

0,75

0,47

0,07

4

25
2^6

361

2,28

0,35

5

4

17,23

10,72

1,34

0,75

0,46

0,06

3.58

2,23

0,28

27

17,08

10,44

1,00

3

27

0,74

0,45

O.Oj

3

'2-

?,i5!i

2,17

0,21

3

28

16,93 10,16

0,67

2

28

0,73

0,44

0,03

2

28

3,52

2,11

0,14

2

29

16,77

9,87

0,33

I

29

0,72

0,43

0,02

1

29

3-49

2,05

0,07

I

30

D

16,60

9-59

0,00
- +

X III

0

D

S

30

D

S

0,72

0,41

0.00

C
D

30

D

3,45

•■99

o,co

0
1)

h

- +

H

+ -

+ —

1-

— +

-4-

XI. V. X. IV. 1

XI V.

X.IV

IX. IlL

>

t.

XI. V.

X. IV

I.X III.

.«;

A B K

ABE

Use op TitE TAni.rs.

ji^Lihe right afcenfionl r , ,,
/J=;tne declination J
i'^the longitude of the fun.

Entcv Tabic I. with the arn-ument y!— S, and Table II.
with yl-}-S, and the fum of the two coiTefpoiiding numbers
multiplied by the fecant of I) wiU be the alernilioii in Ri^ht
Ajcenfwn.

Enter Table I. with the argument y/—.S-l- 3 figns, and
Table II. with A-\-S-\-2, figns, and the funi of the two
coiTefponding numbers multiplied by the line of D will be
the firft part of the abcrraUon in cfic/itur/ion.

Enter Table III. with the arguments S-\-D and S — D,
and you will have two other parts of the alerration in de-
clination ; and the fum of thefe three parts will give the
wliole alcrrntinn in Declination.

If the declination of the liar be fouth, add fix figns to
S-^D and S-n.

Ex. To find the alen-ation of a AquiLf, on May 10,
1795, at 12 o'clock in the evening.

y/=9' 25° 12'
5=1. 20. 12

A~ S= 8. 5. o Table I.
y1+S=iu 15. 24 Table II.

Z>=8°. 20' fecant
yiberration in Right Afcenfion

+0,8

+8.9
I, 01 1

+8, 998 Produa.

v^- 5+3 figns If. 5°. o'Table I. -I7",38
^-|- 5+ 3 figns 2. 15 24 Table II. +0, 21

J?. 17
o, 145

D=o'. 8°. 20' fine . . -

5=1. 20. 12

- 2, 49 Produ(!l.

5+Z)= I'. 28°. 32' Table III. - -2, 08
S-B= I- Mj 52 Table III. - -2, 97

Aberration in Declination

-7. 54

If the ftar's declination had been fotith, then

S-\-D+6C^gns=j\ 28°. 32' Table III. - + 2",o8

.S-Z)-i-6 figns=7. II. 52 Table III. - -f- 2. 97

Firft Part - - - - — 2, 49

Aberration in Declination

+ 2, 5^

The alerration of a ftar applied to its apparent place gives
the true place. On the fubjeft of this article, iee Dr. Mafiie-
lyne's rules for finding the alerration of a ftar, and Vincc's
Aftron. vol. i. chap. 22. p. 311 — 330.

Aberration of a planet, in A/lronomy, is its geocentric
motion, or the fpace through which it appears to move as
feen from the earth, during the time of light's pafiTing from
tlie planet to the eai-th. Let S (Astrok. pi. i. fig. 4.) be
the fun, T the earth, P the correfponding place of the
planet ; and let the earth be fuppofed to move in the direc-
tion T/, parallel to which draw PQ, and let it be equal to
the fpace through which the earth has moved, whilft light
pafles from P to T, and Q^ will be the apparent place of
the planet. If Yp reprefent the motion of the planet in the
iame time, Q^ being the apparent, and p the correfponding
true place, the angle Q^ p ^vill be the aherratiori arifing

from the progrcffive motion of light and the motion of the
planet. Since P(^and P/> reprcfent the motions of the eaitli
and planet, (^ p will reprefent their relative motions ; and
hence the motion of the planet about the eartii in the time
wliicii light takes to pafs from the planet to tiie earth in the
aberration. With rclpttl to tiic fun, the abrrralion in lon-
gitude is conftantly 20", that being the fpace moved tlirougli
by tlic fun, or by the earth ir. tiie time of 8' 75.", which u
the time in which light pafTes from the fun to the eaith. In
like manner, if we know the diftance of any planet from
the earth, wc fliall obtain iXi aberration. Foi letST = i,
PT=i-/, and m := the angle defcribed by the planet about
the earth, or its geocentric motion, in latitude, longitude,
right afcenfion or declination, in 24 hours : then i : d : :
8' 7" ,5 : 8' 7",5(/, the time in which light moves from P to
T ; confequently 24 h : %' f',^d::m: the aberrations.

8' 7" >5 dm

=zo,00564<^m. Thus by taking tlie geocentric

24Z1
motion from the Na\itical Almanac, and eftimating the
diftance, in doing which no great accuracy is required, we
fiiall find the aberration of a planet in latitude, longitude,
right afcenfion or declination. When m is =^ 0, or the
planet is ftationary, the aberration is evidently equal to
nothing.

Ex. I. On May I, 179 1, at noon. What is the aberra-
tion in longitude of Mars ? Here SP=i,5237 the mean
diftance, the longitude of the fun is V 11°, and the geo-
centric longitude of Mars is o" 29'^ 19' ; and therefore the
angle PTS = iI°4i', and confequently PT=2,489=f/;
and w;=44' 5o" = 269o", taken from the Nautical Alma-
nac; hence 0,00564 (?m = 37-}-" the alerration in longitude.

Ex.2. For the Moon, ^=0,00253 the mean diftance,
«(z=:i3° 'o' 35" = 47435" the mean diurnal motion: hence
o,oo564<-/w=o",67 the aberration, which is fo fniall that it
may be negletled.

It is evident that the aberration will be great eft in the
loni-itude, and very finall in latitude, becaufe the planets de-
viate ver)- little from the plane of the ecliptic, fo that this
aberration is almoft infenlible and difregarded : the grcateft
ill Mercui-)' being only about 4^", and much lefs in the
other planets. As to the aberrations in declination and right
afcenfion, they muft depend upon the fituation of the planet
in the zodiac. The alerration in longitude being equal to the
geocentric motion, will be greater or lefs according to this
motion. It will be greateft in the fuperior planets Mars, Ju-
piter, Saturn, &c. when they are in oppofition to the fun ; but
in the inferior planets Venus and Mercury, the aberration is
greateft at the time of their fuperitirconjunftion. Thefe maxi-
ma of aberration for the ieveral planets, when their diftancefrom
the fun is leaft, are as foUow, via. Georgian or Herfchell 25",
Saturn 27", Jupiter 29", Mars 36", Venus 43" ,5, Mer-
cun' 59" >5> and the Moon |. Between thefe numbers and
nothing the aberrations in longitude vary according to the
fituation of the planets. That of the Sun, however, is in-
variable, being conftantly 20" : and this may alter his de-
clination by a quantity which varies from o to near 8", be-
ing the oreateft, or 8", about the equinoxes, and vaniftiing in
the folttices. The methods and fcrmulx of computation arc
given by M. Clairaut in the Mem. Acad. Scienc. for I 746,
and by Mr. Euler in the Berlin Mem. vol. ii. for 1746.
M. de la Lande has calculated a table fhewing the alerratious
of the planets at various degrees of elongation from the fun,
by means of which the apparent place may be determined
from the true place. When the planet is ftationar)', there is
no aberration ; when the planet's motion is direft, the aber-
ration is negative, and when retrograde, pofitive. This table
is publid'.cd bv Mr. Viiice. It has been already ftatcd, that

^ ' the

ABE

tSe atrrration is =0,00564 <//i, if the cirtU's di.lAnc: be
fii;)pjfeJ I ; anj if this Jillancc bo ri.'p'\-r>.Mt.»i by lO, the
aifrniiinn will be =o,0O35i'i4 i/m, \ip;)n wliioh f;ip:)orit;on
the folIowiniT table was c<ii.1ruacd. If the diliance be
jjreater than 10, e.g. 37, fiiid the valuj for 10, multipr'.y it
by 3,anJ add to the prjjiirt th.- value for 7.

A TABLE

To Jind the Aberration of a rianet or Co-.net, in i^aUiuJ:,
Longiludt, Ri^^ht Afcntjion or Declinalion.

n

Di.lance from the Earth ; that of the Sua being lo.

M 3 ( 4

5

.6 1 7

8 1 9 [ 10

|> M.

S -c. 1 Sec.

1

Sec.

Sec. Sec. Sec.

Sec.

Sec. Sec.

0. 8

o.?

0,8

1,4 1,6

'.9

2.2

2,4 2,71

0. 16

1."

1,6

2,2

2.7 3.3

3.«

4.3

4.9 5.4'

0. 24

1,6

2.4

3.3

4.1 4.9

5.7

6.5

7,3 8,12

0. 3*

2,2

3.3

4.3

5.4' 6.5

7.6

8.7

9,7 10,83

0. 40

2."

4.' 5.4

6.8 ; 8,1

9.5

10,8

12,2 13,53

0. '4«

3.3

4.9 6,5

8,1 1 9,8 11,4

13,0

14,6

16,24

6. 56

,V8

5.7 7.6

9.5 ".4 '3>o

15.2

17.1

18,95

«• 4

4'3

.6,5 8,7

10,8 13,0 15,2; 17,3; 19,5:21,001

I. 12

4.9

7.3I 9.Si

12,2 14,6

17,1 19,5 21,9 24,36

I. 20

?.4

8,ij 10,8

'3.5, 16,2

19,0' 21,7! 24,4 27,07

I. 28

6,0

8,9 11,9

'4.9 17.9

20,8, 23,8, 26,8 29,78

t. 36

6.5

9,8 13,0

16,2 19,5 22,7, 26,0 29,2

32,48

I. 44

7.°

10,6 14,1

17,6 21,1

24,6

28,2 31,7

35.'9

I. 52

7.6

11,4 15,2

19,0 22,7

26,J

30,3 34.1

37.90

2. 0

8.1

12,2 l6,2

20,3 24,4

28,4

32.5

36,6140,61

2. 8

».-

13,0 17,3

21,7 26,0

30.3

34.7

39.°! 43.3'

2. 16

9.2

13,8,18,4

23,0 27,6

32.2

36,8

41.4

46,02

2.24

9.8

•4.6 19.5

24,4] 29,2

34.1

39.0

43.9

48.73

2.3^'

10,3

15,4! 20,6

25.7 30.9

36,0

41,2

46.3

5 '.43

2. 40

10,8

16.3:21,7

27.1 32,5

37.9

43.3

4«.7

54.14

2. 48

ri.4

17.1! 22,8

28,4 34,1 39,8

45.5

5'.2

56.85

2. 5^.

3. oJ

11,9

17,9123,8

29,8 35,7 41,7

47.6

53.6

59.55

12,2 18,3124,41

30.5' 36.5 42.6

48.7

54.«

60,9 1

Suppofe the diftance of a comet to be 43, and its appa-
rent motion in 24 liours to be 2° 15' in longitude, and it be
required to find the aberrc.lion in longitude. If we enter
the table with the diftance 10 and daily motion 2° 15',
we thus get 45",68, which multiplied by 4, gives i82",7,
and by entering with the diftance 3, we obtain I3",7 ;
and therefore the aberration is I96'',4.

Eor reducing the place of the body computed from the
table, to the apparent place, add the aberration, if the lati-
tude, longitude, right afeenfion, or declination of the body
decnitfe, but JubtraS, if it increafe ; and the contraiy, to
reduce the apparent to the true place. See Vince's Aftrono-
my, vol. i. p. 332 — 338. See remarks on the effects of
aberration on the tranfit of Venus over the fun by Dr. Price
in Phil. Tranf. vol. Ix. art. 47. p. 536.

ABtRRATiON, in Medicine, figniiies a deviation from the
ordinary courfe of nature.

Aberration, in Optics, is ufed to denote that error or
deviation of the rays of light, when inflefted by a lens or
fpeculum, whereby they are hindered from meeting or unit-
ing in the fame point, called the geometrical focus. It is
either lateral or longitudinal. The latei-al aberration is mea-
fured by a perpendicular to the a.\is of the fpeculum, pro-

A B E

d.ic.d from tli': focus, to meet the refleft:d or refrafled
ray : the longitudinil ab-rration is the diitar.ce of the focus
from the point in which the' fame r.iy interfect;-. the axis. If
the focal diftance of any lenfcs be given, their apertures be
fmall, and the incident rays homogeneous and parallel, the
longitudinal ahe>-ra.'ions will be as the fquaves, and the lateral
al.rrartns as the cubes of the linear apertures.

There arc two fpec: s of aberration, diftinguifiied by their
different cav.fes : one anllng from the figure of the glafs or
fneculum ; the other from the imequal refraugibility of the
niys of lif'ht. The fecond fpccies of alerraiiou is fometimes
called the Newtonian, from its having been difcovered by Sir
I. Newton. With regard to the former fpecies ot aberration we
may obferve, that if rays proceed from a point at a given dif-
tance, they will be reflected into the other focus of an ellipfe
when the luminous point is in one focus, or directly from the
other focus of an hv])erbola ; and if the luminous point be in-
finitely dittant, fo that the rays are parallel, they will be re-
flefted by a parabola into its focus : but in both cafes they
will he difperfed by lenfes of all other figures. Specula of
the former kind are made with difFicidty ; and therefore
curved fpecula are commonly of a fpherical figure, which
have no accurate geometrical focus. Let BVE (Optics
PI. i. fig. I-) repre.ent a concave fpherical fpeculum, whofe
centre is C ; and let AB, EF be two incident rays parallel
to the axis C V. At the angle of refleftion is equal to the
angle of incidence, if CB and CF be drawn to the points of
incidence, and the lines Bl) and FG be drawn fo as to
make the angles CBD and CFG refpet^ively equal to
CBA and CFE, BD and FG will be the reflefted rays, and
D and G the points in which they meet the axis. Becaufe
the triangles CBD and CFG are ifofceles, the angles at the
bafe being equal, the fides CD, DB, and CG, GF, are re-
fpeiitively equal, and therefore the points of coincidence
with the axis are equally diftant from the point of incidence
and the centre. Hence it appears, that if B be indefinitely
near the vertex V, D will be in the middle of the radius
C V ; and the nearer the incident rays are to the axis, fo much
the nearer will the reflefted ra}' be to the middle of the
radius, and vice ver/a. So that the aberration of any inci-
dent ray increafes, as it in farther removed from the axis,
till the diftance VI become 60 degrees ; in which cnfe the
reflefted ray is equal to the radius, its point of interfeftion
coincides with the vertex, and the aberration is equal to the
radius. This illuftration ftiews us why fpecula are made of
very fmall fegments of fpheres, viz. that aU their reflefted
rays may interfeft the axis near the middle point of the
radius, and thus fuffer the leall aberration, and render the
image more diftinit. The cafe is the fame with regard to
rays refratted through lenfes.

In different fpherical lenfes M. Huygens has demonftrated
that the aberration from the figure is as follows: i. In all
plano-convex lenfes, having their plane furface expofed to
parallel rays, the longitudinal aberration of the extreme ray,
or that remoteft from the axis, is equal to | of the thicknefs
of the lens.

2. In all plano-convex lenfes, having their convex fur-
face expofed to parallel rays, the longitudinal aberration
of the extreme ray is equal to i of the thicknefs of the
lens : the aberration in this cafe being about ^th of that in
the former, or in proportion to it, as 7 to 27.

3. In all double convex lenfes of equal fpheres, the
aberration of the extreme rays is equal to i of the thicknefs of
the lens.

4. In a double convex lens, the radii of whofe fpheres
are as i to 6, if the more convex furface be expofed to
parallel rays, the aberration from the figure is lefs than in any-
other fpherical lens, being no more than ^1 of its thicknefs.

M.

ABE

M. Huygens lias alfo (hewn, tlir.t the fame aberration is
pioiluced by concave lenies as by fimilw convex ones.

llouover this ipccies of al'erraiion is altogether incon-
fidcrablc, compared with the latter ; infoinuch that if the
objcft-glafs of a telefcope be plano-convex, and the plane
fide he turned towards the ohjcft, and the diameter cf the
iphere to which the convex lide of the glafs is ground, be
lOO feet, the femidiameter of the aperture be tvyfo inches,
and the ratio of the fine of incidence out of glafs into air be
to that of reflation as 20 to 3 ! ; the diameter of the circle

of alierralisns will in this cafe be only parts of

720CCCOO '^

an inch. But the diameter of the little circle, through
which the fame rays are fcattcred by unequal refrangibility,
will be about the 55th part of the breadth of the aperture
of the objeft-glafs, which is here four inches ; and therefore
the error arifing from th.e fpherical figure of the glafs is to
the error arifing from the different refrangibility of the rays,

as — i to ■— , that is, as i to C44g. Sec Newton's

72000000 55

Optics, p. 83. 8vo. (apudoper. torn. iii. 347. torn. iv. p. 56.
Ed. Horfl.) or Smith's Optics, book ii. chap. 6. (vol. i.
p. 39.) where thi'i propofition is demonftrated. That objefts
fhould appear through telefcopes fo diftinft as they do may
feem furpriiing. Newton accounts for the faft by obfcrving,
that the rays are not uuifomily difperfed over the whole circu-
lar fpace ; in the centre they are more denfe, and they become
more and more rare towards the circumference, and on this
account they are not viilble, except thofe of them that are in
or near the centre.

In confequence of the difcovery of the unequal refrangibi-
lity of light, and the apprehenfion, that equal refraftions
muft pAduce equal divergencies in every fort of medium, it
was imagined, that all fpherical obietf-glafTes of telefcopes
would be equally afFeftcd by the different refrangibility of
light, in proportion to their aperture, of whatever materials
they might be conftrufted ; and therefore, that the only im-
provem.ent of which refratling telefcopes were capable, was
that of increal'ing their length. On this account Sir Ifaac
Newton, and others after him, defpairing of fuccefs in the
manufafture and ufe of refrafting lenfes, direfted their chief
attention to the conftrutlion of reflecting telefcopes. How-
ever, about the year 1 747, M. Euler apphed himfelf to the
fubjeft of refi-attion, and purfuing a hint fuggefted by Sir
Ifaac Newton, formed a fcheme of making objeft-glalfes
with two lenfes of glafs, inclofing water between them ;
hoping, that by conflrufting them of different materials, the
refrattions would balance one another, and prevent the ufual
aberration. Mr. J. Dollond, an ingenious optician of Lon-
don, examined this fcheme, and found that M. Euler's princi-
ples were uniatisfaftoiy. M. Clairaut likwife concun-ed in
opinion, that his fpeculations were more ingenious than ufeful.

This controverfy, which promifed to be of great import-
ance in the feience of optics, engaged the attention of M.
Klingenftierna of Sweden, and induced him carefully to exa-
mine the eighth experiment in the fecond part of Newton's
Optics, with the conclufions which he draws from it. He
found, that the rays of light, in the circumftances there fup-
pofed, did not lofe their colour, as Sir Ifaac imagined.
This hint of the Swedifli philofopher, led Mr. DoUond to
re-examine the fame experiment ; and it appeared, after ac-
curate triiils, ttuit difl'erent fubftances made the light to di-
verge very differently, in proportion to their general refraftive
power: therefore, in the year 1757, he procured wedges of
different kinds of glafs, and apphed them together, fo that
the refrattions might be made in contrary dlreftions, in
order to |difcover, whether the refraftions and divergency of
colours would vanifh together. The refult of his firft trials

ABE

encouraged him to pcrfevert; for he difcovercd a dlfferfnec
far htyond his hopes in the refractive qualities of diHerent
kinds of gals, with refpcdl to their divergency of colours.
The Venice glals^aiid the Englifli crown glafs were found to
be nearly allied in this refpcd ; the common Englilh p!:itc
glafs made the light diverge more, and the Englidi Hint
glafs molt of all. Without enquiring into the caufe of this
difference, lie proceeded to adapt wedges of crown glaf«,
and of white flint glafs, ground to different angles, to each
other, fo as to refract in different directions, till the refiadted
light was entirely free from colours. Having ineafiiicd the
refraftions of each wedge, he found that of the while glafs
to be to that of the crown glafs nearly as iivo to ihree; and
he deduced this general conclufion, that any two wedgcj,
made in this proportion, and applied together fo as to re-
fraft in contrary directions, would refrait the light without
any aberrnUon of tlie rays. Mr. Dollond's next objedl was
to make limilar trials wilh fpherical glaffes of diflerent ma-
terials; and he found that, in order to obtain a refraftion of
light in contraiy diredions, one mull be concave, and the
other convex; the latter, which was to refratl the molt,
that the rays miglit converge to a real focus, was made of
crown glafs, and the former of white flint glafs ; and, the rc-
fraflions of fpherical glaffes being in an inverfe ratio of their
focal diifances, it was necefiary that the focal dillanccs of
the two glafles fhould be inverfely as the ratios of the refrac-
tions of the wedges; for being thus proportioned, eveiy ray
of light that paffes through this combined glafs, at any dif-
tance from its axis, will conftantly be refrafted by the dif-
ference between two contrary reflations, in the proportion
required; and therefore the different refrangibihty of the
light will be entirely removed.

But in the applications of this admirable difcovery to prac-
tice, many d'Hiculties occurred. At length, however, by
repeated trials, and refolute perfevei-ance, Mr. Dollond fuc
ceeded fo far as to conftruft refracT:ing telefcopes much fu-
perior to any that had before been ufed; reprefenting objects
with great diflinftnefs, and in their true colours.

M. Clairaut, who interefted himfelf betimes in this dif-
covery', endeavoured to afcertain the principles of Mr. Dol-
lond's theory, and to lay down rules for facilitating the con-
flruftion of thefe new telefcopes. With this view he made
feveral experiments, in order to deteniiine the refractive
powers of different kinds of glafs, and the proportion m
which they feparated the i-ays of light ; and from thefe ex-
periments he deduced feveral theorems and problems of ge-
neral ufe. M. D'Alembert likewife made a great variety of
calculations to the fame purpofe; and fhewed how to cor-
reft the errors to which thefe telefcopes are fubjtcf, by
placing the objeft-glaffes, in fome cafes, at a fmall diilance
from one another, and fometimes by uling eye-glafles of dif-
ferent refi-aftive powers. But though foreigners were here-
by fupplied with the mofl accurate calculations, they were
very defeftivc in praftice. The Englilh telefcopes, made,
as they imagined, without any exaft rule, were greatly fu-
perior to the befl of their conilru6tion.

M. Euler, who fu-fl gave occalion to this important and
ufeful inquiry, was very reluftant in admitting Mr. Dol-
lond's improvements, becaufe they militated again 11 a pre-
conceived theory of his own. At lafl, however, convinced
of their reality and importance by M. Clairaut, he afTcntcd ;
and foon after received farther fatisfa&ion from the experi-
ments of M. Zeilier, of Peterlhurgh.

M. Zeiher demonftrated, that it is the lead, in the com>
pofition of glafs, wliich gives it this remarkable property ;
fo that, while the refraftlon of the mean rays is nearly the
fame, that of the extreme rays confiderably diflers ; and by
increafing the lead, he produced a kii.d of glafs, which oc-

cafioiied

t

ARE

«fior,fd » rrtich p-catrr A ini'-Uio" '^- tlic i-xtienic r.ws thun
the flint glafs wUwh Mr. l).>ll..iiJ Imtl maJc iitc of, ;iiul at
tljc fanic time C')r.fi<lir.ibly inorciiftd the mean lefr.idioii.
M. Ztihtr, in the cuirft of his experiments, made £(l:ilt
of minium arA fimt, with a mixture pf alkahne f;dts ; and
found that this mixture jjri'Jtly dimiiiilhed the mean refrac-
tion, without rrakinj,' hardly any chnnpe in the difperiion ;
•nd he at length obtaiieJ a kir.d'of glals greatly fupenor to
the flint glafs of Mr. DoIKwd for the conftniction of tekf-
copci; fir.ce it orcafioncd itrr:- times as great a difperiion of
the rays as the common glafs, whilll the mean refraction
was only a-. 1.61 to i.

Other kinds of metallic glafs, as well as that of lead, pof-
fefs the fame uftfnl property of difperiion. Some philofo-
phcrs have, indeed, imagined, that there is a conftant rela-
tion between the fpecific gravity of glafs and its dilperfion;
but it ought to be confidercd, that the difperiion in a;thcr
«nd fpirit of wine is ilrongcr than that produced in water,
vrhich i; a much heavier lluiJ. The object which opticians
have generally propofed by ufing flint and common glafs in
the conftniftion of achromatic telefcopes, might be attained
by means of other tranfparent fubilances, both folid and
fliiid. Dr. Blair of Edinburgh has lately evinced this fact.
riint glafs was found to reflect the green light confiderably
Kf« than crown glafs, in proportion to the whole refra<;T;ion
of red and violet light ; fo that when the divergency of the
red and that of the violet light, caufed by the refraftion of
the two mediums, arc equal, the divergency of the red and
green light is always greater in the crown than in the flint
jlafs, and the divergency of the violet and green is always
lefs in the crown than in the flint glafs. After a variety of
experiments. Dr. Blair difcovercd that the muriatic and ni-
tric acids, which are difperfive fluids of confiderable ftrength,
inftead of refrafting the green hght lefs than crown glafs,
in proportion to the whole refraSion of the red and violet
light, refrafted the green light more than crown glafs, in
proportion to the whole refraction of red and violet light.
He, therefore, mixed thefe two kinds of difperiive mediums,
and thus obtained a medium, which difperfes the rays much
more than crown glafs, and yet caufes them all to diverge
accurately in the fame proportion in which they are made
to diverge by the refraftion of crown glais; which entirely re-
moves the aberrolion from the unequal refrangibility of light.

In 1758, Mr. DoUond made a farther improvement in
telefcopes, by introducing two object-glaffes of crown glafs,
and one of flint. For various papers on the fubject of this
article, fee Phil. Tranf. vols. 35. 48. 50.51. 52. 55.60.
Hilt. Ac. Par. for 1 7 37 — 46 — 52 — 55 — 56 — 57 — 62 — 64 —
65 — 67 — 70. Swed. Mem. vol. xvi. Ac. Berl. 1746, 1762,
and 1766. Com. Nov. Petrop. 17C2. Euler's Dioptrics.
M. D'Alembert's Opuf. Mathcm. Edinburgh Tranfattions,
vol. iii. pt. 2. p. I. — 76.

For a farther account of Mr. Dollond's and other new re-
fracting telefcopes of the achromatic or aplanatic kind, fee

TlLESCOPE.

Aberration, croiun of, is a luminous circle fuiTounding
the real di(k of the fun, and depending on the aberration of
the folar rays, whereby his apparent diameter is enlarged.

ABERSPERG, in Geography, anciently Jlliufma Or
jivcnt'mum, a fmall town and caflle in Upper Bavaria, feated
on the river Umbs, and containing a convent of Carmehtes.
It is famous as the birth-place of Johannes Aventinus.

ABERYSTWITH, in Geography, a market town of
Cardiganrtiire in Wales, on the Rhydol, near its confluence
with the YlV.vith, where it falls into the foa. It is fituate
on a bold eminence overhanging the fea, or bay of Cardigan.
The ftreets are fleep and ill-paved, and the houfes are co-
»ered with the black Hate of the countr)-. It canies on a
1

A B p:

trade in lead, Cdl.ir.ii.sc, and Jifli, parliciilurly herrings,
v.'hich lalt brancli has lately declined ; and a few manu-
faiftared goods, f'.icli as webs, fiannd'?, and (l( -kings. Of
late it is lias been improving, and is become a place of refort
for fea-hathiug. Its walls and cadle arc in ruins. The calllc
was built by (Gilbert de Strongbow, in the reign of Henry I.
and commands the whole coail with the contiguous mouths
of th.' Yil'.vitli and Rhydol on one fide, and a beautiful view
of the vale which defcends with t'le river on tiie other. A
mint for the coinage of filvcr was ellablilhed in this place by
king Charles in 1637, and the coin was to be llamped on
both lldes v.ith the Feathers, in order to Ihew that it was
coined in Wales. It is 203 miks W. N. W. of London.
^V. long. 4°. N. lat. 52"^ 5'.

ABERMENAI, a pad'a^e at the S. W. end of the Me-
nai llraits, re]).)rating Carnarvonfliire from Anglefea..

ABERV1LLE'/-;V/-, abranch of the Millilippi, in New
Orleans, communicating with the lakes which fall into St.
Louis bay.

ABESTA, or AvESTA, the name of one of the facred
books of the Perfian Magi ; which they attribute to their
great founder Zoroaller, or Zerduflit.

The Ahtjla is a commentary- or expofition of two other of
their religious books, called Zend and Pazend ; the three
together include the whole fyilem of the Ignicole, or wor-
fliippers of fire. D'Herbel. Bibl. Orient, p. 11. Hyde de
Rcl. vet. Perf. c. 2.

According to Du Perron, the A'oejla fignifies the lan-
guage of the Oriental text of Zoroafter's works. Hift. Ac.
Sc. Par. 1762. See Shanscr.it and Shastah.

ABESTON. See Asbestos.

ABETHANCOURT, Jacques, \n Biography, aphyfi-
cian at Rouen, puUifhed Nova penitentialis quadrigefima,
et Purgatorium in Morbum Gallicum, five venereum, una
cum Dialogo Aqux Argenti, ac Ligni Guaiaci colluftantium
fuper diCti Morbi Curationis prelatura. Opus fruftiferum,
Parilils, 1527, in 8vo.

He is the firft; French phyfician \\'ho wrote on the vene-
real difeafe. Perhaps, M. Eloy fays, becauie the difeafe
appeared at Rouen, before it was communicated to other
parts of the kingdom.

ABETTOR, or Abbettor, in Law, one who incites
or encourages another to perform fomething criminal; or by
fome way afiifts him in the performance itfelf. It is the
fame with art and part in the Scots law.

Thus thofe who procure others to fue out falfe appeals of
felony, or murder, againft men, to render them infamous,
are particularly denominated abettors.

So abettors in murder, are fuch as advife or procure a
murder to be committed, or are acceflary thereto.

There are abettors in felony, but not in treason ;
the law looking on r.U thofe concerned in treafon as princi-
pals.

ABEVACUATION, in Medk'we, denotes a partial
evacuation of the peccant humours, either by nature or art.

ABEX, or Abesh, in Geography, a country of Ethiopia
in Africa, bordering on the Red Sea, which bounds it on the
eaft. It has Nubia on the north, Abyffinia on the weft and
fouth. Its principal towns are Suaquem and Arkeko. It
has the name of Beglerbeg of Habeleth, and is fubjedt to
the Turks. It is a fandy, barren, unhealthy country, about
500 miles in length, and roo in breadth. Being very moun-
tainous, it abounds with wild beafts; and in its forells there
are many ebony-trees. See Anian.

ABEYANCE, Abeiance, or Abbayance, in Law'
boots, fomething that only exifts in expetlation, or in the
intendment, or remembrance of the law.

/ibeyance, in our law, amounts to much the fame with A*-

redito*

A B G

recTttas jactnt, among tlie Romans, and xXtipoj ct^umon;, or
lix\imm, among the Greeks; i. e. hareililiis fpcrata or ex-
pedata, or rather novum dominium e.\-pc-j/ans. As civilians
fay lands and goods jaccnl: fo common lawyers fay, that
things in lil-^.' condition are in nheyancc.

It is a maxim in law, tliat of eveiy land, either there is a
fee fimple in fomebody, or it is in abeyance. If a church
become vacant by the death of a parfon, the freehold is faid
to be in abeyance, till a new parfon be iadufted, for the pa-
tron has not the fee, but only the right of prefenting to it,
the freehold itfclf being in t!ie incumbent thus prefentedj
and therefore till fuch prefcntation, in nobody.

ABGARUS, \n Eiogrnpliy, a name given to feveral of the
kings of Edefla; one of whom is faid to have been conlempo-
rai7 with Chrift ; who, hearing of his miracles, and labouring
under a grievous diilemper, incurable by human Hcill, ap-
plied to him, by letter, for rehef. It is alfo faid, that our
Savioin- returned him a written anfwer, promiling to fend
one of his difciples to cure him, and that Thaddeus was
commiffioned for that purpofe. Eufebius (Eccl. Hill. lib. i.
cap. 13.) relates this lloiy, and fays, that the evidence of
it exiftcd in the records of the city of Edeifa. ^I'garus's
letter, which was fent to our Saviour at Jerufalem by the
courier Ananias, is as follows :

" Abgarus, toparch (or prince) of EdelTa, to Jefus the
*' good Saviour, who has appeared at Jerufalem, fendeth
" greeting : I have heard of thee, and of thy cures, per-
" formed without herbs or other medicines. For it is re-
" ported that thou makeil the blind to fee, and the lame to
♦' walk ; that thou cleanfeft lepers, and cafteft out unclean
•' fpirits and daemons, and healeft thofe v\-ho are tormented
" with difeafes of a long Handing, a.!d raifeft the dead.
** Having heard of all thefe things congeming thee, I con*
" eluded in my mind one of thefe two things: — either that
" thou art God come down from heaven to do thefe things,
*' or elfe thou art the Son of God, and fo performeft
«' them. Wherefore I now write unto thee, intreating thee
«• to come to me, and to heal my diftempcr. Moreover, I
" heai- that the Jews murmur againft thee, and plot to do
*' thee mifchief. I have a city, fmaU indeed, but neat,
•' which may fuffice for us both." The following is our
Lord's anfwer, returned by the fame courier : " Abgarus,
•' thou art happy, forafmuch as thou haft believed in me,
♦' though thou haft not feen me." John, xx. 29. " For it is
" written concerning me, that they who have feen me
" (hould not beheve in me, that they who have not feen me
" might believe and live. As for what thou haft written to
•' me, defiring me to come to thee, it is neceffary that all
" thofe things, for which I am fent, fliould be fulfilled by
" me, and that after fulfilling them, I Ihould be received up
" to him that fent me. When, therefore, I (hall be re-
" ccived up, I will fend to thee one of my difciples, that he
•' may heal thy diftemper, and give hfe to thee, and to
" thofe Avho are with thee." To thefe epiftles are fubjoined
many particulars recited by Eufebius : After the afcenfion
of Chrift, Thomas, one of the apoftles, he fays, moved by
a divine impulfe, fent Thaddeus, one of Chrift's 70 difciples,
to Edefia to be a preacher and an evangelift of Chrift's doc-
trine, by whom all things promifed by our Saviour were
fiJfiUed. This was done, A. D. 43. The authenticity of
thefe letters, and of the hiftory to which they relate, has
been allowed by Parker, Cave, Grabe, Wake, Tillemont,
Addifon, and others ; but rejefted as falfe and fabulous by
the Bafnages, Spanheim, Le Clerc, Fabricius, Dupin, Jones,
Lardner, &c. The two laft writers have produced reafons
to prove the whole ftory to be fiftitious, which are un-
anfwerable. Allowing that the particulars recited by Eu-
febius, who flourifhed at the beginning of the 4th century,
Vol. I.

A B I

or before, were recorded in the archives of Edefla, it doei
not appear that Eufebiiis was ever at this city and took the
account from the arcliivcs himfclf. Befides, it is remark-
able, that this ftoiy is not mentioned by any writer before
Eufebius; that it is not much taken notice of by fuccceding
writers ; that the whole affair was unknown to Chrift's apol-
tles, and to the chriftians their contemporaries, as is mani-
feft from the early difputcs about the method of receiving
Gentile converts into the church; which this ftor)-, had it
been true, muft have entirely decided. As to the letters,
no doubt can be made of their fpnrioufnefs, fmce, if Clirift
had w ritten a letter to Abgarus, it would have been a part
of fnered feriplure, and placed at the head of all the books
of the New Teftament. Dr. Lardner has alfo pointed out
feveral pafTages, both in the cpiille to Abgarus, and in the
hiftor)-, which arc hable to exception. Not to add, that it
was the opinion of many of the moft learned and ancient
clniftians, that our Lord never wrote any thing. See Jones's
Canon of the New Teft. vol. ii. p. I. and Lardner's Works,
vol. vii. p. 222. 231.

ABGILLUS, John, fumnmed Prcjler John, was fon to
a king of the Frifcii, and from the aufterity of his life ob-
tained the name of PrcJlcr, or prieft. He attended Charle-
magne in his expedition to the Holy Land ; but inftead of
returning with that monarch to Europe, it is pretended that
he gained mighty conquefts, and founded the empire of the
Abyffines, called from his name the empire of Prefter John.
He is faid to have written the hiftoiy of Charlemagne's
journey into the Holy Land, and of his own into the Indies;
but they are more probably trifling romances, written in the
ages of ignorance.

ABHEL, in Botany, a name given by" fome to favin, an
ever-green garden-lhiub, well known in phyCc in many in-
tentions.

ABHER, in Geography, a town of the Perfian Irak, or
ancient Parthia, in Afia, delightfully fituated, and adorned
with fine gardens and elegant public buildings. It is about
26 miles S. E. from Sultania.

ABHORRERS, in EngJifi Hijlory, a denomination
given to a party about tlie year 1680, formed in oppofition
to thofe called Petitioners. In order to reftrain the prevail*
ing praiElice of petitioning againft grievances, the church
and court jorly framed addreffes, containing the higheft ex-
preflions of regard to the king, the moft entire acquiefccnce
in his wifdom, the moft dutiful fiibniiftion to liis prerogative,
and the deepeft abhorrence of thofe who endeavoured to en-
croach upon it by prefcribing to him any time for affemblirg
the parhament. Thus the nation came to be diftinguiihcd
into petitioners and abhorrers. But thefe appellations were
foon forgotten, though, when the pai-hament afiembled, great
num.bers of the irMomrj', fays Hume, (Hift. vol. viii.p. 130.)
from all parts of England, were feized by order of the com-
mons and committed to cuftody.

ABI, in Biography, a learned rabbi of Alexandria, who
wrote a treatife on the intelligences which move tjie heavens,
and on the influence of the planets. He flourifhed in Egypt
about the year 1 150.

ABIAD, in Geography, a town of Africa, on the bor-
ders of Abex, fituated on a high mountain, and remarkable
for its trade in ebony and aromatic plants.

Abiad, or luhiie river, flows into the Nile, and is fup-
pofed, by fome, to be the Nile itfelf.

ABIAGRASSO, a fmall town of Italy, featcd on a
canal, in the duchy of Milan. E. long. 9° 24'. N. lat.
45° 20'.

ABIANS, in Ancient Hijlory, a people of Thrace, or, as
others fay, of Scythia, who derived their name from the ne-
gative paitiek B, and ^>6,-, lij'e, probably bccaufc U»ty had no

F fctdcd

A B 1

fettled hahitalicns and rc;nilar means of fubfiftcncT. They led
a wandering Kfe, and cuniid all llieir pon'clTions vvitli thtm
in wnjj^Toiis, wliicii were tlnrir lioufes. 'i'lieir food was tlic
flcdi of'tlieir fliicks and lierils milk, and thccfc, aiid chiefly
marc's milk. They were luiacquaintcd with commerce, and
tliougli they polfeQed lands, did not cultivate them. From
oliieni, who perl'oniud tliis office, they received a tribute
fiilficient to fiipuly them with t'lj mere necefTarics of life.
The)- never took arms but to ol.ll^c thole to make good a
promife that was violated. They paid tribate to none of
the r.iighb juriiig tlUlef ; and d -pcnded on thi ir own ttrength
and courage to repel any inv:iiion. They were a people cf
great integrity. 'I'lius Homer has deicribcd them, A-?iro;
Ti ;.A«;;aTov,- iti' » -rs-j;. Strabo, torn. i. p. 4;4-5. 4^0. 478.

ADIATHAK, iii S.ripiure Hiflory, the ton of Ahime-
lech, and the tcth hiirh-p.ieil of the Jews. V\"aen Saul,
rcfenting his f^thtr's landnefs to David, malTacred the
priciia, lie alone cfcaped. Having attached himlelf to the
intercll of David, he became the liigh-piicft, though
Saul conferred the office o!i Zadok. But attcrvfnrds, con-
fpiriiig with Adonijuh, Solomon deprived him of his ofiice,
aud banilhed him. I Kii.gs, ii. 26.

A 13 in, in the Heiirriv Chronolii^, the name of the firft
month of the ecclefiaftica! year. This month was afterwards
called Nif;m, and aiiuvtrs to part of our March and Apn'.

ABIES. ini?aAj/iy,aSpeciesof the PiNtis. SccFir-tree.

ABIES marina, or Sia-^r, in Natural Hijhry, a name
given to the Sexti;laria alteUna. The Cuprejfm, a fpe-
cics of ANTiPATHts, is by fome writers denominated .('/^/Vj
rtSa.

^V>\GA. hcrli, the groutt/i-PtsE or cham*:pitvs.

ABIOEATU5rt See Abactus.

ABIHU, one of the fonsof Aarom, who, within eight
davs after the confecration of Aaron and his fons, and the
dedication of the tdbernaclc, was confumed with fire, for
offering incenfe with (Irange fire. Lev. x. 2.

ABII Scylh^, in jlnciznl Geography, a people, fuppofed
by Strdbo (torn. i. p. 454.) to be tiie European Samiatii,
bordering on tiie Thracians and Bailarncc ; they are fomc-
times CiJled jivii, and are commended by Curtius (de Rebus
Gellis AU-x. Magn. torn. ii. p. 525. Ed. Snakenb.) for their
love of jiiilice. See Asians.

ABIJAH, in Scnp:ure Ilijiory, the fon of Jeroboam,
who was the firil kiiig of the ten tribes of Ifracl. Ah'tjah
predicted, that he would be the only perfon of his family
who Ihould receive funeral honours. I Kings, xiv. i ^.

Abijam was the name of a king of JuJah, who fuc-
cecded Rchoboam. After a reign of three yeare, during
v.hich he imitated the impiety and bad condiicl of his fa-
ther, he died, A. M. 3049, ante A. D. 955.

ABILA, in Ancient Geography, See A.iii.i.-Keramim,
and Abf. L-.9/''i/,iCT, and alfo the next article.

ABILENE, in Ancient Geography, a fmall province in
Ca;Io-Sjrria, between Libanus and Antilibanus, whereof Ly-'
fanias » ;.» for fome time tctravch. Abela or Ali'a, the ca-
pital of this province", was N. of Dalnafcus and of Paneas, and
S. of Hc'.iopoli?. It is mentioned by Polybius, (Ilill. 1. xvi.)
Pliny, (Hill. 1. XV. c. iS.) and others. See Luke, iii. i.
Gibbi-a (Hiftory of the Decline and Fall of the Ro-
man Empire, vol. ix. p. 400. 8vo.) info.-ms us, that the
pr- luce and manufaclures of the country were annually col-
itcled in the f \ir of Alyla, about thirty miles from the city,
and that they fumidied a rich fpoil to the Sai-acens after the
coiKVtcft fif Damali-us, A. D. 634.

ABILITY n ufed, in La<U), for a capacity of doing
certain tluugs, relalin;^ cither to the acquifition of property,
or the transferring of it.

fe

A B I

AlHily in this fenfe coincides •with capacity, and ftsnds op-
pofed to dijabilily or non-ability.

Every pcrfon^s fuppofed to be abL,\.e. to have the power of
taking and difpofing of effects, whom the law does notdifable.

Tiie king's ilTue are of abilily to inherit in En- l.-nd whcre-
foever born ; and children of fubjects born beyond fea, may
inherit, if their birth were within the allegiance of the king.

ABIMELECH,in&T/S/«rf7/(/?/3rv,thenameoftwok;ng9
of Gerar, a country of the Phihftines, one of whom was
contemporai-)' with Abraham, who took away Sarah and de-
termined to many her, but being warned of his danger, re-
ilored her to her huiband. She was Abraham's filter, as
Weil as wife, being cf the fame father, but by another mo-
ther. He afterwards made confidemblc prefcnts to Abra-
ham; and they entered into a mutual covenant at Beerlheba.
Geu. ch. XX. xxi. A. M. 2107, ante A. D. 1897. The
other Abimeltch was, probably, the fon and fucccflor of the
former. Ifaac employed the lame artifice which had been
pra6tifed by his father Abraham, iii order to preferve Rebe-
kah from the danger to which Ihe was cxpofed. But when
AbimeLch, who was captivated by her beauty, difcovered
that fhe was his wife, he forbad his fubjeits, upon pain of
death, from doing any injury to Ifaac or Rebekah. The
fubfequent proiperity of Ilaac excited the envy of the Phi*
liftines, up<in which Abimekch ordered him to depart from
them. However, he afterward"; formed a covenant with him.
A. M. 2200, ante A. D. 1804.

Abimclech was alfo the name of the natural fon of Gideon,
by his concubine. His violent adts and death are recorded
in Judges, ch. ix. A. M. 2769, ante A. D. 1235.

ABINEAU, in Geography, a port of America, on the
north fide of the I„»-e Erie, and about 1 3 miles W. S. W.
from fort Erie.

ABINGDON, a market town of Berks, fituatcd on the
Thames. It derives its name from an ancient abbey. The
affizes, feflions, and county meetings are often held here. It
has a good hall for the alTizes, Sec. Here are two churches
faid to have been erected by the abbots of AbingJon. The
ftrects are well built, and centre in a fpacious corn-market.
It fends one member to parliament. Great quantities of
malt are made here and fent in barges to London. It is feven
miles S. of Oxtord, and ^6 W. of London. This town is
faid to have been built by CiiTa, king of Suflex, A. D. 5I7»
and fuppofed by Bilhop Gibfon to be the place called in the
Saxon annals, Clovtjhoo, where two fynods are faid to have
been held, one in 742, and the other in 822. W. long.
t' 12'. N. lat. 51° 42'.

Abimgdon is alfo the name of the chief town of 'Walhing-
ton county in Virginia; about 260 miles in a direct line from
Richmond. N. lat. 36° 30'.

Abingdon is alfo a town of Harford county in Mary-
land, 1 2 miles S. W. from Havre de Grace, and 20 N. E.
from Bdtimore. C .leftuiy college, inflituted by the me-
thodifts r- 1789, is in this town.

AB-INTESTATE, in the Ciw/ Za^t-, is app'Jed to a
perfon who inherits fi-om one who died inteftate.

ABIOSI,^0i!'H, in B:ogrpphy,7xn Italian phyfician and aftro-
nomer, whohved towards the end of the 15th century and
beginning of the 1 6th. His Dialogue upon Aitrology, 4to,
Venice, 1494, has been put into the Index Expurgatorius.

ABIPONIANS, in lliJlory, a tribe of American Indians,
who formerly inhabited the diftridt of Chaks in Paraguay ;
but who have nnce been compelled by the hoftihties of the
Spaniards to remove fouthward, into the territorv lying be-
tween Santa Fe and St. Jago. M. Dobrizhoffer lived feven
years in their country, a.-id publiihed an account of them in
1785. He fays, their number is fmall, and does not exceed
2 jooo,

A B J

5000, which he afcrilies to the women's deftroying their in-
fants, in order to prevent the infidelity of their hufbands
during the long time of their keejiinir them at the brenfl,
whieh is not lefs than two years. Thj^ are natuially white,
but acquire a brown colour by expolure to the air and fmoke.
They are ftrong and hardy, which, as this writer fays, is
owing to their not marrying before 30 years of age ; and
they are much celebrated for their challity and other virtues,
though, according to our author, they have no knowledge
of a deity ; and yet they admit the exiftence of an evil fjiirit,
and brieve that the foul exills for ever. They confider
their difcafcs as the effcfts of forcery and witchcraft ; and
this fuperilitious notion gives rife to frequent murders. They
arc ranged into diilinft bodies, under their rcfpeftive chiefs,
and, by means of their wild horfes, tliey make frequent and
formidable incurlions into the territories of the Spaniards ;
again ft whom they have conceived an invincible hatied. Their
ufe of horfes commenced in 1C41 ; and ihey manage them
with great agility, without ftirrups, faddlri, or fpurs. The
fraud and cruelty practiled among them by the Spaniards,
have induced the Jcfult miffionaries to prohibit any of them
from coming, without a foniial permilhon, into any of their
colonies. The fuccefs of^hefe niiiTionaries, in their endea-
vours to convert them to ttie chrlltian faith, has been very
jneonliderable. They are flill fo ignorant and uncivilized,
that they can proceed in reckoning no farther than the num-
ber three; and the Jefuits have failed in teaching them the
fimpleft ufe and exprefiion of numbers.

ABIRAM, in Scripiure Hifiory, a feditious Lcvite, who
rebelled againft Moses and Aaron, with a view of obtain-
ing a fliave in the government, and who, with Korah and
Dathan, concerned with them, were fwallowed up alive by
the opening earth. Numb. xvi.

ABISHAI, in Scripture H'ljlory, the fon of Zeniiah,
and brother of Joab, was one of the moil valiant warriors of
his time, and principal general in the armies of David. Kis
military exploits are recorded in 2 Sam. xxi. 17. xxiii. 18.;
but the time and manner of his death are not known.

ABISHERING, an andmt lavj term, denoting a being
free, or exempt from all amerciaments for tranfgrefllons
of any kind.

The word in a charter or grant, is faid not only to give
the proprietor the forfeitures and amerciaments of all others
for tranfgrefllons committed witliin his fee, but alfo to
exempt him from all fuch controul by any within that com-
pafs.

ABITIBBI, in Geography, the name of a fmall lake in
Upper Ccfnada, to the S. of which is a fettlement called
Frederick, in N. l?.t. 49'^. W. long. 79° 40'. It is alfo the
name of a river, which runs N. and joins Moofe river, near
its mouth at James's bay.

ABITIBIS, a lake to the N. of Nipiffmg lake, on the
N. E. boundary of Canada in New South Wales, vv^hich
communicates with James's bay, near Moofe fort. W. long.
78° 5'. N. lat. 59° 3'.

ABIUL, a fmall town of Beira in Portugal. W. long.
7° 10'. N. lat- 40° 20'.

ABJURATION, compounded of ab, from or againjl,
xndjanire, to fiuear, in a general fenfe, the a£l of denying,
or renouncing a thing in a folemn manner, and even with
an oath.

Among the Romans, aljurat'ion fignified the denying a
debt, pledge, depe-fit, or the like trull, by a f^dfe oatli.
In wliich fenfe, ahjumtion coincides with p>crjiirat'wr. ; and
Hands diftinguilhed from ejiinilion, where the oath is fuppof-
ed ]i\'.l.

Abjurai ion, more particularly, is ufed for a folemn re-

A B K

ca:itation, or renunciation of fome doftrinc, or oj)inion, as
fahe and pernicious. Thus it is ufed in the phrale, adjura-
tion 0/ HERESY.

In our own laws, to abjure a perfon, is to renounce all au-
thority or dominion of fuch a perfon. liy the o,il/j of abju-
ration, a perfon binds himfclf not to own any regal authority
in the perfon called tiie Pretender, or ever to pay liim the
obedience of a fvd)je(tt. I W. and M. 13 W. III. i Geo. I.
The refiifers of the oath enjoined l)y thefe llatutes arc liable
to ijndr)' penalties, forfeitures, &c. The oath of abjura-
tion by tiie 6th G. III. cap. 53. " I A. B. do truly and
fincerely acknowledge, profefs, tcflify, and declare in my
confcience, before God and the world, that our fovcrcign
lord king George is lawful and rightful king of this lealm,
and all other his majeily's dominions thereunto belonging.
And I do folcmnly and fincerely declare, that I do believe
in my confcience, that not any of the defceiidants of the
perfon who pretended to be Prince of Wales during the life
of the late king James the Second, and fincc his deceafe
pretended to be, and took upon himfclf the ftyle and title of
king of England, by the name of James the Third, or of
Scotland, by llie name of James the Eighth, or the llyle
and title of king of Great Britain, hath any rig'it or title
whatfoever, to tiie crown of this realm, or any other the
dominions thereunto belonging. And I do renounce, re-
fufe, and abjure any allegiance or obedience to any of them.
And I do fwear, tliat I will bear faith and true allegiance
to his majelly king George, and him will defend, to the ut-
moll of my power, againll all traitorous confpiracies, and at-
tempts whatfoever, which fliall be made againll his perfon,
crown, and dignity. And I will do my utmofl; endeavour
to difclofe and make kno^vn to his majelly, and his fuccef-
fors, all treafons and traitorous confpiraeies which I (liall
know to be againfl him or any of them. And I do faith-
fully promife, to the utmoft of my pawtr, to fupport, main-
tain, and defend the fucceffion of the crown againll the de-
fcendants of the faid James, and agalnJl all other perfons
whatfoever; which fucccflion, by an aft, inlitled, ^In a3
for the further limitation of the crown, and belter f curing the
rights and liberties of the fuhjeS, is and (lands hmited to the
princefs Sophia, eleftrefs and duchefs dowager of Hanover,
and the heirs of her body, being proteilants. And all tliefe
things I do plainly and fincerely acknowledge and fwear, ac-
cording to thefe exprefs words by me fpoken, and according
to the plain and common fenfe and underftanding of the
fame words, without any equivocation, mental evafion, or
fecret refervation whatfoever. And I do make this recog-
nition, acknowledgment, abjuration, renunciation, and pio-
mife heartily, willingly, and truly, upon the true faith of a
Chriilian. So help me God."

Adjuration is alfo ufed \a owt Ancient Cujloms, for an
oath taken by a prrfon guilty of felony ; who, hying to a
place of fanftuaiy, would fwear to forfake the realm for
ever, in lieu of other puniftiment. We alfo find inflanees of
teniporaiy abjuration, viz. for three years, for one year and
a day, and the like. This, in fome cafe, was admitted from
criminals in lieu of death. The devotion for the church was
fo warm, from the time of Edward the Confeffor to the Re-
formation, that if a man, having committed felony, could
recover a church or church-yard before he was apprehended,
it was an afylum from which he could not be brought
to take his trial at law; but confefTing his crime to the
juftices, or coroner, and abjuring the kingdom, he was at li-
berty.

By Hat. 2 1 Jac. I. all ufe of fanftuaries, and confequently
of abjuration, is taken away.

ABKIIAS, in Hijlory, one of the feven nations in the
F 2 couiitric*

A B L

«mintn« comprehended between the Black Sea and the
Cafpiaji. Their principal and moil ancient cllabhihments
are on the fouthcm declivity of the mountains that lie be-
tween the river Cuban and the Black Sea. Tliey are
tributary to the Turks, and are divided into two govern-
ments, the eaftern and wellem ; each of whicli is fubjeifl to
a bilhaw. The capit:d ia Anaeopia, formerly Nicopfis.
They fpcak a language peculiar to themfelves, but bearing
a remote affinity to that of tlie Circaffuins. Some have fup-
pofcd that it is a dialctl of the Celtic. They have little re-
ligion, though the)' prcferve fome traces of chriftianity. See
Abassa aiid AiiAsciA.

ABLACTATION, the weaning of a child from the breaft.
The proper time for weaning a child muft be determined by
t3>e (late of health of the child, and of the parent, but par-
ticularly of the latter. The lielplefTnefs of infants, and the
late period at which they get their teeth, fecm to indicate
that mture intended they ihould derive the greater part of
their food, for the firft two years, from the breaft. This,
doubtlcfs, was univcrfally the cafe in the early periods of the
vorld ; as before the culinary- art had obtained fome degree
of pcrfeclion, it mullh.ivc b-'cn difficult to have found a fuf-
ficient quantity of fuch kinds of food as the children could
properly mallicate or digeft, without the affillance of the
treall. And even now we know this to be the pradlice in
rude and uncirihzed countries. The negroes, Mr. Park fays
in his Travels in the interior Parts of Africa, fuckle their
children three years. A fimilar practice prevails among
the poorer part of the inhabitants of this, and, perhaps, of
every other country in Europe. Thefe people alfo, pre-
vious to weaning their children, and for fome time after,
chew for them, fuch parts of their food as they are incapable
of mailicating. In families better circumftanced, and who
are capable of providing for their children proper nourifh-
ment, they are ufually weaned when they have attained
eight or nine months, although they have then rarely more
than the eight firft teeth, the incifores, or fore teeth. Tliey
are therefore neceffarily fed for fome months after with
bread or bifcuit foftened with milk, or with broth made of
beef, mutton, or veal. Pieces of cruft of bread, or of flefh,
ore alfo given them to chew, which is fuppofed not only to
accelerate the cutting the remainder of their teeth, but by
exciting a flow of faliva, to afhft in digefting the new kind
of food they are now gradually to be accullomed to take.
See Weanixg.

Ablactation', in the jinc'ienl Agriculture, is a method
of engrafting ; wherein the cyon of one tree, being united
for fome time to the ftock of another, is afterwards cut off,
and, as it were, weaned from its mother-tree.

Among the modsm writers ablaaation is more ufually called
INARCHING, or GRAFTING h approach.

ACLANCOURT. See'PERROT.

ABLANIA, m Botany. See Trichocarpus.

ABLAQUEATION, a name ufed by the ancient
writers oi yl^ricullure for an operation in gardening,' whereby
the c?.rth is dug from about a vine, or other fruit-tree, and
Its roots are laid bare, to expofe them more to the fun, rain,
and air, in order to promote its fecundity.— The proper fea-
f on for ablaqueation is autumn, for the benefit of the winter
rain, and fnow waier. Bradley fixes it in January. But
experience having ftiewn the praftice to be dangerous, it is
now gener:\lly laid afide.

ABLATION, formed from aufcro, to take away, in
Surgery the removal of whatever might be injurious or ufe-
leis to the animal body.

ABLATIVE, in Grammar, the fixth cafe of Latin
nouns. The word is formed from aujero, to tale away.

A B L

Prifci.-vn alfo calls it the comparative cafe; as it ferved among
the Latins, for comparing, as well as taking away.

The ABLATIVE is oppoiite to the Dative ; the firft ex-
prcfTing the adlion of taking away, and the latter that of
giving.

The ablative hardly anfwers to the juft idea of a cafe ; at
leaft it is more vague than any other. It will be fliewn in
its place that the Enghfli, and other modern tongues, have
properly no fuch thing as cases ; unlefs we except the no-
minative and genitive or pofleffive, which are the only cafes
that admit of different terminations. But even in the ancient
languages, from which the notion of cafes is borrowed, it is
fuggelled, that the ablative is only a fort of fupcrnumerary,
or Hipplement to the reft. The five proper cafes not being
found fufficient to cxprefs all the relations of things to each
otlier, recourfe was had to an expedient : viz. the putting
a prepofition before fome of the other cafes; and this made
the ablative.

It may be added, that in the plural number the ablative
is ftill more obfcure, as being only the dative repeated. In
EngliiTi, French, &c. there is no precife mark whereby to
diftinguilh the ablative from other cafes ; and we only ufe
the term in analogy to the Later. Thus, in the two phrafes,
the magnitude of the city, and he finke much of the city; we
fay, that of the city in the firft is genitive, and in the latter
ablative : becaufe it would be fo, if the two phrafes were ex-
pretfed in Latin.

The queftion concerning the Greek ablative has been the
fubjeft of a famous literary war between two great gram-
marians Frifchlin and Cnifius ; the former of whom main-
tained, and the latter oppofed the reality of it.

The difpute is not yet decided. Sanclius, and the
Port-royalifts, maintained the afSi-mative ; Perizonius the
negative. The chief reafon alleged by Sanftius is, that
the Roman writers often joined Greek words with the Latin
prepofitions, which govern ablative cafes, as well as with
nouns of the faine cafe. To which Perizonius anfvs'ers, that
the Latins anciently had no ablative themfelves ; but inftead
thereof, made ufe, like the Greeks, of the dative cafe ; till
at length they formed an ablative, governed by prepofitions,
which were not put before the dative : that, at firft, the two
cafes had always the fame termination, as they ilill have in
many inftances : but that this was afterwards changed in
certain words. It is no wonder then, that the Latins fome-
times join prepofitions which govern an ablative cafe, or
nouns in the ablative cafe, with Greek datives, fince they
were originally the fame ; and that the Greek dative has the
fame effect as the Latin ablative. See Cases.

Ablative Absolute, in Grammar, is aword or phrafe
detached and independent of the reft of the difcourfe ; nei-
ther governing, nor being governed of any other thing.
This is frequent among the Latins ; in imitation of whom
the modern languages have likewife adopted it.

ABLAY, in Geography, a country in Great Tartary,
the inliabitants of wliich, called Buchars or Bachares, are
fubjecl to Ruffia, for the fake of obtaining its proteftion,
but their chief is a Calmuck. It lies' eaft of the river Irtis,
and extends 500 leagues along the fouthern frontiers of Sibe-
ria. E. long, from 72° to 83°. N. lat. from 51° to 54°.

ABLE, or Abel, Thomas, in Biography, chaplain to
queen Catharine, confort of king Henry VIII., who diftin-
guifhed himfelf by his zeal in oppofing the proceedings of the
king, and particularly the divorce of his royal miftrefs. For
this purpofe he wrote a treatife, intitled, TraSatus de non dif-
fohendo Henrici Jif Catherime Matrimonlo, or, according to
Tanner, Invida Veritas; though fome fuppofe thefe are the
tides of different works. He took his degree of A. B. at
I Oxford

A B L

ABO

Oxford in 1513, and that of A. M. in 1516. In 15^^4116
was profccuted for his concern in the affair of EHzabeth
Barton, cnllcd, The Huly Maui of Kent, \A.\o was fuborncd by
the monks to nfe ilrangegefticulations, to exhibit a variety of
fictitious miracles, and to feign the gift of prophecy, by which
means (he attached many refpeftable perfons to her interell ;
but (he was aftenvards attainted of treafon in parUament,
condemned and executed, together with her cliief accom-
phces, whofe names ihe difclofed. Able was alfo adjudged

fuilty of mifprifion of treafon, by flat. 25 Henry VIII.
le was alfo one of thofe who denied the king's fupremacy
over the church, for wliich he was apprehended and
jmprifoned, and afterwards hanged, drawn, and quartered,
in Smithlicld, on the 30th of July, 1540. Bouchier gives
him the character of a very learned man, and tells us, that
be taught the queen mufic and the languages. Biog. Brit.

ABL.ECTI, in Antiquity, a choice and feleft part of the
foldiery in the Roman armies, picked out of thofe called

EXTRAORDINARII.

ABLEGMINA, in Antiquity, thofe choice parts of the
entrailsofviftims' which were offered in facrifice to the gods.

Some authors make allcymina to denote all thofe parts of
the vidlims which were offered to the deities ; contrary to
the authority of Fcilus, wiio reilrains allegmina to the cxta,
or entrails only.

The exta being found good, were to be profefted, or
parted ; 1. e. the extremes or prominent parts cut off, as
able!;mina, to be fprinkled with flour, and burnt by the
priefls on the altar, pouring wine on them. — TertuUian
rallies the heathens for thus ferving the gods with fcraps
and offals.

ABLET, or Alblek, in Ichthyology, a name given by
fome to the common bleak, a fmall frefh-water filh, called
in Latin alburnus.

ABLOE, in Geography, a town of Little Tartary, lying
between the river Dnieper and the Black Sea. E. long. 33"^
J5'. N. lat. 46° 20'.

ABLUENTS, in Medicine, a name which fome authors
give to a fort of diluting medicines, fuited to wafh off from
the external or internal furfaces of the body, any fubftances
improperly adhering to them ; they are either water or other
fluids, and they are adminiftered in the form of lotion, gar-
garifm, or injeftion. They are more commonly known by the
names of Abstergents, Detergents, and Diluents.

ABLUTION, from ahluo, quafi ab \Sf lavo, I 'waJJi aivay,
in Antiquity, a religious ceremony in ufe among the Romans ;
being a fort of purification, performed by walhingthe body,
before they entered on facrifice.

Sometimes they waflied their hands and feet, fometimes
the head, and oftentimes the whole body : for Wiiich pur-
pofe, at the entrance into their temples, were placed marble
veffels filled with water.

Ablutions appear to be as old as any ceremonies, and ex-
ternal worfhip itfclf. Mofes enjoined them ; the heathens
adopted them, and Mahomet and his followers have con-
tinued them ; thus they have been introduced among mofl
nations, and make a confiderable part of mofl eflabliflied re-
ligions.— The Egyptian priefts had their diurnal and noc-
turnal ablutions: the Grecians their fprinklings : the Ro-
mans, their luflrations and lavations : the Jews their wafh-
ings of hands and feet, befide their baptifms : the ancient
Chriflians had their ablutions before communion, which the
Roman church flill retain before their mafs, fometimes after:
the Syrians, Cophts, &c. have their folemn wafhings on
Good Friday : the Turks, their greater and leffer ablutions;
their gafl and wodon ; their sman, tabarut, guful, and ab-
deft, &c.

Ablution is particularly ufed in the Romifh church,
for a fup of wine and water, whicli the communicants
anciently took after the holl, to wafh it down, and help to
digefl.

The fame term alfo fignifies the water whi<:h ferves to
wa(]i tlie hands of the priefl who confecratcd it.

Ablution, in Pharmacy, is a preparation which divers
remedies undergo, by walhing them in water, or fome other
fluid, proper to cleanfe or free them of their impurities, and
fo to exalt tlieir powers.

The ufual way of doing this, is by cohobation, or
pouring the liquor diiliiled from the body, upon il again :
and repeating this as often as it is neceflary. See Depu-
ration.

ABLUTION, In Surgery, a term, fignifying the walh-
ing or cleanfing a body. This is performed by injefting
with a fyringe, or by repeated afTufions of a proper liquor,
or by plunging the part itfelf into the fluid.

ABNAKIS, m IJi/lory, Indians of North America, be-
tween New England and Canada, who are averfe from la-
bour, and take no pains in cultivating the ground.

ABNER, in Scripture Hijlory, the fon of Ner, and ge-
neral of Saul's amiics, who adhered to Saul during his rei^n,
fet his fon Ilhboflieth on the throne, and fupported him for
feven years at NLihanaim, beyond Jordan, againfl the forces of
David, who then reigned at Hebron, in Judah. He after-
wards conceived a prejudice againfl Ilhbofheth, and went
over to David, with the chiefs of the army and the elders of
Ifrael. David received him with tokens of affeftion, which
offended Joab, by vi'hom he was infidioufly killed ; avengin

himfelf, by this murder, of the death of his brother Afaheh
His funeral was folemnized by David, who compofed a
mournful fong in honour of him. Abner died A. M. 2956,
ante A. D. 1048.

ABO, in Geography, a maritime town in Sweden, and
the capital of the province of Swedifh Finland, is fituated
at the point in which the gulfs of Bothnia and Finland unite,
and on the river Aurojocki, which runs through this city.
This is the mofl confiderable town in the whole countiy,
and has a good harbour. It has many good brick-houfes, but
they are generally built of wood, painted red. In 1226 it was
eredled into a bifhop's fee. In 1628 Guftavus Adolphus
founded a gymnafmm or feminary, which queen Chritlina
converted into an academy in 1640, and endowed with the
fame privileges as that of Upfal. In 1779 '^ contained
about 300 fludents. The only royal high court of judica-
ture in Finland is held at this place ; and here the governor
of the province ufually refides. The export trade confifts of
linen, com, deals, flax, and iron. Abo is the 8th voting
town in the Diet. It is 140 miles N. E. of Stockholm.
E. long. 22° 13' 30". N. lat."6o'' 27' 10". The refult of
12 years obfervations, viz. from 1750 to 1761, gives the mean
annual temperature at this place, 40° of Fahrenheit. Kir-
wan's Eftimate of the Temperature of different Latitudes,
p. 60.

K-aQ-Slot, or y/(^o-Caflle, is one of the mofl: ancient forti-
fications in Finland. It ilands on a peninfula near the
mouth of the river Aura. In the i6th ceiitur;' king Erick
XIV. was confined in this cafl;le. It has often fuftercd both
by the enemy and by fire. Bufching.

ABOARD, in Sea-language, See Board.

ABOASAR, in Geography, a village in Lower Egypt,
faid to be the ancient Busiris.

ABOCCIS, in Ancient Geography, the Abuncis of Ptolemy,
a town of jEthiopia, fituate on the weflern fide of the Nile,
not far from the greater Cataraft.

ABOCRO, or ABORREL, in Ceogra^h;/, a town

ucax

A B O

ner.r the river Anitobar or Cobrc nn tlie Gold Coafl in
AfriL-a, which gives iiamo to a rcpiililicnn province.
■ ABOLA, ill Geogntfly, Oiie of tlK" divifioiis of the
Acow ill AbyfTiiii:!. It is a plain, or i-ather a valley, from .
h.ilf a mile to a mile broad; formed on tlie call and weft fide
by mountaiin that are cowred with herbage and acacia-trees
to the very fummit, and that become towards the foulh
more lofty, niggt-d, and woody. On the top of tlufc
mountains there are very dvlijriufiil plains, aboiindinjj with
excellent p:\llurc. In this vallty there wtic many villages,
which had efcaped the havock of war, and' which ap-
peared lefs poor and wretched than other habitations
of the country A river of the fame name flows through
this valley, which has two branches ilTuing from the two ad-
joining ridges of mountains. Another river, called Iwoira,
rifing in the eall, nms weftward into the ylbola. It alio re-
ceives fevcral other ftreams and tonents,- as the Goo;^ucri,
Karnachiiili, Caccino, S;c. which fall into it in different
directions. Mr. Bruce found no fidi either in the jllola or
any of its tributai^- llrcams, which he accounts for by their
being almoil Axy in fummer and violently rapid in winter, fo
that the fpawn and fi(b are both dellroycd in different feafons
by different caufes. Bruct's Travels, &c. vol. iii. p. 581.
ABOLITION, Abolishing, in a general fenfe, the
aft of deftroying a thing, or reducing it to nothing.
Some derive the word from alolere, ex ab &(. ako, and others
from the Greek as:o>.>.v4;, / iL-flroy.

In our laws the abolition of a law, flatute, or cuftom, is
the abrogating or repealing it.

The leave given bv a prince, or judge, to a criminal ac-
cufer, to defill from farther profecution of the accufed, is
peculiarly called nbolilion. 25 H. VIII. c. 2 1.

yfboliiiin is particularly ufed among civilians, for remitting
the puniihmcnt of a crime. In this fenfe aboHlicm is a lower
fpecies of amnelly, which takes off the punifhment but
not the infamy : liberal fed notat.

MoHtion is alfo particularly ufed, among Roman law-
yers, for the annulling a profecution, or legal accufation :
and in this fenfe diners from amnefty and oblivion ; be-
caufe in the former, the accufation might be renewed,
even by the fame profecutor, which in the latter was
extinguifhed for ever. Within thirty days after a public
aholilion, the fame accufer by the prince's licence, was al-
lowed to renew the charge ; after a private nbolilion, another
accufer might renew it, but the fame could not.

This kind of abolition is either granted in favour of the ac-
cufed, or of the accufer ; and is either public, granted by
the prince or fenate, on occafions cf public rejoicings, vic-
tory, and congratulation ; or private, fued for to the prefi-
dcnt or judge, by one of the parties ; frequently by the ac-
cufer hinifelf, who after having embarked in the profecution,
by fubfcribing his name to the charge, could not by the
Turpilian fenatus-confultus otherwife defift, without incur-
ring infamy. On fuch occafions therefore the accufer would
felere abotitioncm ; that is, move for ^n abolition: which was
only granted, on his (hewing fair and honeft motives for with-
drawing the charge ; viz. inadvertency, youth, warmth, or
the like; nor was it granted without the confent of the ac-
cufed ; or if the accufation appeared to have been utterly
falfc, or malicious, &c.

As to the accufed, the charge againft him was alfo nbolifhed
by the death of the accufer, or his being incapacitated from
profecuting by reafon of ficknefs, or the like. — An atlion
of injury was abuli/ked by diflimulaljon ; a fentence of con-
demnation, by indulgence.

yll.oliti',n was alfo ufed for expunging a perfon's name out
of the public lift of the accufed, hung up in the treafurv-.

ABO

This was called /jis/frjT nomz-n; and, like the former, wa8
cither public, as that under Auguftus, when all the names,
which had long hung up, were expunged at once ; or pri-
vate, done at the motion of one of the parties.

By feveral laws in the Theodofian code it appears, that
an abolition of debts was fometimes granted the debtors to
the fifcus. We have a medal of the emperor Adrian,
wherein that prince is reprcfented Handing with a fceptre ia
his left hand, and a lighted torch in his right ; with which
he fets fire to fevcral paper? in prefence of the people, who
teilify their joy ar.d gratitude by lifting Op their hands towards
heaven. The legend is, Reliqua ivtera H. S. ni^mmis aboliUi.

ABOLIJ\, in Jnliquily, a warm kind of garment, lined
or doubled, ufed by the Greeks and Romans ; chiefly out of
the city, in following the camp.

The word is Latin, formed, as fome imagine, from bulla,
on the fuppolitlon that this vellment was garniflied with
thofe ornaments called bullr. Others, denying this circum-
ftance, derive it from the Greek cf/.ooXu, ot am'SoA-n, amicfus,
cloathing.

Critics and antiquaries are greatly divided as to the form,
ufe, kinds, &c. of this garment. Papias makes it a fpecies
of the I'.'ga, or gown ; but Nonius, and the generrJity, a
fpecies of the pallium, or cloaL

The abolla feems rather to have fl:ood oppofed to toga,
wliich was a garment of peace, as the abolla was of war ; at
leall Van-o and Martial place them in this oppofite light.
Some, after Nonius, hold it to have been a military garb
alone ; others, after Papias, a fenatorial ; and Salmafius parti-
cularly fuppofes it to have been worn by the prefidents in the
provinces, and even by the prefefti of the city when they
adminiftered juftice ; which Pitifcus endeavours to refute.
Others will alfo have the nbolla to have been ufed by the
philofophers, particularly the Stoics, Cynics, &c. Laftly,
others reconcile all the variances by making divers kinds cf
abolla, accommodated to different occafions and profefTions.
Even kings appear to have ufed the abolla: Caligula w-as af-
fronted at king Ptolemy for appearing at the fliews in a
purple abolla, and by the eclat thereof turning the eyes of
the fpeftators from the emperor upon himfelf.

ABOMASUS, Abomasum, or Abomasium, in Com-
parative Anatomy, a name given by old anatomirts to one of
the ftomachs or ventricles of animals of the ruminating kind.
See Ruminant and Rumination.

Beafts that chew the cud are found to have four ftomachs ;
viz. the rumen, or magmis venter, ox Jlomach, properly fo
called ; the reticulum, omafus, and cbomafus. The abomafuiy
properly called the rnanv, is the lait of the four; being the
place where the chyle is formed, and from which the food
defcends immediately into the inteftiaes.

It is full of a fort of leaves, like the omafus; but its leaves
have this peculiarity, that, befide the membranes they con-
fift of, they contain a great number of glands, not found in
any of the firft.

It is in the abomafus of calves and lambs that the rennet,
or earning, is formed, with which milk is curdled.

ABOMINATION, in Scripture Hi/lory, a term ufed
with regard to the Hebrews, who, being fhephcrds, are faid
to have been an abomination to the Egyptians; becaufe they
facrificed the facred animals of that people, as oxen, goats,
flieep, &c. which the Egyptians efteemed as abominations, or
things unlawful. The term is alfo applied in the facred
v.ritings to idolatry and idols, not only becaufe the worfhip
of idols is in itfelf an abominable thing, but likewife, becaufe
the ceremonies of idolaters were almoft always attended with
licentioufnefs, and Witli actions of an infamous and abomv
nabic nature. To this purpofe, Chryfcftom (Opera, vol. i.

p. 645.

ABO

ABO

p. 64J. ed. Benedift.) affiims, that every Mol and every
image of a man was called an abomlnalion among the Jews.
The abominalkn of iLfvlation foretold by the prophet Daniel,
(ch. X. 27. xi. ;?!.) is fuppof<.d by fomc intei'preters to de-
note the ftatue of Jupiter Olympius, which Antiochus Epi-
plianes caufed to be ereded in the temple of Jeriifalem. See
I Maccab. i. 54. 59. ch. iv. 3!^. 2 Maccab. vi. 2. The
fecond of the paffages above cited may p\ obably refer to this
circumftance, as the ilatue of Jupiter did, in facl, matt: Jrfo-
laU, by banifhinj^ the true worlhip of God, and thofc who
performed it, from the temple. But the former paflp.ge,
confidered in its whole ccnuertiop, bears mote immediate re-
ference to that which the Evanf^cliiU have denominated the
ab'Unlnatir.v. of Jej'nlation. Matt. xxiv. 15, 16. Mark, xiii. 14.
This, without doubt, fi^nilies the enfigns of the Roman
armies under the command of Til us, during the laft fiege of
Jerufalem. The images of their gods and emperors were
delineated on thefe eiihgns; and the enfigns themfelvcs, efpc-
cially the eagle, which was carried at the head of every legicn,
were objefts of worlhip, and, according to the ufual Ityle of
Scripture, they were called an abonmialicn. Thefe enfigns
were placed unon the ruins of the temple after it was taken
and demoliihed; and as Jofephus in'fonns us, (De Bell. Jud.
1. vi. c. 6. apud Oper. torn. ii. p. 391. Ed. Havercamp.) the
Romans lacrificed to them there. The honor with which the
Jews regarded them fufficiently appears from the account
which Jofephus (Antiq. 1. xvili. c. 3. § I. &c. c. 5. § 3.
apud Oper.toro.i. p.884. 875. Ed.Haverc.) gives of Pilate's
introducing them into the city, when lie fent his army from
Csefarea into winter-quarters at Jerufalem, and of ViteDius's
propoiuig to march through Judxa, after he had received or-
ders from Tiberius to attack Aretas, king of Petra. The peo-
ple fupplicated and remonftratcd, and induced Pilate to re-
move the anny, and Vitellius to march his troops another
way. The Jews apply the r.bove paflage of Daniel to the
P-omars, as we are infoiTned by Jerome in loc. The
learned Mr. Mede (See his Works, b. iv. epiil. 41. p. 797.
and b. iii. p. 667. 672.) concurs in the fame opinion. Sir
Ifaac Newton (Obf. on Daniel, c. ix. and alfo c. xii. See his
Works by Horfley, vol. v. p. 369. 410.) obferves, that in the
16th year of the emperor Adrian, A. C. 132. the Romans
accomphllied the preditlion of Daniel by building a temple
to Jupiter Capitolinus, where the temple of God in Jerufa-
lem had flood. Upon this occafion the Jews, under the
conduA of Barchochab, rofe up in arms againft the Romans,
and in the war had 50 cities demohfhed, 985 of their beft
towns deftroyed, and 580,000 menflain bythefword; and in
the end of the war, A. C. 1 36, they were banilhed from Judea
upon pain of death ; and thenceforth the land remained defo-
late of its old inhabitants. Others again have applied the
prediction of Daniel to the invafion and defolation of Chrifl-
cndom by the Mohammedans, and to their converfion of the
churches into mofques. From this interpretation they infer,
that the religion of Mohammed will prevail in the eaft 1260
years, and be fucceeded by the reftoration of the Jews, the
deftniftion of antichrift, the fiUl converfion of the Gen-
tiles to the chu-ch of Chrift, and the commencement of the
millennium. See Newton on the Prophecies, in his Works,
vol. viii. p. 197. 8vo.

ABON, Abona, or Abonis, in Ancient Geography, a
town and river of Albion. According to Camden, the town
is Abingdon, and th.e river Alhon or A-von. But by An-
tonine's Itinerary, the dillance is nine miles from the Venta
Silurum, or Caer-went; and therefore, others take the town
to be Porfhut, at the mouth of the river Avon, near Briftol.
Alhon or Av^n, in the Celtic language, denotes a river.

ABONI, in Geography, a town jn the ^Terior part of

Africa, near the Slnvc-coaft, which gives name to a province
that is rich in gold.

ABONOTICA, or Ai)ONOTirMos, i. e. aCu'vh ruxc;,
in Anciin! Geography, a fmall fortified town of Paphlagonia,
whole fituation is determined by Arrian and Ptolemy. This
was the habitation of the emperor Alexander, whom I^ucian
(Pfeudomant.ap. Oper. tom.ii. p. 217, See.) has pr.rticularly
defcribed. On the coin of Antoninus Pius it is dt noted by
a double fcrpent, the attribute of ^fculaplns. This town
was called lonopolis after the time of Alexander.

ABORAS, called by Xcnophon Arasca, a river of
Mefopotamia, which rofe near the Tigris, was increafed
a few m.ilts below Nifibis by the httle ftrcam of the
Mygdonius, paffed under the walls of.Singara, and fell into
the Euphrates at Circ' fium. It was fixed as the boundary
between the Roman and Perfian empires, in the negotiation
between Dioclefian and Naifes, towards the clofe of the 3d
centur)', A. D. 29;.

ABORIGINES, or Aforigenes, in Hijtory, a name
fometimes given to the primitive ir.habitants of a ccuntrv, or
thofe who had their original in it; in contradidinc^ion to co-
lonies, or new races of inhabitants, derived from other places.

The tenn Aiorigines is famous in antiqr.ity. — Though
now an appellative, it was originally a proper name given
only to a certain people in Italy ; and both the reafon and
origin of it are greatly difputed among the learned.

Aborigines then primarily denoted a nation in Italy, which
inliabited tlie ancient Latiuni, or country now called Ro-
mania, or Campagna di Roma.

In which fenfe the Aborigines are diftingui/hed from the
Janigenx, who, accoiding to the falfe Berofus, inhabited
the country before them ; from the Siculi, whom they ex-
pelled ; from the Grecians, from whom they d. feendcd ;
from the Latins, whofe name they alTumtd, after their
union with ^neas and the Trojans ; and laftly, from the
Aufonii, Volfci, Oenotrii, &;c. neighbouring nations in other
parts of the country.

Whence this people came by the appellation is much dif-
puted,

S. Jerome fays, they were fo called, as being, alfque ori-
gine, the primitive planters of the country after the flood.
Dionyiius of HahcarnaiTus, (Antiq. Rom. 1. i. c. 10. apud
Op. torn. i. p. 8, 9. II. ed. Oxon.) recites fevcral opinions
as to the origin of the appellation. Some, he fays, allege
that they owe their name to their being original inhabitants
of the country', and becaufe they were the founders of the
race that occupied it, and that the denomination is fimilar to
the Greek term y»ap;^ai and 'afo'}o;otcit. Others conllder the ap-
pellation as fynonymous witliy/^crr/f/n«,and others again con-
ceive them to have been originally Arcadians, and that their
anceltors were theOenotrii, who n:igrated from Greece feven-
teen generations before the Trojan war, and fettled in tl.-it
countiy above 400 years before the Trojan war ; and that
they derived their name either from the mountains of Arca-
dia, qit. ofwi ysvo;, natives of the niounlains, or becaufe
they gave origin to the Latins, who being defcended from
them, called them Aborigines ; that is, the people from
whom they derived their origin : and to this opinion he
himfelf inclines.

Aurelius Viftor (de Orig. Roman.) fuggefts, that they
were called Aborigines, q. d. Aberrigincs, from ab, from, and
errare, to luanJer ; as having been before a wandering
people, who, coming from different countries, met acci-
dentally in Italy, and lived there by rapine ; to which opi«
nion Feftus gives fome credit. It is added, that Pelafgians,
another name fometimes given them, is of the fame import,
and denotes vagabonds, like cranes.

Paufanias

ABO

Paufanias lli'mks (Gr:cc. Dcfcvipt. p. 603. cd. Kubnii,)
that It.ilv was colonized by Ociiotrius, an Arcadian ; and
licncc it may bo inferred that, as Arcadia abounded with
high mountains, tlie appdlation might have been derived,
aro o)Uf, from mounUiiu ; which opinion fecnis confirmed
by Virgil, who, fpeakinij of Saturn, the legillator of tliis
people, lays :

// genut indocile, ac di/perfum montibiis cUis
Compjj'uit, Ugefqu< dclu. JEn. 1. viii. v. 32 1.

The Alof-^tn.'s were cither tlie original inhabitants of the
fouiitiy, fettled there by Janus, as fome imagine, or by
t^alurn, or Cham, as others, not long after the difperfion ;
or even, as fomc think, before it ; or they were a colony
fent from fome other nation; who, expelling the SicuLi,
who (aceordinj; to Dion. I lal. hb. i. Ant. Rom. tom. i. p. 7. )
were the original inhabitants, fettled in their place ; but
whether thefe Siculi were not, in their oriu;in, Arcadians,
firll brought into Italy by Oenotrius, fon of Lycaus, more
than 400 ycarj before the Trojan war, is not certain. Some
have maintained that this party, a fecond from Theflaly, a
third under Evander, 60 years before the Trojan war, and
another under Hercules, and another of Lacedxmonians,
who fled from the fevere difciplinc of Lycjrgus, uniting
together, conftituted the Abortgina ; others trace their ori-
gin in Scythia ; others again in Gaul ; and others will have
their, to be Canaanitcs expelled by Joihua.
Aborrel. See Abocro.

ABORTION, Jborlio, Aiorfiis, {ormed oi ah, from, and
orior,to be born, in Midwifery, the premature exckifion of a
foetus. It has been ufual to alTign names to abortions, oc-
curring at different periods of utcro-gellation. Thofe hap-
pening within the firll feven or eight days, before the fcetus
or membranes have acquired fuch a confiftence as to retain
their diftincl form wlien excluded, are called effluxions ;
from that period to about the fixth or feventh month, they
arc called ahortions, or mifearriages ; from the fixth month,
to any time before the end of the ninth month, premature
labour.

Abortion may be occafioned by too full, or too fparing a
diet, or by taking food that is too rich and fpiiituous ; by
blows or falls ; fudden frights, or any thing violently agitat-
ing the mind, whether joy or grief; frequmti coitu ; hinc
abortur frimij graviditalis menfibus non infrequens rcccns r,up-
tis, 'jcncris avidioribu! ; by difeafes, particularly fever ; by
profufe evacuations, as from large difcharges of blood,
whether happening fpontaneoudy, or procured by art, and
xifed in the cure of fome acute difeafe, as pleurify ; or by
long continued and violent purging. Vomiting, if occurring
fpontaneonfly, though extremely violent, and continuing
through the whole courfe of pregnancy, rarely occafions
;ibortion ; tut when excited by the exhibition of fharp,
acrid, or poifcnous drugs, it ufually continues until the
foetus is excluded.

There are other caufes of abortion, depending on the pe-
culiar conflitution of the uterus, or of the foetus. Thus
fome women, who are prone to breeding, are incapable of
retaining their offspring longer than the fourth, fifth, fixth,
feventh, or eighth month. In thefe cafes, the foetus ufually
dies three or four weeks before the periods here men-
tioncd ; at the end of that time the feparation of the blighted
ovvim from the uterus being completed, it is expelled
by the pains, and ordinarily with as little difliculty or dan-
cer as a living and healthy foetus. The caufe of this pecu-
liarity is not known, neither has any appropriate remedy
or means of preventing it been difcovered. Sir Richard
Maningham fuppofed it to arife from an incapacity in the

ABO

uterus to bear more than a certain degree of diftenCon. SI
viulicr ftpius ahortumfacit, he fays, {^Jphor. med.) eteodem tem-
pore, ul ^tio, 4/0. vel ^lo. menfc, ob uteri angujlia accidit,
quit au7/feiitem fatiim amplius contincre non prAtJl. The
fame eifeft, however, would follow imperfedlion in the
ftrufture of the fcetus, incapacitating it to live or inereafe
beyond a certain time. Wc know there are children who,
owing to a malconformation of fome of their organs, never
live beyond twelve, fifteen, eighteen, or foiMC definite
number of months. Whatever may be the caufe, it
not unfrequently happens that women who have parted
with five or fix fatnfes prematurely, fhal! afterwards go
to their full time, and bear living and he:uthy children.
Women who have mifcanied once or twice will be prone to
the fame accident, at wliatcver period it happened ; it bc«
comes ncceffai-y therefore, when approaching that time, that
they fiiould ufe the utmolt caution that nothing may oc«
cur to agitate or difturb them.

lly fome writers, women have been fuppofed to be more
fnbjeft to abortions than brute animals, in confequence of the
creCf pofition of their bodies. That they more frequently
fuffer abortion than fuch animalsfeems well afcertained ; but as
this difpofition is more incident to women living in large
towns, and treating themfelves too delicately, to thofe fol-
lowing fedentary and enervating occupations, or to thofe who
are compelled to labour hard for their living, it feems likely
that the accident is occafioned by thole circumllances, rather
than from any vice in their conformation.

From a very early period, attempts have been made to
devife means of procuring abortion, without injuring the
conflitutions of the women, by the exhibition of certain
drugs, as favin, colocynth, &c. but without fuccefs. It is
remarkable, that although Hippocrates prohibited phyfi*
cians from aflliting in procuring abortion, he relates the
cafe of a young woman whom he had recommended to
dance and ufe other violent exercife for that purpofe, in
whom it produced the effeft, and without materially injur-
ing the woman. The more ordinary confequences, how-
ever, to be expefted from fuch efforts, or from taking acrid
and draftic medicines, are pain and inflammation of the
womb, violent hemoirhage, which, though ultimately ter-
minating in abortion, not unfrequently dellroys the life of
the woman alfo. Thefe modes being found to be danger-
ous to the woman, and not certain in producing the pro
pofed effeft, endeavours have been ufed to deftroy the birth
by a more direft method, ij/z. by introducing a flillet, or fome
fharp inftrument, into the uterus, which piercing the mem-
branes, and thence giving vent to the liquor amnii, uterine
contraftions, or labour pains were produced, which con-
tinued until the fcetus with its involucra were ejeifted. At
what time this mode of procuring abortion was difcovered
is not known ; no traces of it appearing in any of our old
medical or chirurgical writers. Ovid, it is probable,
alludes to it, in the following Hues :

fine crcfcsre nata.

EJl pretium par-viz non hve vita more.
Vejlra quid ejfodilis fubjeais -vifcera telis ;
Et nondum nalis dim vencna datis ?
Amor. 1. 2. Eleg. 14. apudop. tom. i. p. 444. Ed. Bunnan,

Tertullian reprobates the praftice, and mentions the kind of in-
ftrument with which the operation of breaking the membranes
and deftroying the foetus was performed, which fhews it wasnot
uncommon in his time. EJl etiam aneumfp'culum, (fays this fa-
ther, De Anima apud oper. p. 32S. ed. Rigak.) quo ptgulatio
tpfa dirigitur, caco latro.inio tf/^pi/oa- Jaxl^iy appellant, utique viiientis
iiifantis perempior'mm. Guy i?atin fays, a midwife was hanged at

ABO

ABO

P;>.ri?, fer occifioniiig the deatli of a lady there, hy an at-
tempt to procure abortion by this method. On her trial
(he laid flic had freqi.iently praftilcd it with fucccfs ; but, in
this cafe, it feems, the intlrument had pierced the body of
tlie uterus, infl:ead of pailuig tiirough the os internum.

This operation will be again noticed, when treating of
thofe kinds of laborious parturition, where the diiuculty is
otcaffoned by the bones of the pelvis being fodiilcrtcd, and
the cavity thence fo reduced in ti/.e, as to render the paf-
fage of a mil grown foetus through it totally imprafticable.
In thofe cafes, it has been lately difcovered, the operation
may be performed with perfeft'fafety, and with etiual ad-
vantage both to the child and to the mother. See La-
bour.

A peculiar delicacy, or irritabiUty of habit, diflinft from
weaknefs, though perhaps rarely occurring, but in debili-
tated conllitutious, may be alio reckoned among the caufes
of abortion. This habit of body feems in a peculiar man-
ner, and almoil e!cclufively, to belong to perfons living in
the higher ranks of life, who life late hours, frequent large
and crouded aflerablies, He much in bed, and indulge in
rich and delicate food. The fudden opening of a door, or ap-
pearance of a pcrfon not expefted, or any thing exciting
the leaft fin-prile, will often, in fuch conilitutions, be fuffi-
cient to produce abortion. That this h not occafioncd
merely by weaknefs of conilitution is evident, as veiy weak-
ly, and even confumptive perfons, are found to conceive more
frequently, to be more tenacious of-'tlkeir offspring, and ge-
nerally to produce larger and fircnger children, than many
women of luperior general health.

As the caufes ot abortions, and the conftitutions moil
prone to it, are fo various, the m.odes of preventing it, or of
conducting perfons through it, mufl; vaiy Hkewife. One of
the earlieft fymptoras announcing an approaching abortion, is
a fenfe of fulnels, of weight, orheavincfs, at the lower part
of the abdomen ; this is foon followed by pains in the loins and
thighs, and if thefe pafs unnoticed, v/hieh is not uncommonly
the cafe, a difcharge of blood, more or lefs profufe, accord-
ing to the conftitution of the woman, takes place : this, if
accompanied with pains, recumng at intervals fimilar to
thofe of labour, ulually continues until the ovum is ex-
cluded. Sometimes the difcharge of blood abates, or en-
tirely ceafes for iix, eight, ten, or more days, and then re-
c\n's again, ufually with greater violence ; and intermifiions
of this kind fometiines happen three or more times, before
the fruit is excluded. On the other hand, it fometimes hap-
pens, that after a woman has fulfered two, three, or more
tffufions of blood in this way, theyceafe; the part of the
placenta that had been detached reuniting itfelf to the uterus,
and the woman goes on to her full time. Thefe circiunftances
only happen in thofe abortions that occur within the firlt
three, four, or at the lateft five months, which are rarely
attended with danger. Difcharges of blood occurring at a
later period, although they alfo fometimes ceafe, and recur
again at intervals, never completely leave the woman until
tiie fcctus and involucra are excluded, which ordinarily does
not happen until fo much blood has been loft as to deflroy
the life of the foetus, and to put that of the m.other alfo in-
to extreme danger.

Tf a pregnant wom.an of a fanguine temperament, fliodd
be feizcd with pain in the loins, and with difcliarges of blood
from the vagina, fix or eight ounces of blood may be ad-
vantageoufly drawn from the arm, which will divert the cur-
rent of blood from the part. The bowels are next to be
opened with fome mild purgative ; fhe muft be kept qtnet,
but not connned to the bed ; be put upon a cooling regimen,

Vol. I.

and take a powder confiding of twenty grains of nitre, i'>nd tlie
fame quantity of the compound powder of gum tragacnnth,
twice or three times in the day, mixed with barley water.
A tea-fpoonful may be taken every night, of an eleflaiy
confifting of, lenitive elec\uary, two ounces ; cream cf
tartar, and flowers of fulphur, of each two drams ; jalap,
one dram ; fvrup of rofes, a fufltcient quantity to give it
a proper coniillence. For women who are cafily moved, a
fcruple, or half a dram of jalap, mav be fuRicient, or thirty
grains of rhubarb maybe fubftituted for the jalap. If t!ie
woman fliould be only three or four months advanced in lier
pregnancy, and the foetus fliould not be dead, or the ovum
entirely feparated from the uterus, the above may be fufficient
to preierve it, and prevent the abortion. In the cafe of women
of more relaxed and delicate conilitutions, the bleeding mud
be omitted, but the eleftuary with the rhubarb mull be
given every night, and inftead of the powder with nitre
and gum tragaeanth, a decoction of liark, with a few
drops of the vitriolic acid may be given ; or the fol-
lowing :

IjL Mucilag. gum.mi arabici Jij.
Olei terebinth, gtt. xl.
Syrup, nib. 1 15. aquK jV.

Spirit, nucis mofchatiE 3 is. m. capiat oegra coeh-
Ixaria tria ter in die.

If naufea prevails, fo that the ftomach with difficulty re-
tains either food or medicines, or if the bowels are too loofe,
twelve or fifteen grains of ipecacuanha may be given in a
fpoonful of water, as an emetic, and the following drauglit
at night :

1^ Pulv. radiels rhei gr. yi. ConfeAionis aromaticae 3i.
Spt. nucis mofehatx 3i- Tinclura: opij gtt. xij.
Aqure' |ii!. m.

Under this treatment, if the foetus cannot be prefervcd,
the hemorrhage will be rellrained, and the abortion will
happen without doing any material injuiy to the conftitu-
tion.

Abortions occurring at the times we have mentioned, are
rarely attended with danger, and never require manual aflift-
ance. Thofe occurring later, I'iz. after the fixth month,
if the hemorrhage (hould not be reftrained by the means
here propofed, or fliould return, which ufually liappens,
often require manual alTiftance, and muft be treated in the
fame manner as when hemorrhage occurs in women who
have attained the full term of geftation. See Labour.

Perfons adminillering drugs to pregnant v^-omen, with the
view of procuring abortion, or even women taking medi-
cines, or ufing means for that piu-pofe, have in moft civili/ed
countries, and from a very early period, been fubjecled to
certain penalties.

The ancient Greek legifiators, Solon and lycurgus, pro-
hibited the praftice of producing abortion. Whether or not
it was permitted among the Rom.ans, has been much dif-
puted, between two learned modern civilians. It is certain
the praftice, which was by them called vifrtrilus I'lm wfcrre,
was frequent enough : but whether there was any penalty an-
nexed to it, before the emperors Severus and Antonine, is the
queftion. Noodt maintains the negative ; and farther, that
thofe princes only made it criminal in one particular cafe ;
I'/s. of a married woman's praftifing it out of refentment
againft her hnfband, in order to defraud him of the com-
fort of children ; this was ordered to be puniflied by a
tem.porary exile : Jiqua pntgnnrs lim ■vifccribiis fu'ti intuknt
>if hiinuco mnrilo Jilhim frocrecrel, tcmpnrali ex'ilio coerctntur.
He adds, that there was no general prohibition of the
pradlice before Gratian and Valens. It is true we find hi

G Cicero

ABO

Octro an earlier ir.flancf, of a woman puiiillied for this
fift ; but it was in Milcli.i, ;•. countiy not fubjcd to the
Roman laws.

Bynkcrihoeck. howtveV denies, that a woman was al-
lowed to drink the ixn-u/um aiorllonis, impum- ; and the rca-
fou he gives, i3, that the womb was the hufbaud's pro-
perty, who was declared, by the laws, the I'ole ciijos
of it ; to prevent his being inipofed on in the children
he was to bring up. But then this docs not affeft wo-
men wlio had been impregiialcd by othcri, who were not their
hulbands.

The foundation on which the praclice is faid to have been
allowed, was, that the/irtuj. while in ulcro, was reputed as
a part of the mother, ranked as one of her own Tifcera,
over which (he had the fame power as over the reft ; befidcs,
tliat it was not reputed as a man, homo ; nor to be alive,
otherwife than as a vegetable : confccjuently, the crime
amounted to httle more than that of plucking unripe fruit
from the tree. V. Juven. Sat. vi. v. joo, .S:c. Scnec. Con-
folat. ad Helviam Malrem, c. 16.

This laft cited author reprefents it as a peculiar g;Ior)' of
Helvia, that flic had never, like other women, whofe chief
rtuily is their beauty and fliape, dcftroyed the fa-tus m her
«-omb. Nunquam te fxcund'ital'is tut quafi exprohraret ata-
tem, puJuil : nunquam more alienarum quilus omn'ts coin-
r:,-:.^.:.'io ex forma pt/itur, tumefccntim uterum ahfcond'xji'i quafi
ii.':.7u onus, nee inkr v'tfcera iua conceptas /pes liberorum
tlijljii. By the decretals of the canon law, (Part ii. CaufT.
32. quid. ii. c. 8.) Non ejl bomk'ida, qua abort urn procurat,
antequam anima corpar'ijit infufn.

The primitive fathers, Athenagoras, Tertulhan, Minu-
lius Felix, Auguftin, &c. declaimed loudly againft the
praflicc, as virtual murder : Homicidii feJlinaUo cjl, [fays
Tertullian, (Apolog. apud Oper. p. 10.) prolAhere nafcl ;
nee refert, nalam quii eripiat anlmam, an tiafccntem d'ljlurhet.
Several councils have declared againft it. That the foetus in
the mother's womb is without life, and that it is not ani-
mated before it is born ; and alfo that it is lawful for a
young woman, her life or charadler being at flake, to pro-
cure an abortion, are propolitions which pope Innocent X.
in a general council in 1679, condemned as falfe and fcan-
dilous. Yet we are told that the modern Romilh eccle-
fiaftical laws allow of difpenfations for it. Egane mentions
the rates at which a difpenfation for it may be had.

Fodere fays, {^Tra'Ue de Medicine Lhiile,)\n the Introduc-
tion, the Emperors Severus and Antonine, decreed, that wo-
men procuring abortion, forty days after they had conceived,
at which time they imagined the foetus was completely
formed, and endued with life, ftiould be put to death ; but
earlier than that period, and before the fcctus was fuppofed
to be living, they (hould only fuffer a temporary bani(h-
ment. Our law (cems to have adopted a principle fimllar to
this, but it extends the punilhment to any perfon (malici-
oufly or intentionally, we uippofe,) being inftrumental in
occafioning a woman to mifcarry.

" Si rdiquis muliercm pregnantem percufferit," fays Brafton,
lib. iii. c. 2 1 . " velei i-enenum dedcril,per quodfecerit aborlivam;
Ji puerpetium jam formatum fucrit, et maxime Ji fucrit animalum,
fitcit homicidium." " Life," fays Black ftone, (Commentaries,
book i. chap. i. vol. i. p. 129. 8vo.) " is the immediate
gift of God, a right inherent by nature in ever)' individual ;
and it begins, in contemplation of law, as foon as an infant
is able to ftir in the mother's womb. For if a woman is
quick with child, and by a potion, or otherwife, kiileth it
in her womb ; or if any one beat her, wherebv the child
dicth in htr body, and fi;e is delivered of a dead ciuld, this,

A E O

though not murder, was by the ancient law homicide, or
manllautjhter." But, he goes on to obferve, " The modern
law doth not look upon this oflei'.ce in quite fo atrocious a
liglit, but merely as a heinous mifdemefnor." 3 Inft. 50.

Abortion, among Gardeners, fignilies fuch fruits as are
produced too early, and never arrive at maturity.

ABORTIVE, foniething come before its due time, or
before it has arrived at its maturity and perfection.

The term is applied by fome writers on the materia me
dica to medicines that occafion an abortion in pregnant
wonHn. Medicines of this kind have alfo been denominated
Amblotica and Ecbolica ; and they have been commonly
fuppofed to poffefs the power of promoting the natural
birth, of forcing off the placenta, and even of expelling a
dead fcctus. Bjt thefe powers, afcribed to medicines by
the ancients, are now deemed imaginaiy, and fuch medicines
are now hardly ever employed. Cullen'sMat. Med. v. i. p. 162.

Abortive corn, in Jgricuhure, a diftemper of corn men-
tioned by M. Tiilet, and fufpeftcd to be occafioned by infefts.
It appears long before hai-veft, and may be known by a defor-
mity in the ftalk, the leaves, the ear, and even the grain.

AliORTIVE_/H.V. SeeABORTIOM.

Abortive vellum, is made of the ficin of an abortive calf.

ABOTRITES, or Abodrites, in Hi/lory, a people
bordering upon Bulgaria, in that part of Daeia contiguous
to the Danube. Henry I. of Germ.any, furnamed the
Fowler, in his zeal for the propagation of the chriftian
faith, undertook, and aftually effected the converfion of
the king of thefe people. The kingdom of the Abodrites
was a part of the ancient Vandalia, and is now called Meck-
lenburg.

ABOU Hannes,' in Ornithology, a bird of AbyfTmia, fa
called, becaufe it appears on St. John's day ; the terms fig-
nifying, father 'John. This is the feafon v^'hen the frefli
water of the tropical rains is iirft known in Egypt to have
mixed with the Nile, and to have rendered it lighter,
fweeter, and more exhaleable in dew ; and accordingly it is
the feafon when all water-fowl, that are birds of paffage,
refort in great numbers to Ethiopia. This bird, according
to Mr. Bruce, (Travels, &c. vol. v. p. 173.) is the Ibis
of the ancients. Its beak refembles in fhape that of a cur-
lew, and the colour of the upper part is green, and of the
lower part black ; and it is four and a half inches in length.
The bone of the leg is round and ftrong, fix inches long,
and the length of the thigh-part is five and a half inches.
The height of the body, as it (lands, from the fole of the
foot to the middle of tl^e back is nineteen inches. Its feet
and legs are black ; it has three toes before, armed with
Ihai-p ftrong claws, and a toe behind. The head and back
part of the neck are brown ; the throat, breaft, back, and
thighs are white. The largeft feathers of the wings are a
deep black for thirteen inches from the tail, anrl a fpace of
fix inches in length from the end of the tail along the back
is alfo of the fame colour. The meafuresaud colours correfpond
to thofe of the embalmed Ibis. See Plate I. Birds.

ABOUALI, in Hydrography, a river of Paleftinc,
which rifes in mount Lihanus, and flows- with a. rapid current
into a romantic valley, where it is concealed by trees.

ABOUILLON. See Apollonia.

ABOUKIR, in Geography, a fmall town of Egypt,
fituate in the dcfart between Alexandria and Rofetta. It is
the ancient Canopus, and diftant, according to Mr. Sa-
vary, (Letters on Egypt, v. i. p. 49.) fix leagues from
Pharos. Pliny, (N.H. 1. v. c. 31. torn, i.p.2S3.ed. Hard.)
who had coUedled the teftimonies of antiquity, fays, that it
was formerly an illand. Its local appeaiaiice makes this cre-
I dibk.

ABO

A B R

Jible. Tlie grounds around it are fo low, tliat tlie fta ftill
covered a part of tliem in the time of Strabo, (lib. xvii.
torn. z. p. 1311.) The town, built upon a rock, which
fonns a handlomc road for (hipping, was out of the reach of
inundations. Abouhtr has been lately (^';z. in 1798..) ren-
dered famous by the battle between the Enghih and Trench
fleets, in which the Britifli admiral, Nelfon, obtained a
fignal viftory, and for which he has been honoured with
a peerage. The place itfelf, though well fortified, and
vigoroufly defended by the 1'urks, was talien by the French
in 1799, and retaken by the Enghlh in 1801.

ABOUT, in yi-a language, the fituation of a fliip imme-
diately after {lie has tacked, or changed her courfe by going
o/w?/.' and ftanding on the other tack. About Jh'ip is the order
to the Oiip's cre^v for tacking.

ABOUTIGE, or Abutish, in Geography, a town in
Upper Eg^'pt, near ll'.e Nile, where they make the bell
opium in the Levant. It was formerly a large, but is now
a mean place, though governed by an Emir. It Hands on
the fite of Abot'is, mentioned by Stephanus Byzantinus ; the
burgh of Settefe, a little above it, reprefents the fmall city
of Apollo. N. lat. 26° 50'.

A BRA, a filver coin in Poland, nearly equivalent to the
Englifh fhilling. It is current in feveral parts of Germany,
and through the dominions of tlie Grand Seignor, at the
value of one fourth of the Holland's dollar or ajlam. See
Coins.

AERABANEL, Abarbanei,, or Avravanel, Ifaac,
ir\ Biography, a learned rabbi, faid to be defcended from king
David, and born at Lifbon, A. D. 1437. He was obliged to
leave Spain with the other Jews, after having been confeffor to
Alphonfo V. king of Portugal, and to i'erdinand the Ca-
tholic. He refided at Naples, Corfu, and feveral other
cities, and died at Venice in 1508, aged 71. Among the
Jews he was denominated the fage, the prince, and the
great politician. Some writers fay, (SeeAiJt. Lipf. Nov.
!686, p. 530.) that, by negotiating bills of exchange,
which was the bufmefs he followed at Caftile, after he fled
from Lilbon, and by praftiling the feveral arts and frauds of
the Jewifh people, he amalfed prodigious wealth ; that he
opprefTed the poor ; that he afpired after the moft illuftrious
titles, fuch as the nobleft hcufes in Spain could not attain ;
and that being a Iworn enemy to the chriftian religion, he
was the principal caufe of that ftorm which fell upon him
and the reft of his nation in 1492, when they were driven
out of the Spanifh dominions. His Commentary on the Old
Teftament, which is fcarce, is written in a clear, though
dilTufe, ftyle ; and adheres principal!;/ to the literal fenle.
Tins book, which confifts of detached parts, corapofed at
different times, abounds with fo much rancour againft the
chriitians in general, and the Roman Catholics in particular,
that father Bartolocci was defirous that the Jews (hould be
prohibited the perufal of it ; and they were not allowed to
read or keep in their houfes his commentaries on the latter
prophets. Biblioth. Rabbin, toni. iii. p. 876. 879. His
other works are, A Treatife on the World againft Ariilotle,
who maintains its eternity ; a Treatife on the Explication of
the Prophecies relating to the Meinah againil the Chviftians;
•a Book concerning Articles of Faith ; and fome others of
lefs note. The various perfecutions which he, and other
Jews fuflered, foiu-ed his temper, and produced an ijnpla-
cable hatred againft the chriilians, which he has manifeiled
in his writings^ though, in company with them, he behaved
tvith great .politenefs, and was chearful in converfation. He
was an affiduous ftiulen';, and a very ready writer.

ABRACADABRA, or Abr AS ADAER A, a magicalword,
recommended by Sf.reuus SamOnicus, preceptor to tlie

younger Gordian, as a charm, or amulet, in curinjr agiien,
and preventing other difeafcs, particiJarly the fever called
by the j)hyfieians haniiritaiu. See Scren. Samon. de Medio.
N- S3- P- '59^' f"'- Mattairc.

To have this effeft, the word mud be written on paper,
and repeated, omitting each time the I.ifl. letter in the former,
fo that the whole may form a kind of inverted ,
cone, (as in the margin,) in which there is ^^''^'^adabia
this property, that which way focvcr the let- ^liracadabr
ters be taken, beginning from the a}vx and abi-ncadab
afcending from tlie left to the right, they at^acada
make the fame word, or as fome would have ^ racaa
it, the fame fentiracnt, as is found in the firit !i ilea

whole line. This paper mufl. be fufpcnded \

about the neck by a linen thread. Accoid- ,

ing to Julius Africanus, another ancient wri- ^

ter, the pronouncing of the word in the fame
manner, will do as well.

Abracadaura is faid to have been the name of a
god wordiipped by tlie Tyrians, fo that wearing his name
was a kind ot invocation of his aid ; a praftice not more fuper-
ftitious than that of fome chriftians, who bear various things
about them in expeftation of their operating by fympathy.

ABRAHAM, in Scripture Hiftory, the celebrated pa-
triarch, who was the father and founder of the Jewifh na-
tion, though it was never called by his name. He was the
fon of Terali, and the loth in lineal fucceffion from Noah
by his fecond fon Shem, who lived till Abraham was i ^o
years old. He was born 352 years after the flood, and
A. M. 2Co8, according to the Hebrew chronology, in Ur
of the Chaldees, in the 130th, and not, as fome have fup-
pofed, in the 70th year of his father's life, and removed
with him, at the age of 70, A. M. 2078, into Haran,
where Terah died at the age of 205 years. At the age of
75, i. e. 427 years after the flood, A. M. zc.83, he mi-
grated into Canaan, in confequence of the divine order and
promife, recorded in the tliree firft: verfes of the 1 2tli chap-
ter of Genefis. Shuckford (Conn. vol. i. p. 274.) fuppofes,
that this promife was made to the patriarch before he dwelt
in Haran (fee Afts vii. 2.), and that it was 430 years before
the law. (See Gal. iii. 17.) But the interval from the birth
of Ifaac to the law was 400 years ; and therefore, he concludes,
that the promiie was made at Ur, thirty years before the birth
of Ifaac, who was born when Abraham was i co years old, and
that it took place much about the time of his removal to Ha-
ran. Others (fee Taylor's Scheme of Scripture Divinity, p.
250. ) date the promife to Abraham at the time of his removal
to Canaan A.M. 2083. A. D. 1921.; and they reckon 430
years from this peiiod to the Exodus. Compare Exod. xii.
41. with Gal. iii. 17. See Blair's Chronolgy, PI. I.
This promife, however, was the foundation of that
grand fcheme for preventing the univerfal prevalence of
idolatiy, and for preferving among mankind the knowledge
and worfhip of the only tnie God, v/hich, under feveral
variations and improvements, was to reach to the end of
time. For this purpofe Providence felcfted the family of
Abraham, which was afterwards formed into a nation, in-
ftru6lcd in religious knowledge by God himfelf, and favoured
with fuch extraordinary privileges and honours, among all
other nations of the earth, as were in their own nature
adapted to engage them, by the moft rational motives, to
adhere to God and his worllup. The ground of this noble
and extenfivc fcheme, and of God's fmgular regard to Abra-
ham and his poftcrity, was the Covenant of Grace, the
promife or grant of favours and bleffings to mankind in
Jefus Chrift our Lord. In the conduct and accom-plifhmcnt
of this fcheme, God retiuijcd the patriarch to call himfelf

G i wholly

A B R

w^ >Tly upon liin ProviJ.-nce, by romo-.Injj at his fpecial
c^>!.ir. 1 v1, from li'n own kinjral and cou:Ur:, to an vin-
knou ' vul, wliich hj would llicw him, aii'.iriiig him

of I t'ul fjKcial bk-ffiig. Acioi-dinjly, fooa

af'.srr hii I 1 Ca:nan, probably within two or three

yiT.^, 'HI' ' th-> renewal of the divine pi-omilo,

that'. .■ntohi<! pofterity, he was forced

by a :. ivc into Ejrjpt. Many chrono-

lo.;.i > li.v liic co.ii lie Kciiu-nt of the 430 years, during which
t!i • P'ri.-I't-: cj"': uitd in this country, at this period. Here
'. previoufly confented, for her own fecii-
1 lam, lobe called his filler, was forcibly

t.itten away by the king of K2;\-pt ; who captivat':d by her
bj.uity, d.iiijncd to have made her his wife. But the king
was punilhti in an cxtraordinar)' manner for the injullicc
of his conduct, rcllored her without violation, and gave ot-
ders, that Abraham, and his wife, with all that belonged to
them, might fafely depart from his dominions. Tho ramme
having ccafed in Canaan, he returned to the fituation near
Bethel, which he had left, and where he had ercftcd an altar,
and devoutly acknowledged hi-; happy deliverance . Abra-
ham, being under the necelTity of feparating from Lot, h'.s
nephew, on account of the increafe of their fubilance, and
the contention of their refpec^ive herdfmen, removed to the
plain of Mamrc, in Hebron. Here he formed an alliance
»vith three of the principal perfons of the country', by
whofe alTillance hercfcued Lot, who had been taken captive,
and reHored him, his family, and his whole property, to his
former habitation. A.M. 2092. At his return, as he paffed
near Salem, fuppofed to be the city afterwards called Jeru-
falem, he met Melchi/edek, who was king of that city, and
" pried of the Moil High God,'i and received from him
tokens of fpecial favour. Soon after this event the divine
promife was again renewed to him, and accompanied with
circumllances of peculiar encou-.-agement. It was particu-
larly revealed to him, that his pollerity fliould fojourn, and
be a'Hicled in a itrange land 400 years ; at the expiration of
which, God would iiiterpofe for the punifhment of their
opprenbi-s, and for their refcuc. Thefe years are to be rec-
koned, not from their coming into Egypt, but from the
birth of Ifaac. For during the whole time of their fojourn-
ing in the land of Canaan and elfewhere, they were in a
ftrangc land, in which they had not a foot of ground, if we
except the cave of Machpclah. The meaning of this prophecy
10 Abi-aham, therefore, can only be this, that his feed from
Ifaac forward Ihoiiid be. ftrangcrs m a land that was not
theirs, for the fpace of 400 years, during fome part of
which they (ho'ald be oppreiTed, and at length brought un-
der bondage ; which term being expired, they (hould find
a happy deli-.erance. After the renewal of this promife,
Abraham married Hagar, who was recommended to hitn by
Sarah, and whoie children (lie defigncd to adopt and educate
a? her own, according to the cuflom whicii was common in
thofe times. By Hagar he had a fon, who was called Iftmael.
A. M. 2094. When the patriaich had attained the age of 99
years, A. M. 2 1 07. A. D. 1 897. God was pleafed to ratify his
former covenant with him, by changing his name from Mram,
»ormed of 3 {.f ,////vr and oS exallal, to ^//'rrt/'rtw!, derived from
P£3n OT D ^f > fcthcr of a great mulutudc, affuring him that
he would make him the father of many nations. Gen. xvii. 5.
As a token and confirmation of the covenant -flow made
with him, he enjoined him to be circumcifed, and to circum-
cife all the males cf his family ; and he promifed that, with-
in a year, he Ihould have a fon by his wife, whofe name -was
row changed from Sara'i, q. d. my prw.ceft, to Sarah, the
princefs. This fon was to be called Ifaac ; to him belonged
the cov€na:it and promife ; aud in his feed all the nations of

A B R

th^ earth were to b; bletTed. Ths promife of a fon waj
again renewed by thofe celeftial mefltngers, who announced
to him the deftradion of Sodom. His interccffion on be-
half of this devoted city, th'jugh in the iflue unavaihng,
forms a dillinguidiing circumtlance in his hiftoiy. Soon
after this event, Abraham remo'.'ed to the country of the
PhiliiUnes, and fojourned in Gerar, where an incident oc-
curred limilar to that which had happened in Egypt. See
Abimelech. Ifaac was born at the appointed feafon, 452
years afier the flood, and A.M. 2108. But within 25
years after this joyful event, upon wiiich depended the ac-
co.mplifhm;nt of the divine promife, and of the patriarch's
hopes, Ifaac was demanded as a biirnt-facrifice, and Abraham
was ordered to prefent the offering on mount Moriah. The
event, with all the circumftances that attended it, is well
known. Tlie order was countermanded, and the patriarch,
in confequence of this fignal trial of his faith and obedience,
obtained a folemn renewal of all the divine covenants and
promifes. In the year 48S after the flood, A.M. 2144,
Sarah died at Hebron, and was buried in the cave of Mach-
pelah, which Abraham purchafed as a burying-place, of the
fons of Heth, for 400 pieces of filver, amounting at the
rate of 3 s. for a fiiekel, to 60 1. of our money. This pur-
chafe was made, according to the cullom of ancient times, at
the GATES of Hebron. Abraham having mairied his fon
Ifaac to Rebekah, the daughter of Nahor, his brother, at
the age of 141 years, took another wife, named Keturah,
by whom he had fix fons. Thefe he portioned, that they
might not interfere with Ifaac's inheritance ; and they went
to the ea(t of Beerdieba, and the land of Canaan, and
fettled in both Arabias, the Petnea and Deferta, where
fome traces of their names are ftill to be perceived. This
venerable patriarch died in the 175th year of his age, 527
years after the flood, A.M. 2183, A. D. 1821. and was
buried by his two fons, Ifaac and Illimael,in the cave of Mach-
pelah, near Sarah, his wife.

To the above abftraft of the hiftory of Abraham, recorded
in the book of Genefis, it may not be improper to fubjoin a
few particulars coUefted from other fources. Terah, the
father of Abraham, it is faid, (Suidas in voc. A'S^aajx and
Ssja;)^, Lex. torn. i. & ii.) made ftatues and images for
the purpofes of that idolatrous worfliip, which had been
tranfmitted to him from his anceftor Senig, and which lie
encouraged by example and exhortation. Some Jewilh au-
thors relate, (apud Genebrand. in Chron.) that Abraham
purfued the fame occupation; and Maimonidcs (More Ne-
vochim, c. 29.) fays, that he was educated in the religion
of the Sabxans, who acknowledged no deity but the ftars,
and that he was led by his own refleftion to the belief of an
intelligent Creator and Governor of the uiiiverfe ; but that
he did not renounce paganifm till the 50th year of his age
That he was brought up in the religion of the Sabaeans is
an opinion adopted by Spencer, de Leg. Heb. Ritual, lib.
ii. c. I. ji 2. vol. i. 279. See Sabaism. Suidas {uii
fupra,) informs us, that at 16 years of age he cautioned his
father againll feducing men to idolatry for the fake of per-
nicious gain, and taught him that there is no other Gotl
bcfides him who dwells ' in heaven, atid created the wliole
world. It is added, that he deftroyed the ftatues and
images of his father, and departed with him from Chaldaea.
Others relate (Heidegger Hill. Patriarch, torn. iii. p. 36,)
that his father deputed Abraham to fell his ilatues in his
abfence, and that a man, who pretended to be a purchafer,
having afcertained that he was 50 years of age, remon-
flrated with him for adoring at fuch an age, a being which
is but a day old. Abraham, impref\ and confounded by this
remonftrance, deilroycd tliera all, excepting the laigeft,
3 before

A B R

A B R

before his father's return ; and he told him, that havincj
prefsnLed an oblation of flour to the id'jls, the floutell of
them, in whofe hand he had placed a hatchet, hcwed the
others to pieces with that weapon. Terah replied, that
this was bantering, becaufe the idols hr.d not fenfe to S.& in
this manner ; upon which Abraham retorted thefe words
upon his father againfl the worfliip of fuch gods. But he
\\a3 delivered up by Terah to Nimrod, the fovereign of the
country, and becaufe he refufed to worfli'n the fire, accord-
ing to his oi-der, he was thrown into the niidil of the flames,
from wliicli he efcapcd uninjured. Mr. David Levi, in his
Lingua Sacra, has given an account of this tradition, ex-
tracted from Medra/h Bcrefch'iih ; and it is related by
Jerome, (Trad. Hebraic, in Geiiefm,) who feems to admit
its general credibility. The vuIgate tranflalion of 2 Efdras
ix. 7. exprefles, that he was dehvered from the jire of ike
Chcildtians; but the ambiguity of the word Ur, vihich de-
notes fii-e, as well as the birth-place of Abraham, feems to
have given rife to this opinion. However, if v/e allow that
Abraham, being born and educated in an idolatrous country
and fam.ily, might have been addifted in very early life to
that fuperilition, it is certain that he renounced it, and that
he was providentially removed froin a fcene of danger, and
that he contributed to propagate juft fentiments concerning
the deity wherever he fojourned. The fame of his wifdom,
piety, and virtue, fpread far and wide among the nations of
the world : this apjiears from the teilimonies of Berofus,
HteatKus, Nicholas of Damafcus, cited by Jofephus, (An-
fiq. 1. i. c. 7. apud Oper. tom. i. p. 2S. ed. Haverc.) and
alfo from what is faid of him by Alexander Polyhillor, Eu-
polemus, Artapenus, and others, whofe teftimonies may be
feen in Eufebius's Pra;p. Evang. lib. ix. cap. 16, 17, 18,
ig. His name is mentioned with honour .all over the
Eaft to this day. Jofephus ( Antiq. 1. 'i. c. 8. tom. i.
p. ^o. ) infomis us, that he taught the Egyptians arithmetic
and aftrology ; and we learn from others, (fee Eufebius and
Suidas, ubijhpra,) that he alfo inilrutled the Phccnicians in
aftronomy ; that he invented the Hebrew charailers and
language ; rnd that he viTote feveral books. Tradition-
ary truth and fiSion feem to have been blended in the
accounts that are given of this eminent patriarch by the
Jews, Arabians, and Indians. Of the books afcribed to
liim, the principal feems to have been the trcatife called Jet-
zirah, or iki Cnat'ion, of which it gives an account. TTiis
is m.entioned in the Talmud, and held in high efl;imation
by feveral learned Rabbis. It was printed at Paris in 1552,
and trandated into Latin by Pofl;el ; and alfo tranflated into
Latin, with remarks, in 1642, by Rittangel, a converted
Jew, and profeflbr at Konigiberg. A book, called Abra-
ham's Revelation, was difperltd by an ancient feft, under the
denomination of Sethians. Abraham's y'////;.77^»'/on is m.en-
tioned by Athanalius in his Svnopjis ; and Origen takes
notice of a treatife, pretended to be v/ritten by him, in
which two angels are introduced difputing about his falva-
tion. The Jev.'s alfo reprefent hiir. as the .compofer of
fome prayers, and of the 19th Pfalm, and ci a Trcatife
againft Idolatry. Fabricius (Bibl. Grsec. tom. ii. p. 516.)
inform.s us, that fome aflrclogical books of Abraham, which
are now lofl:, are commended by Vettius Valens and Jul. Fir-
micus ; and from Kirchem's Treatife of Libraries, p. 142. we
learn, that all the feveral words, which Abraham com.pofed in
t!;e plains of Mamre, areconta'utd in the library of the monnf-
tery of the Holy Crofs on Mount Amaria, in Etliiopia. The
Indians bcheve this patriarch to have been the fame with
their great prophet Zon-after. According to the Arabians,
who have given i.'s a hiftory of Abraham, veiy different
from that of the Lib'.e, he was the fon of Azar, and grand-

fon of Terah ; and the eaftern heathens h<ive a long tradition
conceming Abraham's life, which differs very much from that
of Mofes. In a book, faid to be in the French h.iug's library.
No. 792. which was written by Epiircm the Syrian, and
tranflated from the Syriac inlo Arabic, upon Abraham's
journey into Egypt, there is a fermon on his death, pri.-.ehed
by St. Athanafuis, on the 28th of Marcii ; on which day
the Coptic and Egyptian chriftians obfei-ve his fellival.
Among the Mahometans, the memory of Abraham is held
in great veneration, and his name frequently occurs in the
Koran. See Caaea. W- are told by Ebn Shobna, (ad.
Ann. Hegira 513, cited by D'llerbelot Bibl. Orient. Art.
Alraham, p. 16.) that in the begiiming of the 12th cen-
tury, the tomb of Abraham having been difcovered near
Hebron, his body, as well as thofe of Ifaac and Jacob, were
found entire and uncorrupted. There were likewife fome
gold and filver lam.ps hung up in the cave, which was vifitej
by multitudes. The Moilems have fuch a reverence for this
place, that they make it one of their four pilgrimages, the
three others being thofe of Mecca, Medina, and Jerufalem;
and the chriftians built a church over the cave, which the
Turks aftcrNvards converted into a mofque, and prohibited
chriftians from approaching. The emperor Alexander Se
verus, (Lamprid. in Sever.) who knew Abraham only by
the extraordinary circumftances related by Jews and Chrif-
tians, conceived fo high an opinion of him, that he ranked
him with Jefus Chriil among his gods.

Abraham, Rail], in Biography, was prince of the Jewifh
nation, and tutor to Abenezra. He foretold that the Mcf-
fiah would be born under the fame conhguration or con-
jimftion of Jitpiter and Saturn, with Mofes the Jev.ifii law-
giver. According to his calculation, this was to happen
2859 years after the former, i. e. A. D. 1464; and two fuch
conjunctions are faid to have aftually occurred within the
ijth centm-y, viz. in 1444 in Cancer, and 20 years after in
Pifees; but inftead of deliverance, the Jews experienced only
difafter and diftrefs.

Abraham, R. Ifaac Ben, a Jewifti writer, who hvcd
about the beginning of the 1 7th ccntuiy. He was by nation
a Folander, but fpent moft of his time in the courts of Ger-
many. His book, intilled, Chafnk Emunah, /. c. Muni-
men Fidei, was a violent attack on the chriftian religion, in
which he examines the whole go fpel, and endeavours to explode
all the proofs of it, and to confute the objeftions of Chriilians
againft the Jews. This book, which was com.pofed againft
the difciples of Luther, was publiflied in 1616, from a MS.
which was become very fcarce. It was tranflated into
Spanifli, and very widely difperfed. The African Jews held
ii in high efliraation, and from them it was brought into
peimany by Wagcnfcil, whoinferled a Latin tranflation of
it in his Tela Ignea Satans.

Abraham, Ufque, a Portun:uefe Jew, fuppofed by fome
to be a Chriftian, who, with Tobias Athias, ti-anflat'td the
Bible out of Hebrew into Spanifli, It was printed at Fer-
rara in 15 j3, and reprinted in Holland in 1630. The firil
edition of tliis Bible, which is the moft valua'ole, is marked
with ftars at certain words, which are defigned to fliew that
thefe words are difiicuk to be underftood. in the litbrew,
and that they may be ufed in a difterent fenfe.

Abraham, or Abr/.m, Nicholas, a learned jefuit, •«i-as
born in the dioccfe of Toul in Lorrain in 15S9. He was
made divinity profelTor in the univerfity of Pont "a Moufi'on,
which office he held 17 years, and died Sept. 7, 1655. He
wrote notes on Virgil and Nonnus, a Con.mentary on fo;r.e
of Cicero's Cratioiis, in 2 vc's. fol. a colkfllcn of theo-
logical pieces, intitkd, Plants Vet. Tejl. and fome ot'.ier
works.

Abraham,

A B R

Abk VHAM, Ifracl P'll^ro, a Jouilli nil>bi, who floiirilla-d
at Amllcidam about tlic middle of tin- i ytli ctntur)-. He
wrote a book iiititltd, tlic Sceptre of Jiidali, .whicli is an
cxpofitioii of the prophecy of Jacob, and intended to con-
fate the notion of the MelTiah's having »6hia!ly appeared.
Bafnage lias given a particular account of this book, which
he faw in M.S. Hill, des Juifs. 1. ix. c. 36. § 14—21.

Abraham, I/h of. See 5/. Mary.

AliR.VHAMI AN.S, or Abrahamites, in Ecrhpnica!
Hi/lory, a fed of heretics, who renewed theerrorof thcrAij-
LiciAss.

They took their names from that of their leader Abraham,
a native of Antioch, by the Arabs called Ibrahim ; whence
alfo the name Ibi-ahimiah, given by them to this fed. The
Abrahaniians arofe about the clofe of the eighth century,
and were fupprcfTed by Cyriacus, patriarch of Antioch.

The fame denomination is nlfo applied to a party of
monks, who fufTered death for the worfliip of images, under
Theophilus.

A15RAHAMSD0RF, in Gfos;rnphy, a popiJous large
village in Upper Hiingar)-. E. long. 19" 50'. N. lat. 46° 20'.

ABR AM's Cnri, a cretk which falls into Hudfon's river
in America, near the city of Hudfon.

ABRAMBOE, a town in the kingdom of Fetu on tlie
African coall, in which is held a brilliant atlembly of the na-
tives from all parts of the kingdom, to celcbi-ate, by dancing,
and other diverfions, the birth-day of the king.

ABRAMIS, in Irhlhyology, a name given by Bellonius
and others, to the cyprinut lalus, or bream.

ABRANTES, in Geography, a town of Eftramadura in
Portugal, feated on an eminence near the river Tajo, and
fncompaffed with delightful gardens and olive-yards. It
contains about .'ijoo inhabitants, four convents, and an
hofpital. It was fortified by Peter II., raifed to a county
Viy Alphonfvis V., and promoted to a marquifute by John V.
in 1718. W. long. 7° 18'. N. lat. 39° 13'.

ABRASA, in Surgery. See Abrasion.

ABIIASAXAS. See Abraxas.

ABRASION, compofed of the Latin ah, and rado, to
Jhave, or /crape njf, a fuperficial excoriation or ulceration of
any part of the body : but the term is generally applied to
a furface which lias been rubbed off by external violence.
The minute portions of abraded flcin are not to be haftily
taken away ; as, by careful re -application, they may often
adhere and unite, thus preventing the confequences of a
recent wound. See Adhesion qnd Agglutination
OF Wounds.

Sores attended with excoriation are denominated alrafa.
The part nibbed off is technically named abrafum. Vide
(Jribafii Je Uori. Curat. 1. iii. c. lf>.

ABRAVANNUS, ip ylncient Geography, the name of a
promontory and river of Galloway, in Scotland, fo called
from jiber, which, in Celtic, denotes the mouth of a river,
and nvon, a river. It is probably that fmall river which falls
into the bay of Glenluce, a little to the fouth of the Mul
of Galloway.

ABRAUM, in Natural Hijlory, a name given by fome
writers to a fpecies of red clay, ufed in England by the ca-
binet-makers, &c. to give a red colour to new mahogany
wood ; we have it from the Ifle of Wight, but it is alfo
found in Gennany and Italy.

ABRAXAS, a barbarous word, denoting a power which
prefides over three hundred and fixty-live others, the number
of days in the year.

/Ihraxas is a word of obfcure origin : it is fuppofed to
be technically compounded of the Greek letters, conlidered

ABR

as numeral chambers : according to the cuftom of the Ore*
cians, who expreired their numbers by lettei-s of the alphabet;
the values of which in the prefent word ftand tlius : A s,
B 2, P ICO, A 1, s6o, A I, £ 200 ; which added together
make the number 365.

The word is ufually written, among modern authors,
abraxas, though as fome hold, by a conupt tranfpofition of
the letters S and H, for air/^/'ax, as it is found in all the Greek
fathers, as well as on ancient Rones. Irenxus indeed (lib.i.
c. 23. p- 99. ed. Grabc) has abraxas, but the reafon may-
be, tliat the chapter in which the word occtirs is only extant
in Latin : fo that though it be in Greek charafters, the or-
thography is of Latin copyills or trandators. — In llriftnefs
the word ought to be written in Greek charaftcrs, ABPA'JAH;
fince, befides that the inventor of it fpoke that language,
the v.ord does not contain the number 365, wlieii written in
the Latin charafter. Hence a farther error in moll books,
which occurs in the fmaller or running charafter, on ac-
count of the Greek figma ; this having in ancient in-
fcriptions the fame figure with the Latin C, is often rendered
by a Roman C inftead of S ; whence abracax for abrafax.

Beaufobre (Hill, de Manich. torn. ii. p. 55, 56. ) "conjec-
tures, v.itli a very great degree of probability, that abraxas,
or abrafax, is derived from two Greek words, w'hich figiiify
magnificent Saviour. For the epithet aJ^.^o-, the firll part of
abrafiix, is particularly applied, in the fenfe of magnificent or
fplendid, to Apollo and Bacchus, who, according to Ma-
crobius, ( Sat. 1. i. c. 18.) are the fame deities ; and the
fecond word of which abrafax is compofed is Ta-ji, which
is ufed by Homer for fave, or la, w hich denotes falva-
t'lon.

Many learned modems affirm, that the Bafilidians ufed to
call the fuprcme God Abraxas. For this they have the au-
thority of Jerome (Adv. Lucif. p. 304.), and of the author
of the additions to Tertullian's Book of Prefcriptions, c. 46.
But that thefe writers are miftaken, we m.ay conclude from
the better authority of Irenxus (lib. i. c. 23.), who informs
us, that their opinion was, that the Father of all was in-
effable, or without a name, and that abraxas was the firft
of their 365 heavens, or the prince of the angels that refided
in them. It is probable that they applied this term to the
arcana of their philofophy, and not to their theology. Ac-
cordingly, Jerome aflures us, [iibifupra,) that it is the fame
with Mythras, or the Sun, which is the deity worlhipped by
the Perfians, Hence we learn, why abraxas is faid to be
the chief of the 365 heavens, or angels who refide in them,
and rule over the 365 days of the year ; for the fun may,
■with great propriety, to prefide over all the days of
the year, and in the hieroglyphlcal language, be faid to
contain in himfelf the paits of which the year is compofed,
and to rule over it. Abraxas is, therefore, a technical term,
much in the fpirit of the cabbaliftic or oriental philofophy ;
which, joiiied with that hieroglyphical difpofition for which
the Egyptians were remaikable, will account for the emble-
matical figu.vs that appear on feveral of thofe gems, called
by Montfaucon (Pal^og. Grxc. 1. ii. c. 8.) abraxiei. But
there is no fufRcient evidence that thefe belonged to the
Bafilidians.

Several have even fufpefted that they difcover fome trace
of the gofpel trinity concealed in this word ; which they
explain, by fuppofing it compounded of the initial letters
of the Hebrew words Ab ben rouah, q. d. father, fon, and
fpirit. Wendelin, canon of Tournay, and father Har-
douin, have given more precife explications of the word, ac-
cording to this fyftem. The former makes it lland for
pater, Jilius, f^'-iritus functus, falus a I'lgno ; the latter, im-
proving

A B R

A B R

proving fojnewhat on the explication, makes it rcprefent as

below,

A A Pater A I

B Ben Filius B 2

P Rouah-hakadofli Spir. Sandlus P jco

A avSfii-Kraj homines A i

C ri;^i» falvans C 200

A eyiu per facrum A I

S ?uXw lignum 2 60

Abratas is alfo iifed, among Antiquarla, for a fpecies
of graven gem, on wiiich the word abraxas is ufually in-
fcribed ; fuppofjd to have been worn by the ancient GnoiHcs,
Bafilidians, and Cavpocratians, as an amulet or talifman
againft difeales.

If the above explication of the meaning of the term
ah'dxas be juft, we can eafily account fur the introduflion
of this praftice. In the fyftem of ancient mythology,
Apollo and the Sun were the fame, and Apollo was the
god of healing. Hence, in the true fpirit of hieroglyphics
and m)^thology, thefe gems were undoubtedly ufed by the
heathens, and probably by feme fuperilltious chrlliians,
who being lately converted, retained a relifa for their former
abfurdities, as amulets, or charms, to drive away agues and
other difeafes ; and this alfo gave rife to the ufe of the word
Abrasadabra for the fame puq^ofe. It is not unlikely that
fuch were found among the orthodox as well as among the
Eafdidians and other reputed heretics.

Ahraxafis aj'e of divers figures and fizes : fometimes in
that of rings to be worn on the finger ; in which form they
were fuppofed of great efficacy for driving away flies.

jibraxafes are frequent in the cabinets of the curious : a
coUeftion of them, as complete as poflible, has been much
defired by fevei-al. There is a fine one in the abbey of S. Gene-
vieve, which h.-3 occafioned much inquiry. They are chiefly
of the third centuiy ; mofl: of them feem to have come from
Egypt, whence they are of confiderable ufe for explaining the
antiquities of that countiy. But they are much too numer-
ous and too coftly to have been the produftion and polfcflion
of the chriftians of the three firil centuries, though they
had all taken delijjht in fuch things.

Macaiius, Chilliet, Capello, and Montfaucon, have writ-
ten exprefsly on abraxafcs; the latter has given 36 plates of
them, well filled, and he has divided them, for the fake of
order and perfpicuity, into feven different clatTes.

Alraxafes have fometimes no other infcription befide the
word; but more ufually fome fymbol annexed to it. Befide
which, we fometimes find other marks and words adjoined ;
as the names of faints, angels, apoftles, and th.e ineffable
name Jehovah itfelf, either at length, or in the abbreviature
lAfJ ; fometimes the words o-a^ao9', A^ovaj, Eloai, or the
name? of other gods; as Mithras, or Mithra| ; jyj^gj^,
Semes, Sol; Avoufi,-; ti? Zeuj SspaCTi;, or Serapis, the one Jupi-
ter ; and the like. Sometimes we obferve Ifis fitting on a lotus,
or Apis, furrounded with ftars ; Ofiris, Serapis, harpocrates,
Canopus ; the cock, the dog, the lion, the ape, and the
fphinx, which are well known fymbols of heathen deities ;
fometimes monflrous compofitions of animals, obfcene images.
Phalli, and Ithyphalli ; in a word, evei-y kind of thing which
the Egyptians placed among their gods. The graving of
alraxaj'es is not uniform, rarely good ; the reverfe, on which
is the word, is faid to be fometimes of a lower and a more
modem tafte than the face. The charafters are ufually
Greek, fometimes Hebrew, Coptic, or Hetrurian ; and
fometimes of a mongrel kind, forged as it fhould feem on pur-
pofe to make tlieir import impenetrable. It is difputed,

whether or not the Veronica or Montreuil, or the Granite
obelifl<, mentioned by Gori, be alraxafcs.

Dr. Lardner, who, with an indullry and accuracy fur
which he was dillinguiflied, and by wliich he ha:; eminently
ferved the caufe of chriliianity, has examined the particular
claffes of thefe gems given by Monlfavicon, and cicarlv
proved tliat tliey are of heathcnifli origin. Many of the
figures and infcriptions on them are exceedingly obfcene and
idolatrous, and could not be the production of any ChrilUan
feel whatever ; but they muft be pagan, and for the molt
part Egyptian. To this purpofe, Beaufobre {^ub'i fupra,
cap. 4.) obferves, that it is altogether incredible, that a led,
which made profefhon of chriliianity, fliould have adopted
the monflers adored by the Egyptians ; or that a man who
boalted of deriving his dodlrine from Matthias, and from an
inteqjreter of St. Peter, and wlio received the gofpels and
the epilllcs of St. Paul, fhould make images of^the deity ;
at a time when chriftians had the moil exceflive avcrfion to
all forts of images, even the mofl innocent. This learned
writer has alfo urged a variety of irrefragable arguments
againil the opinion of thofe, who maintain that thefe gems
were the invention of the Bafilidians. From many of the
figures themfelves, produced by ChiiB^t, it appears that
they are pagan, and of Egyptian origin, and could not be-
long to any fedl of chriflians; and as for thofe gems, which
have the names of Abraham, Ifaac, or Jacob on them, or
the God of thefe patriarchs, or the words, Sabaoth, Adonai,
or Eloai, thefe, he fays, are the inventions of the Cabba-
liils, or of the Egyptian magicians ; and he has thus dedu-
ced, from his obfervations on Chifflet's figures, the fame con
clufion, whish Dr. Lardner has di-awn from thofe of Mont-
faucon. As for the names of angels, which Montfaucon
aflerts (Pal. Grsc. I. ii. c. 8. p. 177.) to have been in ufe
among the Bafilidians, it is evident, that thofe which he
mentions were derived from the Ophites, as Origen (Cont.
Celf. 1. V. p. 295. ed. Cantab, opp. i. p. 653. D. Bencd.)
plainly informs us. After an elaborate invelligation of this
controverted fubjeft, Dr. Lardner concludes in v/ords fimilar
to thofe of Beaufobre; i. That Abraxas was not the god
of the Bafilidians. 2. That this name fignifies nothing but
the f'.m, which was never worfhipped by them. 3. That the
figures, both in Chifflet and Montfaucon, are, for the moft
part, Egyptian. 4. That there is no kind of proof that
any of them belonged to the BafJidians. 5. That thofe
which have lao, Sabaoth, &c. upon them, were the works
of magicians, who never made any profcffion of chriliianity.
6. That fome of thefe figures derived their origin from the
SiMONiANS and Ophites, who were not Chriflians cither
in belief or profeflion. Sec Lardner's Works, vol. ix. p.
290 — 364.

ABREAST, a Marine term, cxprefTing the fituation of
two or more fhips, that lie with their fides parallel to each
other, and their heads equally advanced. But if their fides
be not parallel, then that flilp, which is in a line with the
beam of the other, is faid to be alr'oji of her. When the
fine of battle at fea is formed ahrcajl, the whole fquadron
advances uniformly, the fhips being equally dillant from,
and parallel to each other ; fo that the length of each fhip
forms a right angle with the extent of the fquadron, or line
abreajl. See Line. Ahrcajl, within the fhip, denotes on a
line with the beam, or by the fide of any objeft aboard.

Abreajl of any place, means off or direflly oppofite to it.

ABREIRO, in Geo^rajihy, a fmaU town of Tralos-
Montes in Portugal, in a diflriifl, which, according to Buf-
ching, confiftsof oneparifli. W. long. 7-" 10'. N. lat. 41° 20'.

ABRETTENE, in Antimt Geography, a dillrift of
Myfia in Afia. Hence, according to Strabo (Geog. torn. ii.

p. 861.),

A B R

p. Rrti.), tl'.f fpithct /llrntcKus, given to Jupiter, whol'c
pricll was Clcon, who, after bi-in;^ the loader of a gang of
r.ihhcrs, rccti\cd lignal favoiii-s from Antony, and in the
Aclian wardtferted hint and went over lo Caifar. The people
were called Atieilfni, and inhabited the countiy that lies be
twccn Ancyni of Phrvgia and the river Rhyndactis. Ceilaruis.

ABRIDGING, in yll^rbra, is the redncing a compound
quantity, or eqi'ation, to its ;'^o'v I'nr.plc tiPRESSioN.

To aoriilge the equation
K J — iix * + nix —iiL—O
-i +nc
-c +ii:
All the known quantities -fl-i-f of the fccond term arc
fuppofed equal to onefmgleleltcr — n.- ■A\ the known quan'.ities
-\-,il/+tn--i-k of the third term, equal to another letter +/ .•
and all the known quantities —flic of the fourth term, equal
to a fingle letter ~q. By which means we have x^—>txx-\-
fx — q=o, ini1<.ad of the equation propofed.

An equation thus abridged, is called a formula.

This is done either to fave room, or the trouble of writing
a number of fymbols, or to fmiplify the expreffion for reliev-
ing the atterition and memory, or rendering the formula more
eafy and general.

ABRIDGMEKT, in LUcrature, a fummar)' or con-
traction of a difcourfe ; wherein the lefs material thmgs
being more bnefly infiftcd on, the whole is brought into a
leder compafs. The Abbe Gualtier has publiflied an ela-
borate work in 2 vols. 4to. intitled, A Method of making
Abridgments.

Abridgments of books are numerous. They are ufually
faid to have had their rife in the times of ignorance ; to have
been one of the firll fruits of that barbarifm which enfued on
the decline of the Roman empire ; and to have been unknown
in thofe happy days, when letters flouridted among the Greeks
and Romans : yet we have fome traces of them in thofe tim.es.
Lord Bolingbroke, fpcaking of thofe who are employed in this
way, fays, that " they do neither honour to themfelves, nor
good to mankind ; for furely the abridger is in a foj-m below
the tranflator; and the book, at lead the liiilory, that wants
to be abridged, docs not deferve to be read. They have
done, anciently, a great deal of hurt, by fubftituting many
a bad book inllead of a good one ; and by giving occafion
to men, who contented themfelves with extracts and abiidg-
iTients, to negle£l, and, through their neglecl, to lofe, the
invaluable onginals." See Epitome. Notwithftanding
this refleftion, abridgments are in many cafes necelTary and
ufcful ; though it is a difficult tailc, and it requires peculiar
talents to peribrm the office of an abridger well; to preferi-e
the original author's fafts, reafoning, manner, and fpirit,
and to omit nothing that is efTential either in argument or
illullration, ajid at the fame time to retrench v.hat is redun-
dant, to rcltrain needlcfs amplification, and to avoid irrela-
tive or ufelefs digreffions, are objects of unqueftionable im-
portance. When thcfe objetls are duly regarded, abridg-
ments cannot fail to make knowledge of various kinds more
cafy of acccfs and of attainment, and by reducing the ex-
pence and labour of acquiring it, to extend its dlffuiion and
prevalence. To readers of various clafTes and defcriptions,
compendioits epitomes of voluminous works will be accepta-
ble and ufeful. The prafticc of abridging books that are
read, or the leisures of public profeiTors in the various de-
partments of fcience, is a method of iludy, which has been
recommended by thote who have experienced its utility, and
which has contributed in no fmall degree to afiiil both the
judgment and the memory. Thofe who have accuftomed
themfelves to this pradice have alfo acjiuircd a facility of
compofition, of which they have availed themfelves on van-

A B R

ous occafions; whatever may have been the employment of
profeflion to which they have been devoted W'n Ihall here
fubjoin two exceOent Ipecimens of that kind of abridgment
which we have recommended.

In the EfTay on Miracles, Mr. Hume's defign is to prove,
that miracles which have not been the. immediate pbjefts of
our fenfes, cannot reafonably be believed upon the teltimony
of others. His argument is,

" That experience, which in fome things is variable, in
" otliers uniform, is our only guide in reafoning concerning ■
" matters of faft. Variable experience gives rile to proba-
" bilitv only ; an uniform experience amounts to proof.
" Our belief of any faft from the teftiir.ony of eye-w itneffLs
" is derived from no other principle than our experience of
" the veracity of human teltimony. If the fadt attefted be
" miraculous, here arifes^ contell of two oppofite experiences,
" or proof againft proof. Now a miracle is a violation of
" the laws of nature; and as a fiiTn and unalterable ex-
" perience has eftabliflied thefe laws, the proof againft a mi-
" racle, from the vei/ nature of the fad, is as coinplete as
" any argument from experience can poffibly be imagined ;
" and if fo, it is an undeniable confequence, that it cannot
" be furmounted by any proof whatever derived from human
" teftimony."

In Dr. Campbell's DifTertation on Miracles, the author's
principal aim is to fliew the fallacy of Mr. Hume's argu-
ment ; which he has moft fuccefsfuHy done, by another fingle
argument, in the following manner :

" The evidence arifing from human teftimony is not fohly
" derived froin experience ; on the contrarj^, teltimony hath
" a natural influence on belief antecedent to experience.
" The early and unlimited aflent given to teflimony by chil-
" dren gradually contracts as they advance in life: it if,
" therefore, more confonant to tmth to fay, that our Ji^i-
" (fi'iice in teftiinony is the refult of experience, than that cur
" fait/i in it has this foundation. Befides, the uniformity
" of experience in favour of any fad, is not a proof againil
" its being reverfed in a particular inftance. The evidence
" arifing from the fingle teftimon)' of a man of known
" veracity, will go farther to eflablifh a belief in its being
" adually reverfed. If his teflimony be. confirmed by a few
" others of the faine charader we cannot withhold our affent
" to the truth of it. Now, though the operations of na-
" ture are governed by uniform laws, and though we have not
" the teftiinony of our fenfes in favour of any vioLitkn o(
" them; ftill, if in particular inftances we have the tefti-
" mony of thov.fands of our fellow-creatures, and thofe
" too men of ftrid integrity, fwayed by no motives of am-
" bition or intereft, and governed by the principles of com.-
" mon fenfe, that they Were adually witnefTes of thefe vio-
" lations, the conilitution of our nature obliges us to be-
" lieve them."

Thefe two examples contain the fubftancc of about 400
pages.

For alrhlgments of the common law and the ilatutes, fee
Digest, Lav/, and Statutes.

Abridgment, in Latv, is particularly ufed for the fhort-
ening a count or declaration, by fubtrading fome of the
fubitance of it.

A man is faid to abridge his plaint in afiife, or a woman
her demand in an adion of dower, when, having put any
lands therein which are not in the tenure of the tenant or
defendant ; and non-tenure, or the like, is pleaded to that land
in the abatement of the writ; they are brought to abridge,
i. e. to defift from and leave that parcel out of the demand ;
and pray th;U the tenant m:!y an'.'wer to the reft, to wliich
he has not yet pleaded any thng. — Tnou^h the demandant

hai

A B R

A B R

has alnrlgeil liis plaint, or demand ; yet the writ ftill re-
mains good for the reft. The reafoii is, that fuch writs r\m
in general, and do not fpecify particulars. See 21 H. VIII.
c. 3.

ABRINCATARUM oppiJum, m indent Geography,
the to\vn of the Ahr'mcata or Aliincatut, now Avranches, in
France, fituated on an eminence in the fouth-weft of Nor-
mandy, near the borders of Brittany, on the EnglilhChannel.
W. long. 1° 10'. N. lat. 48° 40'.

AB RIZ AN, orAsRizGHiAN, derived from Airlz, which
fignifics in Perfian, a •veffel proper for powing out luater ; the
name of a feait obfer\'ed by tlie old Perfinns on the 13th day
of the month Tir, which nearly conefponds to our Septem-
ber, with abundance of idolatrous fupcrilitions. This hea-
thenifli fcfti'al was apparently prepavatoi-v' to the dtfceut of
the rain in thofe countries, being about the time of the au-
tumnal equinox, and has been partly adopted by the Maho-
metans. Mr. Harmer (Obfervations on Scn"pturc, vol. iii.
p. 10.) has availed himfclf of the practice at this feaft, to ex-
plain the Jewifh ceremony of pouring out water at the fcaft;
of tabernacles, alluded to by our Saviour, John, ch. vii.
After the return of the Jews from their captivity in Baby-
lon, Zechariah (ch. xiv. xvi. xvii.) connects attending the
fcaft of the tabernacles with obtaining- the rains of autumn,
which are of fuch confequence after the drought of a Syrian
fummer; and therefore (fays the ingenious writer) this rite
was probably then praftifed, and the pouring out of water
in the temple, with folemnity, as before God, underftood to
be a religious prognoftic of the approach of rain, or a morally
inftrumental and procuring caule of its fpeedy coming.
Might not (he adds) the returning Jews think of adding
fome memorial of Jehovah's being the giver of rain to that
ancient national folemnity that had been enjoined by Mofes,
to be obferved juft about the fame time of the year with that
of the Perfian feftival, which that people folemnly afcribcd
to fome deity they worfhipped, but which the Jews knew was
the gift of Jehovah ?

ABROCHMENT, or Abbrochment, Abbrocamen-
TUM, in fome ancient /-nw-v.'riters, denotes the aft of in-
groffing or buying up com.modities by wholefale, before they
come into the open market, in order to fell them off dear by
retail, otherwife called foreftalling.

ABROGATION, from the Latin ^z/to-o, I repeal, the
aft of abolilhing a law, by authority of the maker.

In which fenfe the word is fynonimous with abolition, re-
pealing, and revocation.

Ahrngaiion ftands oppofed to rngatlon: it is diftinguiftied
from derogation, which implies the taking away only fome
part of a law; horn, fiibrogatlon, which denotes the adding a
claufe to it; fi"om obrogation, which imphes the limiting or
reftraining it; hovn. d'J'penfatlon, which only fets it afideina
particular inftance; and from antiquat'wii, which is the re-
fufnig to pafs a law.

ABROHANI, or MallemoIli, the name of a kind
of muHin, or clear white cotton cloth, brought from the
Eall Indies, particularly from Bengal; being in length fix-
teen French ells and three quarters, and in breadth five
eighths.

ABROJOS, or Baxos de Bnluca, in Geography, a bank
formed by feveral fmall rocks and ifles, eaft of Turk's ifland.
W. long. 69° 40'. N. lat. 21° 5'. A deep channel of the
breadth of three leagues lies between this bank and the
illand.

ABROKUS, in potnny, a name ufed by fome of the

Latin writers, for the hromiis, or a-venajlerdu, the wild oat ;

and by others for the orohiis, or bitter vetch. The Greeks

originally ufed the word, and that not onlv for thefc two

Vol, L

vegefables, but in a much larger, fenfe, iindcrftanding by it
any herb refembling the plants cultivated for the ule of the
table, but not efculcnt. The Greeks and Romans had a
way of cxpreffing the boiling of pulfe or herbs, by words
fignifying the wetting of them; thus the Greeks exprtfled
boiled tilings by hrocha, ^i'-.yo; and the Romans by mad'ida.
Virgil ufes the word for the peafe, and Plautiis, for all tfcii-
lent things that were boiled: hence thefc baftard pcafe and
oats were called al/rocha, von nuidlda, not fit for boiling or
eating.

ABROLHOS, in Geograpl.y, dangerous flioals about 50
miles from the coaft of BiT.fil, and alaout the ifland of St.
Barbe. S. lat. 18° 22'. ^V. long. 38= 45'.

ABROMA, in Botany, formed of a and 0^ufM, q. d. nil ft
for food, is ufed in oppolltion to Theobcoma, as a ffcnvs of
plants belonging to the natuiid order of Columniferit, tiie Mal-
•vaces of Juiheu, and the 1 8th clafs oiPohadilphiaDodccandria.
The generic charafters are as follow : ttic calyx is a five-leaved.
perianthium, with lanceolate, acute, fprcading, and pennaner.t
leaflets ; the corolla has five petals, larger than the calyx, with
obovate, arched, concave, obtufe claws, hairy at the end,
ereft, and inferted at the bafe into the neftary ; and oval,
obtufe, fpreading, ciliate borders, contrafted at the bafe in-
to recui-vcd little clav>s, on which the chief claws are placed;
and a fmall pitcher-lhaped neftai-y, divided into five fcgments,
which are obcordate, hairy, ereft, recur\'ed, and arched ;
the flamhia are five membranaceous, very fmall filaments,
growing on the neftary between the fegments, emarginate-
trifid, with three anthers on each filament, that are twin and
kidncy-fonn ; the pijlil has a fubcylindrical germ, with five
fubulate ftyles, and acute ftigmas ; the psr'icarp'mm is an
ovate, membranaceous, five-winged, five-beaked, and five-
celled capfule, with folded partitions ; and the feeds are
numerous and fubovate, within an oblique membranaceous
aril, fixed in a double row to the central edge of the parti-
tions, which is thickened and longitudinally bearded ; and
without a receptacle. There are two fpecies, viz. the Maple-
leaved alroma, which is a tree, with a ftralght trunk, yielding
a gum when cut, and filled with a white pith like the elder ;
it flowers from June to Oftober, and its fruit ripens in Sep-
tember and Oftober ; it is a native of New South Wales
and the Philippine idands, and was introduced into Kew gar-
dens about 1770, and is a hot-hoiife plant, requiring great
heat, and much water : — and Whehr's Ahroma, fo called by
Koenig, in compliment to Edward \Vlieler, Efq. of the
Supreme Council in Bengal ; this is a fhrub with a brown
bark, a native of the Eaft Indies, and is not knov/n in Eu-
rope. Miller's Dift. by Martyn.

ABRONO, in Botany, a naiue given by Serapion, and
others, to the heart-? e a; called alfo abntgi.

ABROSTOLA, in Ancient Geography, a town in Phry-
gia, which, according to Ptolemy and the Peutingcrian
Table, is about 23 miles from Amuritim. Ccllarius, vol. ii.
p. 89.

ABROTANOIDES, in Botany. See Artemisia,
Protea, and Seriphium.

Abrotanoidhs, in Natural Hiflory, a name given by
Bauhin to the Madrepora murUata of Linnaius and
others.

ABROTANUM or Abrotonum maf .See Arte-
misia, and Southernwood. Abrotanum fam'tna. See
SANTOLiNA,and Lavender-CoWot;. See alfo Eriocepha-
Lus and Tanacetum.

ABROTONUM, in Anclnt Geography, a town and
harbour on the Meditenaneau, in the dillric^ of Syrtis
Parva, in Africa ; one of the three cities that formed
Tripoly.

H ABRUG

A B R

ATiRVG-Jijnya, in C.-o^r,if>hy, a populous town of
Traill) Ivaiiia, in the diftrlct of \VeiiTciiburg, tlie rcfidcncc
of llii; Mine office, aad the thief of the metal towns. It is
fitujted amonijll iniaes of gold and lilver. E. loii;^'. 23° 24'.
N. Int. 4''i yo'.

ABRUl'TION, in Surgery, a term of the fame figniSca-
tloii With Abouction.

AiiRUS, in Bo.-iiny, of a^f>i, /oft or Jflkalr, fo called
from the extreme tcndlniel's of tlie leaves, is a penus of the
natural order of Lrgumn /.-, and the 17th elafs oi Dla-
iW:'- ./ D.cinJ Li; its generic cliaratlers are, that the ra/i'.v has
a o •--'.eared, bell-lhaped, oblciircly four-lobed pcriaiithium,
WiUi blunt tcetli, the upper one broader tlian the rcll ; the
eori!!.! is papilionaceous, with a roundiih banner, flatted at
the fides longer t lan the wings and keel, oblong blunt
win^, a .d ublong lickle-fliaped gibbous keel ; \X\e Jliimhia
are niiie fi amints united in a Iheath, cloven above, with ob-
long erect lathers; the p /}'/ is a cylindrical hairy germen,
with fubulate llyle, fhortev than the ftamina, a.id fmall
ftigma in funn of a head ; the pencprf^um is a legume or
pod, like a rhomb, comprefTed, coriaceous, bivalved, with four
or five cells, and a f jbulate deflex claw ; and the feeils are
folitary and fubglebole. There is one fpecies, viz. the
ttihrus precj'onus, fonnerly the CIy:lne alrus of Linnveus, the
Ph.if I t of jloane, and Oroliis yfnericaiiiu, &c. of Tourne-
fort. It grows nntunilly in both liidies, Guinea, and
EgNT>t. It is a perennial plant, rifmg to the height of
eigii: or ten feet. Its leaflets have the tafte of liquorice,
whence it is called in the Weil Indies Jamaica wild /iquorue,
and ufed for the fame pui-pofe. There art two varieties, one
with a white, and t!ic other with a yellow feed. The feeds
are commonly (Irung, and worn as ornaments in the countries,
where the plant grows wild ; and they are frequently
brought to Europe from Guinea, and the Eaft and Well
Indies, and wrought into various forms with other hard
feeds and (hells. They are alfo ufed for weighing precious
commodities, and ftrung as beads for rofaries, whence the
epithet 6rfra/or/ux. They are frequently thrown, with other
Weft Indian feeds, on the coaft of Scotland. This plant
was cultivated by Bifliop Compton at Fulham before 1680.
It is propagated by feeds, lown on a good hot-bed in fp-ing,
and previoully foakcd for 12 or 14 hours in water. When
the plants are two inches, each of them fiioukl be tranf-
plan d into a feparate pot of light earth, and plunged into
Let-' .'Is of tanners' bark, and Ihaded from the fun. They
will flower the fecond year, and fometimes ripen their feeds
in England. Miller by Martyn.

Abrus, in tlie MnUria MaUca, the name of a feed pro-
duc -d by one of the phafeola, or kiduey-beans, and com-
monly called Ango'a feeds.

ABRUZZO, in G^f'graphy, aprovince of Naples, deriving
its nnmefrom the ancient city of Ter am o, which was focalled.
Th s name was applied by the Goths, Lombards, and Nor-
m:ms, to a fmall domain, denominated the county of Apruz-
zo, or Aprutinus. Under the Swabian govemment it was
extended to the whcie country that now bears this appella-
tion. It is divided by the river Pefcara into two parts, one
of which is denominated Ulterior, or Ulti-a, having Aquila
for its capital, and the other Cit^rior or Citra, whofe capi-
tal is Chilli. The tribunals of govemment in this country
were fixed, on the acceffion ot the houfe of Arragon, at
Aquil.i and Chieti. But in the laft century it was found
expedient to divide that of Aquila into two jurifdiclions :
and a third tribunal was ellabliflied at Teramo. In this pro-
vince there are, befides the Apennine mountains, two others
called Monte CavsUo and Moute Maiello, the top of the laft:
of which is always covered with fuow, and many more of

A B S

inferior note. Although Abnizzo is a cold countiy, it is
fertile in corn, rice, fruit, oil, and wine, which aiRird not
only a fufficicnt fupply for the natives, but articles for ex-
portation. Wool is ;di'o a ftaple commodity, which is fur-
niflied by the flocks that pafs the fummer on the fine paftures
of the mountains, and are di-iven in winter to the plains ef
Puglia, and other parts near the fea co;ift, where the fuow
does not lie. Safli-on was fonnerly produced in great abun-
dance in the territory of Aquila, but lines the culture of it
in Lombardy, it has been neglected in Abruzzo. Liquorice-
routs are exported from the maritim.e diftrifts of this country ;
and in the province of Teramo there is a manufa<5lory of
pottery-ware, which is valued in Germany, and conveyed
thither by the way of Trieste ; but this is linking into decay.
This country, which is naturally fertile and productive,
needs only indullry and labour, under the protcilion and
encouragement of a good government, to render it important
and proiperous. But dellitute of internal improvement and
convenient fea-ports, it is, in moll parts of it, dcfolate and
wretched. Feudatoiy eftates abound ; but the towns are
thinly inhabited, and the face of the countiy exhibits traces
of inattention and neglect. The antiquary and naturalift
may travel through this province with pleafure and advan-
tage. The moft; intereiling monuments are thofe of Monte-
Corno and Majella. The inhabitatits bear a great refem-
blanceto their northern progenitors, who were firll Lombards,
and afterwards Normans, pofieffing the fame gwodnefs of heart
w'ith great indolence, and an indifpofition to a£tive exer-
tions. Among the mountaineers there are evident traces of
the Frank and Teutonic languages. In this province is the
lake Celano. Swinburne's Travels, vol. iv. p. 378..

ABSALOM, in Scripture Hilary, the fon of David, by
Maacah, d:vughtcr of Talmai, king of Gefliur, and brother
of Tamar, who was dilhonoured by Amnon, David's fon by
another mother. For this injury, Amnon was atTafrmated
by Abfalom at a feafl which he prepared for the royal fami-
ly. He then took refuge with Talmii, in the countiy of
Gefliur ; and foon after he was reftored to favour, he en»
gaged the Ifraelites to revolt from his father. iHaving been
proclaimed king at Hebron, his father was under a neceffity
of leaving Jerulalem, where Ablalom was received by the
people. He and his army, however, were foon routed by
David's forces under the command of Joab ; and flying into
the foreft of Ephraim, his hair was entangled in the branches
of an oak, and in this lituation he was killed by Joab and
his armour-bearer, A.M. 2980, ante A. D. 1024. David,
who had ordered his life to be preferved, lamented his death
w;th exceflive grief. The extraordinaiy weight of Abfalom's
hair, which is ftated (2 Sam. xiv. 26.) at " 2CO flitkels
after the king's weight," has been confidered by critics and
commentators as a diiliculty, which is not eafily folved. If
we allow with Dr. Cumberland, (EiTay on weights, &ci
p. 103.) that the Jewifli fliekel of filver was equal to half an
ounce avoirdupoife, 200 (hekels would be equal to 6f
pounds. Jofephus (Op. t. i. p. 3S6.) fuppofes the 200
fltekels to be 5 miii?e, and eich mina to be 2i pounds,
and confeqnently the weight of the hair to be I2|
pounds, which is Itill more incredible. For the folii-
tion of this difiicu'ty fo e have fuppofed that the fhekel
in this paCage denoted a weight in gold equal to the value
of the filver fliekel, or half an ounce, and thus reduce the
weight of the hair to abut 5 ounces. Others fnppofe,
that the 200 fliekels fignify, not the weight, but the value
of the hair. Others, again, are of opinion, that there has
been an en-or in tranfcribiiig the Hebrew copy ; fo that the
number of fliekels being expreflTed by the letter -, which de-
notes 20, was millaken for '\, or 200, or that "J, which fig-

uiiiea

A B S

A B S

nifies 4, was fubflitutcd for 1, or 200. If the lad of tliefe
fupjxiiitioiis bo admitted, the 4 IhekL-lri, by Jofeplius's
eftimate, would be equal to a quarter of a pound, and by
Cumberland's valuation 2 ounces. The learned Bochart in
an elaborate differtation on this fubjeft, (apud Oper. toiii. i.
p. 883, &c. ed. Villem.) reduces the weight of Abfah-ni's
hair to about 2 pounds, which, coniidering the various
circumilances mentioned by him, is by no means in-
credible.

AESCEDENTIA, in Surgery, denote morbid parts
■which are in a ftate of feparation. See Abcede.

ABSCHARON, in Geography, a peninfula adjoininn-
tbe Cafpian Sea, and abounding vvitii numerous and pro-
tludive fources of naphta and petroleum, and with ialt
lakes. On this peninfula is Ctuatcd the city called Baku.

ABSCESS, in Surgery, from abfcedo, to fiparate, or
abs and cerlo, to retire; a cavity containinsr pus, or a
colleftion of puriform matter ; called Jl^fcejfiis by the
Latins, and 'A7rcV>i//.a by the Greeks. The term Em pvr ma
is ufed to defignate thofe Imposthumes which form in
parts not contiguous to the integuments of the body,
efpecially large Suppurations within the chefl or
belly ; and it is fomctimes applied to coUeftions of pus
"in the ikuU, the orbits of the eyes, the maxillaiy finuffes,
tiie joints, &c. AbfcefTes likewife obtain other denomi-
nations, according to their feat ; as Panaris, in the finger ;
Anch vLOPs, in the greater angle of the eye ; Hypopyon,
in the anterior chamber of the eye ; Vomica, in the paren-
chymatous fubftance of the lungs ; Bubo, in the arm-pit or
groin; Parotis, behind the ear; Parulis, in the gums,
&c. &c. Thefe appellations are explained in their refpeflive
places. We fhall now proceed to the general doftrine and
treatment of fuppurations ; after which, will follow fome
remarks on abfceiies of particular parts, requiring peculiar
management.

The proximate caufe and formation 0/" Abscesses.

This morbid ftate is always preceded by an inflammation
of the veffels from whence the pus has iffued. If the puru-
lent matter be well formed, there has been a previous in-
creafe of artei-ial aftion, a throbbing in the parts adjacent,
an exquifite degree of fenfibility, augmented animal heat,
diftenfion of the minute blood vefTels, elafticity of the muf-
cular fibres, and an efFufion of fenim, or of coagulable
lymph from the arteries immediately affefted. Thefe phx-
nomena are followed by a gradual diminution of the pain,
heat, rednefs, tenfion, and throbbing, with a dcpofition of
puriform fluid into the furrounding cellular membrane.

Aftual fuppuration having now taken place ; if the pus
lies near the furface of the body, a cream-like whitenefs
will foon be perceived in fome particular point, near the
middle, or towards the inferior fide of the abfcefs : an eleva-
tion or prominence next occurs, and a fluftuation may be
felt underneath, which becomes more diftinft as the matter
approaches the furface ; the pain alfo is confiderably abated,
the brilliant appearance of the (Icin declines ; and, if th?
collection of matter be large, there is ufually an attack oi
ftiivering, accompanied with febrile fymptoras, &c.
The general Seat it/" Abscesses.

In general, if not always, the matter of an abfcefs is pri-
marily depofited in the cellular membrane, which furrounds
or lies contiguous to the inflamed veffels ; except when the
fecreting arteries tei-minate and empty themfelves in a na-
tural cavity ; for example, in the thcrax or abdomen. As
the te>Uure of the cellular fubllance admits of eafy diften-
fion, the pus gradually diffufes itfelf, and forms an exten-
five refei-voir, which either ruptures fpontaneoufly, in a

part affording the lead rcfiftance, or is evacuated by an artf-
(iL-ial opening. When pus is confined by a limi adhjfion, or
by an a])oneurofis, or is fituattd very deeply among parts
that rcfift its preflure, one or more intcrllices will be fomc-
times formed of confiderable extent ; the aperture of which
may be at a diftancc from the original feat of the dileafe ;
and if t!ic matter fliould exill in a vci-y large quantity, the
gravitating force of t!ie fluid will give it a tendency to fome
depending fpot. Thus it happens, that matter foimed un-
der the temporal m.iifcle may be difcharged into tiie mouth,
or pus accumulating in the loins may defeend to the lower
part of the thigh. We arc, therefore, not to imagine the
point where the pus makes it appearance by a protrufion ex-
ternally, to be always tlie focus or centre of the ■■.Lfcefs ; al-
though it is generally the moft proper place for its evacua-
tion. Some judicious remarks on this fubjcdt, by the late
Dr. W. Hunter, are contained in \\\& Medical Obfervationt
and Enquiriet, vol. ii. p. 57, &c.

General Indications in the Treatment o/" Abscesses.

When a praftitioner has afccrtained, from the preceding
and concomitant fymptoms, that an abfcefs cxifts, (for this
dil'eafe has fometimes been confounded with an hernia or
aneurifm,) he (hould carefully detennme whether or not
the confined pus ought to be evacuated, and what interme-
diate fteps fhould be purfued. It may be a queftlon, in
fome cafes, if the fuppuration be complete, or fulUciently
advanced for an operation. In other cafes it may happen,
that the tumor ought not to be opened, though the matura-
tion be pcrfeft. At other times the matter, from its fituation,
ought to be evacuated fpeedily, left it fliould injure the
contiguous parts. Regard mull alfo be had to the general
ftate of the patient's health, efpecially if the fuppuration
under which he labours be extenfive, and has arilcn fpon-
taneoufly. In cafes of this kind, which occur after a fever,
it will be indifpenfably neceflary to adminifter fuch medicines
as are adapted to the nature of the internal coinplalnt, as
well as to employ appropriate topical remedies to the abfcefs.
When it has been determined to open the tumor, the fur-
geon fhould confider in what manner this may be beft ac-
complifhed, whether by the fcalpel, the cauftic, or the
feton ; whether by a fingle opening, or feveral ; by dif-
charging the pus at once, or at different times.

The various Methods of opening Abscesses,

I. The ancients, and efpecially Albucafis, ufed to open
abfceffes by the application of an aftual cautery.
But the unneccflary and temfic apparatus of hot-irons
being now laid afide, all the advantages of exciting a fur-
ther degree of inflammation, &c. previoufly to evacuating
the pus, may be obtained by milder remedies. When an
abfcefs is feated in a glandular pait, and has been very
tardy in advancing to a ftate of maturation, (as is parti-
cularly the cafe with fcrofnlous and venereal tumors,) it will
be often better to open them with a cauftic than by any other
means. The chief grounds of preference in favour of the
cauftic are, that it tends to augment the inflammation and
fuppuration ; it diminiflies the fubjacent glandular fwelling;
it gives free vent to the confined m.atter ; it promotes
healthy granulations ; it is mucli lefs likely to be followed
by troublefomc finuffes, or by a fore with loofe and callous
edges, than when a fimple punfture or incifion has been
had recourfe to ; and it may be employed with patients who
have an infurmountable dread of the knife. An unfcemly
fear is, hov/ever, a not unfrequent confequence of the
cauftic ; and on this account, it is not fo eligible in the face
or neck, where a cicatrix ought, if pofiible, to be avoided.
The method of preparing and applying cauftic fubftariccs, in

H 3 this

A B S

this and other chirurgical cafes, is explained imder the
tcnn Caustic.

2. Aa incifion or a pimclure is employed rather than t'.ie
caullic, where the fuigciu p-.Mpofcs to Lt out only a part
of the contents of the ubfcefs at once ; where it is neceiiary
to li.uit the extent of the artificial opening to certain diinen-
fions ; wlicre tlie pus lie"! too deep for tl>e precarious opera-
tion of an cfcharolic fubll.mce ; where an immediate outlet
is required, and danger is apprehended from delay ; or,
wliere it is reipiifite to make a wide incifion, for the pur-
pofe of f leihtating the difcharge, or applying external nie-
dicamc.it.i to the bottom of the fore. The precife circum-
ftanres rtiiuirir.jr a variety in the plan of treatment, will be
explained in the parajjr.ipiiB which follow, while we dclcribe
the dilfercnt kinds of ablceifes that occur in fever.d parts of
the body.

3. Another mode of opening abfceircs is by the fcton,
which coiififls in pafTiiig a /kein of foft thread or lilk
through the parietcs of the tumor, by means of a se-
TON-needlc. This praftice Is very common in the veteri-
nary art, but is not much employed on the human fubj^cl.
Setons are apt to produce adh^fions between the ficin and
fubjacent mufcle ; the fear which they leave, however, is
^.nei-ally but fmall, and for this rcafon they are fometimes
advantageoully had recourfe to in fuperficial collections of
matter about the neck and face, where fuppuration is
likely to continue a long while. They are alfo uled in cer-
tain cafes of abfcefs near a joint, or other important part,
which might be injured by the fcalpel or caullic, or which
does not admit of a wide orifice being made, fo as to expofe
the abfceded furface to the air.

Treatment of parl'icular Abscesses.

There arc certain general principles in the management of
abfcefies, from which furgeons do not greatly deviate in
common cafes ; fuch, for example, as the applying of warm
and llimulating applications to the part affected, where the
intention is to accelerate the fuppuration : when the pus is
to be evacuated, they not only make an artificial opening,
hut afljil the daily jifcharge by comprcfTes, or by lightly
filling the orifice with eafy drefiings ; and, when there is
a tendency in the fore to granulate, they remove all exter-
nal obilacles, and ufe fuch gentle means as are calculated to
aid tlie healing proccfs of nature : at the fame time internal
remedies areadminiflered, according to the nature of thefymp-
toms, and the ftatc of the patient's conftitution. But, we
fhall proceed to iUuttrate thefe general remarks by an example.

Suppofe an extenfive inflammation of the phlegmonous
kind to have taken place in a robuft young perfon, upon a
flefhy part of the body. If no eflfective topical means have
been ufed to allay the pain, heat, and tenfion ; if no general
or local bleeding has been employed ; if the patient be not
abftemious in his diet, nor has had recourfe to purgative
remedies ; under fuch circumftances it is very probable the
inflammation will advance rapidly, and tennlnate in complete
fuppuration. In this latter flage of the cafe, warm emolli-
ent poultices and fomentations fhould be applied three or
four times a day ; and, if the inflAmmatoiy fymptoms be-
come excelfive, the cooling regimen, with moderate bleed-
ing, and mild fallne purgatives may he advantageoudy
employed. Thefe laft (hou'd, however, be cautioufly and
fparingly ufed, left the fuppurating procefs be too far
checked or interrupted. When the pus has forced its way
towards the fui-race of the limb, and is nearly ready to burft
from the tumor, (which will be known by a palpable
fliidtuation of the matter, and by the integument becoming
ihjn.) prudence Aiggefts that a luiHcient opening fhould

A B S

he made for the free and perfed evacuation of the contents

of the abfcefs.

But there are circumftances which fometimes

forbid our waiting till this critical period ; the matter mar
be confined within a cyft ; it may be retained by a thick and
firm fafcia lying over it ; for want of an outlet, it may be
actually re-a'bforbed into the general fyftem, and circulating
with tlie blood, may produce very ferious confequences to
the patient's health : in order, therefore, to prevent the
inconveniences which might enfue from long waiting, a judi-
cious furgeon forefeeing the evil, will evacuate the pus by
an early opening. In making his incifion, it fhould be an"
invariable rule to cut in the direction of the mufcular fibres ;
left, by a tranfverfe wound, fome important pai-t be deprived
of its action through life : by neglecting to oblerve this rule
in an impollhume of the forehead, an ignorant operator de-
prived his patient of the power of opening his eyes, fo that
he was obliged to pafle up his eye-brows with adhefive plaf-
ters, in order to enjoy the benefit of vifion. It is alfo necef-
fary, in ufing the fcalpel, to recolleft the fituation of neigh-
bourincr blood-veffcls and nerves ; taking the precaution to
employ a grooved direftor, whenever tliere is the fmaUefl:
danger of cutting thefe organs. The fubfequent di-eflings,
BANDAGES, &c. &c. will be nearly the fame as are required
in common ulcers or wounds ; for an account of which,
to avoid prolixity, we refer the reader to thofe articles. But
it will now be proper to point out the plan of treatment ta
be adopted in (ome peculiar kinds of ii!ifcefs.

Abscess of the maxillary fmus. The cavity of the cheek-
bone. Antrum Highmorianum, is lined with a delicate vaf-
cular membrane, which, when it inflames and fuppurates,
produces great pain in the upper teeth, nofe, and tlie eye of
the iide affeCled ; it is alfo very common for people with
this complair.t to have a fevere pain in the forehead, where
the frontal finuffes are placed ; but ftiU thefe fymptoms are
not fufficient to dlliinguifh the difeafe. Time muit difclofe
the true caufe of the pain, for it wjl frequently continue
longer than that which arifes from a difeafed tooth, and will
become more and more fevere ; after which, a rednefs will
be obferved on the foi'e-part of the cheek, fomewhat higher-
than therootsof the teeth, andan induration at the fame place,
vrhich will be confiderably circumfcribed ; this hardnefs may
be felt rather highly fituated on the infide of the lip. The
method of cure confifts in extracting one of tlie tleiites molares
from the affefted fide ; and then perforating through the focket
into the bony cavity. A mild injeCtion may afterwards be em-
ployed to cleanfe the finus, and be repeated as occafion re-
quires. Confult Gooch's Cafes, Hunter on the Teeth, and
Bernftein's Handbuch.

Abscess near the Anus. Any of the caufes of inflamma-
tion, whether internal or external, may produce this difeafe.
It is generally flow and infidious in its progrefs, involving
the reftum, and adjacent cellular membrane in its ravages ;
for the molt part it is painful and tedious, occafion: ng deep,
fillulous, and callous orifices, which demand prompt atten-
tion from the furgeon. See Fistula. The chief injlca-.
tlons are, to alleviate the pain by glyfters, fomentations, and
emollient poultices ; to make a free opening as foon as the
pus is fairly within reach of the knife ; to divide all the finuo-
fities, if they communicate with each other, fo as to effeA
one general outlet ; and, when the inteillne has been laid
bare or perforated, by the confined matter lying upon it,
to rip it up with a cun'ed biftory, guided by the operator's
forefinger. Recourfe muft alfo be had to internal medicines
whenever the patient's health is deranged ; a.id indeed,
vv'ithout fuch collateral aid, the furgeoa's effi^rts will fre-
quently be in vain. Mr. Pott's obfervations on this fub-

jea

A B S

jeift defen-e particular attention — See the article Fistu-
lous Ulcer.

Abscess in the Groin nnJ Arm-pil. The inflammation
and tumefaftion which occur in thel'e iituations, genenlly
arife from a difcafe in the ablorbent glands ; fomctimes they
are occalioned by an injury fullained by a dillant lymphatic
veffel, communicating witb the inflamed gland; and not un-
frequently lucli glandular affetlions are the confequcnce of a
malignant conftitutional dilbrder, fuch as the plague or
VENEREAL DISEASE, when they are denominated Buboes.
See thefe terms in their refpettive places. From wr.atcver
caufe abfccITes arife in the ablorbent fyftem, they are moftly
tedious and difficult to cure. See Absorbents, and their
difeafes. But when they h:;ppeu in the groin or axiila, it is
clpecially requifite to avoid making deep incifions, on ac-
count of the large blood veffels there fituated : in other re-
fpecls they require no peculiar management, except that,
being very flow to fup;5in-ate,it will often be neceflary to apply
ftimulating plallers or cataplafms ; and when they arrive at
a ilate of perfeft maturation, it will much accelerate the
ciu-e to evacuate the pus by a cauftic inllead of a punfture
or mere incifion. A fcrofulous habit of body very common-
ly gives rife to glandular enlargements ; in fuch cafes it will,
therefore, be proper to employ the appropriate internal
means, without which external remedies will often prove ufe-
lefs. See Scrofulous Tumors and Ulcers.

Abscess /n the Loins; olherwife called the Pfoas or
Lumbar Ahfcefs. The large mufcles fituated within the
loins, and their connedling cellular fubftance, are very liable
to inflame, and foiTn extcnfive colleCTiions of pus. Thefe
are fo important and ferious, even under the moll favourable
circumftances, that comparatively few perfo:is recover from
their effefts. This confid;ration fliould urge praftitioners to
adopt decifive means of rehef in the earlieft period of the
complaint, and never to make light of the fymptoms which
indicate a fixed inflammation in the lumbar region. When
pus has aiilually formed, we ouglit not abfolutely to defpair,
but the principal hope lies in preventing its formation : it is,
therefore, of great confequence to afcertain the exa£l ftate
of the patient when he firft applies to the furgeon. An in-
cipient lumbar abfcefs may be fufpefted, if the patient has
been lately expofed to any of the exciting caufes of inflam-
mation ; if a dull and conftant pain aftefts him in the deep
feated mufcles of the loins ; if this pain be aggravated in raif-
ing and rotating the thigh ; if a fenfe of tightnefs or con-
finement be felt within the belly, or near the groin, accom-
panied with external tendernefs to the touch ; if there be
much difficulty in ftanding ereft, or in lying at full length ;
and if, in addition to thefe fymptoms, the patient be of a-
delicate and fcrofulous habit of body. When matter is
formed in conliderable quantity, a new fet of lymptoms and
a more decided character will be attached to this difeale :
the UitTerer will experience nofiurnal exacerbations of fever^
with frequent rigors, languor, and lofs of appetite, walling
of the body, night fweats, hcftical complar.its, and an ex-
ternal protuberance in the v'cinity of the al feels. The mat-
ter, however, does not uniformly fluftuate in any particular
fpot, but may be felt fometimes about tlie loins, near the
hip, or in the groin, ai.d fomttimes at the anus, or tow.r-ds
the bottom of the thigh. This tumor will generally 'dimi-
nifli, owing to the retroceffiou of the pus, on placing the
patient in an horizontal pofition. During the increafe of
the fuppuration, there will often be fuch a lemiflior'. of the
fymptoms, that the patient imagines himfclf in a Hate of rc^
covcry, until a fpontancous rupture '.akes place in the
fwelling,. or it requires an artificial opening. Now and then
fome of the lumbar vertebrK become carious, Iroro the prcf-

A B S

fure of the contignons pus, and the lower extremities arp pa-
ra'yfd ; the large blood-veffela may be crod d, and thus, a
fpe dy temiination is put to tiie patient's exi!l-.-ncc.

The early remedies to be employed in this difcafe, before
fuppuration has commenced, are free topical bloodleltinjj,
by the repeated ufe of fifteen or twenty leeches, or by the
fcaril'cator and cupping glafs ; the exhibition of fdine pur-
gatives ; a mild vegetable diet ; perfeiil tranquillity and rcll ;
with repeated blilltring, or a large caiiflic, over the alfefted
part of the loins. But, as fuppuration advances, the diet is
to be im.proved ; fomc animal food and wine mull be allow ed ;
tonic and acid medicines are to be employed ; with country
air, moderate bodily exercife, warm fea-bathing, and clicar-
ful company. When the fuppuration is far advanced, if it
be judged proper to make an outlet, the bed method is to
evacuate the pus by a very fmall oblique .aperture, with a
broad lancet or trocar. Mr. Abernethy advifes us to
empty the abfcefs early and complete'}- ; then to bring the
lips of the wound in contaft, and by means of lint and kick-
ing plaller to keep them together ; and over thefe to apply
a luitable bandage. The wound heals, in general, without
much difficulty, and requires dreffing only once in two davs.
When the flcin again projects, from the preiTure of the fub-
jacent matter, another punfture may be made ; and thus,
the evacuation is to be rei)eated as ofti^i as fliall be neceflary-,
avoiding any permanent expofure of the cavity of the ab-
fcefs. Among the means which have been fuccefsfu'ly
employed on thefe occafions, are emetics, injections, opium,
cinchona, and eleftricity : but for a more detailed account
of the treatment, we recommend the perufal of Mr. Aber-
nethy's ElTays, and Mr. Bell's Syllem of Surgery.

Abscess in the Mufcles of the Belh. The principal obiVfl in
this cafe, is to prevent the matter from hurtling internally ;
fince fuch an event might prove fiital. The furgeon fliould
therefore open the abfcefs earlv, and endeavour to ufe thofe
kinds of bandages, or comprefies, which may obviate future
colleftions, and the formation of linuous ulcers.

Abscess of the urinary BladA'r. Wiien an accumulation
of pus or mucus occurs in the bladder, mild emollient injec-
tions may be ufed by means of a fyringe and catheter. This
praClice has been lately taken notice of as new ; but it was
recommended by the Arabian phyficians, and by fome of the
oldeft European praftitioners, who perhaps took the hint
from Albucafis.

Abscess under the Cranium, •within the cylin/lrical bones.
No other remedy can be here advifed, for giving free
vent to the confined matter, thaLi perforating the bone
v;ith a trephine.

Abscess under the Sternum. When pus lies immediately
under the chell-bone, within the dupiicature of the mediaf-
tinum, the fui-geon will not hefitate to apply a trephine. Au
intc-clling paper on this fubjeiil may be feen in the I Jth
number of the London MediciJ Review and Magazine. Mr.
Blair's Obfervations on a fuccefsful cafe of this kind, arc
likewife contained in the 4th volume of that work, page

A.BSCESS of the Thorax. See Empyema.

Abscess of the Breaft. The mammary abfcefs may be
produced by any of the remote caufes of mflrmmation, but
is (iioftly occafioned by a redundance of milk foon after par-
turit.on. In general it might be prevented by an immediate
application of the infant to the breafts after delivery, or at
ha I before they are turgid with milk. See 1.'<flammatiom
of the Brciift. When pus is aclu;tllv formed, a fiift, warm,
emollient poultice, comjiofed of bread and milk, or of a
decoction of popp'es and liuf'ed nie;d, Ihouid be conllaiitly
kepi upui) tiie pKitj and renewed every tlirec or four hounj ;

at

A B S

«t the fame time carefully fufpending tlie enlarj»e(3 bread,
with an hniidkcrLhicf fpread under it, and tied behind the
neck. It is very rarely proper to m:!ke any artificial open-
ing in thefe abfcetfes : they ihould be peniiitted to burll of
tliemielves, and be poulticed as long as the hardncfs or in-
flammation continues. Durinp; this painful period, the
cliild inuft be luckled by the healthy brcall ; for it rarely
happens that the milk ir. pure duriiij^ a Hale of inflammation,
or that the mother can bear the in'itation of her child's at-
tempt to draw the nipple.

It is here necellar)' to apprize mothers that the true milk-
obfccfs never degenerates into a cancer, as many pedons
have ignora.itly imagined. Thofe pelb of focicty, called
CANCER-cuRERs, often iiTipofc on anxious wives, and per-
fuadi them they have cured cancers of the brcall, when
none ever exitted ! At other times, they keep up a falfe
alarm, to the great detriment of women's health, and the
furtherance of their own bafe defigns. See the articles
Cancer and SciRRHus. •

During the tedious fuppurating procefs, if the patient be
not fangiiine and robuft, it will fometimcs be proper for her
to live on ftrong nourifliing broths, with animal food, and
porter, and to have daily recourfe to tonic medicines.
Without thcfe means all external applications may prove
fruitlefs. When the abfcefs leaves a deep ulcer, it (hould
be drelTed very lightly with mild warm digeftives ; and cold
air mull be guarded againll in the convalefcent ftage, after
all the drefllngs fhall have been difcontinued. The hardncfs
within the breall, or around the cicatrix will generally fub-
Cde of itfelf ; but if it (hould not, a little oil of fweet al-
monds, cither alone or mixed with palm-oil, (liould be gent-
ly rubbed over the breall twice a-day. In lieu of thefe, a
piece of frefli butter may anfwer the purpofe. Sometimes,
however, it is necefiary to adminiller cicuta and calomel to
reduce the glandular indui-ations ; now and then fuper-
adding the mercurial liniment. But the treatment mufl
vary according to circumftances.

Abscess of ibe £ye. See Hypopyon.

Abscess o/tie Ear. See Otalgia.

Abscess o/"//;!? G^jms. Simple gum-boils require no pe-
culiar management : they may be opened with a lancet
when the matter lies fupei-ficial ; but, if they arife from de-
cayed teeth, or a carious jaw-bone, the tooth affected, or
the decayed portion of bone, mull be removed before the
cure can be effefted. The mouth may be frequently rinfed, in
order to keep the parts clean, and the breath fweet, with a
mixture of warm wine, honey, and diluted vinegar ; or
, with feme tindlure of myrrh and water. See the article
Teeth.

Abscess In the H'lp-joint and tit Invjlucra. Spontaneous
difeafes of the hip are very inf d ous and dangerous. The
firll fymptoms of an approaching dlforder in this part too
often pafs unobferved, or llighted, even by the patient him-
felf. Perhaps it begins with a trifling degree of weaknefs,
lamenefs, and walliug of the limb ; which, if it be atten-
tively examined, will be found a little elongated, and like-
wife depreffed on the nates of the affeded fide. After
ibme time, there will be a pain felt as if it were fituated in
tlieknee, efpecially during the night ; but this joint, never-
thclef:!, remains in a ftate of perfed foundnefs. The patient
loon begins to favour the difeafed limb, by bearing chiefly
on the other leg, and by elevating the heel of the°affeaed
fide. As his fl:rength fails, he will be feen to grafp the dif-
ordered thigh during the aft of walking ; and before night
he \vill be complaining of unaccufl;omed wearinefs. Thou'J-h
he may be naturaUy alert and chearful, he will, as the com-
plaint augments, Ihew a great averfion to move j and, in

A B S

aiming to pro(!uce quick exertions, there will be a fuddcn
halting, or even danger of falling. The aflefted limb will
after^vards be kept in a bended pofition as much as poffible,
and a tenderncfs is complained of in the vicinity of the hip-
joint. In fcTofulous fubjedls, the inflammation fometimea
advances more rapidly, the general health fufters in propor-
tion to its ravages, the appetite fails, debility and emaciation
fucceed, night fweats, colliquative dianhcea, and other hec-
tical fymptoms fupen'ene ; in rtiort, the local coinplainta
become aggravated, fuppuration then difcovers itfelf, the ex-
terior part of the thigh enlarges, the concealed pus fiucluates',
the limb (liortcns and is contrafted, the carious joint yields
a fetid purifoi-m difcharge, and the head of the thigh bone
becomes difplaced, or forms an immoveable Anchy-
losis.

Now and then the progrefs or this difcafe varies from the
courfe we have defcribed : there may be no external outlet
for the matter ; fuppuration may not be diftiniflly perceptible ;
die febrile fymptoms may not be very' urgent ; and the pa-
tient may be carried through the different llages of his com-
plaint, with but a fmall fhare of bodily pain. This difeafe,
however, moll frequently goes on to a fatal termination ;
involving the ligaments, the cartilages, and bones of the
joint in one dreadfid dellruftion.

The general curative means to be purfued in thefe cafes,
refemble thofe we advifed in the lumbar abfcefs : but, too
commonly, the aid of the furgeon proves ineffeftual. If the
fubjedl of an hip-difeafe be fcrofulous, it may be proper in
its incipient ilate, to adminifter the vegetable tcr.ics, with
prepared natron, and fmall dofes of calomel ; at the fame
time, prefcribing the warm fea-bath, counti-y air, local
bleeding, paflive motion, abftinence from wine, milk diet ;
and, if the complaint advances, the ufe of perpetual blillers,
cauftics, iffues, or fetons, are to be efpecially relied on. See
the treatment of Arthrgpuosis and White-swelling.
M. Petit, De Haen, Pott, and others, have written on this
fubjeft ; but, the mod fatisfaftory treatife we have feen, is
that of Mr. Ford, intitled, " Obfervations on the Difeafes
" of the Hip-Joint," 8vo. London, 1794.

Abscess of the Ahdominal Vifcera. Any of the contents
of the belly may be the feat of an abfcefs : the moft frequent
and remarkable are, a fuppuration of the Liver, the Kid-
neys, and the Mefenteiy. In thefe cafes, the peculiar
fymptoms vrill diilinguilh the part affefted, and the general
principles before laid down mull be atter.<led to. When the
pus fluftuates externally, and there is a well grounded hope
of its being evacuated by an artificial opening, no time (hoiild
be loft ; as it might prove fatal to fuffer the fpontaneous
rupture of a large abfcefs into the cavity of the abdomen. If
there be any particular conftitutional affeftion, the medicinal
treatment adapted for fuch difeafes muft be likewife had re-
courfe to. See Hepatitis, Icterus, Scrofula, Tabes
Mesenterica, Empyema, Nephritis, GastritiSjCys-
TiTis, Enteritis, &c.

Abscess of the Thoracic Vifccra. As all abfceffes are
preceded by inflammation, the peculiar nature and order of
the fymptoms which precede the formation of pus in the
thorax, or its contents, mil guide the praftitioner in his
diagnofis. See the articles Carditis, Pneumonia, Pleu-
RiTis, Vomica, Phthisis, &'c. If matter be feated in
the intei-ior fr.bllance of the lungs, it will probably find its
way into the bronchia, and be coughed up from time to
time ; but if the pus lies near the fuiface of that vifcus, it
is more likely to be difcharged into the cavity of the cheft,
forming an Empyema. As an evacuation into the bronchia
IS moft defirable, we rtiould ufe all our endeavours to follcit
a difcharge of the pus ia that way. The chinugical

operation

A B S

operation for an empyema is defcribed in its proper

place.

From what has been faid in the foregoing paragraphs, it
will not be difficult to determine on the plan of treatment in
other calcs ot abiceh. The pnncipal authors to be conl'ulted
on thisfubjecl are Sevcrinus, Hiidanus, Wifcman, Heifter,
Van Swieten, Sharp, Pott, Bell, and Kirkland. Some curi-
ous cafes are alfo related, or refenrd to, in the Bibliothc-
que Choilie de Mjdeciue ; — the compilations of Man'/ctus,
Beniftein, and James ; — the Memoirs and Tvanfaflions of
different learned Societies ; — and in the works of Bonctus,
Foreftus, Lufitanus, I'lJpiu?, Hildanus, Moi-gagui, Horllius,
Stalpart VanderWiel, &c. &c.

ABSCISSE, Abscissa, in Con/Vj, a part of the diame-
ter or tranfverfe axis, of a conic feftion, intercepted between
the -virtex, or fome other fixed point, and a fcniiordinate.

Such are the lines AP, AP, &c. [Tab. Conies, fg. 20.)
intercepted between the vertex A, and the femiordinates
PM, PiVl, &;c. which are called ahfc'ijj'es, of the Latin ah-
Jcindcre, to cut off ; as being parts cut off from the axis.
Others call the-.n/agiita, q. d. arrows.

Ahfc'ilp, in a more general fenfe,is a part or fegment of a line,
terminatedatfome certain point, cut ofFby an ordinate toa curve.
As the abfcifTemaycommeace either at the vertex of the curve,
or at any other fixed point ; it may be alfo taken either upon
the axis or diameter of the curve, or upon any other line
drawn in a given pofition. Hence there may be an infinite
number of variable ablciifes, temiinated at the fame fixed
point at one end, whilil the other end of them is at any
point of the given line or diameter. In the parabola, each
ordinate has one abfciife; in the ellipfe, or circle, it has two,
lying on the oppofite fides of it, and in the hyperbola alio
two, both of which lie on the fame fide of it. It may be ob-
ferved, in general, that a line of the fecond order, or a
curve of the firft kind, may have two abfcifles to each ordi-
nate ; a line of the third order may have three abfcifles to
each ordinate ; a line of the fourth order may have four ;
and fo on. The ufe of the abfcitfe is, in conjunftion with
the ordinate, to exprefs the nature of the curves, either by'
fome proportion or equation including the abfciffe and its
ordinate, with fome other invariable line or lines ; and hence
eveiy diifjreut cui-ve has its own peculiar equation or propor-
tion by which it is expreffed or defined. When the nature
and properties of curves, are expreffed by algebraic quantities,
the ablciffe is commonly denoted by the letter x.

In the paralola the ablcilTe is a third proportional to the
parameter and fcm'ordinate ; and the parameter a thud pro-
portional to the abfciffe and femiordinate.

In the eVipfr, the fquare of the femiordinate is equal to
the rectangle of the pai-ameter into the ablciffe, fubtrafting
another rectangle of the fame abfciife, into a fourth propor-
tio)ial to the axis, parameter, and abfciffe.

In the hypcrhola, tlie fquares of the femiordinates are to
each other as the reftangles of the abfciffe into another line,
compofed of the abfciffe and the tranfverfe axis. See Conic
fiaion. Ellipse, Hyperbola, and Parabola. See alfo
Circle and Curve.

ABSCISSION, in Rhetoric, is a figure of fpeech, when
beginning to fay a thing, we break off fhort, as fuppofing the
matter fufficiently fignified, by what has been already faid.
Cicer. ad Heren. lib. iv. cap. 77.

For an inflance : one cf her fex, age, and beauty, to be
feen alone, at fuch an hour, with a man of his character — I
need fay no more.

Ahf-iffionV, a fpecies of elmpsis, or SUPPRESSION. Scali-
ger dlftinguifhes it from prscilion and fufpenfion.

A B S

Abscission, in Snrgfry, denotes the aft of taking away
fome morbid or fuperfluous part by an tdged inftrumcnt. In
this fenfe alilcilTion amounts to the fame with the Greek
acToxown. Cowper fpcakr, of the abfcininn of aleg ; which is
more properly called amputation. The abfciirion of the
prepuce makes what we call circumcision. Abfciffion of
the ears is a kind of legal punidiment infliftcd on perjury.
In fome countries they alfo practifc abfeinion of the nofe on
traitors in an army, as a punifhment reputed worfc than
death.

Abscission is more properly iifed for the operation of
cutting away fome foft part of t'iie body, wlien depraved or
grown hurtful. In which fer.fe, abVcillion difltrs from
amputation, in that the latter is of a folid or bony part,
the former of a flefhy or membranous one ; yet they are
fometimes confounded. We fay the ableillion of a muf-
cle, lip, cheek, or the like. Mr. Shipton gives an in-
ftance of the abfciffion of a portion of the intelkincs not be-
ing mortal. Phil. Tranf. N" 2?.3.

Chelelden, aid fome later fiirgeons, have removed fe-
veral inehe^ cf mortified inteflii e iu cafes of I'langulated

HERNIA.

Abscission is fometimes nfed by mcJicn! ivriters io dc'
note the fudden termination of a difeafe in death, before it
arrives at its deehne. Celfus frequently ufes the terms ali-
fcijfa vox, to exprefs a lofs of voice.

Aflrologers alfo fpcak of an ahjaiflon of the hght of a planet,
by another planet outftripping it, and joining a third before
it. Abfciffion is held a deterioration.

ABSCONSA, a dark lanthorn ufed by monks at the ce-
remony of burying their dead.

ABSENCE, in SiOts Law, is applied to a judgment
pronounced, when a perfon cited before a court does not
appear. No perfon can be tried criminally in ahfcnce.

AB.SENTEE, in HJiory, denotes a perfon, who is abfent
from his ftation, employment, or countrj'. The term
has been commonly applied to Irilhmen, who poffefs
eflates in Ireland, and do not refide in the country. A
parliament under this denomination was held at l)ublin,
8 Hen. VIII.

A15SIN THII^W<?na, a fpecies of phal^ena found on
the Absinthium.

ABSINTHITES, Absinthiac, or Absinthiated,
fomething tinged or impregnated with the virtues of aljliilhi'
urn, or WORMWOOD.

Bartholin mentions a woman whofe milk was become ahfin-
thiated, and rendered bitter as gall, by the too liberal ufe of
wormwood. Adt. Med. torn. ii.

Viiium ahfinthites, or poculum alfnthiatum, wormwood
wine, is much fpoke of among the a-cients, as a wholefomc
agreeable drink, and even an antidote agamll dninkLnnefs ;
though fome have charged it with being oflenfive to the
head, and liable to caufe fevers, cephalalgies, vomitings,
uterine fluxes, &c. Ray alfo makes it a preventive of ve-
nery. According to the common account, it is made by in-
fufing the leaves of the plant in a quantity of wine. But
Fehr fhews that it fhould rather be prepared by fermentation,
in order to coiTcft the crudities of the plant, and call forth •
its volatile fait. Paulli prepares it even witiiout (i/yn/L-rum.
Dr. Bowie prefers the aqua ahfmihhes, or wormwood-
water, taken in a fmall quantity after meals, to the
wine ; as being lefs liable to uffecl the head, and fill it wuh
vapours.

ABSINTHIUM, in Botany, is compounded of the pri-
vative particle a, and 4.1W0,, t!i.'ccla:io, pl.nj'urc, alludin.; t : !ie
difagrecabie taite oi this, piaiit. See ARTtmsiA and \\' ( k m-

2 WOOD,

A B S

WOOD, AcHri-LEA, Anthemis, Parthhsium, Senecio,
am) TASAcfTUM.

Absinthium is alfo a name given to other plants, by dif-
ferent authors ; as to dwarf plarm'ica, with leaves divided
after tl.r manner of wormwood ; alfo to the Alpine chamomile,
with f«iutliern-.\ ood leaves.

ABSIS. See Apsis.

ABSOLUTE, in a general fenfe, fomething that (lands
free or independent.

Absolute, in Mda'ih\'ficsy denotes a being whofe whole
effenec does not confili in a mere habitude or relation to
another.

In which fenfe (i^/u/f ftands oppofed to relative or re-
JpiH'i-ve.

Absolutf is more particularly underftood of a thing
which does not proceed from any caufe, or does not fubfiil by
viitue of any other being, confidered as its caufe.

In «iiich fenfe, God alone is ahfolule.

Alfolute, in this fenfe, is fynonymous with independent, and
(lands oppofed to dependent.

Absolute alfo denotes a thing's being free from condi-
tions or limitations.

In this fenfe, the word is fynonymous with unconditional.
We fay, an abfolutt decree, ahfolute promife, ahjolute obe-
dience.

AnsoLVTE. governmeni, that wherein the prince is left fole-
ly to his own will, being not limited to the obfenance of any
laws, except thofc of his own difcretion.

When the Danes made their king a^/«/(?, in 1660, they
declared him abfolved from his coronation oath.

Absolute nu/Hfor, m yll^ebra., is the known quantity or
number which poffeiTes one entire fide, or part of an ectua-
TiON ; and it is that which Vieta calls homogcneum compa-
ra'innis.

Thiu, in the equation a a -\-\6 »=:■"!,(>, the abfolute num-
ler is 36 ; which is equal to a multiplied by itfelf, and added
to 16 times a.

A nsOLVTt. equation, va. yljlronomy, is the fum of the optic
and excentric equations.

Tlie apparent inequality of a planet's motion, arifing from
its not being equally diftant from the earth at all times, is
called its optic equation ; and this would fuhiift if the planet's
real motion were imiform. The excentric inequality is
caufed by the planet's motion not being uniform. For the
iiluftration of this, conceive the fun to move, or appear to
move, in the circumference of a circle, in whofe centre the-
earth is placed. It is manifeft, that if the fun move uni-
formly in this circle, then he mull appear to move unifonn-
ly to a fpeftator at the earth ; and, in this cafe, there
v.ould be no optic or excenti-ic equation. But fuppofe tlie
earth to be placed out of the centre of the circle ; and then,
thougli the fun's motion fhould be really unifomi, it would
not fo appear, when feen from the earth ; and in this cafe,
tbere wouldbe an optic equation, but not an excentric one.
Imagine farther, the fun's orbit to be, not circular, but
elliptical, and the earth to be in its focus, it is evident that
the fun cannot appear to have an unifonn motion in fuch
ellipfe ; and therefore, his motion will be fubjeCt to two equa-
tions, vi/. tlie optic and the excentric EQUATION. See Op-
tical Inequality.

Absolute Gravity, motion, place, /pace, time. See the
refpedlive fuLftantives.

Absolute yllhitive., in Grammar. See Ablative.

ABSOLUTELY, in a general fenfe, ftands oppofed to
rrlajfuely. It is alfo ufed for mdimitedly and vncondilionally. In
which fenfe, the fchookien oppofe it to fccundiim quid.

A B S

Moreover, it is ufed by Di-vinet, in oppofition to decla-
ralively.

The church of Rome holds, that a prieft can forgive fins

ahfuhitely ; the proteilants fay, only decluratiiiely, and mi-
nilleriaUy.

Absolutely, in Geometry, is taken for entirely, or com-
pletely. Tiius we fay fuch a thing is abfolutely round ; in
contradlftlnclion from that wliich is only partly fo ; as a
fpheroid, cycloid, &c.

Absolutely, in Grammar; we fay, a word is taken ^i-
folutely, ab/oliite fumptiis, when it has no regimen, or go-
vernment. Thus, in the phrafe. We (hould pray with-
out cealing. The woy&pray is taken ahfolutely, as it governs
nothing.

ABSOLUTION, Absolutio, in the Civil Laiv, &c.
a definitive fentence, w'hereby a perfon accufed of any crime,
is acquitted, and declared innocent.

Among the Romans, the ordinary method of pronouncing
judgment was this : after the caufe had been pleaded on
both fides, the prxco ufed the word dixerunt, q. d. they
have faid what they had to fay ; then three ballots were
diftributed to each judge, marked as mentioned under the
article A ; and as the majority fell of either mark, the ac-
cufed was abfolved or condemned, &c. If he were abfolved,
the prstor difmifled him with videtiir nor, ficlffi; ox jure vide-
turfecijfe.

Absolution, in the Canon Latv, is a juridical aft,
whereby a priefl, as a judge, remits the fins of fuch as, up-
on confeffion, appear to have the conditions requifite for this
purpofe.

The Romanifts hold abfolution a part of the facrament of
penance : tlie council of Trent, fetf. xiv. cap. iii. and that
of Florence, in the decrees ad Armenos, declare the form
of the cfience of the facrament to lie in the words of abfolution,
I abfolve thee of thy fins.

The form of abfolution ufed by Tetzel, in Germany, is
prefei-ved in Seckend. Comment, lib. i. p. 14. and a tranf-
latlon of it is given by Robertfon in his Hift. of Ch. V.
V. ii. p. 117. It extended to all ecclefiaftical cenfures, and
to all fins, however enormous ; it remitted all punilhment in
purgatoiy, and reftored thofe who were fuppofed to have
the benefit of it to the holy facraments of the church, to the
unity of the faithful, and to the innocence and purity which
they pofleffed at baptifm ; fo that when they died, the gates
of punifhmcnt fiiould be fiiut and thofe of the pai-adife of de-
light opened ; and if they did not die immediately, this
grace remained in full force when they were at the point of
death.

The_/orOT«/3 of abfolution, in the Romifii church, is abfo-
lute : in the Greek church, it is deprecatory ; and in the
churches of the reformed, declarative.

In the church of Rome there are divers other political ab-
folutions ; as,

Absolutio afievis, which is neceffaiy where a perfon
has been witnefs to the execution of fentence of death on a
criminal, or has any other way difqualified himfelf for the
holding of a benefice.

Absolutio ad cautelam, is that granted to a p;r-
fon who has lodged an appeal againfl a fentence of ex-
communication, by which the force of the cenfure is fuf-
pended.

It being a maxim, in the papal jurifprudence, that the
fentence ftands good, notwlthilanding any appeal ; this
fort of abfolution is fometimes granted until the iifue of his
appeal be known : by means hereof, fome articles, at leaft,
of his excommunication, are taken off ; infomuch that per-
I Ions

A B S

fons may converfewith him without danger: and beftdes,in cafe
of death, his fentence is fuppofed to be of fonie avail to him.

Absolution is chiefly ufed among piotcftants for a fent-
ence, whereby a perfon, who (lands excommunicated, is re-
leafed or freed from that punifhment.

ABSORBENTS, hom ahf/rbeo, to driiii nf>, in a gene-
ral fenfe, denote fubftances which polTefs the faculty of
ahforling, or fwallowing ijp others ; fueh are afhes, cloves,
plants, S:c. ; and earths oi various kinds. Allies are ahfor-
bont with refpeA to water, though not in the degree fup-
pofed by Arillotle, from wliom we derive a vulgar error,
that a pot full of allies will Hill abforb as much water as it
v.'ould contain if it were empty. Cloves abforb moifture to
fuch a degree, that we are told, if care be not taken in im-
porting them, to keep water, wine, and other liquids at a
dilcance from them, a certain quantity of cloves will, ■ in two
days' time, drain a whole hogihead of wine. See Absor-
bents in the Materia Ahd'ica.

Absorbents, or Absorhing Vessels, in Annlomy,
denote a minute kind of vefl'els found in animal bodies,
which attraft and imbibe any fluid that is brought near
their mouths. Thefe veffels are fo minute and tranfparent
as not to be difcovered in ordinaiy dilTeftion ; but by great
Libour, they have at length been detefted to abound in
every tribe of animals. As thefe veflels are tranfparent,
their contents are vifible, which circumftance occafioned
them to receive the difl^erent denominations of lactcals and
lymphatics. The former were fo called, becaufe they im-
bibed the chyle, a milky fluid from the bowels ; whilll the
latter, containing much lymph, which they had taken up
from all the interfticcs of the body, were therefore named
lymphatics.

The lacleal veflels were firfl; noticed at the Alexandnan
fchool by Erafiftratus, who obferving that they extended
from the region of the liver to the bowels, trroneoufly con-
cluded that they were a peculiar fyftcm of veflels, dellined
for the nutriment of thofe organs. They were not again
particularly noticed till AfcUi, in Italy, in 1622, perceiv-
ing that the contents of the inteflines, and thefe veflels were
Cniilar, rightly coiijeftured that they ablorbed the fluid
which they contained from the bowels.

Pecqu t, in France, fliortly alter the publication of the
difcoveries of Afelli, on opening the large veins near the
heart, difcovered the chyle not yet incorporated with the
blood, and the veflels by which it was poured into the left
fubclavian vein, and which proved to be the principal trunk
of the lafteal and lymphatic vefl'els, and was named from its
fituation, by Bartholine, the Thoracic Duft. A httle after-
wards, in 1 65 1, Rudbec a Swedifh, and Bartholine a
Dutch anatomift, difcovered veffels rtfembling the latleals in
ftrudlure and office in other parts of the body, and which
they named, from their contents, lymphatic veflTels.

In Haller's time, although great numbers of lymphatic
abforbing veffels had been ciilcovered throughout the body,
they did not appear to him completely adequate to perform
the function of abfoi-ption. They had not then been difco-
Ttrtd in birds or fiflies, and therefore that great anato-
mifl ftill retained the idea that the veins performed, in part,
the important office of abforption.

The merit of firll demonflrating the abforbing veffels in
thefe tribes of animals belongs to Mr. Hewlon, who aililled
in the labours of the tirll eminent anatomical fchool in Lon-
don, in which anatomy was moft ably taught by Dr. Hunter.

JVIr. John Hunter undertook, by experiments, to deter-
jnine whether the veins aflifted in any degree in the oifice of
abfoqi.ion. Having conveyed milk, coloured with indigo or
iaffron, or fcented with inutk, iuto the fiuaU intcili;i':« of au

Vol. I.

A B S

afs, after a (hort interval tlie laftca!.? were found full of thefe
fluids ; but on o])ening the veins of the inteflines at the
fame time, and fufl'ering the blood to feparate iiito fe.-ura
and ci-aflamentum, the fenim was neither coloured nor fcented.
Wlien irritating fiibllances are imbibed, the abforbing vef-
fels always become inflamed, whiMI the veins fuffer no kind
of irntation. Of late alfo the abforbing vefl'els have been
injected in fuch great abundance, that they appear liilly
adequate to perform the office for which they feem fo atl-
niirably adapted. Anatomifts at prifent, therefore, are
wan-anted in believing that they are the only vcflih en-
gaged in performing that very important fur'tlion in the
animal trconomy.

Mr. Cruikfliank publiflicd a fyftcmatic account of thcf*
vefl'els, chiefly taken from the preparatlor.r. and obfervationt
that were made in the fchool eflabliflied by Dr. Hunter.

Mafcagni, in Italy, by employing a new artifice in in-
jefting thd'e veffels, has been able to exhibit them in a more
complete and fatisfaftory manner than any former anatomift.
The extremity of a glafs tube, like that of the baromeier,
bf^ing melted, is drawn out to any required degree of tenuity,
in which Hate it Itill remains per\-ious, or tubular, and af-
fords an opportunity of conveying quickfilver into the mi-
nuteft vefl'el difccrnible liy the eye. If thefe veflels be th«
only ones, which perfoim the office of abfoi-ption, they
mufl; exilt in every part of the body. For there is no fjioL
on the furfaceof the flcin, from which ointment may not be
taken up, nor any internal part, from wh'ch blood, acci-
dentally effufed, is not abforbed ; nay, the very matter com-
pofing the texture of the body is undergoing continual re-
moval and renovation. Thefe vefl'els therefore mufl be fup-
pofed to begin by open orilices ver)- genei-ally throughout
the body, tliough their commencement can only be de-
monftratcd upon the inner furface of the inteflines. They
appear to the unaided eyes, in that fituation, fine and
pointed tubes ; but by the microfcope, their mouths are dif-
cerned to be patulous, and like a cup, which circumflances
have been well dtfcribtd bv Leiberkuyn. The beginning
abforbents foon join together, and after fome time form mi-
nute veffels, capable of being injefted bv anatomifls ; thefe
again conjoin, and form larger veffels, wl.itii arc ftill difco-
verable with great difficulty.

In ftrufture and arrangement thefe veffels have great fimi-
litude to veins ; they have, in confequence, been named by
fome anatomifts the lymphatic veins. I-.ike the veins their
fides are thin and tranfparent, though of confilerable
ftrength : like the veins, they frequently communicate with
each other, or, as it is technically termed, anaftomofe. The
advantage derived from thefe communications is obvious ; for
by thefe means the diffimilar matters which they take up
from various parts, arc mixed together, and blended with
the lymph, which thev imbibe from the interllices of the
body, and which fers-es as a vehicle for fuch heterogeneou*
particles : they alfo prevent accidental preffure made on a
few veffels from obftructing the progreis of the abforbed
fluids, which are in tliat cafe conveyed forward by collateral
channels. Like the veins alfo, thefe veflels, by conjoining,
form a tube of fmaller area, than the united arca> of the
veffels before their junction. The effeiil of this conilruclion
is the fame as in tlie veins, that is, an acceleration in the cur-
rent of the Ivmph, in proportion as it comes nearer to the
trunks of the abforbing veffels. The diameter of the
thoracic duft benrs but a fmall proportion to the united
diam.cters of nil the minute abforbents in the body, and
v.iien this ducr has been opened, the lymph has flowed frorn
it with a force .ind jet like that with which the Mood
ilfuc! frgir. 1 ';;rge vein. Like the veins the abforbents are

1 furnif.ted

A B S

ftirnlfhed with numerous \-alvc!«, which prevent any rctro-
grailc motion of their thiiils, ami alio pn-vciit any portion of
tli>; vrfiol from fultaintng the weijjht of more lUiiJ than it
contains bctvwccn its valves. Tiie abfoibcn's liowevcr dirter
from the veins in one vcr^• matciial circumllancc, I'h. that
they have a power of contradiun, and are able, of them-
Klvcs, to propel their contents. Whoever refleifts on the
phxnomena of abforption, can fcarctly doubt that the
mouths of thcfc veffels have a conti-adile power, by which
they refiife admilfun to noxious fubllances, whilll they readi-
ly imbibe tliofe that are falutaiy. If thefe velTels are ob-
fervcd in the mefentcr>', wiien turgid with the abforbed
chvie, their contt-its will difappcar in a certain traft of the
velfel, and ajjain become vifible ; a phjenomenon that can-
not be explained, uiilefs by fuppofing the vefTel to contraft
at that part, and urge forwards its contents. Haller found
that the thoracic dnct contra£led when ftimulated, fo that
there can be little doubt of ihtfe veHl-h being muTcular
throughout their whole extent. Tlte abforbents are found in
confiderable numbers beneath the fl^in of the extremities, and
when they arrive at the groins and armpits, they pafs thiougli
little bodies about the Uze of fmall beans, which are called
lymphatic glands. The abforbent veflTels, as they approach
vhe gland, generally fepai-ate into feveral branches, which
terminate in that body, and again about an equal number
of abforbents emerge from the gland, conjoin, and form
ont or more principal abforbing veflels. The abforbents
■which enter the gland arc ufually denomm:itQA vajliinftTeri.'iij,
and '.hofe which go out of it, Vii/a efferentia. If quick-
filver be poured into the former veffels, the gland fwells,
aud a great deal of quicklilver appears to be depoilted in it ;
and afterwards, if the power propelling the injection be
continued, it is feen coming out of the gland by the vafa
efferentia. It fecnis therefore to follow, that the progrefs
<^f the abforbed fluid is checked a httle in thefe glands, and
it is probable that fome change is effefted in it during its
pafTage through them. This opinion is confirmed by ob-
ier\'ing that thefe glands abound with blood-veffels, which
probably pour fome frefli animal juices into thofe which are
contained in the lymphatic veffels.

The lymphatic glands are found in great numbers in the
groins, armpits, and by the fide of the neck, apparently
ferving like baiTiers to the abforbents of the head and ex-
tremities, as they approach to the large veins of the trunk.
The abforbents of the inteftines, which contain the chyle, a
fcarcely animalizcd fluid, fometimes pafs through three or
four fcts of glands before they arrive at the thoracic duct ;
hence they are called vafa laftea primi, fecundi, tertii, and
quart! generis. The place where the lafteals conjoin, and
laect with the lymphatics from the lovifcr parts of the body
to form the thoraciq duft, appears in animals like a refer-
voir, and has been named the receptaculum chyli. The veffel
thus formed by the junftion of the lacleals, with the trunks
of abforbents from the lower parts of the body, having
pafftd through the diaphragm, is there named the thoracic
dufl. In this fituation it lies clofe upon the vertebrse of the
back, between the vena azygos and the aorta, receiving in its
pa.Tagc the abforbents of all parts in its vicinity. As it ap-
proaches the neck, it leaves the bone to get to the left
fubolavian vein, in which it terminates juil at its commence-
ment. As, however, the abforbents of the right fide of
the head, ajid right arm, would have to deviate confider-
ably were they to end in this chief trunk of the abforbing
fyilsm, they conjoin and form a fimilar veffel on the right
fiJe, which empties itfelf into the conefponding part of the
right fubclavian vein. Thu3 all the old materials of the
body, which the abforbents are continually removing, all

A B S

the new matter imbibed from the furface, all the redundant
Ivmph taken up from the interllices of the body, and all the
chyle occafionally obtained from the bowels, are conveyed
into the large veins near the heart. It is, in fliort, chiefly
bv this fyliem of veffels that the blood is augmented in
quantity or altered in quality; tiiey replenifl-. the body with nu-
triment, and they alfo occafionally taint it with infeftion.

Absorbing Vclfeh, D'ljiriliiUqii of the, throughout the
l)ody. — The abforbents of "the foot have been injected in con-
fiderable numbei-s from the fpaccs between the toes ; thofe
of the inner fide afcend over the inner ankle, and accompany
the vena faphena interna. Being joined by others in this
courfe, the trunks thus formed appear like network on the _
infide of the calf of the leg. Thjfe veffels continue in com-
pany with the vena faphena interna; and like it, afcend over
the infide of the knee and thigh, wb.ere their numbers and
fi/.e increafe, and at lafl; they terminate in the inguinal glands.
Thefe glands vary confiderably in number ; the greater part
of them is placed above the fafcia of the thigh, but fome
are found beneath it, in the hollow between the iliaCus inter-
nus, triceps, and fartorius mufcles. Thofe glands which
are higheff and neareft. to the pubes, receive alfo the abfor-
bents of the genitals. The abforbents of the outfide of
the foot pafs behind the outer ankle, and accompany the
vena faphena externa up the back of the leg to the ham,
where they terminate in the popliteal glands. They, how-
ever, conuTiunicate by fome branches with the fuperficial ab-
forbents on the infide of the leg.

The deep-featcd abforbents of the leg accom.panying the
feveral arteries, which branch off from the popliteal, alfa
arrive at, and end in the glands of the ham, which are fmall
and few in number, feldom exceeding three. The abfor-
bents emerging from thefe glands are large, and accompany
the femoral artery to the groin, to temiinate in the inguinal
glands. Other deep-feated abforbents of the thigh, how-
ever, enter the pelvis at the inferior apertures of that ca-
vity, and communicate v^ith the veffels and glands con-
tained in it. The large vafa efferentia of the inguinal glands
pafs beneath Poupart's ligament, and accompany the exter-
nal iliac artery to the loins. There is a feries of glands
placed in the courfe of the external iliac veffels, which are
named the external iliac glands, with which thefe abforbents
are connefted. Having arrived at the lumbar vertebne, and
being increafed in fize by the acceflbry abforbents, which
they are continually recei\-ing, they terminate in the lumbar
glands. Thefe are much more numerous than any of the
claffes of glands hitherto mentioned, and quite cover the
aorta and vena cava.

The abforbents of the genitals terminate, as has been faid,
in the upper and innermoil of the inguinal glands. Some
have been injefted on the fides of the penis, and others on
the middle, accompanying the vena dorfalis ; by their junc-
tion they form two trunks, which diverge, and proceed to
either groin. The abforbents of the fcrotum accompany the
cutaneous veins to the groin, and terminate in the inguinal
glands. The tellicles abound in abforbents, fom.e of which
join with thofe of the fcrotum, an3 go to the inguinal
glands ; but the greater part, confiiling of large and nu-
merous veffels, pafs up the fpermatic chord, and along the
external iliac veffels to terminate in the lumbar glands. The
abforbents of the clitoris, and e:;tcnial parts of the organs of
generation in females form two divifions, one of which goes,
as in the male, to the inguinal glands, the other veffels either
pafs with the round ligament of the uterus through t.'ie ab-
dominal rings, and along the pfoas mufcle to the lumbar
glands, or entering the pelvis at the inferior aperture, they
join the abforbents of the uterus. The abforbents of the

hips

A B S

hips and nntes alfo purfue a twofold courfo ; Tome licnd
found the trochanter, and go to the injruin.il glands, whilft
•the gix-atcr number enter the pelvis with the gUiloeal and
■fciatic arteries at the Aicro ilchiatic foramina, and go to the
internal iliac plexus of glands. Thus we have traced the
abforbents of the lower extremities, and of th.e parts of gene-
ration, and find them either entering the abdomen, and run-
ning along the lower part of that cavity to tiie loins, or
afcending through the inferior apertures of the pelvis, and
joining the abforbents of th-.U cavity, which wc next pro-
ceed to dcfcribe.

In the pelvis there is a numerous plexus of glands, fituated
in the eor.rfe of the internal iliac veifels, and continued to-
ward the obturator foramen ; there are alf(3 many abforhent
glands lying in the holhnv of the facrum. The abfoiljents
of the bladder, after palling through fmall glands, placed by
the fide of tliat vifcus, proceed to the internal iliac phxus.
The abforbents of the reftum proceeding througli the facral
glands pals on to thofe of the loins. The abforbents of the
uterus form two fets, according with the blood-vcfTels in tliis
refpeft ; thole which accompany the uteriuc veffels pais
through glands by the fide ot the vagina, and proceed to
the internal iliac plexus. Tliofe which accompany the fper-
matic veffels tenninate, as in themale,in the lumbar abforbents.

The abforbents of the kidney purfue the fame courfe as
the renal blood-vefl'els, and terminate in the lumbar glands.
The abforbents of the intellincs, commonly called the kic-
teals, are extremely numerous on account of the funftion
which they have to perform, and abound more in the jeju-
num than elfewhere, as the chyle is chiefly abforbed from
that inteftine. The courfe of thcfe veffels is through the
mefenteiy, where they communicate with glands, the num-
ber of which is ftated to be between loo and 150.

The lafteals have been traced through three or four
ferics of thefe glands, and have been denominated vafa
laftca primi, fecundi, tertii, et quarti generis.

Tiie lafteals form one or more large trunks as they ap-
proach the fuperior mefenteric artery, which join the
thoracic duft. The abforbents of the large inteflines pafs
through glands fituated near them, which are very fmall,
and not numerous. Thofe v.fTels which arife from the
afcending and tranfverfe arch of the colon terminate in. the
lafteals near the root of the mefenteiy. Thofe abforbents
which arife from the defcending and figmoid flexure of the
colon proceed to the lumbar glands and thoracic duft.
Having thu8 deferibcd the principal abfoibents that contri-
bute to the formation of tlie thoracic du£l, that veflVl may
in the next place be attended to. Large trunjcs of abfor-
bents may be traced in the courfe of the iliac veffels, con-
verging to form this duft ; to thefe are joined the large
trunks of the lacteals, and they unite low down upon the
loins. ■ In animals, and particularly in dogs, they terminate
in a dilated pyriform cell, which is called receptaculum
chyli. This appearance, though fometimes obfei-ved, is
more frequently wanting in the human fubjeft. At the firft
vertebroe of the loins the thoracic du£t gets above the
diaphragm, and lies between the vena azygos and aorta on
the right fide of the bodies of the vertebra; ; it is fometimes
double, and then the fecond branch lies beneath the aorta
on the left fide ; at all times large lymphatics are found
alfo in this fituation.

The dimenfions of the thoracic duft gradually Icffen till
it has reached the middle of the back, and then again en-
large. At about the Sth dorfal vertebra it generally di-
vides, and afterwards reunites. Having got above the arch
of the aorta, it leaves the fpine, afcending and inclining to
the left fide to reach the fujjclavian vein, in which it is to

A B S

tenninate. It pa.TcB beyond tjic vein and again dilccnrl*,
and empties itfelf into the venous fyftcm at the angle made
by the junftion of the internal jugular and axillary vein, ai
they unite to fonii the left ful-clavijn vein. At llic tenni-
nation of the thoracic duft we find valves, v.hich prevent the
blood contained in the veins from pnfling into that vcGll.

During this courfe, the thoracic dv.ft receives the abfor-
bents from various parts of the body, of which v.'e now pro-
ceed to give fome account. It may be proper firll to men-
tion that there is a fimilar duft on the rigkt I'llc of theh.^ly,
generally lefs than half an iixli in leiigth, which tera.iratea
in the conefponding angle, made by the junftion of the
right internal jugular and. axillai-y veins. This duc^ is
formed by the concnurfe of the abforbintsof th« right arm,
the right fide of the head, and thofe accompanying the
right internal mammary veffels.

The abforbents of the omentum pafr. through vtr)' frail
glands, fituated near the great arch of the llomacli, and
there join with thofe belonging to that vifcus. The abfor-
bents of the ilomach accompany its arteries ; thcfe lonco-
mitant to the left gaftric join thofe of the f)>leen and pan-
creas, and temiinate in glands, extending thrmfcives along
the pancreas and fplenic veffels. Thofe which arc found ill
company with the right gaffric arteiy, pafs like it beneath
the duodenum, and tennniate in the fame glands with the
deep-feated abfo'.bents of the liver, to which they are con-
joined. Thofe which accompany tlic coronary aitciv on
the leffer curvature of the ilomach, pafs through glands
fituated about that part ; they then in general defcend to
the glands beneath the duodenum, and terminate in the
thoracic duft ; others, however, may be traced through the
cardia to I'le thoracic duft. The abforbents of the fpleen
and pancreas, when they arife from thofe vifcera, pafs
through glands extending along the fplenic veffels, and arc
afterwards continued to the thoracic dufi. The abfoibents
of the liver, which are extremely large and nun-.erous, pro-
ceed from it3 convex furface through the right and left, and
fufpenfory ligaments of that vifcus ; fome of their branches
defcend upon the diaphiT.gm, and termir.ate in the tl'.oracic
duft near the coehac artery ; others penetrate the diaplivrgm
and go to glands on the outfide of the periearditmi, from
whence they proceed through the anterior mediallinum to
the thoracic duft ; others accompany the internal mamm.ary
veffels on the infide of the flernum, and thofe of the rght
fide end in the right trunk of the abforbents. Some of th.c
abforbents from the interior part of the liver, emerge f om
its pollerior edge, and join thofe fuperficial abforbents.
The deep-feated abfoibing veffels of the liver ramify in its
fubllance hke the vena portac ; they come ov.t where that
veffel enters the gland, arid being joined by the fupei-fieial
abforbents of the concave furface of the liver, ihey pafs
through numerous glands fitriated in the capfula Olifloni,
and afterwards join the thoracic dudl. The abforbents of
the diaphragm arc numerous, and join with, and augrr.ent
thofe large trunks, which arife from the liver and penetrate
that mufcle. 15oth thefe fets of veffels are connefted with
glands, fituated towards the frt)nt of the thoni ic fur-
face of the diaphragm, on each fide of the pericardium.
The abforbents of the heart are found in company with its
nutrient veffels ; the trunk qf abforbents belonging to the
right coronaiT arteiy paffes by the fide of the aorta to a
gland near the origin of the right carotid, and terminates in
the right trunk of the abforbing fyftem. The abforbents
aocompanying the left coronaiy artery, which arc much
larger than the fonner, proceed with the pulmonan,' arteiy
to glands near the trachea, are there coniointd with the
pulmonary abforbents, and empty themfelves into the

I 2 • thoracic

A B S

thoracic duft near its terminstion. The abforbcnts of the
ht.iit ji.il\ tl»roiii;h the cardiac glands, wh ch are fuuated
about the arch of the aorta.

The abfo'-bents of the lungs may be dlftinguifhed into
the fiipcrlicial and deeper feated. Thofc on tlie fiirfjce are
dirtribiited in the areolx, fiirroundiiig the fmall lobules of
thofc organs, and appear like the fibies of network. The
deeper feated abforbcnts which communicate with the others,
emerge where the air-ve(fels enter the lungs, and both
clalfes terminate in the bronchial glands, which are numer-
ous, and furround the broiichia;. Thefe gh'.nds are alfo
conne<"'>ed with tliofe belonging to the heart, fo that both
ftls of ghmds frequently participate in the lame dileafe.
Three or four large trunks of pulmonar\- ablorbents pro-
ceed more immediately, or more remotely, to pour tiieir
contents into the thoracic duel ; the upper ones do not
reach that veffcl till it approaches its place of infcrtion in
the venous fyfltm.

Numerous abforbcnts have been fecn upon the oefopha-
gus, and there are many glands placed along the courfe of
that tube. The abforbcnts of the ocfophagus conjoin with
thofe of the heart and linigs. Abforbcnts have been in-
jefted in company with the intercoilal blood-velTcIs, wlr.cli
pafs through two fmall glands, fituated near the head of
each rib, and tiien enter the thoracic dudl. The fuperf;-
cial abforbcnts of the upper extremity accompany the fu-
pcrficial veins, thofe from die palm and outfide of the hand,
near the little finger, run up witli the ulnar veins over the
internal condyle, and then accompany the bafihc vein to
the axilla, when they enter numerous glands fituated in
that part. Thefe abforbcnts, however, pievioully are con-
nefted with fevcral glands, which are fituated in the courfe
of the bafilic vein, one of which is found as low as the in-
ternal condyle of the os brachii. The abforbcnts of the
thumb, and the outfide of the hand in its vicinity accom-
pniy the radical veins to the elbow, and then afcend on the
outfide of the biceps mufcle with the cephalic vein. Arriv-
ing at the deltoid mufcle they bend along its inner edge,
and pafs between it and the pectoral mufcle to glands fituat-
ed beneath the clavicle. Other cutaneous abforbcnts have
been injeclcd from the palm of the hand, accompanying the
median veins in the forearm between thefe two fets, which
afterwards terminate in thofe, which accompany the vena
bafilica. The deep-feated abforbcnts of the arm are found
by the fides of the large arteries, and go to the glands of
the axilla. The abforbents of the fiioulder alfo temiinate
in the fame glands. The axillary glands, and thofe be-
neath the clavicle are connected together, and their vafa
elicrentia cor.joining form a large trunk, which temiinatcs
in the thoracic duft on the left fide, and is one of the prin-
tipal veffels forming the correfponding trunk of abforbents
on the right fide.

Ablorbents have been injefted on the outfide of the head
in company with all the principal arteries : for inllance, tlie
tcmpoi-al, occipital, external, and inttnial maxillaiy arteries;
thofe from the temple pafs through fmall glands found on
the pa'-otid gland as high as the zygoma : thofe from the
face in glands, fituated in the cheeks and outfide of the
jaw : thofe from the occiput in glands, fituated behind the
maftoid procefs. They afterwards converge, and with tlie
decpcr-feated abforbents terminate in the moil numeroii-s
duller of glands found in any part of the body, excepting
only thofe of the mefenter)^ They have been named glaa-
duljc concntenata;, and extend beneath the jaw, over the
fide of the neck, where the external jugular veins are found,
and all along the internal jugular to lis termination. No
abforbcnts caa with certainty be faid to have been injefted

1

A B S

in the brain. The abforbents of each fide of the neck hav
in" by conjunilion formed a common and large trunk, it
terminates on the left fide in tlic thoracic duct near its in-
fcrtion, and on the right it contributes to form the corref-
ponding trunk. The abforbents of the thyroid gland fonn
two veifels of coniiderable iizc, which end in thefe two
duels near their termination. Some of the abforbents of
the breaft, which are very numerous in females, proceed to
the axillary glands, being pievioufly connedted with fome
fmall glands, fituated midway between the brcall and axilla ;
others pafs over the peiloral mufcle to the glands, beneath
the clavicle, and others from the back part ot the breaft
penetrate the intercoilal mufcles, and join the abforbents
and glands, which accompany the internal mammary blood-
veflels.

Natui-aliils, as Malpiglii, Leewenlioek, De la Hire, &;c.
fpeak of fimilar abforbents in plant:: ; the fibrous or hairy
roots of which are confidered as a kind of •vn/a abforUntiay
which attracl and imbibe the nutritious juices from the earth.
and air. From the fap-vefiels they pafs into the whole cel-
lular tiffue, compofed of veficles and clofely interwoven with
the whole vafcular part of the plant. Thence they enter
the vafa propria and glands, which contain and prepare the
fluids and fecretions peculiar to the fpecies. See Plants
and Vegetation.

Absorbents, Difiafes of the, in Surgery, When we
conlider how recently the ilruilure and ufcs of the abfor-
bent vefTels have been explained, it is not furprifing tha*
piaftitioners are too negkttful of this branch of pathology.
Until thefe lail fix years, we have not met with one publi-
cation on the dileafes of the abforbent fyftem ; and even to.
the prefent day we do not podcfs a fiagle work upon this
fubjcil in the Englilli language. A few fcattered hints,
indeed, are contained in the writings of feveral authors j but
it lliU remains a defideratura, to point out — What are the
peculiar morbid aifections of tlie lymphatic glands and veffclsj
and what are their appropriate remedies ? To folve this en-
quiry in a fatisfaftory manuer, would occupy an entisc
volume. We can, therefore, only throw out a few cafual
hints, and recommend the farther profecution of the fubje<il
among medical men.

I. Of morbiferous Jluids contained in the ahfrbni' fyflem.

We know, from the experiments of phyfir/lcgifts, and'
efpecially of Mr. Abemethy, that the abforbcnts which
open on the furface of our bodies, imbibe both aqueous and
gafeous matters derived from the atmofphere, Or fro.n fub-
flances lymg in contaft with the fkin. It is denrable to
have the precile nature of thefe matters afcertained in diffe-
rent perfons, under the various circumilances of healji
and difeafe ; and to determine what means are advifeable, in
order to regulate their quantities or qualities. If our health
may be aifefted by the abforption which goes on upon the
external furface of the ftin, there is equal reafon to believe
we. are fom.etimes influenced by the nature of the vapours
that muft be conllantly in.t'ibcxi frcn the cavities, refervolrs,
or interllices of tb^' body. When the fynovia, tjie milk,
the bile, fenien, and other fecreted fluids become infpifiated,
this change arifes from the more watei-y parts having been
abforbed and carried into the fanguifero-is fyftem by the
lympliatic veffels.. When fenim, pus, or blood has befa.
cffuied among the cellular mcmb ane, its difappearance is
entirely owing to the aftivity of the abforbe.its. In a
dropfy or an emp'.iyfema, the fame agents are occ ifion.dly
fet to work, and will eiTedl a removal of the difeafe. Other
examples might be adduced to dluttrate the dift'ereat ^vays
in which the abforbent veffels may be imtated :ind under-
go a morbid change from the q.iality of their contents, not

tOi

A B S

to mention tlie noxious vapours applied to them by means

of coiitagiouo ditordurs.

il. Uf irregular allion in the rJforleut veffils.
The in. lability or co!itrnii\ik" powt-r of the abiorbents
may be prcternauually wcakcntd ; and in that cale, pru-
bably, theie will be an acu-iimulalion of the ftcrcU-d fluids
in oiif or moiC oi the different natural cavities or iuterlllces
cf the body ; for, unlels the adioii of the ahforbents keep
pace Witli that cf the exhaknt or fecretinj^ arteries, the na-
tural equiLbnuni mull inevitably be dellroyed. Thus it
1 a ipenti ui dropiies : either the arteries dcpolit a larger
qua.itily ot ferum than can be earned off by the natural
power Oi the abioi bents ; or, the latter are detLClive in their
action, and cannot take up tiieir ulual proportion of fluid.
The different caules and i-emedies ol diminiihed or increafed
aftion in this fyllem of velTels is, therefore, an important
objeft of euquiry.

111. ^aijiile chim^cs iniheJlriiBitre of a!j'.rlen!s.
Anatomills have taught us to look for various alterations
in the itructure of abloibent vefTels and glands, under par-
ticular circumllances of difeafe. The diameter of theie
valcular bodies is otten entirely obliterated bv external com-
preilion and other caufes. They maybe ruptured, wounded,
lacerated, or eroded. They may be thickened in their
coatb, or rendered unlit for uie by exceiTive iafl.uumation and
fuppuration.

it would be entering into a verv wide field of enqu ry, to
coiiiKl,.r what changes the abforbcnt glands and lymphatics
undergo in conicquence of tlie abforption of morbid poifons;
fur example, ia cuncer, in fyphllis, in the yaws, in the vario-
lous., morOiUoua, and vaccine difeafcs, £:c. Sic. On this
lubjeiit, we particularly recommend the perufal of profclTor
Soemmernng's DilTertation, De morlis vaforuni ahforletilium
corporis humnni, 8vo, 1795 ; Dr. Balllie's vT/.^/'/zV/j^nu/cpy, 2d
edition; Maleagni's fplcndid work,Z)f I'lnis Lymptaiicis iMr.
^ Cruiklliank's book on iJjc /liiatr/ni-\i of the alforlin^ •vcjl-ls, 2d
edition, 410. ; Adams on Morbiil Poij'oiis ; and the conclud-
ing part of Dr. Darwin's Zonnomia, vol. i. 3d edition, 8vo.
Connetted with tins fubieft, it may alfo be worth while to
perufe a curious original piece, intitied, an E^ay on external Re-
K me liei, tuhirem it is coJlJered whether all lb: curable dijlimpcrs
■ iiicicicnt to human bodies, may Tiot be cured by outiV:ird means. By
^ P» Kennedy, Cbir. Med. 8vo. Lo.idon, 1 7 15. Refpeftingthc
latter work, the author fays, " there has never, as yet, any

t" thing been attempted of this kind." Introd. p. 5.
Absorbents, or Absorblnt Earths, in Chemijlry,
are thole earthy fubftances which are capable of imbibing by
capillary attraction a large proportion of water : fuch are
magnelia, hme, and clay. It is, however, only when
theie bodies are diy and porous, that they exhibit th:s pro-
perty ; for certain gems, which are pLire argil, and calcare-
ou, fpar, which, chemically fptaking, is the fame with
clii Ik, are not in the leaft degree ablorbent. Hence ap-
pears the impropriety of this t>.imin chemical nomenclature.
Indeed it is at prefeiit almoil difcarded.

Adsorbents, in the Muttria Mcdira, comprehend thofe
m«dicinal fubihmces, w'lich, taken inwardly, or applied
externally, are adapted to d;-y up or alj'jrb redundant or
acid humours. They are fometimes called driers and
fweeteners, and by the Latin writers the word is fynony-
mous with imbilentia and faiurantia. TheteiTn has been oc-
cafioiially confounded' with alkali, btcaufe alkalis have
the effett of ahforbents with refpeft to acids. It is now al-
mofl rellncled to certain earth.j, which are dlftir.guifliable
from others by their lolubii-ty in acids, and which are
fuited to imbibe acids, and at the fame time to dellroy their
acid q^uality. In reference to this property, fome bare re-

A B S

ferred them to the clafs of Antacids. Of the alfvrhr.ti
we may reckon the miner.i) calcareous earths, ascha'k ; the
animal calcareou; earths, as crabs-claw.s, oyilir-lhells, cg^-
fliells, pearl, coral, and coralline ; and anim.il crtlis, not
calcareous, as crabs-eyes and burnt hnrllhonu The obvi-
ous and immcdi-.ite virtue of tliefe fiilllanics is to obtund
acid humours in the lirll pafl'agcs, and thus to rtlitve the
cardlalgic and other coir.i>hiints oceafiomd by tliLin : and
they poflefs ditlerent properties, and produce difttrciit
eft'eft.^, according to th • materials wlilth they abfoib, and
by which they are refifled. The relief thty give is often
merely temporaiy, as thty ferve to abforb the acid aftually
generated, without corretting the iiidilpofition wlilcli tends
to produce it. In fome cafes they are inju' ious, for if there
be no acd humours in the ilon.acli a..d intelline':, thefe
earthy bodies not being foluble by any other kind of fluid,
concrete with the vifcous contents of the floinach, and
form with them indigefl ble mafTes, which may be very
hurtful. Hence have proceeded indigelHon, lofs of appe-
tite, naufea, vomiting, obllruiflions of the bowels, and
other diforders. Sometimes they have formed a kind of
crufl on the ftomach and inteftincs, which has prevented
the feparation of tlie gaftric liquor, and obUnided the paf-
fage of the chyle through the orifices of the laAeal vclfeii
into the mafs of blood. The taking of an immoderate
quantitv of crabs-cycs and other abforbentsfor the heart-bum,
has fometimes been attended with fatiJ confequenccs. Ste
Phil. Tranf. No. 459. Sect. 2.

It is obfervcd that ahforbents arc of more general ufe in
infancy than in adult age. Young children are more lub-
jeiSt to acidities than adult perfons, becaufe their food is
chiefly of the vegetable acelcent kind, and produces aci-
dities, which are attended witli alarming fymptoms, and
produdive of various diforders. When infants, or perfons
of mature age, but of a feeble coiifl It ution, indicate com-
plaints of this kind by four eruftations, palenefs of the
face, and in the cafe of children by the four fmell and green
colour of the alvine faces, abfoibent medicines may be very
properly adminlftered. The other cordial, alexipharmic, anti-
febrile, and funilar virtues afcribed to thefe medicines, feem
to be founded on an erroneous theory, which attributes the
acute difeafes of adults to a morbific acid ; difeafcs whicii,
inilead of being produced, are more fuccefsfully fubducd by
acids. The ufe of abforbents, fays Dr. Lewis (Mat. Med.
p. 643.), in difi'erent kinds offerers, is ncverthelefs Hill con-
tinued, and fometimes perhaps with advantage ; for though
the earths of themfelves are apparently rather Injurious than
beneficial, yet as acids are often given freely at the fame
time, the folution of the earth in the acid may prove a medicine
more ferviceable in particular cafes tl'.an the acid unobtunded.
Different abforbents have been ftlefted and recommended
for particular puqiofcs. If it be the intention to alforb,
conllrlnge and ftrcn^then at the fame time, chalk, coral,
oyfter or egg fliells, are elleemcd the moft eilicacious abfor-
bents; if for rettraining a feminal flux, fome prefer the
cuttle-bone; for provoking urine, crabs-cyts ; for promot-
ing perfpiratlon, burnt hartfhorn ; and for dilTolving co-
agulated blood, cnibs-eyes dillblved in vinegar. But all
thefe differences have not yet been fufficieiitly determined
by experience, becaufe the earths have rarely been given in
a diffolved or foluble Hate. It is moil probable, fays Dr.
Lewis, that they all ad, when diflblved, as mild coohng re-
ftringents ; for wlien they are given in fubllance, as abfor-
bents, in cafes of acidities, they all tend to reftrain fluXes of
the bellv.or to bring on coitiventfs ; an effvA which Ihould
be regarded in the nle of them. It is, therefore, a uecef-
fary caution to drink diluting liquors with them ; and alfo

t».

A B S

to' '5, as wcU for fomc time after t'-.-y nrc

K-f- the life of them. Dr. CuUcn (Mat.

Mel. vol. li. p. 411;.) obfor\cs that chalk, and the few.al
t-llac^'3. may lie lufely uf^J for corroftiiic; acidities of thj
prim;? viar, in lar.,'e qinncitits ; ar.d fays that if, upon being
ioined with the acid of the llomach they become allringent,
It is an eflfecl whicli he has not obfcVved, and which, if it
CT.T happen, mull rarely occur. Tlieir utility in dianlio:a
h? afcribes, not to their allnngent quality, but merely to
their corrcfting acidity, which, by beir.g mixed with
the biK", had occalloned' the difcafe. Burnt hartdiorn he
fays 13 the weakell of all the abfoibent^ ; and he thinks it
has nut any pecidiar virtues. Van Swietcn, ki his Commen-
taries on B:}eihaive'3 Aphonfms, obfcrves, that thefe ab-
forbent powders ought not to be ground too fine, but rather
left fomewhat coark-, as tliey will be Itfs apt to concrete
and pix)ve dangerous. The college of Berlin, however, fen-
fible of the advantage of having the earths, when adminif-
tered in febrile cafes, previoufly dilTolved, or reduced to a
foluble faline form, direcls them to be digelled in diftilled
vincpjar with a gentle heat, till the menftruum ceafes to acl,
and the fdtered folution to be infpilTated to drynefs. This
preparation, fays Dr. Lewis, is greatly preferable to the
fimple imbibition with vinegar or lemon-juice recommended
by fome ; as by this laft management the earth is made foh.i-
hle only in part, and in an undeterminable proportion. Ab-
fovbents are fometimes applied to ulcers ; but it is to be ob-
fer\ed, that the inlipid terrcllreous abforbents, fuch as
coral, &c. put inro an ulcer, wliere a bone is carious, can
have little effecl befidcs that of imbibing the matter of the
ulcer: if they fall into any laTifrawAtof the corruptedbone, they
may remain fo lo-ig there, that tlie matter imbibed by them
may become acrid. Lint is an abforbent, which has not
this difadvantage. See Monro in Med. EiT. Edinb. vol.
V. art. 24.

Experiments h?.ve been made for determining the compa-
rative ftrength of different abforbents, or the quantities of
acid they are capable of fatiating. Langius (Op. Med.
Lipf. 17C4, p. 452.) reports, that 10 grains of crabs-claws
dcltroyed the acidity of 40 drops of fpirit of fait ; that egg-
fhells, crabs-eyes, and mother-of-pearl, taken in the fame
quantity, faturated 50 drops each ; red coral, white coral,
and fixed a'kaline Talt, 60 drops each ; volatile alkaline fait
and pearl, 80 drops each; chalk, 100 drops; oyfter-fliells,
120; and fome lirne-ftones, 160. Thefe experiments can-
not be much relied on, as earths have different habitudes
to different acids. Accordingly Romberg concludes from
his experiments, (Mem. Acad. Royal, des oc.de Paris pt)".r
I'ann. 1700,) that oyfter-fisells require for their folution
more of the marine acid t'lan coral does ; whereas the cafe
is the revcrfe with the nitrous acid. But neither of thefe
acids is that which abforbents are dcfigned for fatiatii'.:; in
the human ftomach. The vegetable acids, and the acid of
milk, arc moll analogous to thofe which are jfenerated in
the animal body ; and on trying thefe wiih tlie feveral fub-
ftmces above enumerated, the differences in their abforbeut
powers appeared not to be very great. Lewis Mat. Med.
645.

ABSORBING, the aft of fucking up, or imbibing an-
other body. Sir Ifaac Newton fliews that black bodies ab-
foib all the rays they receive, and that thofe rays of light
which impinge againft the folid particles of bodies are ab-
forbed and loft : but it appears from fome later experiments
and obfervations of M. Bougv.er, that this effeft is to be at-
tributed, not to the impaft of light on the folid parts of
bodies, but to the action of fome power diffufed over their
furfaces. He found by repeated trials on the refleftion of

the

e

A B S

light, from the furface of water, and of different pieces of
crvllal, tli.it a confiderable q'lantity of light, when the
angle.; of incidence were fmall, was actually extuiguilheJ
This efftjd, he obfervcd, was dlminiibed by increafmg th(
incidence ; fo that at an inclination to cryltal of above
49" 49', a very fniallpart of the rays was abforbed ; though
fome few were loll, when they fell perpendicularly on
the refleding furface. Sec his Traite d' Optique. Paris
1760.

ABSORPTION, in xWAnimnl Economy, is the funftion
performed bv the Absorbent veffels above defcribed. The on-
ly opportunity which anatomift-^ iiave hitherto met with of ob-
fervin^f the orifices of th.efe veflch, is upon the villou;; coat of
the inteftines. The accounts which have been given of them
in that filuation are fo varioits, and delivered with fuch little
confidence as not to warrant the infertion of any defcription.
The internal coat of the inteftine is feen fpeckled with chyle
coagulated in the mouths of thefe veffels, in perfons who
have died when the abforption of that fluid was can7ing on.
The evident reluclance with which the abforbents admit
noxious matter has led to the genei-al belief, that tlieir
mouths are iiTitable, and have the power of denying admif-
fion to ftimulating fubftances. Various theories have been
formed to account for the admiffion of matter into the ori-
fices of the abforbing \cfrcls ; but whichfoevcr theory be
adopted, it is previoufly neceffary to admit a correfponding
aprtude in the vefiel to receive, and in the matter to be re-
ceived. This being granted, fome phyfiologifls have ima-
gined that the abforbeat attracted matter into its mouth, in
the fame manner that capillary tubes imbibe fluids. A little
refleftion is fufficient to fhew that the abforbing vefTcls are
not circumftanced hke capillar)' tubes (the fides of which
are rigid) imm.erfed in a fluid. Befides, were fuch attrac-
tion the caufe of abforption, that procefs fhould be carried
on with regularity. On the contrary, abforption is occa-
fionally very deficient when an abundance of fluids, as in
oedema, is prefented to the mouths of the veffels. This faft
may indeed be explained by fuppofing the orifices of the
veffels to be in a contrafted ftate, but the contrary problem
is more difficult of folution. In the courfe of one night a
pint of pus mav be imbibed from the cavity of an abfcefs,
and fometimes abforption is fo exceffive that the very fub-
ftance of the body is in parts removed, and chafms in con-
fequence created.

Other phyfiologifls have endeavoured to difcover fome
propelling power which fhould protrude the matter fubjecl
to abforption into the moutlis of thefe veffels. The pref-
fure of th; atmofphere on the furface of the body has been
confidered adequate to this effect, and the depofition of
new matter by the fecerning artery has been affigned as the
caufe of the propulfion of the old particles into the orifice of
the abforbent. Were this theory correct, fecretion and ab-
forption fhould more exactly coiTefpond than they are
known to do ; like the former theon', it appears inadequate
to account for the fafts above flated.

Mr. John Hunter who contemplated the fails of natural
and morbid abforption in animal bodies with the mofl fleady
attention, acknowledged that he was unable to account for
the effefts produced, unlefs by attributing to the mouths of
thefe veffels powers fimilar to thofe which a caterpillar exerts
when feeding upon a leaf. This idea, however, has gene-
rally been confidered as too wild and chimerical.

Doftor Fullarton, in his ingenious Thefis on abforption,
published at Glafgow in 1800, attributes to the abforbing
orifices a power of fuftion, which opinion he fupports not
only by arguments but by analogies. The umbilical tube
of the embryons of the fepias and polypi is faid, on the au-
thority

A B S

tlioilty of Albiiius, to abforb by fuction. The pro-
bofcis of the papiHonaceous flies afts in the fvime man-
ner And the ahforbents of the echinus niarinus have
this power in fo great a degree as to enable the animal
firmly to attach itfelf to any fnbflance which it may hap-
pen to touch. It may be right to remind the reader that
the difficulty in accounting for the funftion of thife veffels
exifts only at its commencement, for when the imbibed. mat-
ter has gone beyond the fnft va've it mufl proceed, and it
will be powerfully carried forward by the contraftile force of
the veird, and by every occafional preifure which is applied
to it. Some phyfiulogifts believe that the abforbents can-
not take up any matter that is not flu'd. If this opinion
were true, the folids of our bodies muft be converted into
fluidf before they could become fubjetts for abforption. A
fmall addition of phofphoric acid might indeed render the
earth of bones folublt, and it is in this ftate, that it is car-
ried out of the circulating fluids by the urinary feereticn.
No liquid has been conceived capable of diflblving fuch fol'ds
as compofe the mufcular fibres, but one that refembles in
qualities the gaftric juices. Dr. Stringham, in his Thefis on
theabforbing vcfTelspubhlhcd in Edinburgh, and Mr. Smith in
London, imagined they had difcovercd that fuch a fluid cap-
able of diffolving fiefli, could be fecreted in various parts of
the body. See Duncan's Med. Com. vol. x. p. ^j.i. Sub-
fequent experiments have, however, been followed by con-
trary confequenccs. See Dr. FuUarton's Thefis on abforp-
tion, publillied at Glafgovv, A. D. iSoo. Indeed it is un-
like the fimplicity obfervable in other parts of the anim.al
occonomy, (hould fuch a double fecretion take place ; firft,
the fecretion of folid materials to compofe the ftrudlure of
the body, and then the fecretion of a fluid to diflblve them.
It feems beft in fuch difficult inveftigations to note fafts
rather than to form theories, and whoever contemplates the
things done in the animal body v/iU be aftonifhed at the
powers of the veffels by whole agency they muft be effefled.
As an inftance, the following may be mentioned. A whole
bone may perifh, it may be encafed by a new one ; and by
the vafcular lining of the new bone, the original dead bone
may be altogether removed.

Absorption, in Chem'iflry. It is a well known chemical
faft, in moil cales of combination of gafTeous fubftances,
either with other gafles or with liquids or folids, that a very
confiderable diminution of volume is experienced. This
effeft is called abforption, to diftinguifh it from the de-
creafe of bulk occafioned by condenfation. The condenfa-
tion of a gas, whether by mechanical preffure, or by lower-
ing its temperature, merely increafes its fpecific gravity,
without dcftroying that ftate of elaftic fluidity which is
eftential to its exiftence as a gas. On the contraiy, the ab-
forption of a gas implies fuch an Intimate union with the ab-
forbent as wholly deftroys its gaflTeous ftate of exiftence, and
reduces it to a liquid or a folid. Thus carbonic acid and
ammoniacal gaffes, if inclofed in feparate veffels, may be
condenfed, by mechanical means, till they are of much
greater fpeciflc gravity than ordinary, but yet retaining all
the phyiical properties of air : as foon however as thefe
gaffes are brought into contaft with each other, a great
abfoi-ption takes place, and a folid is produced containing
all their gravitating matter, but wholly deprived of the
effential charatler of a gas. - .

In pneumatic chemiftiy, or that branch of the fcience
which treats of the aeriform fubftances, the apparatus for
containing the gaffes confifts of jars or other glals veffels in-
verted in water or quickfilvcr ; now on account of the great
difference in fpecific gravity between thcfe fluids, whenever
a jai: partly filled with air, and the reft of its capacity with

ADS

«

quickfilvcr, is transferred from a Lafon of quickfilvcr to one
of water, the metal defcends, and ir. replaced by a cohimn
of water, at the fiune time that .".n apparent abforption takt»
place: this fallacy lias no doubt often vitiated the rcfults of
experiments, and therefore defeiTcs to be particularly cau-
tioned againft. For example, if an inverted jar 14 inelus
higii, contains eight inches of air, and fix of mercury, (the
barometer ftanding at 30°,) the preflurc of the atmi.ii.hcre
on the confined air is = 30 inches of mercuiy — 6 inclies=:
24 inches ; but if the jar, with its contents, be removed into
a bafon of water, the quickfilvcr finks do.wn and is replaeed
by water, in confequcnce of whieli the atmofplierieul pref-
lurc on the confined air becomes =30 inches of mercnr)- —
6 inches of luahr, or (the fpecific gravity of mercurj' to
water being 14: l) = 29.572 inches. The difference
here amounts to full one fixth of the whole atmofphcric prof-
fure, and therefore the inclofed air occupies Icfs fpacc than
before, although no real abforption has taken place. Sec
Pneumatic Chimtjlry.

Absorption of the earth, in Natural H'ljlory, a term
uf>jJ by Kircher and others, for the finking in of large tracts
of land, by means of fubten-aneap commotions, and many
other accidents.

Pliny (Hlft. Nat. tom. i. p. 115. Ed. Hard.) tells us,
that in his time the mountain Cybotus, with tlie town of
Curites, which flood on its lide, were wholly abforbcd
into the earth, fo that not the leaft trace of cither re-
mained : and he records the like fate of the city of Taiitalis
in Magnefia, and after it of the mountain Sypilus, both thus
abforbed by a violent opening of the earth. Galanis and
Gamales, towns once famous in Phoenicia, are recorded to
have fliared the fame fate : and the vaft promontor)-, called
Phegium, in .^Ethiopia, after a violent earthcpiake in the
night-time, was not to be feen in the morning, the whole
having difappeared, and the earth having clofed over it.
Thefe and many other hiftories, atteftcd by authors of
greateft credit among the ancients, abundantly prove the
fail in the earlier ages ; and there have not been wanting
too many inftanees of more modem date. Kiiehcr's Mund.
Subter. p. 77.

The mountain Picus, in one of the Molucca Ifles, was fo
lofty, that it appeared at great diftances as an immenfe co-
lumn reared ere£t in the air, and feived as a land-mark to
failors ; an earthquake in this ifland deftroyed it ; at one
inftant the whole mountain was abforbed into the bowels of
the earth, and no mark of Its place remained, but a vail
lake of water exacUy anfwering to the fliape of the bafc of
the mountain. A like accident, but of a more terrible
kind, happened in China, in the year 1556, when a whole
province of the mountainous parts of that kingdom was in
one moment abforbed into the earth, and all the towns buried,
the whole number of the Inhabitants finking with it, and an
immenfe lake of Vv'ater rem:il:.ing in its place to this time.
Of much later date is the deftruction of a city in the con-
fines of Switzerland : but this, though generally faid to have
been fvvallowed up into the earth, was not properly an ab-
forption, for the whole city was buried by the tall of a
mountain upon it.

The burning mountain?, Vesuvius and Stroncylus,
both once very high, have in length of time loft half their
height, the upper part having been midennined by the
burning, and having fallen into, and been abfoibed by the
under part and the fea. And in the year 1^46, du'-ing the
terrible .earthqu;ike in the kingdom of Chili, fcve-al whole
mountains in the Andes difappeared, and were one after
another wholly abfoibed In the earth.

Thefe, and a thoufand other accidcr.ts of the like kind,
z prove

A B S

prove i\\e tnith of ubforptions in general ; fome of tliem
teaviMg levc! ground in tlic place of the tliinj^s alitoibcd, foine
immeiiU' chnfms and cracks, and fume hikes of frelli or fait
water ; and it may be that many immcnfe lakes were formed
in a^jcs, of wli'ch we have no liillories, by the like abfoq^tions.

Plinv jjives m \ny accounts of the relloring of places thus
abforbed, but later obfervations do not give an equal credit
to thofe parts of this hiftory.

There are inftaiices, however, of islands being produced,
tho\igh we cannot affirm them to have appeared in the place
of a:iy wliich have been abforbed.

In the year 1638, an illand was raifed near St. Michael's
in the Atlantic ocean, by fubterranean fires, which threw
ftnnca and other fubterranean productions, in fuch quan-
tities that they fonncd an iiland of five miles in length.
The mountain raifed in one night, in the fea near Puzzoli,
is another inilancc of this fudden produAion of thefe moun-
tains : this appeared after one night's violent fubterranean
i-iinl1ic\, and ilill keeps its place, and is known by the name
of Mons Sanclus. See Icel.ind.

ABSTEINEN, in Geography, a diftriA near the river
Memcl, in Little Lithuania. It is a mountainous and plea-
fant country, and on account of its fertility in com and paf-
turage, called the larder of Lithuania. It abounds with
flocks of fheep, various kinds of grain, and excellent horfes.

ABSTE^III, '\\\ Ecclefiaft'tenl Hijlory, a name given to
pcrfons who could not partake of the cup of the Euchaiift,
0.1 account of their natural averfion from wine.

ABSTEMIOUS, is properly undcrftood ofaperfon who
refrains abfolutely from all ufe of wine.

It is compounded oi abs, from, and timetiim, •wine.

The hiftory of Mr. Wood, in the Medic. Tranf. vol. ii.
p. 261. art. 18. is a veiy remarkable exemplification of the
verj- beneficial alterations wliich may be effefted on the hu-
man body, by a ftricl courfe of abllemioufnefs.

The Roman ladies, in tiie firft ages of the republic, were
all enjoined to be abftemions ; and that it might appear,
by their breath, whether or not they kept up to the in-
junftion, it was one of the laws of the Roman civility, that
they lliould kifs their friends and relations whenever they
accofted them.

ABSTEMIUS, Laurentius, in Biogrnphy, a native of
Macerata, in Italy, who made a very coiifiderable progrtfs in
polite literature, to which he devoted himfelf in early life.
He taught the belles lettres at Urbino, where he was libra-
rian to Duke Guido Ubaldo, under the pontificate of Alex-
ander VI. His works are Notes on different paflages of an-
cient authors : Hecatomythium, or a CoUeftion of 100
Fables, which have been often printed with thofe of jEfop,
PliTdrus, Gabrias, Avienus, &c. and a preface to the edi-
tion of Aurelius Viftor, publilhed at Venice, in 150J.

ABSTENTUS, among Civiliims, is underftood of an
heir with-held by his tutor from taking on him an inheritance.
Among Ecdrjuiflkal Writer:, the word is alfo ufed for a per-
fon excommunicated.

ABSTERGENTS, or Abstersive medicines, more
nfually called among phj-ficians detergents, are medicines
which not only warfi off adhering fubftances, as abluents,
but are fuppofed to pofTefs a power of refolving and loofen-
ing their cohtlion. But the terms are too General, and are
often erroneoufly applied upon a falfc fuppofition, that they
have a power of refolving vifeid fublbnces, which water
limply, as an abluent, cannot cfFeft.

Abstinence, derived ham abjmere, formed oi als,
from, and tcr.-re, to hold, in a general fenfe, the aft or habit
of refraining from foinething to which we have a propenfity,
or iu vrhichwe find pleafure.

A B S

The Jews virerc obliged to praftife various kinds of ab-
tlinence by their law. The Pythagoreans were accuftomed,
upon being initiated into the fraternity of the felcft com-
panions and friends of Pythagoras, to abftain from animal
food, except the remains of the facrifices, and to drink no-
thing but water, unlefs in the evening, when they were
allowed a fmall portion of wine. Some of the primitive
chriflians alfo abllained from the ufe of particular- kinds of
food, whilll others treated their abftinence with contempt.
See Rom. xiv. The council of Jerufalem, which was held
by the apolUcs, enjoined the chrillian converts to abilain
from meats ftrangled, blood, fornication, and idolatry.
Acts XV. 20. The abftin:nce, called ritual, which confiiled
in abilaining from particular meats at certain fealbns, was
introduced by the Romilh church, prefcribed by rules, de-
nominated Rogations, and grofsly abufed. The church
of England alfo recommends certain days of fading and ah-
Jlin'cnce. — Abjlinence from fiijli has been enjoined by ttatute
even fince the Reformation, particularly on Fridays and Sa-
turdays, and on Vigils, and all commonly called fifii-days,
2 and 3 Ed. VI. c. 19. — The like injuntlions were re-
newed under queen Elizab^-Lh, but at the fame time it was
declared, that this was done, not out of motives of religion,
as if there were any difteience in meats, but in favour of the
confumption of fea-fiih, and to multiply the number of
fifhermen and mariners, as well as fpare the flock of llieep.
5 Eliz. c. 15. The great faft, fays St. Auguilin, is to
ahjlain from fin. See Fast.

The ancient Athletae lived in a perpetual abftinence from
all kinds of feniible pleafure, to render their bodies more ro-
buit and hardy.

Abstinence is more particularly ufed for a fpare diet,
or a flender paifimonious ufe of food.

The Phylicians relate wonders of the efFefts of abftinence
in the cure of many diforders, and in protracting the term
of life. The noble Venetian Cornaro, after all imaginable
means had proved vain, fo that his life was defpaired of at
forty, recovered, and lived to near a hundred, by mere dint
of abiUnence, as he himfelf gives the account.

Many of the chriftians of the eaft, who retired from per-
fecution into the defarts of Arabia and Egypt, lived in
health and chearfulnefs to a very advanced age on very
little food. According to Caffian, the common allowance
for twenty-four hours was twelve ounces of bread, and wa-
ter ; and yet with this fubfiftence St. Anthony lived 105
years, James tlie Hermit 104, Arfenius, tutor of the em-
peror Arcadius, 120; Epiphanius 115; Simeon the Sty-
lite 112; and Romauld 120. Buchanan inform: us, that one
Laurence attained to 140, by temperance and labour : and
Spotfwood mentions one Kentlgern, called St. Mongah or
Mungo, who lived to 185 by the fame means. See Lox-

GEVITV.

Moft of the chronical difeafes, infirmities of old age, and
the fliort lives of Englilllmen, are owing, according to Dr.
Cheyne, to repletion ; and may be either cured, prevented,
or remedied, by abftinence.

Abftinence, however, ftiould be maintained with dif-
cretion, and with a due regard to age, fex, climate, excr-
cile, dilpofition to corpulence in the individual, and various
other circuiiiftaiiees ; without a reference to which, it may
be purfiied lo a very hartful extreme. It is certiiln, that
many perfons have irreparably injured their coaftitutions by
exceiTive pariimony ; and thofe who, either by defign or ac-
cident, have fafted long, fcldom enjoy good health after-
wards.

Among the brute creation, we fee extraordinary inftances
of long abftinence. — It is the natural ccuvls of divers fpecics

to

A B S

te pafs four, five, or fix months, every year, without eiih^-r
eating or drinking : accordin'rly the tortoile, dormouie, fer-
pent, &;c. are obien-ed regularly to rrtire, at certain fea-
fons, to their refpeftive cells, and hide lliemfelves ; lome
pet in-to the cavems of rocks, or ruins ; others di^r holes
under ground ; others get into the woods, and lay thcm-
felves up in the clefts of trees ; others buiy theinlclvi.s luider
water, &c. See Sleepers.

The fcrpent kind bear abllinence to a ve'.y great degree.
We have feen rattle-fnakes that have fubfilled many months
without any food, yet Hill retain their vigour and tierce-
nefs. Dr. Shaw (Trav. p. 411.) fpeaks of a cotiple of
ci-rajlei (a fort of Egyptian ferpents), which had been kept
five years in a large ciyftal vcffel, without any fort of food,
unlels a fmall quantity of fand, wherein ihey coiled them-
felvts up in the bottom of the vefTel, may be reckoned as
fuch ; yet, when he faw them, they had juil call their Ikins,
and were as brilk and hvely as if jull taken.

Indeed, feveral fpecies of birds, the whole tribe almofl of
infefts, and many among the other tribes, are able to fubllll
all through the winter, not only without food, but many of
them in a ftate of apparent infenfibility and torpor. — This
furnilhes an admirable inftance of the wifdora of the Crea-
tor : the proper food of thefe creatures, efpecially the in-
feft tribe, being then wanting, there is provifion for tlicm
to hve without it. When the fields are diverted of their
floweiy furniture, and the trees and plants are ftripped of
their fruits, what would become of fuch animals as are fub-
ililed only by the produce of tlie fpring and fummer, and of
others which arc incapable of bearing fevere cold ? To pre-
vent the total dellruftion and extirpation of many fpecies of
animals, the Author of nature has provided, that creatures,
bereaved by the feafon of their food, (hould be likewife impati-
ent of cold : that they might thus be led to Ihelter themfclves
out of the way of danger ; and that when arrived in a place
of fafety, the natural texture and vifcidity of their blood
fhould difpofe it, by a farther degree of cold, to ftagnate
in the veffels : fo that the circulation flopping, and the
animal funftions being, in a great meafure, fui'pended, there
is no fentible waile or confumption of parts, but they re-
main in a kind of drov.fy neutral ftafe, between life and
death, till the warm fun revives botli them and their food to-
gether, by thawing the congealed juices, both of fuch ani-
mals audi vegetables. The faft, hov/ever, is quellionable ;
and will be more particularly confidered hereafter.

It is more than probable, that all motion of the animal
juices is extinft in ilies, and other infcfts, when thus alleep ;
becaufe, though they are cut in pieces, they do not awake,
nor does any fluid ooze out of the wound, unlefs iome ex-
traordinary degree of warmth hath been iivft applied to un-
bind the congelation. See //(v/vc-HoG. The deep of fuch
animals is little elfe than death, and their waking a relur-
redlion. — For if life docS not conilft in a circulation of the
blood, we do not know in what it confifcs.

Hence it is no wonder that tortoifes, dormice, &c. are
found as fat and flelhy, after fome months abftinence, as
before. Sir G. Er.t weighed his tortoife ieveral years fuc-
cefilvely, at its going to earth in October, and coming out
again, in March ; and found that of four pounds four
ounces, it only ufed to lofe about one ounce. Phil. Tranf.
N^ 194.

We have fome inftances of men who have paficd feve-
ral weeks, and even months in abllinence without injuiy.
The records of the Tower mention a Scotfman, imprifoned
for felony, and ftriftly watched for fix weeks ; during
which time he did not take the lead fuftenance : on which
account he obtaiaed his pardon. There are Kany cales

Voj.. I.

A B S

of abftinence from morbid caufu, that are related in the
different periodical Memoirs, Tr.ir.f.id:ons,KplicmiTidci, &i;.
It is to be added, that in moll of the inlbinccs of loii||f
abftinence related by naturalilh, there were apparent maikt
of a texture ot blood and humours, much Lke llut of fHm-
mer bealls and infedts ; though it is no improbable opinion
that the air itfelf may furnilh fomctliing for nutrition. It
is certain, there are fubftanccs of all kinds, animal, ve-
getable, &c. floating in the almofphere ; which inuil be
continually taken in by relplration : and that an 3nim:il
body may be nouriflied thereby, is evident in the inflaijcc
of vipers ; which, if taken wiicn fiHl brougiit forth, and
kept from cverj- thing but air, will yet grow very corjider-
ably in a few days. So the eggs of iizardi arc a!fo ob-
ferved to increafe in bulk, after diey are produced, thougk
there be nothing tA furnilh the inaemcnt but air alone ; after
the like manner as the egg.! or fiiawn of llfnes grow, and
are nourifhed with the water. And hence, fome f.iy, It is, that
cooks, turnfpit dogs, &c. though they cat hut little, yet
are ufually fat.

Abstinence is atfo ufed fometimcs to fignify a fupprrf.
fwn. Thus in Coeliiis Aurelianus, aijlinenlia J'uilorii, fig.
nifies a fuppreflion of fweat. Sometimes in this author it
means a coniprejfion ; as Sp'irifiis ob abftincntiam claufus^
means the wind fhut up in the intcftincs by coniprellion,
thereby caufing the w-xkz pn'Jion,

ABSTINENTES, in EccUfuMcal ITJlory, a fort of
people, who earned abllinence and mortification fo far, thjt
they have been put into the catalogue of heretics ; though
it i« not known in what their cvror confilled.

Some reprefent them as the fame with thofe other\vifi
called Cmitmcnles, and that they particularly enjoined ab-
ftinence from the ufe of marnage : otiiers (ay, from flefii,
and others from wine. Others will have them a bi-anch of
the Gnostics. Some make them the fame with the
HiERACiTES ; others with the Encratites. They are
faid to have rllen in Spain and France towards the clofe of
the third centur\'.

ABSTOTTEN, in Geogrnf.hy, a fmall market town,
belonging to the bilhop of Paflau, in the circle above the
foreil of Wiener, in Auftria.

ABSTlvACT, Abstractum, in a general feiife, any
thing ieparated from fomething elfe.

Abstract of a fine, in Laiv. See Fine.

Abstract idea, in Metaphyjics, is a partial idea of a
complex objecl, limited to one or more ot the component
parts or properties, laying alide or abllrafting from the reft.
But among thofe who adopt the fyllem of Mr. Locke, an
abjIraB idea denotes an idea formed in the mind, when we
confider a thing liinply in itfclf, without refpedl to the fub-
jeCt wherein it refules ; or it is a rim])Ie idea detached and
ieparated from any piinicular fubjecl or complv.; idea, for the
fake of viewing and confidering il more diftintily.

Thus, magnitude and humanity are abJlraPtS or alJlraB
ideas, when confidered in themfelves, and without being at-
tached to any particular body, o-- perfon ; though they can-
not have any real fuhfiftence without fuck fubjefls, nor the
fubjefts without them.

Whitenefs is an a'Lftraft, inafmuch as it does not denote
any one white objetl, but that colour, or idea in the geneiT.V,
wherever found.

Abllrafl ideas are oppofcd to thofe which are concrete ;
the concrete denoting a general or abllraifl idea's being at-
tached to fome particular fubjeft, or cor.fidcrcd as coinbincd
with fome other ideas : as, great houft, •n-hii: waU. All our
fimple ideas, fays Mr. Locke, have abftraft, as well a,; ctn-
crcV names : v.i w/jiur.'/'s, wkilf ; hveclnrfs, fw^ct, Si.z. The

K ■ like

A B S

like alfo liolda in our iJeas of moJes, and relations : as
jajlire, jujl : fjua'.ity, equal, Sec.

r.iit as to our ideas of liibftnncc, wo liavc very few ab-
fi-rtJ names at all. Tliofe few that the fchools have
forjjed, as /IwrnaHtas, Niinunilets, &c. bear no propor-
tion to the infinite number of names of fubilanccs ; and
could never get admittance into common life, or obtain
tlie licence of pjblic approbation; \v!iich fcems to inti-
mate a confefTion of mankind, that they have no ideas of the
rc:d eniiiccs of fubilanccs ; lincc they have not names for
fucli ideas.

Indeed the reality and exiftence of all abftradl ideas, and
of any fuc'a faculty in the mind as abilradion, have of late
been controverted., and adually denied by pcrfons of very
confiderable eminence as mctaphylicians and philofophcrs.
It will ;.-ppcar in what fenfc they ufe the terms aljlraa Ideas
under the article ABSTRACTtoN.

Abstract /a-m, are thofe made ufe of to denote al-
JlracI ideas. In which fcnfe the words r.uhitetiefs, paterni-
ty, anlmalhy, jujlice, cro'AedneJs, &c. are aljlrads or ahjhaa
It rmj.

Abstract malhtmntics. See Mathematics.

Abstract mimhers, are afTemblages of units confidercd
in themfelves, and not applied to denote any coUetlions of
particular forts of things.

Abstract, in Literature, is a compendious view, or
£n roME of a larger work, and is fuppofid to be fomewhat
fliorter, and more fuperficial than an abridgment.

ABSTRACTI, ahjlraacd, in Church iiipory, is a name
given to a feci among the Lutherans, under the lead of
Hefliufius, a Pruflian bilhop, who afterted againll Beza,
" that Chrift was to be adored not only in the concrete, as
" the fon of God, but that his fledi in the abftraft was an
" objecl of adoi-ation." Wigandus prevailed fo far againil
Hediufius as to get him depofed : aftenvards the Abftraai
gained the afcendant, and Wigandus was filenced. Micrxl.
Hill. Ecc!. 1. iii f. 2. &c. Budd. Ifag. Hift. Theol.l. ii. c. 7.

ABSTRACTION, in Chemifiry, properly means the
aft of drawing off or feparating, by means of heat, one
part of a compound from the other. If the part abftrafted
is coUeftcd, t;!ie operation is fynonymous with Distilla-
tion. If it is not coUefted, the tenn has the fame mean-
ing with Evaporation. Atprefent, however, itisalmoft
entirely appropriated to the repeated diftillation of nitrous
acid- off any fub.lance ; in which cafe it is faid to have been
sbftrafted with the acid.

AtfSTRACTiON, in MdaphyfiCf, an operation of the
mind, whereby we feparate things naturally conjunct, or
txifting together ; and form, and con'ider, ideas of things
thus fcparatcd : or, as others define it (fee Duncan's Ele-
ments of Logic, p. 51.), aljlraHion is that operation of the
mind, by which wc feparate from any of our conceptions
all thofe circumftances that render it particular, or the repre-
fentative of a fmgle determinate objeft ; fo that, inilead of
Handing for an individual, it is made to denote a whole
rank or clafs of things. In this manner we acquire our
general ideas, that fer\e as llandards by vshich we may rank
and denominate particular objefts. Thus, in viewing
a f((uare, or circle, we leave out the confideration of every
thing that is peculiar to them, except their figure and (h; pe.
Whenever, therefore, we meet with a figure anfwering to
that (h ipc and form, which we had laid up in our uudcr-
ftand.ngs, it is immediately referred by the mind to this
pattern, and called by its name, which by this means becomes
proper to the whole fpecies. Thus, a fquare and circle are
uiiii-ei-fal terms, common to all figures of that particular
fliapc, apd alike applicable to them \yhsrever they exift j in

A B S

like manner as the ideas themfelves are general, and repre- p
fentatives of all of the kind.

The faculty of abftraftnig ftands direftly oppofite to that
of compounding. By compofition we confider thofe things
together, which in reality are not joined together in one
exillence. And by abllraclion we confider thofe things
feparatcly and apart, wliich in reality do not exiil apart.

Abilradion is chiefly employed in thefe three ways. Firil-,,
when the mind eonfiders any one part of a thing in fome re-
fpeCl dilUncI from the wliolc ; as a man's arm, without the
confideration of the reft of the body. Secondly, when we
confider the mode of any fubllance, omitting the fubllance
itfelf, or v/hen we feparately confider feveral modes which,
fubfill together in one fubjecl. Tliis abftraftion the Geo-
metricians make ufe of, when they confider the length of a
body feparately, which they call a line ; omitting the con-
fideration of its breadth and depth. Thirdly, it is by ah-
ftradlion that the mind frames general, or univerfal ideas r
omitting the modes and relations of the particular objefts
whence they are formed. Thus, when we would undeV-
ftand a thinking being in general, we gather from our felf-
confcioufnefs what it is to think ; and omitting the confidera-
tion of thofe things which have a peculiar relation to ouc
mind, or to the human mind-,, we conceive of a thinking
being in general.

Ideas framed thus, which are what we properly call al-
JlrtiS ideas, become general reprcfentatives of all objefts of
the fame kind ; and their names applicable to whatever exills
conformable to fuch ideas. Thus, the colour that we re-
ceive from chalk, fnow, milk, &c. is a rcprefentative of all
of that kind ; and has a name given it, nuhitcnej':, which
fignifies the fame quality, wherever found or imagined. It
is this laft faculty, or power of abftradling, according to
Mr. Locke, that makes the great difierence between men
and brutes ; even thofe latter muft be allowed to have fome
(liare of reafon ; that they really reafon in fome c;i!es, fecms
almoll as evident as that they have fcnfe ; but it is only in
particular ideas. They are confined to thofe narrow bounds ;
and do not fecm to have any faculty of enlarging them by
abflraftion. Efiay on Human Underftaridmg, book ii.
c. II-. § 9, 10, II. book iii. c. 3. ^ 9. Such is the doc-
trine of abftraft ideas, as it has been delivered by that ex-
cellent author. From him it became, for a confiderable
time, a prevailing opinion, that the mind has fuch a power
or faculty of framing abftraiEl ideas or- notions of things ;
and on fuch ideas a great part of the writings of philofo-
phers is founded. Thefe are fuppofed in all their fyilems ;
and they are more efpeciaDy reputed the cbjefts of logic,
mathematics, and metaphyfics, and of ever)' thing that pafles
under the notion of the moll abllrafted and fublims learning.

However, an eminent and ingenious author. Dr. Berke-
ley, has contefted the reality of any fuch ideas ; and led
tlie way towards overturning the whole fyftem, and con-
fequently towards fetting philofopliy on a new foundation.
See a Treatife concerning the Principles of Human Know-
ledge, firft printed in 1710.

The qualities or modes of things, it is on all hands
agreed, fays that learned prelate, do never really exill apart,
and feparated each from all others, but are conilantly mixed
and combined together, feveral in the fame objeft. But,
fay the philofophcrs, the mind being able to confider
each quality iingly, or abftratled from other qualities with
which it is united, does by that means frame to itfelf ab-
ftracl ideas, of a different nature and kind from the fenfible
ones.

For example, when the eye perceives an objeft extended,
coloured, and moved, the mind refolves this compound idea

ipto

A B S

into its fimple couftituent parts ; and vicwiiijf each hv itfeir,
cxclufivi; of the rtil, frames abllract ideas of cxtLiifiuii, co-
lour, and motion. Not that it is poflibk for fucti colour
and motion to exift without cxtcnfion ; but only that the
mind can frame to itfelf, by ahdraftion, the idea of colour
exclufive of extenfion ; and of motion, exelufivc botli of co-
lour and extenfion.

Again, fay the fame philofophcrs, the mind havinjr ob-
ferved that in the particular extenfions perceived by fenfe,
there is fomcthing common, and alike in all ; and fome other
things peculiar ; as, this, or that figure, or magnitude,
^vhich diftinguith them one from another : it can confider
apart, or fingle out by itfelf, that which is common ; mak-
ing thereof a general ablhaft idea of extenfion, wliich is
neither line, furface, norfolid, nor lias any ligure or magni-
tude, but is an idea entirely prefcinded from them all. So,
likewife, by leaving out of the fcveral colours perceived by
fenfe, that which diilinguiihes them one from another, and
only retaining what is common to all, it makes an idea of
colour in the abllraft, which is neither red, nor blue, nor
■white, S:c. — After the fame manner by confidering motion
abllratledly, both from the body moved, and from the figure
it defcribes, and all particular direftions and velocities ; an
abftraft idea of motion is framed, which equally corrcfponds
to'aU n-.otions whatever.

They add, that as the mind frames abftracl ideas of quali-
ties or modes, fo does it by the fame faculty, obtain abftraci
ideas of the more compound beings, which include many co-
exiftent qualities. For example : Having obfen-ed that
Peter, James, John, &c. refemble each other in fliape, and
other qualities ; we can leave out of the complex idea we had
of Peter, James, &c. that which is peculiar to each, retain-
ing only what is common to all, and fo make an abftraft
idea, wherein all the particulai-s equally partake. And
thus it is we are fuppofed to obtain the abflraft idea of
man, or of humanity, or human nature ; wherein there is
indeed included colour, bccaufe there is no man that has not
fome colour ; but it is neither white, nor black, nor brown ;
becaufc there is no one particular colour wherein all men par-
take. So likewife there is included ftature, but then it is
neither tall nor low, nor yet middle ilature, but fomething ab«
ftrafted from all thefe ; and fo of the reit.

Farther yet, there being a general variety of other crea-
tures, which partake in fome parts, but not all, of the com-
plex idea of man ; the mind leaving out thofe parts which
lire peculiar to men, and retaining only thofe which are
common to all living creatures, frames the idea of animal ;
which abftracts not only from all particular men, but alfo
from all birds, hearts, flfhes, and infefts.

The conllituent parts of fuch abftratl idea uf animal, are
body, life, fenfe, and fpontaneous motion. By body is
meant, body without any particular (liape, or figure ; there
being no one common to all animals ; v/ithout covering, either
of hair, or feathers, or fcales ; nor yet naked ; hair, feathers,
fcales, and nakednefs, being the diftinguifhing properties of
particular animals, and for that reafon left out of the ab-
ftract idea. Upon the fame account, the fpontaneous mo-
tion muft be neither walking, nor flying, nor creeping ; it is
neverthelefs a motion. But what the motion is, it is not
eafy to conceive. " I will not aihrm," fays Dr. Berkeley,
" that other people have not this wonderful faculty of ab-
«« ftrafting their ideas ; but I am confident I have it not my-
" felf. I have, indeed, a faculty of imagining, or repre-
«' fenting to myfelf the ideas of things I have perceived, or
" of varioufly compounding or dividing them : I can imagine
<' a -man with two heads, or the upper parts of a man joined
" to the body of a Uorfe. I c»n confider the hand, die

A B S

*' ej-os, the nnfe, each by itfelf, abftra^-d or fcnnrated frtim
" the left of the body. I'ut then, whatever (laiid or rve
" I imagine, it mud have fome particular (hapi- and colour.
" So again, the idea of a man I frame to myfjf, mull be
" either of a white, oi- a black, ora tawiiey, a llr.ii;;ht, or a
•' crooked, a tall, or a low, or a middlc-fizcd man.

I' I cannot by any effort of thought, conceive the abftnft
" idea above dcfcribed ; and it is equally in.pnfl'blf f».r me
" to form the abrti-att idea of motion, diUiiid fmm iho body
" moving, and whicii is neither fwift nor flow, curvilinear
" nor rtftilincar. And the like may be faid of all other ub-
" ftraft general ideas whatever."

Since all things that exift are only particulars, " Whence."
fays Mr. Locke, " is it, that wc come by general wcrdi,
" tx]irenive of a thoufand individuals!" His anfwcr it,
terms only become general, by being made the figns of ab-
ftraci and general ideas ; fo that the generality of ahllratt
ideas fliould follow from the reality of general words. — I'ut,
according to Dr. Berkeley, a word becomes general, by be-
ing made the fign not of an abftract general idea, but of fc-
veral particular ones, any of which it mdiifercntly fuggefts to
the mind. — For example, when I fay, that whatever has ex-
tenfion is divifible ; tlic propofition is to be undcrftood of
extenfion in general ; not that I mud conceive any abftradl
general idea of extenfion, which is neither line, furface, nor
folid, neither great nor fmall, &c. To miike tltis more evi-
dent, fuppofe a geometrician to be demonftraling a method
of dividing a line into two equal parts : with tliis view, he
draws, for inftance, a black line, an inch long ; and this,
which in itfelf is a particular line, is neverthelefs, with refpedl
to its figniiication, general ; fince it reprefents all lines what-
ever ; fo that what is demonflratcd of this one will hold of
all others — And as that particular line becomes general by-
being made a fign, fo does the name line, and the idea of a
line in the imagination, either of which, taken abfolutely,
is particular, by being figns become general likewnfe ; and as
the former owes its generality, not to its being the fign of
an abilraft or general line, but of any or all particular right
lines that may poffibly exift ; fo mull the latter, both the
name and the idea, derive their generality from the fame caufc,
or the various particular hues which each of them indiffer-
ently denotes. •

But to this reafoning it has been replied, that the iniivcr-
fality confifts in the idea ; and not merely in the name as
ufed to fignify, and recal into the mind, a variety of pirti-
cular things, refembling that which is the immediate object
of refleftion ; becaufe had we no previous fixed notion what
the name fignifies, we could not know what particular things
to apply it to, or affign any reafon for applying it to one
thing rather than another. All that can be pictured in tlie
imaginat on, as well as all that we take notice of by our
fenfes, is indeed particular. And whenever any general no-
tions are prefent in the mind, the imagination, at the fame
time, is commonly engaged in reprefeiiting to itfelf fome of
the particulars comprehended under them. Rut it would be
a very llrange inference from hence, that we have none but
particular ideas. As well almoll might we conclude, that
we have no other notion of any thing than of its name, bc-
caufe they are fo affociated in our minds, that we cannot
feparale them ; or of the fun, than as a white bright circle
fuch as we fee in the heavens, becaufe this idea or phantafiu
is apt to accompany all our thoughts of it. See Dr. Pricf's
Review of the principal Queftions and Difficulties in Morals,

P- «•

Dr. Cudworth obfen-cs, that abftraci ideas are implied in
the cognofcivivc power of the mind ; and he pronounces the
opinion, tliat they are only fingular ideas aDnci^ed to a com-

K i HluA

A B S

nion term ; or in other vords, names without any meaning,
!.» bt lb ridiculoufly fa'fc, as to dtlVivc no confutation. See
Ettnial and Immutable Monility, book iv.

Mr. l.ockc, (EiF. b. iv. c. 7. §. 9.) fpeaking of the dif-
ficulty of forming abilnft ideas, fays: " docs it not re-
" quire fome pains and (kill to fonn the general idea of a tri-
•' an^'le, which yet is none of the moil abftiad and compre-
•' heniivc ; for it mull neither be oblique, nor rectangular ;
" neither equilateral, ifofccles, nor fcalcnous ; but all, and
" none of thcfe at once. In eiTecl, it is fomcthing imptr-
" fcft, that cannot exiil ; an idea, wherein fome parts of
«• feveral ditlcrent and inconfulent id.as are put together."
Now, let any man look into his tlioughts, and tiy whether
lie has, or can attain to un idea of a triangle correfpondeiit
to this defcription.

Dr. Campbell, in his Philofophy of Rhetoric, vol. ii. p.
joy. expredes his apprehenfion, that the bare mention of
this h)'pothefis is equivalent to a confutation of it, fince it
really confutes itfelf. He adopts the fentiments of Berkeley
on this fubjeft, and will allow to the mind no other power
of abilraclion, if the term be retained, bcfidc that, by which
a particular idea is regarded, as rcprtfenting a whole order,
hir. Locke, he fays, has, on fome occaiions, evidently in-
clined to the fame opinion : in proof of wiiich he refers to
his ElTay, book iii. chap. 3. §. 11.

In this feftion Mr. Locke maintains, that not only words
but ideas are made figns ; and a particular idea is made ge-
neral, not by any change produced in it (for then it would
no longer be the fame idea), but by being fet up as the re-
jjrcfentative of many particular things. Univerfality, he ob-
ferves, as it belongs not to things, belongs not even to thofe
■words and ideas, which are all of them particular in their
txillence, but general in their llgnification. Again, the ge-
neral nature of thofe ideas is nothing but the capacity they
arc put into by the underilanding of lignifying or reprefent-
ing many particulars ; and, if polTible, ftill more explicitly,
the iiguitication they have is nothing but a relation, (no al-
teration in their eflejice,) that by the mind of man is added
to them. " If fuch an extraordinary faculty," as abflrac-
tion, fays Dr. Campbell, (:iii /ufira, p. no.) " were poffi-
" ble, I cannot for my part conceive what purpofe it would
*' ferve. An idea hath iieen defined by fome logicians, the
" form or refemblance of a thing in the mind, and the v/hole
" of its power and ufe in thinking is fuppofed to arife from
" an exacl conformity to its archetype. What then is the
" ufe or power of that idea, to which there neither is, nor
•' can be, any archetv'pe in nature, which is merely a crea-
*' ture of the brain, a moniler that beais not the likenefs of
" any thing in the univerfe."

The late Lord Bolingbroke llkewife controverted the exift-
encc of abilraft ideas. He apprehends that the difputes about
abftraftion may after all be confidered as verbal, and owing
to the want of making a proper diitindlion between ideas and
notions, which have been ufed, he fays, both by Mr. Locke
and his antagonift the Bifhop of Cloyne, as if they were
fynonymous. We m.ight avoid the confufion arifmg from this
ambiguity, he prefumes, if we conceived the former to be.
particular in their nature, and general only by their apph-
cation ; and the latter to be general in their nature, and
particular only by their apphcation. In another place he
cbferves, that much confuiion and error have ari fen from the
improper ufe of the word abflraclion. There is a very prac-
ticable operation of the mind, by which we are faid to ab-
ftra£l ideas, and by which we do, in efFeft, gencrahze them
in a certain manner, and to a certain degree, by fubftituting
one as reprefentative of many. There is another fuppofed,
biit impracticable operation of the niind, by v/hich fome

A B S

phi".of(>pli«s have made themfelvis and others believe, that
they abilracl, from a multitude of panicular ideas, the idea
of one general nature or effcnce, which is all of them, and
none of them ; whereas, in truth, though they tan define
general natures or cfl'ences in very clear propofitions, they
cannot frame an idea of any general nature, which is not a
particular idea of that nature. Bolin^»broke's Works by
Mallet, vol. iii. p. 438. and vol. v. p. 17. &c.

The acute Mr. Hume has alfo attacked the fyftem of ab-
ftradlion. He afierts, (ElTays, vol. ii. p. 165.) that it is
unintelligible, and even abfurd, to conclude, that the ideas
of prim.ai-y qualities are obtained by abllraclion. An exten-
i'loa, that is neither tangible nor vilible, cannot poiiibly be
conceived ; and a tangible or vifible extenfion, which is
neither hard nor foft, bkck nor white, is equally beyond
the reach of human conception. Let any man try to con-
ceive a trlan-^le in general, which is neither ifofceles, nor
fcalene, nor has any particular length or proportion of fides,
and he will foon perceive the abfurdity of all the icholaftic
notions with regard to abftraiStion and general ideas. Mr.
Hume has purfued Berkeley's reafaning to an extent which
he himfelf never propofed, and rq^refcnted all his arguments
as merely fceptical, " becaufe they admit of no anfwer, and
" produce no conviftion." — Dr. Reid, in his valuable
E'fayson the Intellectual Powers of Man, (EfT. v. />a//:rn,)ha3
difcuffed the fubjecl: of abftradlion, and examined the various
opinions that have been formed concerning it, in a very dif-
fufe and elaborate manner. This ingenious writer appre-
hends, that we cannot, with propriety, be faid to have ab-
llradl and general ideas, either in the popular or philofo-
phical fenfe of that word. In the former fenfe, an idea is
a thought, or an acl of the mind in thinking, or in conceiv-
ing any objeft ; and this mull be an individual aft. In the
latter fenfe, an idea is an image in the mind, or in the brain,
which in Mr. Locke's fyftem is the immediate objeft of
thought, and in the fyilem of Berkeley and Hum.e, the
only objeft of thought : and as he believes there are no fuch
ideas, there can be no abflraft general ideas. If they exift-
ed, they could not be general, becaufe every thing that
really exifts is an individual. Univerlals are Reither a6ts of
the mind, nor images in the mind. They cannot be the
objefts of imagination when the word is taken in its flricl
and proper fenfe. We cannot imagine a man, without
colour, or ftature, or (hape. But though Dr. Reid denies
the reality of abjlra8 iJais in the ienfc above ftated, he main-
tains the fame doftrine by merely fubftituting the term cori'
ception for liLa. As general words are necethiry in language,
there muft, he fays, be general conceptions, of which thefe
are the figns ; and they take this denomination, not fron^
the act of the mind in conceiving, which is an individual aft,
but from the objeft or thing conceived, which is generaL
Theie general words exprefs either the attributes of things,
or the genera and fpecies, into which we divide and fub-
divide them ; and of both thefe we may have clear and dif^
tinft conceptions. As to the operations of the underftasd-
ing, by which we fonn thefe general conceptions, he appre-
hends that they are the three following, viz. i. The ana-
lyfing or refolving a fubjeft into its known attributes, and
giving a name to each attribute, fignifying that attribute,
and no more. 2. The obferving one or more fuch attri-
butes to be common to many fubjefts. The firft aft
is by philofophers called alJlraS'wn ; the fecond may be
C'Aled genera/ijitig ; but both are commonly included under
the name of abftraftion. We cannot generahfe, he fays,
without fome degree of abftraftion ; but we may abftraft-
without generahfing. For what hinders me from attending
to the whitenefs of the paper before me, without applying*

that

A B S

lint cJcur to any other objeft. TliC v.-h'tenefs of t'his ir.di-
vida.ll objctt is an abilract conception ; thovigh not a ge-
neral one, while applied to one individual only. To tliis
reafoning it might be replied, that if whitenefs be ftparatcd
in his conception of it from the paper, it is no lonjrer the
whitenefs of that objeft ; and lie muft cither conceive it as
abllratted from all objedls, which is impoffible, or as per-
taining to fome other objeft : and thtis neither the quality
of whitenefs, nor his conception of it, is abilraft and ge-
neral, but concrete and particular. 3. A third mental opera-
tion, by which we fcnn abftraiil conceptions, is, according
to Dr. Reid, the combining into one whole a certain num-
ber of thofe attributes, of which we have formed abftraft
notions, and giving a name to that combination. It is thus
we form abftracl notions of the genera and i'pecies of thino-s.
With regard to abllraftion ilriAly fo called, the difficulty
of which was acknowledged by Mr. Locke, this author fays,
" I can perceive nothing in it that is dilEcult either to be
" underllood orpraiitifed." " AVhat can be more enfy,"
as he proceeds, " than to diftinguHh the different attributes
" which we know to belong to a fubjeft ? In a inan, for in-
" ilance, to diilinguiih his lize, his complexion, his age, his
*' fortune, his birth, his profefilon, and twenty other things
•' that belong to him." But in this cafe, it may be al-
ledged, that though we feparate one or more of thefe attri-
butes from the otliers in our conception of them, we can-
not abftradl them from the individual perfon without tranf-
ferring them to fome others ; fo that our conceptions will
be Hill concrete and particular. Dr. Reid adds farther,
that attributes which are in their nature abfolutely infepa-
rable from their fubjccl:, and from one another, may be dif-
joined in our conception. In a body we can dilfinguifh its
folidity from its extenfion, and its weight from both : and
in cxtenlion we can diilinguiih length, breadth, and tliick-
nefs ; and yet none of tliefe can be fcparated from the body,
or from one another. But can we conceive folidity, as fe-
parated from all extenfion and weight ? Can we conceive fo-
lidity or extenfion, feparated from all bodies ? Thofe who
cannot do this will ftill contend that there is no abilraftion
ftriftly fo called. Without purfuing this ingenious writer's
reafoning any farther, or giving in detail his anfwcrs to the
various cbjeftions of Berkeley and Hume, we iliall clofe our
abllraft of wiiat he fays on this fubjeft with the following
general conclufions, which he has deduced from his account
of abftraft and general conceptions. I. It is by abftraftion,
he fays, that the mind is furnilhed with all its moft fimple
and moll diilincl notions. Abftraftion analyfes the fimplelt
objefts of fenfe, as well as thofe of memoiy, and of confci-
oufnefs. 2. Our moil diftinifl complex notions are formed
by compounding the finiple notions got by abftradlion. 3.
Without the powers of abllraiSling and generalifing, it would
be impoffible to reduce things into any order and method,
by dividing them into genera and fpecies. 4. Without thefe
powers there could be no definition, which can only be ap-
plied to univerfals, as no individual can be defined. 5. Without
abftradl and general notions, there can be neither reafoning
nor language. 6. As brute animals Ihew no figns of being
able to diilinguiih the various attributes of the fame fubjeft ;
of being able to clafs things into genera and fpecies ; to de-
fine, to reafon, or to communicate their thoughts by artifi-
cial figns, as men do ; " I muft think," fays this author, " with
" Mr. Locke, that they have not the powers of abftraftingand
" generalifing ; and that, in this particular, nature has made
•' a fpecific difference between them and the human fpecies."
The notion of abftradl ideas, which, according to Dr.
Berkeley, has contributed to render fpeculation intricate
and perplexed, and to occafion innumerable crroro and dit-

A B S

f-culiies In aunofl all parts of knowli dgo, led m<*n, in h!«
opinion, firft to fiippofe, tliat bodies liavc an exillci.cc of
their own, exchifively and independently of the mind wliitli
perceives them. — Can there be a greater lli-ain of abllraftion,
fays he, than to diilinguiih the exillcnee of fenliblc obiiCts
from their being perceived, fo as to conceive them cxiili:.f»
unperceived ? — If there were external bodies, lie fays, it it
impoffible we fliould ever come to know it ; and if tlicre were
not, we might have the very fame reafons to think their
were that we have now. His principal argument may be re-
duced to tlie follov/ing fyllogil'm ; whatever i.-. immeiiiatclv
perceived by fenfe, is an idea; fenfible tilings are immediately
perceived by fenfe ; for tlie proof of which he uppcis to
experience ; therefore fenfiblc things are ideas ; and conft-
quently txill only in the mind. See his Dialogues between
Hylas and Philonous.

Mr. Hume concurs with Dr. Berkeley in denying the
exiftence ol matter ; and advances a Hep farther, maintain-
ing that the foul is merely a bundle of perceptions, and llujt
there is nothing in the univerfe but imprelfionb and idtas.

Some late Scots writers, Doclure Reid, Beattie, and Of-
wald, with a view of obviating thofe fceptical inference-,
which had been deduced from the principles of Mr. Locke,
have, in oppofition to thefe, olfered a new fyftem refpect-
ing the nature and origin of our ideas, the outlines of whicli,
with remarks, will be inferted under their proper heads, in
the courfe of this work. See Ideas, Intuition, and
Common Sense.

We ihall only add, that abftrafting, on the common fyf-
tem, is no more than generalifing : it is making one thii;g
ftand for a hundred, by omitting tlie confideration of tlie
differences between them : it is taking feveral differents, /'. r.
different combinations, fetting alkie the peculiarities in cacli,
and confidering only what is finiiid alike in all. — Thus it ii
that I fay, I love my friend, love my miiliefs, love niyfelf,
my bottle, my book, my cafe, &c. — Not that it is polfiblc,
I Ihould have the fame perception with refpett to fo many
different forts of things, things that Hand in fueh ihfferent
relations to me ; but only that there a])pearing fomethiiig ni
them all that bears a refemblance to the reft, in fome circum-
ftance or other, I chufe to cxprefs all by one name, love.
For if I confiderthe tendency and effedsof them all, I (hall
find they lead me veiy different ways, to very different
aftions ; all the analogy there is between them, is a fort of
plcafure or fatisfailion, arifing upon the application of- tiie
particular objetl to its proper organ, or lenfe. — The ab-
ilraft idea of love, then, v.ill tenninate in the idea of plea-
fure : but it is certain, there can be no idea of pleafurt w;ili-
out a thing pleafant to excite it. Any other abftrafl idta
of pleafure will amount to no more than a view or percep-
tion of the circumilanccs wherewith our pleafures have bteu
attended ; but thefe are mere externals foreign to the jjlea-
furable fenfation itfelf ; which nothing but an object apphed
in fuch and fuch a manner can excite. — To fuppofe an idea
of pleafure produced indireftly, by any other than by the
proper caufe, is as abfurd as to fuppofe an idea of found,,
produced without a fonoious objedt. The mind has no
power of making any ideas, call them what you will, whether
al>/lr{i3 ox concrete, or general, or parlicular : its adiivity goes,
no farther than to the perceiving of fuch as are prc-
fcnted to it ; fo that its aftion is really no other than a degree
of paffion..

ABSTRACTITIOUS, or Aestractive, is applied
by fome modern Chemifis to a fpirit drawn from veget.ibki
without fermentation.

ABSTRUSE, nhjlnifiis, {onr\edo{ ais, from, and truJc,
I tliruJI, denotes fonicvhing deep, hidden, or far vemcvcd

A B S

from tlK- common appnlKiifions, and more intelligible ways
of conceiving ; in oppofilion to what is obvious and
palpable.

In this fenfe Mflathyfici is an abflrufe fcicnce ; and many
{■peculations of Malhemnlici are likewife aljlrufe.

ABSURD, Absi'rdum, a term appVd to any aftion
or tentiment that thwarts, or goes contrarj' to fome evident

truth. , , n-

Thus, a propofitlnn would be abfurd, that fliouM affirm
that two and two make five ; or that (houid deny them to
make four.

Tlie Lo^'ic'mns and Malhtmot'icians have a way of provuig
the truth of a proimlltion in this indireft manner, by flic wing
tliat tlie contraiy is abfurd.

This they cill

Re./iiffio ml tihSVKDVM, or arguing ex abfurdo.

/Ibfunl, when applied to aftions, is fynonymous witli ri-
diculous.

ABSURDITY, a kind of ciror or offence againft fome
evident or generally allowed tnith or principle.

The (rreatell of all abfurdities is CojiTRAdictios.

The Fchoolmen make two fpecies of abfurdities — The one
abfoluU, as-Mi,-, which is repugnant to the common fenfe of
mankind ; the otiier relative, tm, which contradiAs fome
one, or more philofophers, or perfons of great weight and

authority.

In this fenfe the doftrine of a •vacuum is an abfurdity ;
as being contrai-y to Arillotle : and that of a plenum, as
being contrary to Sir Ifaac Newton. In effeft, there is
fcarce one truth of any moment, that is not an abfurdity
in this fenfe ; as being repugnant to the fyltem of fome feet,
or party.

As reafon confifts in the due ufe of names and words,
abfurdity confifts in the abufe of them. Hobbes affigns ab-
furdity as a privilege peculiar to man, and which no other
creature is capable of: he adds, that of all men, thoie
called philofophers are moft expofc;d to it. Whence the
faying of Cicero, there is noth'ng fo abfurd but has been
faid by a philofopher, nihil tarn abfurde did polejl, quod non
dicatur a philofopho. The reafon feems to be, that of all
men they reafon, and difcourfe moft. Yet a nearer and
more appofite caufe may be affigned, viz. their negleft
at fetting out, to define the terms they make ufe of,
i. e. to aflign the precife idea each is made to reprefent :
which is much hke a man's undertaking to number, without
knowing the value of the numeral figures ; reafoning, ac-
cording to the author firft cited, being no other than com-
puting. Divers abfurdities alfo arofe from the wrong con-
nefting of names into propofitions ; as firft, when the names
of bodies are applied to accidents ; or the names of accidents
to bodies : as in that propofition, " faith is infufed or in-
" fpired :" fmce nothing is either fufible, or infpirable, but
body : and the fame abfurdity the Cartefians fall into, when
they make extenfion to conftitute body, &;c. Secondly,
when the names of accidents inherent in external bodies are
attributed to accidents of our own bodies : as when it is
faid, that colour is in the objeft, found in the air, &c.
Thirdly, when the names of bodies are attributed to words,
or conceptions : as is done by thofe who affert that there
are univerfal things, that animal is a genus, &:c. Fourthly,
when the names of accidents are given to words, and propo-
fitions ; as when it is faid, that the definition is the nature
of the thing, or a peifon's command is his will. Fifthly,
when in lieu of proper words, metaphors and tropes are
made ufe of : as, the way leads to fuch a place, the pro-
verb fays this or that ; which though allowable on ordinary
occafions, yet is of mifchicvous confequence in reafoniiig and

ABU

fearching after tituh. Laftly, when names are taken at
random, and ufed without meaning, as tjanlubftantiation,
confubftantiation, etitelechia, &c.

He that can avoid thefe rocks will not cafily fall into an
abfurdity, except in a very long chain of reafoning, when he
may be apt to forget fome propofition before laid down.
Hobb. Lev. P. i. c. 5. p. 22.

ABSUS, the Egyptian lotus of Ray. See Cassia.

ABSYNTHIUM. See Absinthium.

ABSYRTIDES, or Apsyrtides, in Ancient Geography,
iflands in the Adriatic, on the coaft of Illyrlcum, mentioned
bv Sti-abo, Pliny, Mela, and Ptolemy, to wliich pertain
Apfyrth or Ahfyrtium, and Abforus or Ap/orus ; fo called ac-
cording to Strabo (tom. i. p. 484.), and Pliny, (torn. i.
p. 181.) from Abfyrtus, Medea's brother, who was flain
there. They are feparated by a channel, and are now called
Cherfo and Ofero.

ABSYRTUS, in Mylhology, the fon of CEta and Hyp-
fea, and brother of ^ledca. When Medea ran away
with Jafon, whom flie afiifted in carrying off the golden
fleece, flie was purfued by her father ; but in order to retard
his progrefs, flie tore Abfyrtus in pieces, and ilrewed his
limbs in the way.

ABTHANES, in H'ifiory, a title of honour anciently
ufed in Scotland, denoting the high order of thanes, or
king's minifters, in contradiftinftion to the lower, called
underthanes .

ABUBEKER, or Abu Becr, »". e. the father of the
girl or virgin, vi%. Ayeilia, who was of this defcription
when Mahomet married her, the firft caliph, and fuccelTor
of Mahomet. His original name was Abdulcaaba, the fer-
vant of the Caaba, denoting his piety ; which name was
changed by Mahomet on his convedion, into Abdallah, the
fervant of God ; and on the prophet's marriage with his
daughter, he afliimed the appellation of Abulekcr. He was
eminently ufeful to this impollor at the commencement of
his undertaking, as he vouched for his veracity in ever}- thing
he related concerning his revelations, and his nofturnal jour-
ney to heaven ; and veiy much exerted hinifelf in augment-
ing the number of his followers. On this account the pro-
phet gave him the furname of Al Seddik, which denotes
the faithful witnefs, and the appellation Atik, or preferved,
i. e. faved from hell-fire, thus intimating that he was one of
the eleft. At the time of Mahomet's death, two powerful
parties, called the Mohajerin and the Anfars, claimed the
right of nominating his fuccelTor. The former founded their
pretenfions on their having attended the prophet in his flight
to Medina, and declared themfelves in his favour before any
of the other Arabs joined him ; whilit the latter pleaded,
that they fupported him when he was expelled his native
city, and enabled him to funnount oppofilion, when he and
his followers were in a ftate of perfecution. At length,
however, by the interpofition of Omar, they concurred in
the eleftion of Abu Becr, A. D. 632. As many of the
Arabs had renounced their new religion, and returned to
paganifm, judaifm, or chriftianity, towards the clofe of Ma-
homet's life, and after his death, they were unwilling to pay
the cuftomaiy tribute which he exadled of his followers, and
made attempts for throwing off the yoke which he had im-
pofed upon them. Abu Beer's firft attention was engaged
in reducing thefe rebels, whom he defeated, and whofe
children he made flaves. This fervice was conducted by
Khaled, or Caled, an excellent general ; who afterwards by
his conduct and bravery conquered Syria, and greatly con-
tributed to the eftablilhment of the Mahometan religion and
policy. On the day, however, of the reduftion of Damaf-
cus, Abu Becr died, in the 1 3th year of the Hegira, hav-

ing

ABU

ir^ attained the age of 63, and reigned only two years nnj
three months. A little time before he expired he made his
will, and appointed Omar for his fuecefTor. He dictated it
to his fecrelary in the following terms : " In the name of
" the moft merciful God. This is the teftament of Ab-
" dallah Ebn Abu Kohafa, when he was in the lall hour
" of this world, and the firll of the next ; an hour in which
" the infidel fliall believe, the wicked perfon be affured of
" the reality of thofe things that he denied, and the liar
" fpeak the truth. I appoint Omar Ebn Al Khattab mv
" fuecefTor ; therefore hearken to him and obey him. If he
" aits right he will anfwer the opinion I have always enter-
" tainedofhim; if otherwife, he muft be accountable for
" his own conduit. My intention herein is good, but I
*' cannot forefee future events. However, thofe who do
" ill (liall herealterbe made fully fenfible of the confequences
" of their behaviour. Fare ye well, and may ye always be at-
" tended by the divine mercy and benedi6tion." Before he
expired, he prayed God to blefs the choice he had made ;
to infpire the Mo'lems with fentiraents of concord and unani-
mity ; to render their affairs profpei-ous and flourifliing ; and
to enable them to propagate the doftiines of the Koran in the
moft effeftual manner, as by the prophet Mahomet, in his
laft moments, they ha<l been moft ftri6tly enjoined. Among
other fayings of Abu Beer that are recorded, the following
are worthy of notice : " Good aftions are a guard againft
" the blows of adverfity ;" and " Death is the eafieft of all
" things after it, and the hardeft of all things before it."
Such was the liberality of his dilpofition, that on the Friday
of each week, he diftributed the refidue of his own and the
public money, after appropriatir.g a very fmall fum to his
own maintenance ; firit, to the moft worthy, and then to the
moft indigent, of the Moflems. Gibbon's Hift. vol. ix.
358. 8vo.

ABUCARAS, Theodore, was biftiop of Charrx^ or
Haran in Mefopotamia, and lived in the eighth centuiy. At
firft he adhered to the party of Photius, and in connexion
with Zachar)'-, bifliop of Chalcedon, undertook an embafty
to the emperor Lewis II. for the purpofe of prefenting
Photius's book againft pope Nicholas, and inducing him to
throw off the papal yoke. He afterwards abandoned the
intereft of Photius, and was reftored, after humiliating fub-
milTion, to his place in the council of Conftantinople, from
which he had been excluded. Several treatifes bearing the
name of Abuearas, written againft Jews, Mahometans, and
Heretics, have been coUefted by Gretzer, and publilhed in
4to. at Ingolftadt, in 1606. Another treatife by Abucaras,
intitlcd, De Un'wne ^ Incarnatione, was found by Mr. Ar-
nold in the Bodleian librarj-, and pubhftied at Paris in 1685,
in 8vo. Some have doubted whether Abucaras, the friend
of Photius, and the author of thefe treatifes, be the fame
perfon. Bayle.

ABUCATUIA, m lahyology, the name given by Marc-
grave to the Zeus gallus of Linna:us.

ABUCCO, Abocco, or Abocchi, a weight ufed in
the kingdom of Pegu. One abucco is twelve teccalis and a
half ; two abuccos make an agira, which is alfo called giro ;
two giri make half a biza ; and a biza weighs a hundred
teccalis ; that is, two pounds and five ounces the heavy
weight, or three pounds nine ounces light weight of
Venice.

ABUDHAHER, or Anu Thaher, fucceeded his bro-
ther Abufaid, in the 311th year of the Hegira, at the age
of eighteen, as chief of the feft of the Karmathians ; and
pioceeded with a large araiy to Baflbra, v.-hicli he tcok and
pillaged. The next year he intercepted and plundered a ca-
ravan returning from Mecca to Bagdad ; and having been

ABU

rcfufeJ tlic fovcreignty of BatTora, he pillaged Cufa in the
following year, and put many of its inhabitants to the fword.
He afterwards threatened Bagdad, but was obliged to re-
treat. However, in the jiOtli year of the Hegira, he
feized the towns of Raliaba and Karkifia in Mefopotamia.
In the 3 1 7th year, he laid wafte Mecca, plundered the pil-
grims and the inhabitants, killed 30,000, of whom 1700
were murdered within the walls of the Caaba ; and having pro-
faned this holy place, he carried off the black ilonc, which
remained in the cullody of the Karmathians for twentv-two
years ; but finding tliat the temple was ftill venerated and
refortcd to by pilgrims, they reftored it. Abudhaher ridi-
culed the Mahometan religion, and infulted its votaries ; re-
proaching them \yith the folly of calling the edifice at Mecc.i
God's houfe, whicii he was allowed to profane, without be-
ing deftroyed by the thunder of the Almighty. Six years
after thefe outrages he made a treaty with the Caliph Al
Radi, who granted him an annual tribute of i 20,000 dinars,
on condition of his permitting the pilgrims to pafs to Mecca
witliout moleftation. This chief rcride'd at Hajar in Vemama,
where he built a palace, and lived till tlie year of Chiift 953,
in the peaceable poffedion of a large territory. Baylc. Mod.
Un. Hift. vol. ii. p. 311, &c.

ABUJAAFARAL TABARI, an Imam of great
piety, as well as of very cxtenfive reading and erudition, was
born at Amu, orAmoI, the capital ofTabreftan, whence
his name, in the year of the Hegira 224; and though he
was a ftrenuous defender of the koran, he was cenfured at
Bagdad as a heretic or fliiite. His work, intitled, y// TariLh
Al Tabari, is held in high efteem, and confidered as the bafis
of all the other hiftories of the Moficms. What we now
have is only an abridgment of a much larger work. It be-
gan with the creation of the worid, and continued, accord-
ing to Abulfeda, to the year of the Hegira 302 ; or, as
others fay, to the time of the author's death, in the year
3T0. The Tarikh «vas trandatetl into Pcrfic and Turkifti,
and continued by different writers to the year of the Hegira
521. Mr. Oekley fays, that an impcrfeft MS. copy ot it,
in Arabic, is preferved in the Bodleian library at Oxford.
Mod. Un. Hilt. vol. ii. p. 309.
ABUKESB. SeeAsLANi.

ABULFARAGIUS, or Anut. Farai, orABULPi.A-
RAGius, Gregory, in Biography, fon to Aaron, a chriftian
phyfician, was born in 1226, in the city of Malatia, near
the fource of the Euplirates, in Armenia. He praftifed
phyfic with fuccefs, but was more diftinguiftied by his ftudy
of the Greek, Syriac, and Arabic languages, as well as phi-
lofophy and divinity. The commendations of his contem-
poraries are diftated in the ftyle of the higheft panegyric ;
and he is intitled, the king of the learned, the moft excel-
lent of thofe wiio excel, the example of his times, the phoe-
nix of his age, the glory of the v>ife, and the crown of the
virtuous. He wrote a hiftory in Arabic, divided into ten
dynafties, which is an epitome of univerfal hiftor)-, from the
creation of the world to his own time, and which does hon-
our to his memory. The parts relating to the Saracens^
Tartar Moguls, and tlie conquefts of Jenghis Khan, are the
moft valuable. It was publilhed v.'ith a Latin tranllation, in
two fmall quartos, at Oxford, in 1663, by Dr. Poeocke^
who annexed to it a brief continuation relating to the hif-
tory of the eaflern princes. He had, in 1650, publilhed an
extract from this work, intitlcd, " Specimen Hift. Ara-
bum," &c. Abulfaragins was ordained biftiop of Guha at
twenty years of age, by Ignatius, the patriarch of the Jaco-
bites ; and, about the year 1266, he was elected their pri-
mate in the eaft ; which dignity he po(fe(rcd till his death, in
12S6, which hajpcned at the time when he is faid to have

predicted.

ABU

prrJiflfil, an. I cxpecled it. Confiderinp; the age in which
he lived, it ir, nut woiulcrfiil that miracles were afcribed to
hini ; but it is iiccdlcfi to rccoixl them in this place. Abul-
firajjiiis wrote nbout ^o trails, befiJcs the hiftory above
mentioned, wliich are recited by Alfemaiiniis. The learned
Pococke vindicates him from the charjje of having re-
n >'.inced chrillianity. There was anoth;r Abulfaragiui, fur-
named Ahdalla Ebn Attiba, who died A. U. 1043. He
wn5 a Ncdorian monk, a L-arned man, and a philo'.opher.
He\rolc a commentary on the Old and New Teftament, in
Arabic ; he aUo explained the works of Ariftotle, and re-
proved the Neiloiian patiiarchs for their negleft of eccleliaf-
tic.il K*arnirg.

AUUL f'AZL, i.e. i\\i fat!:tr oi excellence, the title
which was piven to the fccretaiy and vi?ier of the Mogul
rmpcror Akbar. He was deemed the moil learned and
belt writer in the Ealb. He was murdered by order of Sul-
tan Sclim, on fufpicion of his having occafioiied a mifunder-
ftandinj between him and the emperor his father. His
death was much lamented by Akbar, and many others, who
had any regard for literature. He wrote a hiftory of the
Mo5;ul emperors, which he coininued to the 381(1 year of
Akhar's reign, A. D. 1594. His oflicial correfpondence
firmed three volumes, and was much eileemed. Frafer's
Jvuli Khan, p. 1 1.

ACULFEDA, Ifmael, prince of Hamah, a city of
Kvria, was born in the year of the Hegira 672, A. D. 1273,
and was the fixlh in lineal defcent from Ayub or Job, the
father of the famous Saladine. He was a lover of ftudy, and
particularly of geography, which may be interred from a
work, intitled, Cho:-afr.iijc & Maw;ualnahrs, h. e. Regio-
n im extra fluvium Oxum dcfcriptio, ex tabulis Abulfeda:
Ifmaelis, Principis Haniah. It v.as printed in London in
jfi^o, by our learned countrjMnan John Gi-rcvius, who has
added to the Arabic original a Latin tranllation, with a
preface, informing us that he confulted five MSS. At the
conchifion of this work it is faid to have been nnillied in the
721ft year of the Hegira, or A. D. 1321. The tables are
given in the order of tlie climates, with the degrees of longi-
tude and latitude Abulftda is faid to have difcovered the
true longitude of the Cafpian fea, concerning which Ptolemy
■was miitaken. A new edition of this work was publiftied at
Oxford in 1713', by M. Gagnier, in the third volume of
Hudfon's Ge^^rnphia velcris Scriptores Gneci minores : and
another at London, in 1732, fol. Abulfeda wrote other
works, which nianifefted his genei-al literature ; for he is
faid to have been acquainted with jurifprudence, phyiic,
philofophy, attrology, hiftor)-, and poetry, as well as geo-
graphy. His " General Hillor)'," from' the beginning of
the world to his own time, was continued to the year 730,
or A. D. 1329. He alfo wrote " A ftiort fyftem of the
" Mohammedan civil law ;" " A Treatife of Phyfic ;"
and lome poems. He is alfo funpofed to be the author of
the " Aftronosr.ical Tables," of which there is a copy in
the Piodleian library. His " Life of Mahomet," was pub-
liflied in Arabic and Latin, at Oxford in 1723; and his
trealir?of the " Life and Adions of Saladine," was printed,
with a I,atin tranflution, at Leyden, in 4732, fol.

Abulfeda was no lefs a military man, than ; fludent. He
ferved under his father in fcveral expeditions, and he was
p'efciit at the ftorming of Tripoli, A. D. 1289; and at the
capture of Acca or Ptckir;ais, A. D. 1291, as well as on
other octafions, when he difthiguilhcd himfclf, by his&ill and
valour. He died about t>.e 733d year of the Hegira, A D.
^.332- VvV are cautioned by the editors of the General D'c-
tionaiy from confounding Abidfcda with Ifmael, fumamed
Shakinfhah, the compiler alfo of a General Hiftor)^ which
I

ABU

is maftly tranfcrlbed virbatim from the work of that prince.
Gen. Dia.

AliULGHAZI, Bnyntur, khan of the Tartars, was born
in the city of Uigena, capital of the country of Kara/.m, in
the year of the Hegira 1014, A. D. 1605. He was de-
fcended both by his father's and mother's f.de, in a dired
line from Zingis Khan, or Jenghizkan. After experiencing
many misfortunes in early life, he became fovereign of Ka-
razm, in the year of the Hegira 1054, and having reigned
twenty years, and by his courage and conduft rendered him-
felf formidable to his neighbours, he refigned the throne to
his fon fome time before his death, in order to devote the re-
mainder of his life to the ftrvice of God. In his retreat he
wrote the famous genealogical hiftoiy of the TurJ^s, but be-
ing prevented by his death, in the year 1074 of the Hegira,
from finiftiing it, he left it in charge v/ith his fon and fucccf-
for to complete 't, which was done in two years aftirwaids.
It is written in the Mogul, or Turkiih language, aiid divid-
ed into nine parts : the two firft treat of the khans aid tribes
defcwidcd from Turk, the fon ot Japhet, to the time of Jen-
ghizkhan ; the third relates the life and aftions of that con-
queror ; the five next thofe of his fons and fuccffors in the
feveral parts of Tartaiy ; and the ninth treats of the khans
of Karazm to the death of the author. This hiftory v.-as
procured by Strahlenberg, while prifoner in Siberia, and has
been tranflated into Ruffian, German, French, and Englifh
As this book is one of the chief funds which afford materiaia
for the hiftory of the Turks and Tartars, it will not be im-
proper to mention the authority on which it is founded. The
grandfon of Jenghizkan, being defirous of prefcrving the
memory- of the Mogul tribes, and the fignal exploits of his
anceftors, fent a nobleman, fkilled in the Mogul language,
into Tartary, in order to coliecl materials for this purpofe.
At his return his memoirs were digefted, under his own in-
fpeclion and affiftance, into a work, which confifted of three
folio volumes, and was finiihed in the year of the Hegira
702. The firft volume is in the Library' at Paris, and was
tranflated by De la Croix, tlie fon, but not publilTied. It
was chiefly from this hiftory that Abulghazi extracted his
work, excepting that part which relates to the Ufheks of
Great Bukharia and Karazm. A French tranflation ap-
peared at Leyden in 1726, i2mo. Mod. L^n. Hift. v. iii.

P- 334-

ABUL OLA AHMED, one of the moft celebrated
of all the Arabian poets, was born at Maara, a town of
Syria, A. D. 973. He loft his fight by the fmall-pox, at
three years of age ; at forty-five he left off the ufe of animal
food, in conformity to the tenets of the Bramins, and alfo
that of eggs and milk, and lived only on vegetables. He
died in 1057. He was not efteemed by the orthodox, as a
found Mufiulman, for one of his fayings Was, " The chrif-
" tians wander here and there in their paths, and the maho-
" metans are entirely out of the way." Another of his
apothegms is, " The world is divided between two forts of
" perlons, of whom fome have fenfe without religion, others
" religion without fenfe." The infcription which he or-
dered for his tomb confirmed the iufpicions of his ortho-
doxy : " This crime did my father commit againft ir.e,
" but I have not committed the fame againft any." Gen.

Dia.

ABU MOSLEM, a governor of Khorafan in the fecor.d
century of the Hegira, who, A. D. 747, caufed the dig ■
nity of caliph to pafs from the race of the Ommiades to the
family of Abbas ; and who, in accomphfhing and maintain-
ing this revolution, is faid to have killed 600,000 perfont.
Notwithllandi'-.g the fervices which he had rendered to Ai-
manfuj-, this cahph, A. D. 759, ordered him to be private-

ABU

Ir alTafliiatcd, i'. fvime fay; or, as ollicrs report, to be
thrown into the I'igris. His character has been varioiifly
repreiented by diftcrent writers. Some fay, that he was a
fierce brutal foklicr ; and by others, he is dcfcrihed as dif-
creet and merciful, tiome extol his acquaintance with the
poets of the country, and with the moral precepts of his re-
ligion ; and others degrade his charafter as a glutton and
fenfualift. Bayle fays, that he was addicted to magic, and
of a feCt Hmilar to that of Spinoza. Of his wives .".e was fo
iealous, that he conlincd them in a caftle, to which none
bt f;des himfidf had accefs, and where they were fupplied
with provifions through the windows. Bayle. Mod. Un.
Hiil. vol. ii. p. 104, S:c.

ABUNA, among the Chripidn /irals, is tlie title or ap-
pcllalicm of a religious character.

The word, which is Arabic, is fometimes alfo written
ahouna, fometimes abiinnn, and by focie abiina, or tilurwa ;
it literJly denotes — our father, and is more particulaily ufed
for the arciibifhop or metropolitan of the Abylliniau
church. Fabr. Lux Evang. c. 45. Ludolf. Hiil. iLthiop.
lib. iii. c. 7.

ABUNDANCE. See Abundantia.

ABUNDANT Numbtrs, are thofe whofe aliquot parts
added tosrether, exceed the number itfclf whereof thev are
parts.

Thus the number 12 is abundant, its aliquot parts, I, 2,
3, 4, and ft, amounting to 16 — In oppofition to abundmit
numbers ftand deficient ones.

Abundant Notion, in Logic, is that which includes more
marks and charaftcriilics than are neceflaiy to diftinguifli it
from othei'S.

Thus, we may be faid to give an abundant notion of a
leftilinear triangle, when we deferibe it as a Ipace terminated
by three right lines, and containing three angles. Inalmuch
as'the number of its angles is d^iermined by that of/' .fides ;
fo that the bare mention of its three fides was fufficient to
have defined it.

ABUNDANTIA, in Mythology, a heatlien divinity, re-
prefented on ancient monuments under the figure of a woman
with a pleafing afpeft, crowned v.'ith garlands of flowers,
pouring all forts of fruit cut of a horn which llie holds in her
right hand, and fcattering grain with her left, taken pro-
mifcuoully from a Iheaf of corn. On a medal of Trajan, fhe
is reprefented with two cornucopiK.

ABUNOWAS, in ^w^ra/Zy, a celebrated Arabian poet,
who was born in the city of Bafra, in 762, left feveral works
coUefled by different perlbns, and died A. D. 810.

ABU OBEIDAH, one of the companions of Mahomet,
who was appointed by Abubeker to the fupreme command
in Syria, and afterwards fuperfeded by Caled, under whom
he ferved at the famous ficge of Damafcus. He reftraired
the violence of Caled on this occafion, and obtained !eue
for the citizens to capitulate, and for the chriftians to depart
with their effefts. Omar, on his aeceffion, reftored Abu
Obeidah to the chief command, and Caled fubmitted to
ferve under him. He took Baalbec, Emefla, and Jerufalem :
and afTuming the goveiTiment of northern Syria, he took
Aleppo and Antioch. Whilft he was purfuing his conqutfts
ill Paleftine, a grievous peltilence proved fatal to many of
the Mahometan officers, and alfo to Abu Obeidah, who
died A. D. G39, Hegira 18; which year was called the
ycni- nf dfftruHinn. The civil and moral virtues of this com-
inanritr aVe more dillinguiilied than his military talents ; but
he fucceeded in confequence of the imprellion made upon the
minds of his enemies by his clemenpy and good faith. Mod.
IJn. Hiit. vol. i. p. 215, &c.

ABUS, m Antitnt Geography, a river of Britain, formed
Vol. r.

A B Y

by the conniionce of the Ure, the Dcnvcnt, Trent, &C.
falling into the German fca between Yorkdiiie and Limoln-
fiilre, and forming the mouth of the Humbtr. Sec alf«
Asa.

ABU SAID, \n Hyhry, fultan of the Moguls, fucceed-
ed his father Aljatu, at the a^^rc of twelve, A. D. 1317.
He died in 133^), at Sultaiiia, wlierc he was crowned, and
which was the place of his ufual refidence. His valour wa»
fo dillinguHhed, that he was called Jiahndrr, or bniic Hav-
ing fallen in love with the <laugliter of Emir Juban, whr»
was married to tlie Emir Haflan, and who was deemed the
grealeft beauty in Afia ; and the father refufing to roiifcnl
to her divorce from her liufband, Abu Said conceived a pre-
judice againil him, which terminated in Ills death. Hail'an,
however, aeeiuiefced in a divqrce, and fent her to the fultan,
over whom (he obtained a great afccndancy. Abu Said wai
the lall monarch of the race of Jengliizkhan ; and after liis
death, tiiat happened in the year in which Tamerlane was
born, the em])ire was difmemliercd, and became a fcenc of
bipod and defolation. Gen. Diet.

ABUSE, compounded of ci, from, and n/iis, tiff, an ir-
regular ule of a thing, or the introducing of fomcthing con-
trary to the true intention thereof.

In Grammar, to apply a word aliifivrly, or in an afmfn-e
fenfe, is to mifapply, or per\'ert its meaning.

A permutation of benefices, without the confent of the
bifhop, is deemed abufive, and confcqucnlly null.

ABUSINA. See Abersperg.

ABU TEMAM, in Biography, fprung from an Arabian
tribe, furnamed Tay, and confidered as the prince of the Ara-
bian poets, was born in the 190th year of the Hegira, A. D-
805, or as others fay, in 188, or 192 Heg. /. e. A. 1>.
803, or 807 ; or in 172 Heg. /'. c. A. D. 788, at Jafem, a
little town iituated between Damafcus and Tiberias. He
was educated in Eg\'pt, and died at Mawfel, near the fpot
where ancient Ninivcii ftood, in the 2311! year of the Hegira,
A. D 84J, or in 228 or 232 Heg. /. r. A. D. 842, or
846. His poetical compofitions were collefted with thofe
of others, into a volum.e, and intitled y// //(jm<7/?;^. Having
written an elegy on the death of another, the following eulo-
gium was given Abu Temam :

The man whofe virtues thus afcend the (]<y.

Prais'd (mighty Bard) by thee, can never die. Gen. Difl.

ABUTILON, in Botany, the trivial name of feveral
fpecies of the Sida. See alfo Hibiscus, Melochia, Mal-
VA and Nap;ea.

ABUTTALS, among Law-writers, denote the but-
tings or boundings of a piece of land ; expreffing on what
other lands, highways, or the like, the feveral extremes
thereof do abut, or tenninate. In this fenfe the word is
fometimes alfo written corruptly abhuttah or alu'.ah. —
Ii o'd furveys, we often find them called headlands.
Abuttals amount to the fame with what Latin writer? call
capita ; Marculfufi, frontes ; the French, boutes. In Coke,
the plaintiff is faid to fail in his abuttals, that is, in felling
forth how the land is bounded.

ABUTUA, in Geography, a kingdom in the fouth of
Africa, to the north of the country of the HottenloU, iind
adjoining to the province of Oiiila, which is faid to be rich
in gold mines.

ABYDENUS, in Biography, a celebrated hiftorian, author
of the hiftor)' of the Chaldeans and .Affyrianf, of whiffh onK-
forae fragments have been Iranfmitttd to us by Eufcbiiif. in hj*
Praparatio Evangelica, Cyrillus, and Syncelluf ; which hmx
been illuilrated with feveral notes by Scahger in his boolc
De Eraendatione Temporura.

I. ABYDOK. ^'

A B Y

ABYDON. Se<" Amvdos.

AliYDOS, in yfndrnt Gn^raphy, a town built by the
Milclians, in Afia, o.i the Heulkshint, where, according
to Le Bi-un, (Voyage au l-erant.) the ftrcight is only half
a mile, others fay two miles wiilc, oppofite to Seftos, on
the European fide ; both of which, according to fome gco-
jfraphcrs, are now called the Dardanelles; but others
fay, that Seftos was much nearer the Proponlis than Aby-
dos; ar.dStrabo, (1. xiii. p. 460.) reckons 3750 pacts from
the port of Abydos to that of Seftos. Abydos was fituated
midway between Lampfacus and lliiim, and was famous for
Xerxcs's bridge, mentioned by Herodotuf, 1. vii. c. 34. ;
and by Lucan, Pharf. lib. ii. v. 672. ; alfo for the loves of
Leandcr and Hero, recorded by Mufxus and others, and
selebrated for its oyftcrs by Virgil a;id Ennius. The inha-
bitants were cflemi.iate, and alfo addided, according to
Stephanas, (de Urbibus, vol. i. p. 9.) to calumny ; whence
the proverb, Ne tcmere ^-Ibytlum ailcare, when we would
caution againft danger. This c!ty was fonncrly very
important, a; it commanded the llraits, and m.adc thofe
who were pofTefied of it maftero of the communication be-
tween die Euxine fea and the Archipelago. It was de-
fended by its inhabitants with' great courage and obftinacy
againft the attack of Philip of Macedon, but at length fur-
rendered amidft the horrors of almoft univcrfal (laughter,
A. M. 3S03. Ant. J. C. 201. Fifty of the citizens were
compelled to take an oath, in the prefence of all the inhabi-
tants, that when they fiw the enemy mafter of the inward
wall, they would kill the women and children, fet fire to the
gailies laden with their effecls, and throw into the fea all
their gold and filver ; and then, in the prefence of the priefts,
they took another oath, either to conquer or die fword in
hand. After the furrender of the city, this dreadful refolu-
tion was executed to fuch an extent, that the individuals of
ever)' family killed one another, and none cfcaped but thofe
who by violent reftraint were prevented from dellroying
themfclves. Abydos was taken by the Turks, through the
treachery- of the governor's daughter, in the year 1330.

ABYDUS, an inland town of Thebais in Upper
Egypt, between Ptolcmais and Diofpolis Parva, towards
Syene, fam.ous for the palace of Memnon and the mag-
nificent temple of Ofiris built by Ifmandes, into which
no fingers or dancers were allowed to enter. Here the
Eg)'ptians revered the oracle of the God Befa, which was
one of the moll ancient oracles of Egypt, and fam.ous
even in the time of the emperor Conftantius. Strabo, vol.
ii. p. 1 167 — 1169. Pliny, 1. v. c. 9. Stephanus (Urb.
vol. i. p. 9.) fay, that it was a colony of Milefians. The
city, reduced to a village, under the empire af-Auguftus,
prefents in our time nothing but a heap of ruins without in-
habitants. About three miles v.-eft of the Nile, in the place,
as Pococke (Defcript. Eaft. p. 83.) conjeftures, where the
prefcnt village El-Berbi is fituated, but to the weft of thefe
ruins is ftill found the celebrated monum.ent of Ifmandes.
The entrance is under a portico, 60 feet high, and fupported
by two rows of maffy columns. This leads into a temple
300 ftct long, and 145 wide. There are feveral other fpa-
cious apartment?, which communicate with one another,
both by paffages and ftair-cafes. The folidity of the edifice,
the huge maftes of marble which compofe it, and the hiero-
glyphics tliat cover the walls, evidently tellify that it is a
work of the ancient Egyptians. In the multitude of hviman
figures, which arc intermixed with thofe of other animals,
there may be difcovered women fuckling their children, ai^
men prelenling ofTerings to Venus. Here arc alfo the divi-
nities of India, fuch as they are reprefented in the temples of
Indoftan. Six hons' heads, placed on the two fides of the

A B Y

temple, fer\e as fpouts to carry off the water. The ftair-
cafe is formed of Hones incrufted in the wall, and proje£l)ng
fix feet from it, fo that being fupported only at one end,
they appear to be fufpended in the air. The wr.lls, roof,
and columns of this ftupendous edifice, have luffered nothing
from the injuries of time ; and its folidity will refill the na-
tural decay of many ages. Except the coloflal figures
whofe heads ferve as an ornament to the capitals of the co-
lumns, and which are fculptured in relievo, the other hiero-
gl)-phics, which cover the infide, are carved in ftone. To
the left of the great building, there is another much fmaller,
with an altar at the bottom of it, which wis probably the
fancluarj- of the temple of Ofiris. Savary has minutely de-
fcribed this llrciElure in his Letters on Egypt, vol. ii.
p. 5, &c.

ABYLA, one of Herculcs's pillars, on the African fide,
called by the Spaniards Sierra de las Mcnas, over againft
Calpe, in Spai^i, the other pillar. Thefe were fuppofed to
have been formerly joined, but fcparatcdby Hercules, in or-
der to make an entrance into the fea, now called the Medi-
terranean. This, according to Pliny, (Prooem. 1. 3.) was
the hmit of the labours of Hercules. The Hebrew 2y ol>>
denotes a thick cloud, and alfo a column, and m.ight there-
fore be apphed to ?. high mountain, or to the pillar of Her-
cules. See Bochart. Open torn. i. p. 731 — 733. Edit.
Villem. S-!e the other authors Strabo, Mela, and Ptolemy,
cited by Cellarius, torn. ii. p. 136.

Aeyla. SccAbila.

ABYO, or Abuvo, vH- Geography, one of the Philip-
piME iflands, in the Eaft Indies, between Mindanao and
Luzon, where the Spaniai-ds have a fort. E. long. 122° 15'.
N. lat. 10^ o'.

ABYSS, in a genenJ fenfe, denotes fomething profound,
and, as it were, bottomlcfs.

The word is originally Greek, a'S-jo-To: ; compounded
of the privative a, and ^lo-s-oj, bottom ; q. d. ivithaut a
bottom.

Abyss, in a more particular fenfe, denotes a deep m.afs,
or fund of waters.

In this fenfe the word is particularly ufed, in the Septua-
gint, for the water which God created at the beginning
with the earth, wliich encompaiTcd it round, and which oiu-
tranflators render by the deep. Thus it is that d.xrknefs is
faid to have been on the face of the abyfs.

Abyss is alfo ufed for an immenfe cavern in the earth,
where God collefted all thofe waters on the third day ; which,
in our verfion is rendered the deep, and elfewhcre, the great
deep.

Dr. Woodward has made feveral obler%'ations and conjec-
tures with reference to this great abyfs, in his Natur;J
Hiftory of the Earth. He afferts, that there is a vaft col-
leftion of waters eoclofed in the bowels of the eailh ; con-
ftituting a huge orb in the interior or central parts of it ;
and over the fiuface of this v.-ater he fuppofes the terreftrial
ftrata to be expanded. This, according to him, is what
Mofes calls the great deep, and what nioft authors render the
great alyfs.

The water of this vaft abyfs, he alleges, communicates
with that of the ocean, by mea. 3 of certain hiatufes, or
chafms pafling betwixt it and the bottom of the ocean : and
this and the abyfs he fuppofes to have one common cejitre,
around which the water cf both is placed ; but fo that the
ordinary furface of the abyfs is not level with that of the
ocean, nor at fo great a diftaace from the centre, as the
other, it being, fur the moft part, rellrained and deprefled
by the ftrata of earth lying upon it ; but wherever thofe
ftrata are broken, or are fo lax and porous, that water

caa

A B Y

can pervade them, there the water of the abyla afcends, fills
tip all the ckftj and fifFurcs into wliich it can get adiiiit-
taiice ; and ijturates all the interlliccs and pores of the
earth, ftone, or other matter, all rouuu the globe, quite up
to the level of the ocean.

The exifteiice of au abyfs, or receptacle of fubtcrrancous
waters, is controverted by Camenirius, (DiflT. Taur. Act.
Erud. Sup. torn. vi. p. 24.) and defended by ]Dr. Wood-
ward, chiefly by two arguments ; the firft, drawn from the
vail quantity of water, v.hioh covered the earth in the time
of the deluge ; the fecond, from the confideration of earth-
quakes, which he endeavours to (hew are occafioned by the
violence of the waters in tliis abyfs. A great part of the
tcrreftrial globe has been frequently fliaken at the fame
moment ; which argues, that the waters, which were the
occifion thereof, were co-extenJed with that part of the
globe. There are even inllances of univerfal earthquakes ;
which (hew that the wluile abyis mull have been agitated :
for fo general an efiecl muft have been produced by as ge-
neral a caufe ; and that caufe can be nothing but the fub-
tcrrancous abyfs.

This abyls is no ufelefs thing ; when once ellabhlhed, it
ferves to folve feveral difficult phenomena ; as the origin
of Iprings and rivers ; the level maintained in tlie furface of
diiferent feas, and their not overflowing their banks. To
the eflluvia emitted from this abyfs fome even attribute all
thi diveriities of weather, and changes in our atmofphere ;
and, what is more, the origin of every thing in the earth,
or in its furface. Dr. Woodward has an epifl;le on the
ccconomy of the great a'jyls hid in the bowels of the earth,
and the perpetual communication between it and the atmof-
phere. Ray, ( Phylico-Theological Difcourfes, p. 76. ed.
4.) and other authors, ancient as well as modern, fuppofe
a communication between the Cafpian fea and the ocean,
by means ot a fubteiTanean abyfs : and to this they attribute
it, that the Cafpian does not overflow, notwithilanding the
great number of large rivers it receives ; of vv-hich Kempfer
reckons above fifty, in the compafs of lixty miles. But the
daily evaporation may be iufficient for this purpofc. See
Evaporation, Sea, and Spring. — The difllrent argu-
ments concerning this fubjedl, are collected by Cock-
burn in his Inquiry into the truth and certainty of the
Mofaic deluge, p. 271. See Deluge, Earth, and Vol-
cano.

Abyss is alfo ufed to denote the cavernous belly of a hol-
low MOUNTAIN.

In which fenfe Mr. Tournefort deferibes the abyfs of
mount Ararat. This, and fiimlar gulphs, or precipices in
mountains, M. Buffon, and others, fuppofe to be the cra-
ters of extinguilhcd volcanoes.

Abyss is alfo ufed to denote hell. In which fenfe the
word is fynonymous with what is othenvife called Bara-
thrum, Erebus, and Tartarus : in the Euglilh Bible^ the
bottnmh'fs pit.

Abyss is more particularly ufed, in AnUquily, to denote
the temple of Prnierpine.

It was thus called, on account of the immenfe fund of
gold and riches depofitcd there ; iome fay hid under
giound.

Abyss is alfo ufed in Heraldry, to denote the centre of an
EJi-ulcheon.

lu which fenfe, a thing is fald to be borne in abyfs, en
al'/fine, when placed in the middle of the (hicld, clear from
any other bearing : he bears azure, fleur de lys, in abyfs.
Colombiere.

Abyss is alfo ufed metaphorically, for a thing not to be

4

A B Y

known or comprehended, on account of its immenfe extent,

or profundity.

In which lenfe it coincideswilh fecrct.iiifcnitablcincomprc-
lienllble,&c. — Thejudgmentsof God arc called 3 great abyfi.
Abyss, in Hydrography, is fynonymous with gulph.
ABYSSINIA, or, as it is fometimcs called AsASSlA,
Haiiessinia, and Upper, ^Ethiopia,' in Geography and
Hijlory, an empire of Africa, fiiuatcd in the Torrid
Zone, and moilly comprehended between 8^ and 16'' N.
hit. and 34-' and 40'- E. long. As to the etymology of
this name, fome have fought for it in the fruitful fpots
amougll rugged deferts .vith which the country abounds, and
which the Egyptians call abajfcs ; and others have traced it
to Ahaxa, the capital of the kingdom of Adel, whof: mo-
uarchs were once mailers of Abyflinia ; but Ludolfus, and
many who have adopted his opinion, aCpribc the origin of
tlie appellation to the Arabic Hab,Jh, which has the fame
meaning with the Latin Convene, and lignifies a number ot
diftincl people meeting together accidentally in one place.
This etymology, it is alleged, correfponds to the maimer in
which this country was originally inhabited. For the ap-
pellation of I'reller or Prelhyter John's empire, which the
Portuguefe gave to this countiy, there is no fulhcient toun-
datlon, as tliere was no perfon of this denomination that was
ever known in Abyffinia. See Prester John. — The ima*
ginary hmits of this countr)' have been erroneoufly extended
by ancient geographers iar beyond the equinoctial hnc, and
its real boundaries have been in later times veiy much re-
duced by the invafion of a barbarous people, denominated
Gallas, of whom we (hall give an account under that ar-
ticle. It is at prcicnt bouiirled on the N. by the kingciom
ot Sennaar, on the E. and N. E. by the Red Sea, on the
S. by the Gallas, and a vail chain of mountains extending
with little interruption from 34^' to 44 '^ E. long, and be-
tween 8" and 9° N. lat. ; and on the S. E. by the kingdom
of Adel, and on the W. by the Nile, and tome adjacent pro-
vinces. But its boundaries have futlered fo many irrup-
tions and encroachmente, that they are not ealily afcertained.
At the time of Lobo's milfion, in 1624, it extended from
the Red Sea to the kingdom of Congo, and from Egypt to
the Indian Sea, containing forty provinces. At Maluah,
j. e. on the coail of tlie Red Sea, fays Mr. Bruce, begins
an imaginary divlilon of Ahylfinia, into two parts; the firlt
is called Tigrc, between the Red Sea and the river Tacarze;
the fecond is Amhara, between that river and the Nile,
weitward, where it bounds the Galla. But this divifion rc-
fpecls language, rather than territory ; and it it, in
neither view of it, fulliciently precife and determinate. The
• provinces now comprehended under the em|)irc of AbylTinia
are the following ; viz. Masuah ; Tigre'; Sire' ; Samen ;
Wai.dubba; IjEGiiMnER, bordering upon Angot, which is
almoll wholly conquered by the Gallas ; Amhara ; and be-
tween the rivers ( jelhen and Samba, a lov.', uuhealthy, but fer-
tile province, called Walaka; and to the S. of this the Upper
Shoa ; GojAM ; Damot; Maitsha; the province ot the
Agows; Dembea on the fouthof Gondar, and Woggora a
fmall province on the call, whicli are altogether fown with
wheat, and are the granaries o( Abyirinla ; and to the fouth ot
Dembea, Kuara. There are many other fmall provinces
which are occafionally annexed, and fometimcs feparated,
fuch as Guefgue to the eail of Kuara ; Waldubba, between
the rivers Guangue and Angrab ; Tzegade and W'alkayt on
the weft of Waldubba ; Abergale and Selawa, near Be-
gemder ; Temben, Dobas, Giannamora, Bur, and Engana,
in the neighbourhood of ligre, Sec. Such was the llate
of tlie country at the time when Mr. Bruce vifitedit. Thefe

Li 2 proviocel

A B Y

|Mrovincf3 form one empire, lubjodl to a monarchy, liei-oJiiaiT
in one Limily, but clcdivc in ttuit line, and licfpotic ; of whicU
the eapital was fonncrly AxuM, but is now Gondar.

The furface of this country is gcncmlly rujjged and
pinuntainous ; it abounds with ibrclls and nioi-aHcs ; and it
i« .ilfo interfperfcd with many fertile vaU'.cs and plains, that
are adipted both to pafturc and to tillage. The rivers of
Abyillnia, which are numerous and large, contribute very
much to lis fertility. Bcfides the Nile, which has its
foorce iu Gccfli, an elevattJ dillrid-t of this country, there
are alfo the Tacazzf', theKiBBEE, or as the Portuguefe
call it, Zmt'i;, which lies indeed beyond the extent of
Abyflinia, as it has been above afligned, the Mareb, the
Hoax or H AWASH, the Coror, which riles in Angot, and
ti.'ipties itfclf into the Tacaz/c, the Angueali and Lidda,
which form branches of the March, the Andona, which
rifes near the fource of the Tacazze, is continued under
the name of the Hanazo, through the kingdom of Dawaro,
and difcharges itfelf near the bay of Zeyla, the Bafhilo,
I.oha, Gcihen, Samba, Jema, Roma, Belo, Raliad, and
Dender, which riiing in provinces bordering on the Nile,
empty themfclvcs into that river ; the Angrab, Tukoor,
and Gtiangtie, which flow into the Tacazze, &c. The
principal coUeiflion of water in this country, is the lake of
I'z ASA, or, as it is generally called, the lake or lea of Dem-
bea. The climate of Abyflinia, though, like other parts
of the torrid zone, it was fonnerly thought to be uninhabit-
able, is not only tolerable, but in general temperate and
healthy. In this refpeft, however, the uneven furface of
the country expofes different fituations to the effects of heat
and cold, of drynefs and moifture, and of a free circulation
or a ftagnation of the atmofphere in very various degrees.
On the mountains, and in the higher parts of the countti',
the (ky is clear and ferenc, the air is cool and refrelhing, and
the people are healthy and fprightly ; whilil thoie who live
in fome of the vallies, in the vicinity of marfhes, and m fandy
deferts, cannot but experience the pernicious influence of
tjcceffive heat, and of amoift, ftagnant, and fuffocating air :
fo that the climate depends upon foil and fituation as much
almoft as upo;i the latitude ; and therefore no defcriptionoi
it will equally fuit the feveral provinces. Mr. Bruce (Tra-
vels, vol. iii. p. 662.) obferves, that on the higheft moun-
tain of the ridge called Lamalmon, the thermometer flood
at 32° in the depth. of winter, the wind being N. W. clear
and cold, but attended only with hoar froft. This, he
adds, Tanilhed into dew aftera quarter of an hour's fun ; nor
did he ever fee any fign of congelation upon the water upon
the top of tf.Nt, or any other hill. ' The barometer ftood at
!9° 9' at noon of the fame day, and the therm, v.-as
at 78°. He obferved haii to lie for three hours in the
forenoon on the mountains of Amid Amid. From an
examination of Mr. Bnice's rcgilter- of the barometer
a.;d thei-mometer, &c. kept at Gondar, from February
19, 1770, to May 31, 1771, it appears, that the greateft
height of the barometer was 22° 1 1' 9", on April 29, at
6{ M. the therm, being ^9'', arid wind S. The leaft height
was 20° 1 1' 5", March 29, at 2iN. therm. 75^, wind E.
The gr^atell height of the thermometer was 91°, April
19, at 12 N.— Wind W. N. W. The leaft height was
54'^, July 7, at 12 N. barom. 21=6' 7", wind AV. The
rainy feafon commences in April or the beginning of May,
wflen the fun becomes vertical, and ends in September. The
raitis genendly ceaf.- about the 8th of September; a fickly
feafon follows till they begin again, about the 20th of Oc-
tober ; they then continue conilant, but moderate, till the
«th of November. All epidemic difeafes ceafe with the end

A B Y

of thefe rains. In order to avoid the inconveniences tliat
attend the overflowing of their rivers during this i'eafon, as
well as on account of the greater f.dubrity of elevated fitua-
tions, the Abyflinians have built many of their towjis and
villages on the mountains. Their houfcs are generally very-
mean, confining only of one ilory, and conilrucled with
ihaw and laths, earth and lime, though there are feme of
ftone, and better materials. It is a miilaken notion, how-
ever, that they livj in tents, and not in houfes. In a climate
like that of Abyffmia, fubjecl to fcorehing weathe.r for lis
months, and to deluges of rain, ftonns of wind, thunder
and lightning, and hurricanes, fuch as are unknown ia
Europe, for the other fix, it is not probable that they
iliould chufe to live in tents, after having known how t'»
build fuch cities as Axum. In many of the tov/ns and vil-
lages, the houfes are feparated by hedges, wh'.ch being al-
ways green and intermixed with flowers and fruit-trees, at
certain diftances, afford an agreeable profpecl, and contri-
bKte alfo to their falubrity. Notwithilanding every caution,
the AbylTmian climnte, m.ore eipecially in particular iitua-
tions, expofes the inhabitants to a variety of difeafes. They
are fubjeft to violent fevers, which commonly prove fat;J
on the third day. Thofe who furvive to the fifth day oftea
recover, merely by drinking cold water, and by repeatedly
throwing cold water upon them in their beds. The bark
is the moil effeclual remedy ; which in critical cafes, (fays
Mr. Bruce, vol. iii. p. ^4.) ihould be frequently repeated
in fmall dofes, and perfect abftinence obferved, unlefs from
copious draughts of cold water. Another common difeafe
in Abyiilnia, is the tertian fever, vvhich is in no refpetl dif-
ferent from our tertian, and is fuccefsfully treated in the
fame manner. All fevers terminate in intermittents, and if
they continue long, in dyfenteries, which are always tedi-
ous, and very frequently mortal. Bark and ipecacuanha,
in fmall quantities, water, and fruit not over-ripe, have
been found the moft effccTtua! rcrr.edies. The dyfentery,
commencing with a conilant diarrhcca, is feldom cured, if
it begins with the rainy feafon ; olherwife fm.all dofes of
ipecacuanha either remove it, or change it into an inter-
m.ittent fever, which yields to the bark. Another endemial
difeafe is called hanzeer, the hogs or the fwine, and is a fwelling
of the glands of the throat, and under the arms, which by
inefl^eftual attempts for producing fuppuration, and opening
the tumors, becomes a running fore, and relembles the evil.
In connedlion with this diforder, we may mention thofe
fvvellings, to which the whole body is fubjecf, and particu-
larly incident to the arms, thighs, and legs, fometimes ac-
companied with ulcers in the nofe and mouth, which deface
the Imoothnels of the Ikin, and which on this account are
much dreaded by the Abyfiinians. The tv/o lift difeafes
fometimes yielded to mercurials ; but the laft is fpecdily and
completely cured by antimonials. Another complaint af-
flifts thofe who are in the habit of drinking ftagnant water.
It is called Farenteit, or the worm of Pharaoh, and appears
in all parts of the body, but moft frequently in the legs and
arms. It is a worm with a fmall black head and a hooked
beak, of a whitilli colour, and a white body of a filkv tex-
ture, refembling a fmall tendon. The natives feize it by
th.e head and wind it gently round a piece of filk, or a
bird's feather, and thu5 by degrees they extradl it without
any inconvenience or permanent fear. Mr. Bruce fuffered
much from this complaint, and the breaking of the worm
in the operation of extrafting it. The moft terrible of all
the difeafes of this climate is the Elephantiasis. The
cicuta, mercurv', and tar-water, were unfuccefsfully tried in
this complaint : the greateft benefit was derived trom whey

made

A B Y

A B Y

ir.nJe of cow's milk. To tlie alternation of icorcliing heat well as the wild hoar, is dtcmed unclean, ard not Hf-d as
and ch.lliiitr cold, thin cloathiiig, the iilc of ilagnant putrid food. To the amplKblous kind wc may riAr the irmcu.'il,
water for four months, and other fuch caufos, tlicfc dif- -- ' ' ' • ■ ■ <- i^ic
eafes may he partly, if not wholly, afcrihcd. The fmall-
pox was introduced into Ahyffiiiia at the time of the fici'-e
of iN'Iucca, about the year 356, and the Abyffiniau army
was the firil vifiim to it. The difeafes and other incon-
veniences to which the Abyifuiians are fubjeft from the na-
ture of their climate, are in fome degree counterbalanced
by fubftantial advantages, if they would avail themfclves of
tliem by th^'ir induftry and adivity. Their foil, though in
many places thinly Ipread, is rendered fertile and produc-
tive by their rains and rivers. Wherever it can be tilled and

well u-atered, it yields very large crops of wheat, barley, proceeded with' moon-light nights to the fout'h-we'iL
millet, and other grain. The inhabitanti have two and Bruce faw no fparrows, magpies, nor bats; uo.- maiiy w.--
often three havvcfts in the year; and where they have a fup- ter-fowl, nor any geefe, except the golden gcxjfj or goofe
ply of water, they may fow in all feafons ; many of their of the Nile, which is common in every part of Africa f but
trees and plants retain their verdure, and yield fruit or there are fnipes in the mar/hes. The locusts of this couutiy
flowers throughout the year ; the well fide of a tree blof- are very dcftruftive ; they have alio a fpecies of ants, that
foms firfl, and bears fiuit, then the fouth fide, next the are injurious : but from their bees they derive .i rich fupply.
north fide, and laft of all the eaft fide goes througli the fame Of their vipers and ferpents we fhall take notice under the
piocefs towards the beginning of_the rainy feafon. Their articles Cerastes and Boa. For a peculiar fly, fee

fo

and hippopotamus, and the watcr-li-«ard, culled asguec by
the natives, and !)y the Italians candivcrbcrn. Of the vaA
variety of iilh with which their lakes and rivers teem, we
fliall only mention the torpedo and the binny. Anioutrd
the birds, we might enumerate tlvc eagle, hawk, and many
of the vulture kind ; the oiirich, llie (Urk, the WAALiA.aud
many other fpecics of pigeons wh.ich are birds of palTagc, tha
EnKoOM, the Anou-H ANNUS, the Moroc, or honey bird,
&c. The Iwallows that are known in Europc,.nppear in paifage
there when they take tiieir flight from licnce. In the idand
of Mafuah, they lighted, and tarried two days, and tlica
" ■ ' Mr.

rivers abound with various kinds of fidi ; and their pallures
are covered with flocks and herds ; and yet for want of ap-
plication and exertion, notwithllanding the almoll fpon-
taneous produftions of nature which their countiy aflords
them, they are in general poor and wretched. Thouo'h
they have plenty of wheat, and fome of excellent quality

TsALTSALYA.

The inhabitants of Abyfllnia arc Chriftians, Jews, Maho-
metans, and Pagans. The Chriftians are tho£e of the
Abylfinian church, of whom we fhall give fome account in
the next article. — The Jews have been fettled in this coun-
try from time immemorial. Of tlufe fome have been'volun-

the chief grain they ufe is that called Teff. They have tar)- profelytes to cjiriftianily ; others have been compclkd

grafs in abundance, but they negleil to make hay of it ; and to embrace t'le profcffion of it, in order to avoid perfecution

■' '' hey are obliged to fupply this defcil by feeding and to enjoy the benefits of manufacture and commtrce ;

: with barley, or fome other grain. Notwilh- and thofe that remain Jews have been, for the moll part.

therefore tl:
their cattle

Handing the plenty, and frequent return of theii^ crops, they forced to rtfide in the inacceffible and mountainous parts of
are fonietimes reduced almoil to famine, either by the de- the country ; and even here they retain the ancient dillinc-
vaftations of the locufts or grafshoppers, which infeft the tion of Cardites and Tahnndills, with invincible pertinacity.
country, or by the more deflruiftive ravages of their own Bcfides thefe two feels, there is a third fort of them, (fays
armies, and thofe of their enemies. They cultivate the Ludolf, 1. i. c. 14. p. 73.) v/ho inhabit the Abyfliniaa
vine, peach, pomegranate, ingar-cane, almonds, citrons, and frontiers, between them and the CaflVes, who dwell along
oranges ; and they have many roots and herbs, which grow the Nile. Thefe are fuj)pofed to be defcended cither from
fpontaneoufly ; and their foil, if properly managed, would thofe whom the kings of Affyria and Babylon carried away
produce many more. However, they make little wine ; captive, or from thofe who were difperfed over the world,
but content themfelves with the liquor w'hlch they draw from or were fold by Titus Vefpafian, after the dellruftion of Je-
the fugar-cane, and their honey, which is excellent and rufalem. They were never incorporated with the ori-
abundant. They have alfo the cofiee-tree, and a plant ginal Jews that came hither, as tradition fays, with Meni-
called Ensete, which produces an eatable nouridiing fruit, leek, the fon cf Solompn, but were looked upon as aliens.
The country alfo produces many other plants an',1 fru'ts, ' .. . ^. . . „ ..

that are adapted both for dOmeilic and medicinal ufes : fuch
as the KoLQj/ALL, Papyrus, Wanzey, Balessan,
WooGiNoos, Ctjsso, SvssA, Ergett, Sena, Carda-
MOM, and Ginger. Here is alio plenty of cotton,
which grows on flirubs, like the Indian. Flowers in
a rich variety adorn the banks of their rivers, aid en-
circle their houfes ; fome of which are common with
us, and others unknown in Europe. Their foreils likcwife

being ciUed Salaxa, /. e. llrangers or exiles. They reta.ii
their Hebrew bible in the corrupt Talmudic dialtft, and
their fynagogue-worlhip. — The M.-'licmctans are reckoned
to amount to about one third part of the inhabitants t.f
Abyfllnia, and are every where intermixed with the Chrif-
tians. Some of them apply to agriculture ; but the riciicfl
and moil profperous are the fadors, wiio, fince the AbylTi-
nians have been deprived of their fea-poits on the Red Sea
by the Turks, have, by favour of the MulTulmanf, cn-
abound with trees of various defcriptions, particularly the grofled t'liat trade very much to themfelves. — The Pagans

Rack, Baobab, Cedar, Sycamore, &c. This coun-
try produces a great number of animals, both doineilic and
wild. Amongll the former we may enumerate horfes, fome
of which are of a very fine breed, mules, aifcs, camels,
dromedaries, oxen, cows, iheep, and goats ; and thefe con-
ftitute the principal wealth of the inhabitants. Amongll
the wild animals we may reckon the antelope, the bufFaloe,
the wild boar, the jackall, the elephant, the rhinoceros, the
lion, the leopard, the hyasna, the lynx, apes and baboons,
which are veiy deflruiSlive to the fields of millet, as well as
the common rats ; the zecora or wild mule, and the wild afs;
tjie jerboa, the fcnnec, alhkoko, hare, &c, The hare, as

are chiefly the Gallas ; befides fome others who are dif-
perfed through feveral of the provinces of the Abyflinian
empire. Amidll this variety of nations, there mull be fup-
pofed a correfponding variety of language, difpofition, cuf-
toms-, and government. The Jews fpeak a kind of corrupt
Hebrew. The IVloors ufe their own Arabic in an impure
ftate. The dialeifil of the court is that of Amhara ; that
uf Tigre', however, approaches ncareH to tiic old Ethio-
pic, which is called Lefhone Geez, or the learned lan-
guage, and is ftill ufed, not only in all their literary and re-
ligious books, but alfo in the king's letters patent, aod all
their records. See fpccimens in Brace's Travels, vol. i.

3 P- 4H»

A B Y

p. 424, &c. With If ffard to arts and fcienrcs, and general
literature, the Abyffimans are commonly very uninformed
an ' likely to continue fo, not only from tlie lonn of their
goremmcnt and natural indolence, liiit as long as they are
in a great degree fxluded from iiitercourfe with nations
that are better inflrufted than themfeWcs.

As to their perfons, the AbyfTmiins are, in general, tall
and well made ; their feature.; arc duly proportioned, tlicir
eyes large, and of a fpnrkliiig black colour, their nofes
nither high than Rm, their lips finall, and thtir teeth ex-
tremely white and handfome. With refpert to their natural
temper, they arc faid to b-.- good-humourcl, mild, and pla-
cable ; unlefb we except thoie of Tigrc, who, according to
the accounts of the Jefuits, not indeed always to be cre-
dited, are of a fickle, cruel, treacherous, and vindiftive dif-
pofition. In their common conduft, they are fober and tem-
perate. They have both a capacity, and an inclination for
acquiring knowledge, but have hitherto wanted the necefTar^'
means. To religion, or rather to fnperftition and ceremonial
obfervances, they are much inclined, and deference to their
priefts is c.mlidered by them as one of their firft duties. But
inured as they are to war and fccnes of blood, and to feed-
ing on niw, and even living fiefh, they cannot avoid contracting
an obduracy of temper, and remaining in a ftate of barbarity.

The drefs of perfons of quality, is a long fine veil either
of filk or cotton, tied about the middle with a rich fcarf.
Tlie common people have only a pair of cotton drav>-crs,
and a kind of fcarf, or piece of the fame linen with which
they cover the reft of tlieir body. In fome parts of the
eountr)', more efpccially near the coaR, and in the adjacent
provinces, men and women have no kind of covering. In-
deed, their drefs is fuited to the chmate, fo that the cloth
which covers their bodies, and their drawers, are made fo
wide and long, as to admit as much air as poffible. The
habit of the women, particularly of the fuperior clafs, is
formed of the richelt filks, garnilhed, according to their
rank, with trinkets and jewels, images, and relics of vari-
ous kinds. They arc allowed to ajjpear in public, and to
converfe freely with the men, without any of thofereftriftions
to which the Tiirkifh women are commonly fubjeft. The
women of fuperior conditii)n are not very guarded in their
conduft, but thofe of inferior rank are more faithful to their
hufbands ; and they alfo lubmit to the meaner and more la-
borious offices of domeftic life. It is their bufinefs to grind
com for the family, which they perform dailv by means of
hand-mills. Every kind of intercourfe (fays Mr. Bruce, vol. iii.
p. 304. ) is permitted with abfolute fi'eedom. In this particular
they refemble the Cynics of old, of whom it was faid: " Omnia
" qtu ndBacchum et Fenerem perlinuerintin publico facere."T\\<:y
bear children, and arc delivered with little pain and inconveni-
ence. Although we read from the Jefuits, continues this author,
a great deal about marriage and polygamy, yet there is no-
thing which may be averred more truly, than that there is
no fuch thing as marriage in AbylTinia, unlefs it be that
which is contracted by mutual confent, without other form,
fubfifting only till diffolved by diircnt of one or other, and to
be renewed or repeated as often as it is agreeable to both
parties ; who, when they pleafe, cohabit together as man and
wife, after having been divorced, and had children by others,
or whether they have been married, or had children by
others or not. Upon feparation they divide the children.
The eldeft fon falls to the mother's firft choice, and the
eldeft daughter to the father. If, after the firft eleftion,
the remaining number be unequal, the reft are divided by
lot. There is no fuch diftinftion as legitimate and illeo-iti-
mate children from the king to the beggar. The king in his
marriage ufes no other ceremony than this; he fends an

A B Y

Azage, or officer, to the houfe where the lady lives, wJia
annomiccs to her, that it is the king's pleafurc (lie (Tiould
inftantly remove to (he palace. She then drefl'es herfelf in
tiic bcft manner, and obeys. From this time an apartment
is affigned her in the palace, and a houfe is given to her
wherever elfc fhe chufes. When he makes her Iteghc, the
form fecms to be the neareft refcmblance to marriage : for,
whether it be in the court, or in the camp, he ordei-s one of
his judges to pronounce in his prefence, that he, the king,
has chofen his hand-maid, naming her, for his queen ; upon
which the rrowri is put upon her head ; but fne is not
anointed. Whatever be the forms of marriage in this coun-
tiy, and fuel; are entered into at a veiy early period, when
the males are ten, and the females younger ; polygamy is
allowed, divorces frequently occur, and adulter)- is com-
penfated bv an eafv fine. Their funerals are attended with
many fuperftitious ceremonies. The relations, friends, and
a number of hired mourners, bewail the dead for many days
together, with fhrieks and lamentations, clapping of hands,
fmiting their faces and breafts, and uttering a variety of af-
fecting expreffions in the moft doleful tone. They exprefs
their concern at hearing of the death of a relation or friend, not
only by violent exclamations, but by throwing themfelves on
the ground with fuch force as to do themfelves great injur)-.
Whenever a near relation dies, ever)- woman in Abyffinia,
witli the nail of her little finger, which fhe leaves long on
pui-pofe, cuts the flcin of both her temples, about the fize
of a fixpence ; and, therefore, you fee a wound, or fear, on
every fair face in the eountr)- ; and in the di-y fcafon, when
the camp is out, from the lofs of friends, they are feldom
allowed to heal till peace and the army return with the rains.
The food of the Abyfiinians is plain and coarfe. Their
bread, which is indifferently prepared, of wheat, peafe,
millet, tefF, or any other grain, is made into flat cakes or
apas, which ferve for difhes, plates, and fpoons, a-,d even
for napkins and table-cloths. They walh their hands before
the)- fit down to their meals, and this is the more neceffar)',
as they touch every thing they eat. The rich have their
viftuals cut for them, and conveyed to their mouths by-
pages, who attend them. All their fauces are rich, greafy,
and highly feafoncd. They never drink till they have
finiflied their meals, alleging an old rule, that you muft
plant firft and then water. When the tables are cleared,
they indulge themfelves freely in circulating the glafs. The
common liquor is hydromel, made of five or fix parts of wa-
ter to one o! honey, with a handful or two of parched bar-
ley meal, which caufes it to ferment ; to which they add
fome chips of a wood, called fardo, in order to take off the
lulcious tafte of the honey, and to make it palatable and
wliolefomc. At a feaft, which Mr. Bruce attended, there
was excellent red wine, brought from Karoota, which is the
wine country, good new brandy, hydromel, and a kind of
beer, called bouza ; both the lafl of which were fermented
with herbs or leaves of trees, and thus made very heady and
intoxicating. The Abyfiinians neither eat nor drink with
flrangers ; and they break, or purify, every vefTel which has
been ufed by them. This cuftom they feem to have de-
rived from the Egyptians. The Abyfiinians eat their-flefli
raw ; and they have a method of obtaining it, which at the
firft report feems to be hardly credible ; but, upon farther
enquir)', is an undoubted faft. In the neighbourhood of
Axum, Mr. Bruce met with fome travellers, who were
driving a cow before them. He afterwards found that they
cut rteaks from the higher part of the buttock ; they
then clofed the wound by drawing the fitin over it, and ap-
plied to it a cataplafm of clay. They then drove the ani-
mal before them, in order to fupply them aod their com-
panions

A B Y

panions with another meal. At their feafts they have a bull
or cow, one or more, accordiig to the iiumbL'r of guefts,
which are tied at the door of th.; houle in which they are
a(lc:r.bled. After h'ttuig out a f.".v drons of Wood from
the dow-Iap under the thro.it, they cut tiuouv^h tlie (kin on
each fide of the fpine, and (Irippiug olf the hide of the ani-
nial half way down the nbs, and a.s far as the buttock, they
cut out the folid fle(h from the buttocks in fquare pieces,
and the .roaring of the animal, durint^ th's favagc operation,
is a fignal for tlie guefts to feat themil-lvcs at tabic. Tl-.efe
pieces arc ferved up on round cakes of unleavened bread uiadc
of tefi". Three or four of thefe cakes of a whiter fort are
placed uppcniioll, and defigned for food ; and four or five
of a blacker kind are under the others, and ferve the mailer
to wipe his fingers upon, and afterwards the fervant eats
them as br.'ad at his dinner. As no perfon of any fadiion
feeds hlmfclf, or touches his own meat, the women take
the (leak, whilll the motion of the fihrej is 'diilindly feen,
cut it into fmal! pieces, well pepper them, and wrap them
up in the te(r bread, like fo many cartridges. In this form
they arc put into the mouths of the gucils, who, like birds
fed by tlicir dam, arc opening their moutlis to receive the
jnorfsls that are reidy as faft as they can be prepared for them.
The females, after having llius fupplied the male guefts, eat
till they are fatisficd, and then all drink together. The
viclim is Hill bleeding, writhing, and roaring at the door.
When the animal has bhd to death, the cannibals tear the
remaining flefh from the thighs with their teeth like dogs.
Such, in brief, is the defcription of an Abyffinian feaft.
For a fuller account, fee Bruce's Travels, vol. iii. p.
302, &c.

The offering of meat and drink in Abyffinia, is an alTur-
ance that your life is not in danger ; and it is alfo the con-
ftant praftice to wa(h the feet of thofe that come from
Cairo, and who are underdood to have been pilgrims at
Jerufalem. Many of the cuftoms in Abyfimia refemble
thofe of the ancient Perfians and Egyptians. For particu-
lar inftanccs, we refer to Bruce's Travels, vol. iii. p.
268 — 294.

The capital puni(hments in AbyfTmia arc the crofs,hanging,
flaying alive, (toning to death, and plucking out of the eyes.
The deid bodies of criminals (lain for treafon, murder, and
violence on the highway at certain times, are feldom buried.
The ftreets of Gondar are llrewcd with pieces of their dead
carcafes, which bring the wild beails, ar.d particularly the
hyxnas, in multitudes into tlie city as foon as it becomes
dark, fo that it is hardly poffible to walk about with fafcty
in the night ; and the dogs bring pieces of human bodies
into the houfes and yards that they may devour them in
greater fecurlty.

The AbylTmians have few manufaftures, though their
country produces, or is capable of producing, ample ma-
terials for them. Before the difcovcry of the Cape of Good
Hope, and before the Tarks took poiTelTion of the ports of
the Red Sea, there was a confiderable intercourfe of a com-
mercial kin.1 betU'Cen AbylTmia with its adjacent provinces
and various parts of Arabia and of Intlia. Mafuah was then a
harbour of great refort, and had a large quantity of exports
brought to it from an extenfive tra£l of mountainous coun-
try behind it, in all ages vei-y inhofpitable, and almoft inac-
ce(rible to (Irangers. Gold and ivory, elephants, and biif-
falo's' hide,^ ; and, above all, flavcs, of much greater value,
made the principal articles of exportation from this port.
There is ftill a confiderable trade earned on from this place ;
but the hand of power reftnilns and difco\n-nc;es every exer-
tion, and the interference of it renders ever)- kind of proper-
ty infecurc. The goods imported from the Arabian fide aje

A B Y

blue cotton. Sunt cloths, and cochineal ditto, fine cloth
from different markets in Lidia, cotton unfpuii in bales, Ve-
netian beads, cryftal, drinking and looking glaffes, and
crude antimony. Old copper h alfo a gainful article, and
imported in large quantities. To the wcrt.vard of Oond.ir
they wear bracelets of it ; and near the count-y of Gongas
and Cuba it has been fold, weight for wciglit witli gold.
The BaniiUH were once the principal merchants of this
port ; but their number is now reduced to lix, and they
Icarcely gain a fubfillcnce, as filverfmiths, by making ear-
rings, awd other ornaments for the women on the continent,
and alKiying of gold. The fame coin is current here as on
the Arabian fide, and it is valued by the Venetian fctjuin.
But glafs-bcads, called Contaria, of all kinds and colours,
pcrfeft snA broken, pafj for fmall money, and arc called, in
tiieir language, Borjooke. The Venetian fenuin is = 2'^
pataka ; the pataka, or imperial dollar=28 harj or dahab ;
the harf=4. di.vani, or 120 grains of beads ; the diwani
= iokibecr; and the kibeer = 3 borjooke, or grains. They
hsve no gold in Abyfliaia ; and in lieu of fmall money, they
frequently make ufe of rock fait as white as fnow, and as
hard as flone. This fait is alfo applied to the fame purpofes
as common fait. With this mineral fait they purchafe
pepper, fpiccs, and filk (lu(rs, which are brought to them
by the Indians in their ports on the Red Sea. Cardamoms,
ginger, aloes, myrrh, calfia, civet, ebony-wood, ivor)', wax,
honey, cotton, and hnen of various forts and colours, may
be procured from Abydmia ; to which may be added, fugar,
hemp, flax, and excellent wines, if tlK'y had the art and in-
duftry to prepare them. The mcrchandifes above fpecified
are more for foreign than for inland trade. The emeralds
of this country have been eftimated at a high value. Their
domellic commerce confiUs chiefly in fait, honey, buckwheat,
grey-pea(e, citrons, oranges, lemons, and other provifions,
with fruits and herbage nccefiary for the fupport of life.
Antimony, large needles, goat (l<ins, coarfe Icidars, razors,
and ttecls for Itiiking fire, as well as bugles and beads, are
articles of barter in feveral of the provinces. Thofe places
which the Abyflinian merchants moflly frequent are Arabia
Felix and the Indies, particularly Goa, Cambayc, Bengal,
and Sumatra. With regard to their ports on the Red Sea^
to which foreign merchants commonly refort, the mod con-
fiderable are thofe of Sua K em, Jidda, Mo cha,I.oheia,M A-
suAH, Suez, ^Vv.AE, and Mett. Tl.e trade of the AbylTi-
nians by land is inconfiderable. There are, however, bands of
them who arrive yearly in Egypt, particularly at Cairo, laden
with gold-dull, which they bring to barter for the merchandifea
of that countiy, or of Europe. Thefe cafilas, or caravans,
formed of a few perfons wiio affociate for their mutual
faiety, are commonly three or four months in thair route,
traverfing fortfts and mountains, in order to exchange their
gold for necefTarie.-! for their families, and return immediate--
ly with the grcated part of their merchandife on their backs.
One of the principal branches of the Abyflinian commerce
is that of their flaves, who are highly clleemcd in India and'
Aiabia ; and who, entrufled by the merchants, as their
faftors, and found worthy of confidence, obtain their liberty
and a fuitable rccompcnce.

The government of Abylfmia has been always monarch:^
cal and defpotic, and it has esercifod an abfolute dominion
over the lives, hbertics, and fortunes of its fubjecis, and
iincontroulable autliority in all matters ccckfiallic.al as well
as civil. This empire has ever been dclVtutc of written
laws to reftrain the royal power, or tc fecure the property
and privileges of the fubjcft ; fo that the will of the fuvc-
reisMi is the unlvcifal law. The princes of Abylfinia claim
dei'ceut from Menikk, the fon of Solomon, by the queen

A B Y

of RhcSa. Accord!no;ly it is maintained by many learned
men, and in confonniiy to the Abydinian recoidri, of which
Mr. Bruce has availed himLlf, that Shcba, or rather Saba,
A7.ab, or A/.aba, fijrnifying Soulk, was the Tame gountry
with Abyflinia, whatever might have been its extent ; and
that it was the kingdom of queen Catidace, wliofc eunuch
or prime miniller, came to wordiip at Jenifalem ; and who,
on his return homewards, was baptifed by Tlnlip the dea-
con, and from whom the Abyfliiiians acknowledge they af-
terwards received the gofpel. See Aas viii. 2;— 38. This
countr)-, fay Phny (1. vi. c. 29.),andStrabo, (1. xvi. xvii. t.2.
p. II 16. 1 175. ) was commonly governed by queens; and, it is
faid, that Candace was a name common to them all, as Pharaoh
was to the kings of Egypt ; the term Candace importing
their fovereign authority. The queen cf Sheba or Saba,
having heard of Solomon's fame, determined to pay him a
vifit at fenifalem. Slie was there converted, as the Aby-
fliulans fav, from heathenifm to the Jcwilh religion, and had
a fon by' Solomon, who was named Meniltk. With this
ion flie returned to lier own countr)-, and after fome time
fent him back to Jerufalem to be inftrufted by his father.
Having been anointed and crowned king of Ethiopia in the
temple of Jerufalem ; and having alfo, at his inauguration,
alTnmed the name of David, he returned to A?.ab with a
cokniy of Jews, among whom were many learned doftors
of the law, and particularly one of each tribe, from whom
the prefent Umbares, or fiipreme judges, three of whom al-
ways attend the king, are tliought to be defcended. Aza-
lias, the fon of Zadok, the prieft, was one of the number,
and he brought with him a Hebrew copy of the law, which
was committed to his euftody as high prieft, and which was
burnt with the church ofAxum in the Mooriih war of
Adel. By the laft act of the queen of Saba's reign, Ihe
fettled the mode of fuccefiion in her country for tl;e future ;
enacting, ift. That the crown Ihould be hereditar,- in the
family of Solomon for ever: 2dly, That, after her, no
woman ftiould be capable of wearing that crown, or being
queen, but that it Ihoiild dcfcend to the heir-male, however
diftant ; a'lid that thefe two articles fliould be confidered as
fundamental and immutable laws of the kingdom : and 3dly,
That the heirs-male of the royal houfe (hould always be fcnt
prifoners to a high mountain, where they were to continue
till their death, or till the fuccefnon (liould open to them.
The cuftom, however, of having women for fovereigns pre-
vailed among the neighbouring kingdoms till the laft cen-
tuiy, and may poffibly prevail in fome of them to this day.
It obtained in Nubia, and the kingdom of Meroc, till the
time of Auguftus, when Petronius, his lieutenant, fubdued
the country, and took and deftroyed Napata, the rcfidence of
queenCandace;and this queen,- Mr. Bruce (v. i. p. 477.) fup-
pflfes, was fucceedcd by the Candace above mentioned. What-
ever was the origin of the laft regulation, it feems to have
been ncceflar)- in order to prevent the confufion that muft
have arifen from various claimants, in a country where poly-
gamy was allowed, and where the heirs to it muft have been
numerous ; as tlie crown was to be hereditary in one family,
but cleftrve as to the perfon. Whilft they are confined in
a good climate, on a high mountain, they are taught mere-
ly to read and write, and the ftate allows to the amount of
30,000 dollars for their maintenance. However, they are
often feverely treated, and in times of tumult, put to death
upon the flighteft mifinforination. It is anotlier rule of the
fociety in AbyflTinia, that no perfon that is maimed (liaU
inherit the crown. The queen of Saba having eftablifticd
•the laws above recited, snd reigned forty years, died in the
year 986 bet-jre Clirift ; and v.as fucceeded by her fon Me-
uilek, or McLilehcch, i. e. Another frlf; whofe pollerity,

A B Y

according to the annals of Abyflinia, have ever flnce reign-
ed. The device of thefe kings is a lion pafTant, proper up-
on a field gules, and their motto, " Mo Anhafa am Nizilet
" Solomon am h\^nile Juilc :" i. e. " The lion of the race
" of Solomon and tribe of Jiidah hath overcome." Inftcvid
of the liun pafiant, the Portuguefe miffionaries introduced
a hon rampant, in order, as it is fuppofed, to put a crofs
into the paw of tliis Jewilh lion ; but the lion pali'mt is re-
ftored. In virtue of this noble defcent, the AbyfTinian mo-
narchs alTume the title of Nagulh, and are always addrelTid
either by that of Naguftia Nagalh.t, king cf kings, or by
that of Natzeghe, equivalent to the Frencli Sire. They
are approached with adoration ; when feated in council, they
are concealed ; they are attended by a fplcndid retinue ;
their camp is extenfive and magnificent, and t'ney wear a
very rich and coftly crown. The imperial revenue chiefly
arifes from the four following fources : tlie tribute paid
by thofe provinces which have gold mines, or whicli
trade with the Caffrcs and other neighbouring nations,
which amounts to about 5 or 6coo ounces per annum ; the
fecond fource of revenue is, the fale of all the great places
in the empire, the annual tax on holding them and their ap-
pendages, the amount of which from two provinces, one the
largeft, and the other the richeft, is about 75,000 French
livres : the third fource is, a tenth, levied eveiy third year,
upon all the cattle in the empire : the 4th fource is, a duty
laid upon every loom of cotton clotli, which, if it belongs
to a Chriftian, pays one piece of cloth, and if to a Maho-
metan, a piece of eight per annum. Tins revenue, the
whole amount of which is not eafily ettimated, falls far
(liort of what might be expefted from an empire of which
the fovereign is tlie fole proprietor and ditpofer.

The military force of Abyffinia has besn greatly exag-
gerated. Mr. Bruce does not imagine iJ.at any king of
this country' ever commanded 40,000 effedlive men at any
time, or upon any caufe whatever, exclufively of his houfe-
hold troop";, which are about 8000 infantiy ; 2coo of thefe
laft cany 'firelocks, and fupply the place of archers ; bows
having been laid aude for near a hundred years, and being
now ufed only by the Waito Shangalla, and fome other in-
confiderable barbarous nations. As they are in a ftate of
almoft continual war, either among themfelves, or with their
neighbours, the face of thecountry is ftrewed with dead bodies ;
and as they bury neither their friends nor enemies, and their
beafts of burthen are perpetually dying under the load of
baggage which they carry, the army is followed by an im-
menie number of birds and beafts of prey, who devour the
putrefying carcafes when fcattered over the ground ; and the
furrounding trees are covered with them ; and they form a
kind of dark canopy over the marching army.

The AbyfTinianr, in computing time, have continued the
life of the folar year. Thirty days conftitute their montk,
to which they add five days and a quarter, and thus they
complete their year. The five days are added to the month
ofAuguft, and to every fourth year they add a fixth day.
They begin their year with the 29th or 30th of Augiift,
/. e. 'the kalends of September : the 29th of Auguft being
the firft of their month MaCcaram. The common epoch
which the Abyflinians ufe is from the creation of the world,
and they reckon 5500 years from the creation to the birth
of Chrift, rejecting the odd eight years of the Greeks, who
make this period 5508 years. Thcv have alfo many other
epochs, fiich as from the council of Nice and Ephefus. In
their ecclefiaftical computations they make ufe of the golden
number and epac>. Tlie firft ufe of epafts amongit them
was not earlier, according to Scaligc-, than the time of Dio-
clci'ian ; but Mr. Bruce obfen-«s, (vol. iii. p. 3 J 2.) that

this

A B y

this is contrary to the pofitive evicknce of Abyfilnian hif-
tory, which fays exprefsly, that thf cpaft was invented by
Demetrius of Akxandria. This Demetrius was the 1 2th
patriarch of Alexandria, and elefted about the 190th year
of Chrill, or in the reign of Severus, and confcquently long
before the time of Dioclefian. The AbyfTmians have another
mode of computing time, that is peculiar to themfelves.
They read the whole of the evangelifts, in order, every year
in their churches ; and when they fpcak of an event, they
write or fay, it happened in the days of Matthew ; that h,
in the firft quarter of th.e year, whilil they were reading the
gofpcl of St. Matthew in their churches. They compute
the time of the day in a very arbitrary manner. Tiie twi-
light being very fliort, is feleCted for the beginning of their
day ; this they call Nagge, which comprehends the duration
of twilight. Mcfet expreffes the moment wlien the evening
twilight begins. Mid-day is called Kater, which iigiiifies
culmination. All tlie other parts of time they defcribe, in
converfation, by pointing at the place in the heavens where
the fun was, when the event, which they are defcribing,
happened. After all, nothing can be more inaccurate than
the Abyfiinian calculations. This is a circumftance which
renders the hiftorical records of Abyffinia very confufed and
indeterminate. Bcfides, the earlier part of their hiftoiy is,
on account of its remotenefs, involved in a confiderable de-
gree of obfcurity and uncertainty ; and in later ages, the
accefs into this country was difficult, and the intercourfc
with it very rare and limited. For that kind of knowledge
of this countiy, in modern times, which is attended with any
degree of certainty, we are firft indebted to the difcoveries
of the Portuguefe. But the zeal of their mifiionaries to
convert the Abyffinians to the Catholic faith, involved them
in difficulties and pcrfecution, and barred the accefs of other
Europeans, for a confiderable tim.e, into this country. The
firft hiftory of AbyfTinia was written by Alvarez, who ac-
companied an ambaifador fent thither by Emanuel king of
Portugal ; and it was printed at Eifbon in 1540. It is pre-
ferved in Purchas's coUcftion. Father Bermudes, who alfo
vifited the country, has given fome account of it, intermixed
with much fable. His relation was printed in 1565. Father
Pais, who refided there for a confiderable time, and died
there in 1622, wrote an account, which extends from 1556
to his death. Father Almeyda, who travelled through the
inland provinces ; Father Mendcz, who refided there ten
years ; and Father Jerome Lobo, who arrived in Abyffinia
in 1624, refided there nine years, and travelled above
<58,ooo miles in this empire, and whofe hiilory was publidied
by M. le Grand at Paris I7;^8, have given diftinft details of
the provinces, produce, cuftonis, and inhabitants of Abyf-
finia. From theie feveral fources, and the letters ot the
Abyffinian miffioraries to the college of Jefuits at Lifoon,
Father Balthazar Tcllez derived materials for his general
hiftory, which was publifhed in the Portuguefe language in
1660. Poncet, a phyfician, who was fent by the French
conful at Cairo into Abyffinia, to cure the emperor of an
obftinate difeafe, in 169S, publifhed an account of the rch-
gion, laws, and cuftom.s of the Abyffinians ; but his per-
fonal obfervation was very reftridted, and of courfe he muft
have depended veiy much upon the report of thofe with
whom he converfcd. The Jefuit writers have concurred to
degrade and vilify him without fufficient reafon ; hut his ac-
count is in general juft and credible, and is held in good
eftimation. The hiftor.y of Ludolph, in folio, is the moft
comprehenfive of any that had been written at liis time. It
is chiefly compiled from the Portuguefe authors above men-
tioned ; though he relies too implicitly in many inftances on
the authority of the Abbot Oregon/, vvhofc learning, capa-
Vot. I.

A B Y

city, and integrity, did not warrant the confidi-nce repofed
in liim. Ludolph's liiftoiy was decried by ihc Jtfuitj. M.
Maillet, in his dtfcription of Egypt, hath given fomc ac-
count of this country, hut it is more inc:dontal than dircift and
circumftantial. But the moft comprehenfive account of
Abyffinia is that publilhed by James Biucc, Elq. F. K. ,S.
in 5 vols. 410. in 1790, after a reiidcnce of fcvcral yean, in
the country. His work is intitled, " Tnivcls to difeovt r
" tlie Source of the Nile, in the years 1768, 1769, 1770,
" |77ti 1772. and 1773." Of this work wc have frttly
availed ouri'clve.; in the compilation of tliis article.

The clironicle of Axum, which is tlie molt ancient rcpo-
fitory of the antiquities of the ct-untry, and which, accord-
ing to Mr. Bruce, is a book efttemed llie firft in aull-.ority
after the facred Scriptures, f.iy:i, that Ahyflinia iiad iicvtr
been inhabited till 1808 years before Chrift ; and 200 ytar»
after that, or in the year 1 600 before Clirift, it was laid
waftc by a flood, and the face of the country was much
changed and deformed, fo that it was denominated at that
time Oure Miilre, or the country bid waftc ; or, a« it ii
called in Scripture itfelf, a bnd which the waters and llood*
liad fpoiled.

It is the concurrent opinion of many authors, ancient and
modern, that Abyfiinia, called alfo Ethiopia, was firft
peopled by the early defcendants of Cufii, the tldtft fon of
Ham : and it is a ti-adition among the Abyffinians, which
they pretend to have had from time immemorial, that alniolt
immediately after the flood, Cu(h, grandfon of Noah, with
his family, pafllug through Atbara from the low country of
Eg}-pt, then without inhabitants, came to ttic ridge of
mountains, which ftill feparates the flat country of Atbara
from the m.ore mountainous high land of Abyffinia. Their
tradition fays, that, terrified by the late dreadful event, the
flood ftill recent in their memories, and apprehending a fi-
milar calamity, they chofe for their habitation caves in the
fides of thefe mountains, rather than truft themfelves again
on the plain. This apprehenfion would be naturally in-
creafed by the tropical rains of this climate. In tlK-fe
mountains, therefore, the Cufhi'.es firft refided ; and as they
became more populous, they extended their borders to thofe
other mountains that were near them, fprcading the induftry
and arts which they cultivated, as well towards the eaftcrn
as the weftern ocean, but never venturing to quit their ftatid
refidcnce on the mountains, and to fettle at a diftance from
them in the plains and vallics. The Abyffinian tradition
adds, that they built the city of Axum at an early period,
in the days of Abraham. Soon afterwards, without utter-
ly forfaking their firft habitations in the mountains, they
puflied their colony to Atbara, and built another city called
Meroc. This they did, fays Mr. Bruce, partly to avoid a
fly, named Zi MB, which was very troubhfome both to thim
and to their cattle. From thence tliey advanced to Thebes ;
and, by degrees, as they proceeded, they acquired a great-.r
degree of courage, and of confidence in their own fecurily.
Whilft they were thus cftabliftiing themftWcs in the cer.tral
and northern terntory of the country, their brethren to the
fovith were not idle. Having extended thcmlclves along the
mountains that ru;i parallel to the Arabian gulph towardd
Saba, or Azabo, fignifying foy.lh, which was an appro-
priate appellation, becaufe it was on tlie fouth coaft of the
Arabian gulph, and the firft land to the fo\itiiward that
bounded the African continent, they enjoyed the perfumes
and aromatics of the eaft, myrrh, frankincenfe, and caffia.
The Cufhites in tmvelling fouihward towards the moun-
tains of Sofala, fuppoted by Mr. Bruce to be the Ophir
of Scri]")ture, found mines of gold and fiber, which became
gradually ample fources of commerce and wealth. But be-

M ing

A B Y

tnjr full/ occupkJ, in confequcncc c.t ihc csfcovfncs they
lin.l miiJo, tlicy needed cnrriers to dii'pcrfe their commodi-
tiji to other province* <4" the continent. TlidV they found
in n nation thst exillcd in tlicir nv;ig!-.bourhoocl ;, and tlicy
have been diftinj'iilhcd by ih.- r'ppsUalion of Shepherds.
In this cmploynunt they gradnal!y advanced to great wcaltli
and pjwcr. Their numbei-3 incrcafcd, and the cv.tcnt of
their territory was cnl.irjjcd. Whilft tliey extended llicni-
felves along the Indian ocean, and afterwards along the Red
Sea, for the convenience of trade ; the principal feat ot their
refidcnce and power was the level part oi Africa, between the
northern tropic and the mountains of Abyffinia, a countiy
now called /?.'/.i. This country reaches from Mafuah along
the coall to Suakem ; then turning weftward, continues in
that direilion, having tho Nile on the foiith, the tropic ot
Cancer on the north, with the dcfarts of Selima and Libya
on the well. The next diltricT; belonging to thefe people
was Mfroe, now called Atbara. A third dillritl, now
called D.riia, is a fmall plain lying between the river Mareb
on the eaU, and Atbara on the well. But the moll noble
hnd warlike of the Shepherds were thofe who poflcfTed the
mountains of Habab, reaching from the vicinity of Mafuah
to Suakem, which diftrid they ftill inhabit. The building
of Carthage iucrcafed their employment as carriers in the
intercourfes of commerce, and of courfe their power. The
enmity of the Shepherds to the Egyptians originated prin-
cipally in religious differences ; for the latter .varlhipped the
animals which the former ufed as food ; and the Shepherds
wo.-fhipped the heavenly bodies, whilft the Egyptians prac-
tifcd the grolFeft kind of idolatry.

Befides thelc Cufhites and Sheplierds, who were the firft
fettlei^ in Abyffinia, the above cited Chronicle of Axum
mentions, among other particulars, that about the year
1400 before Chrill, it was taken poircfTion of by a variety of
eople, fpeaking different languages, who, as they were in
riendihip with the Agaazi, or Shepherds, polTefllng the
high country of Tigre, came and fat down befide them in a
peaceable manner, each occupying the lands that were be-
fore him. This fettleraent the chronicle calls ^ngaba, the
entry and eftablifhment of thefe nations, which finiihcd the
peopling of Abyflirsia. Tradition farther favs, that they
came from Paleftine. Many approved writers are of opinion,
that fome of the early defcendants of Ciiih, firft fettled in
the land bordering on the eailern fide of the Red Sea, mov-
ing gradually from thence to tlie fouthern extremity of Ara-
bia ; and afterwards, by means of the eafy paffage over the
ilraiglsts of Babelmandeb, tranfplanted themfelvcs into
Ethiopia. This migration, according to Eufebius, hap-
pened whilft the Ifraelites were in Egvot ; but Syncellus
places it in the time of the Judges. Thefe Arabian Cufliites
were cp.Ued Abafeni, and formed a great part of the Sabx-
ans or Homerites ; and the Ethiopians were diftinguithed
by the fame name, agreed in manv particulars with the
others, and were believed by moil of the Afiatic nations in
Jofephus's time, to have had the fame origin. Of thefe new
fettlers, Mr. Bruce (vol. i. p. 399.) gives a fomewhat dif-
ferent account. When Jofhua had pafTed the Jordan, and
deftroyed Jericho, a panic feized the whole people of Syria
and Paleiline. Thefe petty ftates, many in number, and
diverfiSed by language, fought for fafety from the conqueror
by flight or emigration. Having alrea-Jy carried on a com-
mercial intercourfe with the Shepherds of Abyffinia and
Atbara, they direfted their views to them for protefiion, and
ebtained fettlements among, or near them. The curfc of
Canaan, (Gen. ix. 25, 26, 2/.) fays Mr. Bruce, fccms to
have followed them, as they have obtained no principality,
but ferved the kings o£ the Agaasu, o* Shepherds, and fo

I

A B Y

they ftill continue. The firft and moft confiderable of thefe
nations fettled in Amu ARA ; the fecond were the Aoows
of Damot, one of the fouthern provinces of Abyffinia ;
and the third are the Agows of Lalta, with a feparate lan-
guage, living in caves, and paying nearly the fame worlhip
to the Sins or Tscazzc, that thofe of Damot pay to ths
Nile; the fourth is a nation near Damot, railed Gafat j
the fituation of the fifth is not precifely afcertaintd, unlcfs
it be intermixed with the Galla and Falaska. . Fronv
this recital, we may perceive the propriety of tlie appella-
tion Habjh or Convcn:!, denoting feparate nations fttlkd to-
gether, as affording the moft fatisfaftory etymology of
Abyirmia. The inhabitants who pon'ofled Abyflinia froiTi.
its fouthern boundary to the tropic of Cancer, or frontierj
of Egypt, were the Cufhites, a polidied people, living in
towns, being firft Troglodytes, and having their habitations
in caves. The next were the Shepherds. After thefe
were the nations who, according to Mr. Bruce, came from
Paleftine. Tf the account \re have now given of the origia
of the Abyflinians be juft, they might veiy wcil vie with the
Egyptians, and even be deemed luperior to them with rc-
fpett to antiquity, fince Cu(h, their great anceilor, was tha
eldeft fon of Ham. They might likewife have been efteemed
of equal antiquity with the Arabians, as from the kingdom
of iVIidian the Cuihites penetrated both into the fouthera
parts of the peninfula of the Arabs and Ethiopia. Tiie com-
munication between Egypt and Ethlopia,as well as the proxi-
mity of blood of Culh and Mizraim, introduced that fimilitude
of laws and manners that is obfervable among their refpec-
tive inhabitants.. The Ethiopians, or AbylTmians, account
for this mutual refemblance, by afferting, that Egypt, when
recovered from the Nile, and made habitable, was tirll peopled
by colonies that migrated out of their cotmtry, and they
again were cirilifed by the Egyptians. Mr. Bruce endea-
vours to prove, that the Abyflinians in ancient times were
not only the moft learned people in the world, but that they
fpoke the original language, and were the inventors of writ-
ing. How they, as well as the Egyptians, came to loie
this charaftcr, and to fink into their prefent ftate of dege-
neracy and barbarity, it is- not eafy to explain. But the,
nature of their refpeAive governments will lerie in fome mea-
furs to refolve the difficulty. According to fome authors,
Mofes refifted the progrefs of the Ethiopians from Thebaia
into the Lower Egypt, and drove them back into their capi-
tal Meroi;, which, being furround-ed by three rivers, the
Nile, Aftapus, and AJlaboras, was deemed impregnable.
This city, however, was betrayed by a young woman, wlio
fell in love with Mofes, and delivered it up to him on condi-
tion of his man-ying her. He then ravaged the country,
and having reduced the inhabitants to fuch a ftate, that they
were incapable of any farther hoftile attempts for a long
time, he returned in triumph to Egypt, after an abfcace of
ten years. Without attempting to fill up the chafm that
occure in tlie hillory of Abyffinia from this period to the
time of Solomon, and without recurring again to the ftory
of the queen of Sheba, and her fon Menilek, from whom
the kings of Abyffinia derive their defcent, we ftiall pro-
ceed to obferve, that the Ethiopians, or Abyffinians, after
the acceffion of Menilek, were invaded by Sefac, or Sefoftris,
who plundered their rich temple at Saba, and probably oc-
cafioned the removal of the imperial feat to Tigre'. Etiiio.
pia, or at leaft a confiderable part of it, became fubjed to
this monarch. The Ethiopians, according to Sir Ifaac
Newton, drowned the fuccefTor of Sefac in the Nile, and
feized upon Egypt, and obtained Libya in connedion with
it. However, they were defeated by Afa king of Judah.
Upon this the people of the Lower Egypt revolted, and

obliged

A B Y

nt)'iiged Mertinon, fiippofcd to he the fame with Mcnes and
Amenophis, to retire iirft to Memphis, and then i:i'.o Ethio-
pia. In about thirteen 3';;ar:-, he returned, with hi.i fon RameU'es,
at the head of a huge army, and compelled the Canaanitiih
forces to abandon the Lower Egypt ; and ll-.is event io de-
nominated by the Egyptian writers ihe feconj cx/'u/jlon of the
ahrphcrds. Sir I'anc Newton fuppofes, that the Memnon
jull mentioned built, or at leall fortified Memphis, in order
to prevent the Egyptians from penetrating into Ethiopia,
and that he died at a very advanced age, about go years
after the deceale of Solomon. In his time the Argonautic
expedition is faid to have happened. He was fucceeded by
RamelTes ; and his fuccelfor Moeris adorned Memphis, and
made it the capital of his empire, about two generations af-
ter the Trojan war. Cheops, Capluenus, Mycerinus, and
his filter Nitocris, fucceeded one another ; and in the reign
of Afychls, the fucceflbr of Nitocris, Ethiopia and AfTyria
revolted trom Egypt, which being partitioned into feveral
fmall kingdoms, was foou fubdued by Sabacon or So, the
emperor of Etluopia. Tiiis monarch, forming an alliance
witli Hofliea, king of Ifrael, occafioncd his revolt from' the
Aflyrians ; in confequence of wljich, an end was put to the
kingdom of Ifrael by Shalnianafer king of AfTyria, in tlie
24th year of the xra of Nabonaflar, and the 720th before
the commencement of the Chriftian a-ra. Sabacon was fuc-
ceeded by Sethon, who marched witK a powerful army
againll Sennacherib Ling of AfTyria, and defeated him. • In
the ySth year of the a:ra of Nabon-iffar, Ethiopia was fub-
dued by Elar-Haddon king of AfTyria, who over-run both
thefe countricE for three years, when the Ethiopians affeited
their independence, which they preferved till the time of
Cyrus, whofe dominion, according to Xenophon, extended
to Ethiopia. After his death the Ethiopians revolted; and
their empire was fo powerful, that Cambyfes found it imprac-
ticable to penetrate into the countiy ; though Sir Ifaac
Newton fuggells that he fubdued them about the year
223, or 224, of NabonalTar. But others are of a dif-
ferent opinion. Herodotus aflerts, that they reduced feme
of tlie provinces contiguous to Egypt ; and it appears, that
the Pei-Iians proceeded as far as Cyrene ; but it is not pro-
bable thrt they brought under fubjection the whole Ethio-
pia Propria of the ancients, which comprehended Scnnaar,
Abaflia, and other countries. We have no account of any
expedition undertaken by Alexander the Great againft Ethio-
pia, though he was very defirous of exploring the fource of
the Nile. With this view Ptolemy Euergetes advanced in-
to the countiy ; but if he made any conquells, he does not
feem to have long retained them, for nothing of importance
relating to Ethiopia occurs till the days of Auguftus.
About this time, i. e. the year of Rome 725, Car.jlace,
queen of Ethiopia, or rather of the kingdom of Meroc,
made an irruption into the province of Thebais, and being
repuifed by Petronius, was obliged to fue for peace, which,
as we have already mentioned, was granted to her by Au-
guftus. From this time the Romar.s confidered thtmfehcs
as mafters of Ethiopia. Menilek, according to the Abyl-
fini:iii records, fucceeded to the throne in the 986th year
before Chrift, and they reckon twenty-two kings from Meni-
lek to Ba/.en, the eighth year of whofe reign coincides with
the sera of the birth of Chrift. But this account muft be
very erroneous, becaufe each reign will amount to more than
forty -four years, which is impoi'ible. In the reign of Ile-
liogabalus, about the year of Chrift 220, there feeir.s to
have been an intercourfe between the Roman empire and
the Ethiopians : and we learn from Procopius, (De Bell.
Perf. 1. i. c. 19.) that before the reign of Dioclefian, the
frontiers of the Roman er.ipire extended fo fur into Ethlopin,

A B Y

that they WTrc not above twcnty-tlirce days journey diilanC
f.om the capital. Notliing remarkable occurs in ihc hiftoiy
of the Etiiiopians from the time of this cir.perc r lo ihc pe-
riod of their eonverfion to Ciirillian'ty, which event toolc
place under Abrcha and Atzbcha, or a; they arc alfo colicd
Abra and Aft'a, who are confidered by Mr. IVucc -as ouc
prince, and by others as joint fovereignf^, ahuut 333 y ;'ar J
after Chrift. I'Vumeiitius was confecralcd bilhop of Ar:u:na
by St. Athanafuis, and deputed liy liini lo propagate the
Clirillian religion in Ethiopia. Of this Frumcnlius it is fiild,
tliat whilft he was young, ho accompanied Miropius, n phi-
lofopher of Tyre, who, in a voyage on (lie Ited Se-.i to In-
dia, was caft away on the coaft of Abyffinia. Mtropiiig
was (lain by the natives, but Frunientius, who had beai li-
berally educated, was coiidui5\cd lo Axum, where the com I
then relided. Here he was entrufted by iJic queen with li;c
education of the young prince; and having inllruiiled iiim
in various parts of learning, and iini)ren"<.d liis mind with a
veneration for the Chriftian r'-ligion, he found him difpuled
to embrace Chriftianity on his return from Alexandria in dif-
charge of the commiftion entrufted with. Iii.T liy Alhanalius.
The greateft part of AbylTiaia followed the example of ihcir
prince, and the church of Ethiopia continued iii u.iity with
this bifhop to the time of his death. When Couftantius the
emperor embraced Aiianifm, an attempt was made to depofe
Frumentiiis, becaufe he refufed to fanelion it willi his example
and authority. About this time an expedition into Auibia
Felix produced, what the Arabian writers, and Mahomet in
the koran, have called the War of the Elephant. Tiie otca-
fion was this : the temple of fvlecca had been held in hiijh
veneration for 1400 years, beeaufe, as the Arabs fay,
Adam, when expelled from Paradife, pitched liis tent upon
this fpot ; and they alio ftiew a black ftone, where Jacob
repofed when he faw the vifion, mentioned Gen'.fis xxviii.
12. But Mr. Bruce thinks it to be much more probable,
that this temple was built by Sefoftris, and tliat he was wor-
fhipped here under the title of Ofiris. This temple, vene-
rated by neighbouring nations, was made the emporium of
the trade between India and Africa, but Abreha wifliir.g to
render it more convenient for his dominions, built a veiy
large chiuch or temple in the country of the Homeritcs, and
nearer the Indian ocean, and extended to it all the privileges
b^-longing to the pagan temple of Mecca. A tribe of Arabs,
called Beni Koreilh, who had the care of the Caaba at Mecca,
alarmed by the profpecl of having their temple dcferted, entered
Abieha's temple, burned eveiy part of it that could be con-
fumed, and polluted the reft by befmearing it with human
excrements. This infult exalpcrated Abreha, who, mounltd
upon a white elephant at the head of a large nnny, rc-
folved to deftroy the temple of Mecca. The temple, luuv-
ever, was miraeuloufly preferved, according to the Ar::ljian
writers ; but the more probable account is, that the Abyf-
finian army fell a facrifice to the fmall-pox and mcallcs, with
which they were infecled at this fiege. This kippentj
about the year ^56. Abreha's church, near the Indian
ocean, was finally deftroycd in the khalifat of Omar. In
the year 522, Juftin, the Greek emperor, fent an einbady
to Caleb, or Elftiaas, Tring of Abyliinia, inlreatiiig liis in-
terference in favour of the Chriftians in Arabia, who were
feverely perfecuted by Fiiineas, a Jewilh prince, and otiieij
of the fame profeirion, then in poftellion of the connliy.
Phineas was defeated by Aretas, an Arabian prince, before
Abreha, C.nleb's general, arrived ; but the Jewirti kingdom;
were not wholly overturned, as loine of them eon) ii/jcd till
after the Hegira. To this period, or the nign of Elftiaas, the
Arabian hiilorir.ns refer the War of the Elephant, ; nd the
mlr.'.cu'.ouf dilccmf.ture of the Ethiopian army. The ron-

M 2 I'ufiiiU

A B Y

A B Y

ftfion of namfs v/ill account for the difrcrence between t'ne
Ar.;bia» and AbylTmiaM records ; for if this Abveha was
the prince wh j had intjrcourie wi.h Abou Thaleb, Maho-
met's grandfather, to v/hom the ciiftody of tlic Caaba was
committed, and who was defeated before Mvcca, the fmall-
pox was introduced amon^ the Abyffinrans about the year
52 3, or loo years before the Hegira ; and thus the Ara-
bian and Abyflinian accounts may be made to correfpond.
Some hiilorians Iiave fiid, that the Ethiopian monarchs em-
br.\ccd the dodlrin' s of Mahomet, foon alter the appearance
of this impoftor ; but this account lias been confidered as
improbable. It u more certain, however, that Najafhi,
w!io was the Ethiopian governor of Yemen, and who was
rchited to the royal family of Abyflinia, was profelyted to
the Mahometan faith. On this occation the Abyfliniuns
loll their temtories in Arabia, and were forced to feek re-
fuge on the fide of Africa, where ihey eftablillied feveral
kingdoms, fuch as Adcl, Mara, Hadea, AufTa, Wypo,
Tarlhifh, and other dates, which acquired permanent power
and importance. The Jews being at this time opprcfll:d by
the caliphs, fought an afylum in Abyflinia ; and they con-
tributed to augment and ftrengthen an independent fove-
rcignty, which had been preferved in one fan:ily of Jewj on
the mountain of Samen, the royal rcfidence having been
fixed upon a high-pointed rock, called the Jews' rock. Judith,
a very beautiful and intriguing quejn of the Jews, had made fo
ilrong a party, that (he refolved to attempt tha fubverfion of
Chrillianity, and alfo the fueceffion in the line of Solomon.
Having maflacred the royal family, Ihe took poffeflion of the
throne, in defiance of the law of the queen of Saba ; but the
infant king, the only remaining prince of his race, fortunate-
ly efcaped into the province of Shoa, and thus the royal fa-
mily was prcfer\-ed to be again reftored. Judith and her de-
fcendants maintained their ufurpation for more than 300
years ; but no part of their hiftory is recorded in the Abyf-
iinian annals, except that of Lalibala, who lived at the clofe
of the 12th, or beginning of the 13th century, and was re-
puted to be a faint. This appellation he probably ac-
qun-ed from the proteftion which he afforded to the chrif-
tians, who, perfecuted by the Saracens in Egypt, fled for
refuge to Abyflinia. Lalibala employed them' in forming
various works in the folid rocks, fome traces of which re-
mam to this day ; and in unfuccefsful attempts to divert the
Nile out of its courfe, fo that it might no longer be the
caufe of the fertility of Egypt, which was then in pof-
icflion of the enemies of his religion. The race of Solomon,
which had been rellricled to the fovereignty of Shoa, was
unexpeftcdly reftored in the perfon of Icon Amlac, to whom
Naacueto Laab, grandfon of Lalibala, by the mediation of
Tecla Haimanout, a monk and native of Abyflinia, who had
been ordained Abuna, and who was highly efteemed for his
fanftity and patriotifm, refigned the kingdom of Abyflinia.
Amongft other articles of the treaty between them, one was,
that no native Abyflinian fhould for the future be chofen
Abuna ; and this article between Icon Amlac and the houfe
of Zague was obfen-ed for near 500 years. Icon Amlac
continued to refide at Tegulat in Shoa, from his accefiion in
1268, and his reign laded fifteen years. After a rapid fuc-
ccflion of princes, Amda Sion afcended the throne in 1312.
This fovcreign profefled Chriltianity, but difgraccd it by his
conduct. During a reign of thirty years, this prince was
almoft incefiantly engaged in various wars with the Moors,
who inhabited different provinces of Abyffmia and its vici-
nity I but at lafl, wear)- with conqueft and carnage, he returned
m triumph to his capital, and having never fuffered defeat in
any battle, he ended his days, and tranfmitted the crown to
liJS fon, Saif Araad. The only tranfaction that diftinguiflies

this reign, is the relief aflbrded to the Coptic patriarch,
whom the fultan of Egypt had thrown into prifon, with a
view of extorting money from him. Of Zara Jacob, whofe
reign commenced in 1434, and continued thirty-four years,
Mr. Bruce obfervcs, that he was regarded in Abyfliuia as
another Solomon, and a model of what the bell of fovercigns
fliould be, though he was not julUy entitled to this high
encomium. This prince fent an embaffy to the council of
Florence, which formed a fubjed for a piclure in the Vati-
can, and he obtained from the pope a convent at Rome for
•the ufe of the AbylTinians. From this period a party was
formed in favour of the church of Rome ; and this beft of
fovereigns was the firll who introduced religious perfccution
into his dominions. Although the eftablilhed religion in
Abyflinia was that of the Greek church, many different fu-
perlUtions prevailed in every part of the country. An accu-
fation having been brought againft fome families for wor-
(hipping t'ne cow and the ferpent, they were feized by order
of the king, capitally convifted, and executed. This feve-
ritv was follov.ed by a proclamation, declaring, that any
perfon who did not, upon his right hand, carry an amulet,
with thefe words, / nnoutta' the devil for ChriJ} our Lord^
fhould forfeit his perfonal eftate, and be liable to corporal
punilhment. Before the clofe of his reign perfccution was
fuppreffed, and he employed himfclf in repairing the churches
which had fallen into decay, or which had been deftroyed in
\'arious parts of the country in the v/ars with the Mahome-
tans. In the next reign, which commenced in 1468, the
old law for confining the royal children, which had been dif-
continutd from the reign of Judith, in the tenth century,
was revived ; and they were fent to the high mountain of
Geflien, on the confines of Amhara and Begemder, which
continued to be the ftate-prifon till a flaughttr occafioned
the defertion of Geihen. Bsda Mariam, having ingratiated
himfelf with liis people, by clemency towards thofe who
had been baniflied for various offences in the former reign,
commenced a war with the Dobas, who made inroads in-
to his countiy ; and he alfo turned his arms againft the
kingdom of Adel ; but being feized with a pain in his
bowels, which occafioned his death, all his plans and entcr-
prifes terminated. About this time Henry of Portugal, a
fcientific and adventurous prince, formed the projeft of dif-
covering a paffage to India, by doubling the cape of Africa,
and thus of (haring with the Venetians, and others, the pro-
fits of the commerce that was carried on with that country.
A plan was alfo concerted for penetrating into India through
the interior parts of Africa. The practicability of this lat-
ter Icheme was rendered probable, by the report of fome
monks who rcforted to Jerufalem and to Alexandria, and
who were the fubjefts of a chriftian prince, faid to be a
prieft, whofe dominions were faid to extend through the
African continent from the eaft to the weft fea. This re-
port had been confirmed at the court of Bemoy, the fove-
reign of the Jaloffes, on the weft coaft of Africa, and alfo
at Benin, another negro country ; though it was fomewhat
confuted and precarious, in confequeiice of the account
given by Marco Paulo, a Venetian traveller, v.-ho faid that,
in his travels into Tartaiy, he met with a chriftian prince,
who was a prieft, and who was called Preftjyter, or Prefter
John. The king of Portugal, however, refolved to fend
Peter Covillan and Alphonfo de Paiva, as ambaffadors to
this unknown prince. The objeft of their rnifiion was to
explore the fouices of the Indian trade, the principal mar-
kets for fpice and pepper, and the channels of their convey-
ance to Europe ; and to afcertain the country whence gold
and filver were obtained, and the poflibiHty of an-jving at the
Eall Indies by failing around the fouthern promontory of

Africa.

A B Y

Africa. Having proceeded en their journey together from
Alexandria to Cairo, thence to Suez, and afterwards to
Aden, a rich trading town, without the ilraita of Babel-
mandeb, they feparated from one another. De Paiva foon
loft his hfe ; but Covillan fet fail for India, and having
vilited Calicut and Goa, and crolfed the Indian ocean to in-
fpeft the mines of Sofala, returned to Aden, and then to
Cairo, where he heard of the death of iiis companion. Here
he found two Jews with letters from the king of AbyfTmia,
whicli induced him to return to Aden ; whence he croffcd
to the dominions of that prince, uhole name was Alexan-
der, and whom he accompanied to Shoa, where the court
refided. Covillan iettled in the couutr)', became rich and
powerful, and no more returned to Europe. But the in-
telligence he tranfmitted from time to time to the court of
Portugal was important and ufeful. He defcribed the In-
dian ports which he had feen, the fituation and riches of the
mines of Sofala, the difpofition of the princes, and tlie
wealth and populoufnefs of the country where he dwelt ;
and he exhorted the king to profecute the dilcovery of the
palTage round Africa, affirming, that the cape iticlf was
well known in India, and accompanying his communication
with a chart, which he had obtained from a Moor in India,
and which exhibited the exaCl fituation of the Cape, and
the cities round the coaft. Covillan came into Abyffmia in
the year 1490, and the reigning prince, Alexander, or If-
cander, to whom he was introduced, died by violence, in
1495. He was fucceeded by an infant fon, who reigned
feven months ; after which his younger brother, Naod, was
eleftcd king by the unanimous voice of tlie people ; and hav-
ing, by his courage and prudence, delivered himfelf from the
fear of a foreign war, he applied with diligence to reform
internal abufes, and to cultivate the arts of peace. After a
reign of thirteen years, lie died in 1508, and was fucceeded
by his fon Da\'id III. an infant of eleven years of age, who
was fettled on the throne by the interell of Helena, widow
of Bxda Mariam. At the commencement of this reign, the
Turks, with a view of fliaring the profits of the trade of
the country, took pofTeflion of Zeyla, a fmall illand in the
Red Sea, oppofite to the coaft of Adel ; but their deiire of
poffefling India diverted their views from Adel and Abyf-
iinia. It was thought defirable, in the prefent fituation of
the country, to form an alliance with the Portuguefe, and
for this purpofe Matthew, an Armenian merchant, was de-
puted as an ambaffador. The principal objeft of the em-
bafly was to obtain a force fufficient to deftroy the Turkilh
power ; and, it is faid, that a third part of AbyfTmia was
offered as an acknowledgment. During the progrefs of this
embaffy, the Turks renewed their depredations on the Abyf-
finian teiritories. David prepared to rcfift them ; and, at
length, fucceeded in completely defeating and routing them.
On the day in July 15 16, when he obtained a decifive
viilory over the Moors, the ifland of Zeyla was taken, and
the town burnt by the Portuguefe fleet under Lopez Suarez
ds Alberguiera, who had brought back Matthew, and with
him an am-bafFador, from Portugal. The two ambaffadors,
accompanied by fifteen Portuguefe, fet out on a very dif-
ficult and perilous journey for the emperor's court. Matthew
died of an epidemic fever in the courfe of the journey ; but
the Portuguefe ambaffador arrived in Ijzo, within three
miles of the Abyfiinian camp. His reception was not favour-
able ; and it was not till aftjr a delay of five years, that the
bufinefs of the embafTy was completed, and he was allowed
to depart for Portugal. This long intercourfe between two
diftant nations, alarmed the Mahometan powers ; and the
Adclians, affifted by the Turks, defeated the emperor in fe-
veral fuccefiive battles, and over-ran the empire, plundering

A B Y

and burning the towns and village?, and currying awny the
people for lluves. This deftructive v/ar c'jntin'i.d till the
year 1537. In tiie next year the aifain of .\byflinia fcemed
to revive, and a new embafTy to Portugal w.is projed'tid.
John Bermudes, one of the attendants of Roderie ), the
Portuguefe amhalTador, was deputed, who was liivdUd
with the eccleriallical authority of Abuna. Being a bigot to
tlic popilh religion, he declintd accepting the oTiice, ii:ih-tg
his ordination flionld be approved by the pope, which was
indireftly fubmitting the church of AhylTniia to that of
Rome ; and this fubmiffion on the part of David gave tlie
pope inexpreflible pleafure, at a time wlien fo many kiiijr.
doras in the weft v/ere revolting from liis fupremacy. ' Hav-
ing in iiis way through Italy obtained the pupe's fanctiiin, he
proceeded to Lifboii, and was acknowledged by tlie kir.g
as patriarch of Alexandria, Abyflinia, and of tlie fea ; and
he lucceeded in obtaining the fuccours which he requellcd.
When thefe fuccours arrived, they took the town of
Arkeeko, killed the governor, and madacred all the people
in the town whom they could find. The delay, however,
had reduced the Abyfiinians to great diftrefs. A Mahome-
tan chief had made an attack upon the rock Gefhen, where
the royal family had been kept, and mafTacred them ; and
David, linking under a complication of difafters, died in tiie
year 1540, and was fucceeded by his fon Claudius. On
his accefTion, the Moors formed a league agaiuft liim, but
were defeated. Aided by the Portuguefe forces, whieh had
joined thofe of the empire, Claudiuo freed himfelf from all
apprehenfion of foreign enemies ; ar.d he then direfted his
attention to the internal ftate of the country. John Ber-
mudes, infolent in his difpofition, and invelled with ample
eccleiiaftical powers, attempted the converfion of Claudius,
and inlifted that he ftionld eftablifh tlie popifli rehgion through
his dominions, as his father David had promifcd to do ; but
Claudius was invincible, and the alterc ition terminated in
the expulfion of the catholics, and the difcoiitinuance of all
intercourfe with the Europeans ; and Bermudes iiimfelf was
obliged to leave AbyfTmia, and return to Portugal. In
1558, the pope fent a new deputation of priefts; but, thougli
they were civilly received by Claudius, they feemed to have
had little fuccefs with refpeft to the principal objecl of their
miffion. The thoughts of Claudius were now employed
about a fucceffor ; and as he had no fon, it was propofcd to
ranfom his youngcft brother, the prince Menas, who had
been taken prifoner by the Moors in the time of David.
This bulinefs having been fettled, Claudius's premature and
violent death made way for the advancement ot Menas to
the throne in 1559. After a fliort reign, embroiled by in-
ternal rebellion, and the feditious practices of the popifti
miflionaries, he clofed his life in 1563, and was fucceeded
by his fon Sertza Denghal, who, after various conflicts with
the Moors, and with the Galla and Falafha, two neighbour-
ing nations, in which he was generally viflorious, died in con-
fequence of eating fifh of a poifonous nature, in 1593. Before
his death he nominated Za Denghal, his nephew, for iiis'
fucceffor. The affefrions of his people were alienated from
this prince on account of his attachment to the church of
Rome, whofe interell in Abyffmia had much declined, in
confequence of the death of Oviedo, and the other mif-
fionaries, and through want of a frelh fupply of catholic
preachers. In the year 1600, Peter Patz, or Pais, wai
fent on this miflion. He was learned, diligent, ami adive.
The emperor was engaged by his manners and difcourfes to
embrace the catholic religion ; he iffued orders for prohibit-
ing the obfervance of the Jewilh Sabbath, and fent letters to
pope Clement VIII. and Philip III. of Spain, requefting a
fupply of mechanics to inftruft his people in tlie ulcful arts,

aud

A B Y

3^A of J.-ruif t'^ te-.:h t'n.-ni n-li^'.on. Tiii. iinpriiJ.-it c<m-
(!j:\, oa tU; partof thi er.ipjrov, excit.-d ?. rehellloa among
liis fubjefts ; he wn', cxcommunicatfd by the Abuiia ; and
hivln" been d;fertedbv his troops, h;- was overpowered and
fljin-^TKe fucce.Tiri wa; fjr foms time difputed. At length
Socinics, cilkd ah'o Sul'neus a d MA<c Segued, was fully
eilAblifhed on the throne ; a.iJ having declared to Pacz his
p-irpafe of embracin; the Romilh rcl-gion, he addrelTcd
two' letters, oie to the pope, a-id the other to the king of
Portugal, fuppliciting alTiihncc againil the invalions of the
GiUa. In the mean while he defeated thefe people, and
a'.fo a body of rebels afTembled to fupport the claims
r.f an impo'lor, who pretended to be the late emperor
Jacob, that hid contended with him for the crown. Whilil
he was meditating the cftablilhment of religion in the empire,
a new rebellion demanded his attention, and his thoughts
Wire wholly employed in various military expeditions. In
ifil6, he iifucd a very fevere order againil the Jews, whom
he determined totally to exterminate. His conduct towards
them was in the higheft degree cruel and unjuft. The con-
fcquence of his meafnrcs was the almofl: entire extin£t:on of
the Jewifii religion, the profelTors of which were commanded
to renounce their religion, and be baptifcd, under pam of
death. Pacz was at the fame time affiduous and fuccefsful,
in his endeavours to profelyle the Abyfilnians to the Catholic
faith, and Sociiiios having received letters from the pope and
the kinfr of Spain, with affurances of fuch fupport as each
of them, in his rcfpeclive province, could afford him, re-
Iblved to make a formal fuhmifiton to the pope, and to re-
nounce for ever hi? connec*:!0n with the Greek church. Am-
bnffadors wore appointed to go to Europe, to communicate
this intelligence, arid to finini the negociation between the
pope and the Abyfliniaiis ; but thefe ambafTadors were ob-
liged to return ; and this unprofperous occurrence prevented
the eilablifliment of popery in Abyfli.iia. The attempts of
Soclnios to change the religion of the country, occafioned a
▼ariety of feditiojs and rebellious affociations againft his go-
vernment ; but the ob't.'Yiate emperor perfevered. Though
the Abyffinian ambalTadors had been conftrained to return,
many favourabli accounts of the ftate of religion in Abyf-
■finia had been tranfmitted to Europe ; and new miffionaries
were fent under the direction of Alphonfo Mendez, who
anived at Gorgora, the royal refidencCj.in the beginning of
the year 1636. Socinios, after the firft audience, takes an
oath of fubrnifiion to the pope, and the ceremony was at-
tended with circumftancer, of peculiar folemnity. It was
followed by a proclamation, that ail priefts (hould embrace
the catholic faith on pain of death, that Lent and Eafter,
and the other moveable feafts, fliould be obler\'ed according
to the rales of the Roniilh church, and that the clergy
(hould be re-ordained, the churches confecrated anew, the
peopl ; rc-baptifed, and circumcilion, polygamy, and divorce
abrogated. The emperor, however, foon perceived the in-
jurious effefts of thefe meafures, and found it neceffary to
relax the feveity of his proceedings. He proceeded to
grant an univerfal tolei-ation ; and having reftored the Alex-
andrian faitli, ceremonies, and worfhip, he i-efigned the
crown and empire to his fon Eacilidas, or as he is fome-
times called Bafilides ; and foun after his proclamation for
this purpofe, he died, in 1632, and with him all the hopes
6f the Jefuits were cxtinguifhed. Facilidas was an invete-
rate enemy to the catholic fa:th, and he adopted every me-
thod in his po-.ver to fupprefs and eradicate it. He fiift ba-
nilhed ind then executed his ur.cie Sela Chrift os, v/ho had been
active in prom^,ting it, expelled the European mifiionarics, and
rcfided the attempts of the Jefuits for introducing others. The
fpint of rebellion in AbylCnia, and the neighbouring provinces,

A B Y

was ft 11 aCiive ; nor could the efforts of Facilidas totally fobdu*
it. However, he left the empire at his deatli, in 1665, in
a much more peaceful and profperous ftate, than that in
which it was devolved upon him by his father.' He was fvic-
ceeded by his fon Hannes I., who had the audrefs to prc-
ferve peace during his whole reign, if we except lome feeble
expeditions againtt Laftvi and the Shanf,-alla ; and, in i63o,
his fon Yafous I. afoended the throne with the approbation of
tiie whole kingdom. This prince is faid to h.ave pofTelTed
all thofc abilities and difpofnions which form the character
of a '^reat and good monarch. In this reign attempts were
made to revive European millions. They were occafioned
by a report that, on the expuliion of the Jefuits from Abyf-
finia, many catholic clH-itlians had fled into the adjacent
countries of Nubia and tiennaar, where they were grievoudy
cpprefled by the Mahometans. The caufe of thefe chrif.
tians was efpoufed at Rome, and the pope difpatchcd a mif-
llon for tbeV relief, under tl-.e title of the Etk'r.pk mi[]>.m.
The miffionaries were inftrucled to penetrate a^ far as pof-
f'ble into AbyiTinia, and to maintain the cathohc faith as far
as they were able, till an opportunity offered of converting
the whole empire ; and for their protection and encourage-
ment, a convent was eftablilhed at Achmim, in Upper
Etrvpt. At the fame time, Louis XIV. of France ap-
pointed fix Jefuits to the fame miffion, and furnifhed them
witii fuitable prefents for the emperor and the principal 110-
biiitv. The admiiTion of thefe miffionaries was facilitated by
a dangerous fcorbutic diforder, which had attacked Yafous
and his fon, and for which they wifoed to have the advice of
an European phyfician. Maillet, the French confu! at
Cairo, wifliing the Jefuits to have the honour of the miffion,
difappointcd the views of Friars Pafchal and A-nthony, two
Franclfcans, who were firft tliought of, and recommended
Charles Poncet, a Frenchman, who had been bred a che-
niift and apothecary, and Father Brevedent as his fervant,
to Hagi Ali, a Mahometan faftor at Cairo, for the dcfired
purpofe. The Franclfcans attempted the deftruclion of
Poncet and his attendants ; but Poncet arrived fafe at Gon-
dar on the 2 ill of July, 1699, and having perfectly cured
hi8 royal patient, fet out on the 2d of May, 1700, on his
return for Europe, and arrived in fafety at iSIafuah. Breve-
dent died at Gondar foon after their arrival. An embaffy on
the part of the Abylhnian monarch was defeated by the in-
terference of Maillet ; but the Jefuits concerted another mif-
fion from France, and the pcrfon appointed as ambairador
was M. de Roule, vice-conful at Damietta. This miffion
was veiy injudicioufly conducted ; the merchants at Cairo
refilled it; tlie Franclfcans obllrucled it, and it terminated in
the murder of the ambaffador in the province of Sennaar.
Yafous, the emperor, had been previoufly afiaffinated, in
1 704, by a confpiracy of his v/lfe and fon, Tecla Haiman-
out, who was hlmfelf affaffinated in 1706, and fucceeded
by his uncle Tifilis, or Theophihis. After the death of
this monarch, in 1709, the line of Solomon, by the queen
of Sheba, was fet afide, by the i.ifluence of the confpirators
who had contributed to the murder of Yafous and Tecla,
and a ilrangcr, called Oullas, was feated on the Abyffinian
throne. Oullas v/as foon depoled ; and David, Ion of
Yafous, was proclaimed king of Abyffinia, and crov>'ned at
Gondar on the 30th of Janua-y, 17 14. The diflenfions
among the Abyffinian clergy, that occurred in this reign,
produced a dreadful maffic.-e, and ended in the death of the
king, who died, by poifon, in 17 19. He was fueceedcd
by his brother, Bacuffa ; and Cacuffa, in 1729, by his fon
Yafous II. His reign was difturbed by frequent ieditions
and rebclhcns ; in one of which. Gondar, the capital, was fet
on fire, and almoft entirely ruiued. He died in 175.^,
2 not

A B Y

»ot without the fufpicion of having been poifoncd, and was
lucceedod by iiis fon Joas. The -whole e;npire, in this reign,
v.-.is divided i;ito two powerful fr.ciions, the cai!:e.i and
effefts of which are particuhirly recited by Mr. Bruce, who
was witnds cf the confufiou. and tumult which they pro-
duced. In the procefs of this contention, Joas was alFaf-
fmated ; aiid, ;!t Ins dsath, in 1 769, Ilanncs, brother to the
late king Bacuffa, was apponited emperor. Hannes, how-
ever, being niaitr.ed by the lofs of his hand, was deemed in-
capable of ailuming the fovercignty : he w.-is removed by
poifon, and his fon Tecla Haiinanout II. was ad.-anced to
the throne. From, and even before the accefiion of Joas,
Michael Ras, who had been appointed Ras or Governor of
Tigrc, and other provinces, and who was become malter of
almoft one half of Abyfliuia, had the principal diredion
and inlliiencein the government of the cour.tr)'. His mar-
riage with Ozoro EfUier, a very beautiful and accompllflied
princefs, and the widow of Mariam Barea, the mod dlftin-
guiftied nobleman of the countiy, had very much augmented
both his dignity and power. Hannes was eftabliflied on the
throne by his authority, and when he found that he was not
likely to anfwer his purpose, he is fuppofed to have made
way, by poifon, for his fucceffor Tecla Kaimanout. This
prince treated him, from the rr.oment of his acceflion, with
tlie alfeftion and refpeft of a fon ; and this influence of
Michael v.'.is veiy confiderable in pcefervlng the at', ichment
and fubmiffion of his fubjefts, as well as in condi:fti:!g the
military operations of his reign. Of thefe Mr. Bruce has given
a very minute detail, for which we mull refer the reader to
the .).th volume of his elaborate and comprehenfive work.

Abyssinian, in EccLJiaJlieal H'ljlor^, is ufed as the name
of a feci in the chrillian church, cltablifhcd in the empire of
Abyffinia.

The Abyflinians are a branch of the Cophts, or Jaco-
bites ; with whom they agree in admitting only one na-
ture in Jtfns Chrift, and rejedling the council of Chalce-
don : whence they are aLo called monophysites, and Eu-

TYCHIANS.

Some learned men are of opinion, that the Abyflinians, or
Ethiopians, embraced the fentiments of the Monophyfites in
the ninth century, in confequence of the evhortations ad-
di-elTcd to ti'.em by the doilors of that left who refided in
Egypt. But Modicim (Eccl. Hill. v. ii. p. 363, 8vo.)
fays, it is certain that the Abyflinians, who were aecuflomed
to receive tlieir fpiritual guide from the biinop of Alexan-
dria, commenced Monophyfites in the feventh century, if
not fooner.. For in that period the Arabians made them-
feives mailers of Egypt, oppreffed the Greeks, and granted
to the Monophyfites fiich a powerful proteftion, as enabled
them to reduce under their jurifdiftion almoll all the churches
that had been eftablirned in Egypt. The Abyflinians arc,
fl:riftly fpeaking, a diftinft body from the Cophts, who com-
prehend tlofe Chrlilians who dwell in Egypt, Nubia, and
the adjacent countries, and whofe condition is tuily deplor-
able. They furpafs the latter confiderably in numbers,
power, and opulence ; nor is this furpriiing, when it is con-
fidered that they live under the dominion of a Chrillian
emperor.

The Abyfiinian church is governed by a bilhop, or metro-
politan, ftyled ABUNA, and fometimes, though improperly,
patriarch, fent theinby the Cophtic patriarch of Alexandria
refiding at Cairo, who is the only perfon tha.t ordains
priefts. The firll perfon who pofTelTed the epifcopal dig-
nity was Frumentius, who converted the Abyflinians to
Ghriilianity in the beginning of the fourth centuiy. Some,
indeed, have fuppofed, that they were converted by the
apoillcs ,; othe^ have afierted, that the Eunuch, baptifed

A B Y

by Pliilip, upon his return to Cand.ce, bieainc the apoftie
of Abydlnia. But, if the Abyflinians were converted at
fo e-.rly a period, it is not I;k«ly that they fluiiiM have con-
t'.nued \.'ahout bifliops, and without any kind of cluirch-
government for 300 years, and that the y fliould liavc had
no intercoiirfe with neijubouring churches during this long
period. Befides, we know, in fuft, that the Chrillian
rellgioi had not penetrated into the court of Candacc, wliieli
was much nearer to Egypt, in the tin:c of Philip, and it
therefore co.ild not reach into the more diilant mountair.oui
country of Abyfliuia. The Etiiiopi.i, v.here Cai.dacc re-yn-
ed, could not have been the fame with AbyJfi.iij ; bccsift-,
if this v.ere the cafe, the whole {lory of the queen of
Saba mull be rejetled as fabulous, as there inuft iiave beta
a woman fitting upon the tlnor.e of thit country for 500
years, after flie had been excluded by a fundamental law of
the land. But we are adured by credible writers, that this
Candace rcigred upon the Nile, in Atbara, much nearer to
^■-eypt' Her capital was taken in the time of Augulliis, as
we have alrcpdy nitntiontd under the article AavssisiA,
and her fucceflins and kingdom cxilled in the reign of ihu
Abyfllnian kings, long after the Mahometan conqucft, and
they cxift there to this day. To which we may add, that
the Abyflinians are known to have continued Jews and
Heathei :S above 300 years afier the time of the apoftlcs. The
ground upon which feme ecclefiadlcal writers have attributed
the converfion of the Abyflinians to the apolUcs, is a canon
of a council, faid to be that of Nice, found, or pretended tej
have been found, in Alexandria. This canon is written in
Arabic, and is fo unintelligible, fays Mr. Bruce, who had
feen it, that it ftfarce conveys any fenfe at all. But this
canon regulated the precedency of the Abuna of Ethiopia
in all fuceeeding councils, and places him immediately alter
the prelate of Seleucia. The Je'uits have availed themfclvcs
of this canon, in order to vindicate the honourable antiquity
of the church of Ethiopia. The Abyflinian hiilory informs
us, that a queen reigned in Abyflinia, when Frumentius
came into this country. Mr. Bruce obferves, that though
women are excluded from the Abyfllnian throne, there exills
a law, or cuflom, that the queen upon whofe head the king
fliall have put the crown during his life, is regent cf the
kingdom, and guardian of every minor king, as long as Ihe
fhall live. If fach a queen (hould have a fon, flie would
have the care of the kingdom, and of the king, during his
minority : and if her fon fliould die, and a minor, wlio was
no relation to her, fliould fucceed, rtie would dill be regent,
nor would her office cecSi. till he came of age. This regent,
for life, is called Iteghe. Such was probably the cafe at the
time of Frumentius's fettlemer.t in Abyflinia. The hiilory
of the Abulias is very imperf.iflly known for many years
after their appointment. The firll of them, who is particu-
larly me tioned, is Abuna Tecla Haimanont, who diilin-
guiflied himfelf !y th-.' refloration of the royal family, and
by the rcgulatioTis made by him both in church and flate.
He eflablilhed the law, that the Abyflinians fliould not have
it in their power to chufe one of their own coiintr)-
men as Abuna. The Arabic canon, above mentioned, may
probably be attributed to this Abuna ; and is a forgery in,
or very foon after, his time. Tecl.i Haimanout was a n i-
tive of Abyflinia, and therefore the prohibition had not
taken place before his time ; but as no Abyflinian was after-
v/ards chofen to this oiRce, the canon mull be a work of
His time ; for it is impoflible a canon Ihoiild have been made .
by the council of Nice, fettling the rank of a bifliop in a
nation which, for above 200 years after that general coui.cil,
were not Chriftiaiis. As the Abuna felelom inukrflands the
language of the country, he has no iharc of the govcriiment.

lie

A B Y

H'' i< much funk in general eftimation from what lie was
formerly, chiefly by his intrigues, io^norancc, avarice, and
w.int of (irmncfs. His principal employment is in tlie ordi-
nilion of prislh, deacons, and monks. Some of thefc
Ahimas have been merely Jay-monks, without fo much as
prie'.Uy orders. Their revenue arifes from the fale of dlf-
p.-nfjtions, anil of ordination, and from Ci.'rtain lands in the
kinijdoms of Tigrii, Gojam, and Dembca, of which they
are the fole farmers ; to whicii we may add, a kind oi public
colleclion of fait and cloth annually made for ihem through
the rnipire, which amounts to a coiifidcrable value.

The order next, if not in rank and dignity, yet in general
e!lim.i:ion, to tlie Abnna, is that of the: Dcbtaras, who are
neither priefts nor deacons, but a kind of Jewifh Lcvites or
ciiantcrs, who aflill at all public offices of the church, and
p:irticularly in the londuft of all their muiical performances.
Bcfides thcfe, evsry parochial church has a prefidcnt, fub-
ordinate to the Abuna, called Komos, or Hcgumenos, or
Archi-pre(b)'ter, who has all the inferior prielts and dea-
cons, and all the fecular affairs of the parilh, under his in-
fpcclion and government. The deacons occupy the lovveft
rank of the priefthood ; they alTift at divine fervice, and
have their refpcftive duties and veftmenls when they offi-
ciate. All thefe orders arc allowed to many ; but the
monks, who are very numerous, vow celibacy ; and, it is
faid, with a rcfervation. Le Grand fays, they make a pro-
mife aloud, before their fuperior, to keep challity, but add
in a low voice, as you keep i!.

The monks are divided into two claffcs j thofc of Debra
Libanos, and thofe of St. Eudathius. The liead of the
latter, who are grofsly ignorant, is the fuperior of the con-
vent of Mihcbar SclafTe, in the north-weft corner of Abyf-
fmia, near Kuara, and the Sliangalla, towards Scnnaar and
the river Dender. The chief of the former is the Itchcgue,
who is ordained by two chief priefts, holding a white cloth,
or veil, over him, while another fays a prayer ; and they
then lay all their hands on his head, and join in pfalms to-
gether. This Itchegue is, in troublefome times, of much
greater confequence than the Abuna. The monks do not
live in convents, but in feparate houfes round their church,
and each cultivates a part of the property they have in land.
The churches in AbyfTmia are very numerous. Every great
man that dies thinks he has atoned for all his wickcdnefs, if
he leaves a fund to bu.ld a church, or has built one during
his life. The king builds many. Tlic fituation of a cliurcii
is rhofen near running water, for the convenience of their
purifications and ablutions, in which they ftrlAly obferve
the Levitical law. The <hu:'ches are placed on an eminence,
and furroundcd by rows of Viiginia cedar, which form very
pk-afing objcfts along the face of the country. All the
i-Iuirches are round buildings, with conical fummits, and
thatched roofs, and on the outfidc encompafTed with pillars
of cedar, to which the roof projefts about eight feet beyond
the wall, fo as to form an agreeable walk in hot weather, or
in rain. The infide of the church is partitioned in the man-
ner prefcribed by the Mofaic law. In the firft and outer
circular apartment the congregation fit and pray. Within
this is a fquarc, divided by a veil or curtain, in which is an-
other fmall divifion aiifwering to the holy of liolies, and fo
narrow, that none but the priefts can enter it. Perfons of
both fcxes, under Jewifh difqualifications, are prohibited
from going within the outer circumference of the church,
and muft perform their devotion at an awful diftance among
the cedars ; and thofe who enter the church muft put off
their fliofs, and take' care they are not ftolen by the priefts
and monks before they return ; kifs the threftiold and two
door-pofts, fay any prayer which they think proper, and

A B Y

thus their duty is finilhed. As for the doftrinal religion of
the Abyffinians, it is that of the Greek church, which they
received on their converfion to Chriftianity by Frumentius,
about the year 1535 ; and every rite or ceremony in the
Abyffinian church m.ay be traced to its origin in the Greek
church whilft both of them were orthodox. Frumentius
preferved it untainted with herefy whilft he lived. Afterwards
Arianifm, and a number of other herelics, as they are called,
were brought by the monks from Egypt, and infedcd the
church of AbyfTinla. Many of thcfe were owing at firft to
the various ufe of the two words, nature and perfon, than
uhich no words were ever more equivocal in every language
in which they have been tranflated. For fome time the
Abyflinians had free accefs to Cairo and Jerufalem, where
their books were revifed and concfbed, and many of the
principal orthodox opinions inculcated. But fince the con-
queil of Ambia and Egypt by Sultan Selim, in 1516, their
intercourfe with thofc countries has been interrupted ; and they
are now, fays Mr. Bruce, with regard to doftrine, as great
heretics, and with refpeft to morals, as corrupt as the Je-
fults h^ve reprefented them. But though he concurs with
the Jefuits in condemning their fentimciits and praftice, he
difapproves of their mode of reforming them. Theeucharill
is received by the Abyflinians in both kinds : for this pur-
pofe they ufe unleavened bread, and the grape bruifed with
the hullc, and forming a kind of marmalade, is fubftituted
for wine, tIiou~h an excellent ftrong wine is made at Dreeda,
about thirty miles fouth-weft of Gondar. The communicant
after receiving, drinks a large draught of water, and turning
his face to the wall of the church, repeats fome prayer in
private with apparent decency and attention. Whether the
Abyflinians believe the dofkrine of tranfubftantiation or not,
is not abfolutely certain. Ludolph (1. iii. c. y.) thinks,
that the vrords of confecration prove their dift^elief of this
doftrine. Mr. Bruce maintains the contrary opinion ;
though he tells us, that a prieft declared to hii"», with great
earneftncfs, that he never did believe that the elements in
the eucharift were converted, by confecration, into the real
body and blood of Chrift. This, he faid, was the Roman
Catholic faith, but it never was his, and he conceived the
bread to be briad, and the wine to be wine, even after con-
fecration. With refpeft to the ftate of fouls before the re-
furrecllon of the body, the opinion generally prevaihng is,
that there is no third ftate, but that the fouls of good men
enjoy the beatific vifion immediately upon their feparation
from the bodv. However, their praftice and their books
contradicl this opinion ; for when any perfon dies, alms are
given, and prayers are olfercd for the fouls of thofe de-
parted.

Upon the whole, we may obferve, that the religion of
the Abyflinians, in the prefent ftate of it, is unworthily dig-
nified with the name of Chriftianity, fince it confifts in a
motley colleftion of traditions and tenets, which have not
any influence on praftice. This people, of all ranks, of
either fex, and of eveiy age, are habitually liars, drunkards,
gluttons, implacable in their refentment, faithlefs in their
dealings, and cruel in their vengeance. The king has un-
limited power ; and a miniiler, in the king's name, exer-
cifes that power with the moft licentious cruelty. The
Abyflinians are totally illiterate ; the arts cultivated among
them remain in a ftate of great imperfeftion ; and, which is
a defeft peculiar to themfelves, they have not even an idea
of mufic. Their bloody feafts, and their promifcuous
amours, are too difgufting for dcfcription. Every thing in
their country wears an air of wretchednefs and meannefs.
Such are the refleftions of an anonymous writer in the
Monthly Review, vol. ii. p. 433. New Series.

I The

A B Y

The AbyHlnians Iiave divers times esprcITcd an inclination
to be reconciled to the fee of Rome ; but ratlier out of in-
tereil of (late than any other motive. See Abyssikia.

Several milfionaries accufe the AbvlTniians of Judaifm,
in regard to the many Jewifli obfervances ftill in ufe amonir
them : fome have even doubted, whether they arc more
Clirillians, or jews. Lobo fays exprofsly, they are only
Chrilliaus in name: they praftlfe circumcifion on females as
well as males. But different opinions are held in different
provinces with re;^ard to the origin and oblij^-ation of this rite,
r.s well as the time and mode of performing it. 1'he Abvf-
finians of Tigre proiefs to have derived it from Hhmatl's
family and his dele 'ndants, with whom they were connefted
at an early period ni their trading voyages ; and they fav,
that the queen of Sheba, and all the women of that coall,
had fuffered excifion at the ufual time of life, before pu-
Ijerty, and before her journey to Jerufalem. The Falalha
declare, that their circunicilion was that commonly prae-
tifed at Jerufalem in the time of Solomon, and in ufe among
them when they left Palclline, and came into Abyfliuia.
They pcrtonn it on the 8th day, as a religious rite, accord-
ing to the firR iiillitution by God to Abraham. The Abyf-
iinians pretend tlieirs is not of this kind, and that they prac-
tife it bccaufe Chrift and the apoRles were circumcifed,
though they do not hold it ncceffaiy to falvation. But
none of them pretend thst circumciiion arifes from any kind
of neceffuy, or from any impediment to procreation, or that
it is neceflary for cleanlinefs, or from the heat of the climate ;
and therefore it is probable, that it was originally derived
from a divine command, and as fuch, tranfmitted to tliem.
See CiRCUMCisiOM. The Abyffinians eat no meats prohi-
bited by the law of Mofes. Women are obliged to the
legal purifications. Brothers many their brothers' wives,
&c. They abitain from hog's flelh, blood, meats flrangled,
&c., and obferve both Satui-day and Sunday labbath, ac-
cording to the cuftom of the primitive church : all of them
marks of Judail"m ; though bv fome refolved into mere
human inftitution, and ufage. They celebrate the Epiphany
with peculiar feftlvity, in memory of Chrift's baptifm ;
when they plunge and fport in ponds and rivers, v>-liich has
occaiioned fome to affirm that they were baptifed a-new
eveiy year. This is pofitively affertcd by Alvarez, but as
pofitlvely contradicted by Mr. Bruce, (vol. Hi. p. 324, &c. )
who has given a veiy ample accoimt of this ceremony, which
is an old obfervance of the eallern church, formerly per-
foiTned publicly in Egypt, as it is now in Ethiopia. Many
falfehoods have been propagated with regard to the mode of
baptifm in Abyflinia, in order to impugn the validity of it,
and to excufe the raffi conduft of the Jefults in rebaptifing
all the Abvffniians, as if they had been a Jcwifli and Pagan
people that had never been baptifed at all. Among the
faints-days, which are very numerous, is one confecrated to
Pilate and his wife ; becaufe Pilate wafhed his hands before
he pronounced fentence on Chrift ; and his wife defired
him to have nothing to do with the blood of that jull perfon.
They have four Lents : the great one commences ten days
earlier than ours, and is obferved with much feverity, many
abllaining therein even from fifti, becaufe St. Paid fays there
is one kind of flefh of men, and another of fillies. They
allow of divorce, which is eafily granted among tliem, and
by the civil judge : nor do their civil laws prohibit poly-
gamy. They have at leaft as many miracles, and legends
of faints, as the Romilh chuich ; v\hich proved no fmall
embarraiTrnent to the Jefuit miflionaries, to whom they pro-
duced fo many miracles, wrought by their faints, in proof
cf their religion, and thofe fo well circumllantlated and at-
teded, that the Jefuits were obliged to deny miracles to be
Vol. I.

A C A

any fu.Tielent proof of a true religion ; anJ to allrjrc
the fame arguments againft tlic AbyfTinians, which pro-
teftants in Europe allege agaiiid the papills. They pray
for the dead, and invoke faints and angels ; and hnvc (o

freat a veneration for the Virgin, that ihcy charged the
eiults with not rendering her honour enough. Im.!ge4 in
painting they venerate, and piiftures have been ufed in their
churches from the earlicfl age of Chriftianily, but thty ab-
hor all thofe that arc eniboffed and in relievo ; nur do tlify
uieacrofs on the top of the ball of the Sendlck or (landard,
becaufe it calls a (hade. Tiiey hold that the foul of man
is not created, becaufe, fav they, God finifhid all lii-.
works on the fixth day. Tliey have the fame books of
fcrlpture with us ; though few arc able lo purchafc entire
copies either of the Old or New Te'.lamcnt. The Revela-
tion of St. John is a favourite hook with them. The Song
of Solomon Is alfo much cftcemed by the old priclls, but the
reading of it is prohibited to the yi>ung ones, the deacons,
laymen, and women. The Abyffinians l>ilie\e that this
fong was made by Solomon in pralfc of Pliaraoh'a daugh-
ter ; but they do not think, with fome of our divines, tliat
it contains any myllery or allegoiy refpeO^ing Chrift and the
church. Tiiey alio admit the apociyplial books, and the
canons of the apollles, as well as tlie apollulical conllitu-
tions, for genuine. Their liturgy is given by Alvarez, and
in Englifli by Pagit ; their calendar by Ludolf ; the anfvvei-s
to abbe Gregory to certain quellions, propofed by the au-
thor laft cited, are publiflied by Fabricius, under the title of
Thcologia iEthiopica.

ACA, Acco, and Acon, in /Indent Cfigrnphy, a town
of Phccnicia, on the Mediterranean ; afterwards called PiO'
lanais, now Acre. See AciiA.

ACABA,a ridge of mountains near Gerri, in AbylTinia.
ACABENE, one of the dlilrifts or provinces into which
Ptolemy divided Egypt. It was fitiiated near the river
Tigris.

ACABIS, a fmall town in Cyrenaica, mentioned by
Ptolemy.

ACACALIS, in the Materia Medlca, the naine givea
by i'ome authors to the Jiii'/i/a fylvrjlr'uy or \\\\A enrol/. Dale.
ACACALOTL, or Acalot, in Ornithology, the name
of an American bird, which is the Tavt/ilus Mtxieanus
of Gmelin, and called by fome corvus aquutkus, or the
water raven.

ACACESIUM, a dty of Arcadia, fo called from
Acacus the ion of Lycaon. It is mentioned by Paufanlas,
L8.

ACACIA, or Akakia, Martin, in Bin^raJ'hy, was bom
at Chalons fur Marnc, about the year 1520. He iludicd
at Paris under the celebrated Monf. Briflot, .and was made
Profeffor of Medicine and Surgery there, and acquired ccn-
fidevable reputation as a teacher in thofe fciences.

He pubhlhed commentaries on fcveral of the works of
Galen, in the years 1548, and 155:5, and two hooks de Mor-
bis Muliebribus, inferted in the Gynii-ciaby Spachicus. He
died m the year 1588.

Acacia, in Botany. See Guilandina, Guaiacvm,
Mimosa, Poinciana, and Spartium.

The flowers of a fpecles of the acacia are ufed by the
Chinefe in making that yellow, which, we fee, bears wafli-
ing in their filks and ftuffs ; and appears with io much ele-
gance in their painting on paper. The method is this :

They gather the flowers before they are fully open ; thefe
they put into a clean earthen vcffel over a gentle heat, and
ftir them continually about, as they do the tea-leaves, till
they become dryilh and of a yellowifh colour ; then to half
a pound of the flowers they add ihrcc fpoonfuls of fair

N water*

A C A

icatfr, and nfter that a littlt more, till there is ju(l enoupjh
to hoitl the flowers incorporated together : they boil this for
lomc time, and the juice of the flowers mixing with the
water, it becomes thick and yellow ; then they take it from
the fire and drain it through a piece of coarfc filk. To the
licuorthey add half an ounce of common alum, and an ounce
of calcined oyller-fhclls reduced to a fine powder. All is
then well mixed together ; and this is the fine lading y.llow
tliev have fo long ufed.

The dyers of large pieces ufe the flowers and feeds of the
acaciafor dyeing three difVerent forts of yellow. They road ths:
flowers, as before obfer\ed ; and then mix the feeds with
them, which mull be gathered for this purpofe when full
ripe : by diflerent admixture of thcfe they give the diflerent
fhades of colours ; only for the deepeli of all, they give a
fmall mixture of Brafil wood.

M. GeofFroy attributes the origin of bczoar to the feeds
of this plant ; which being broufed by certain animals, and
vellicating the ftomach by their great fournefs and aftrin-
{jcncy, caufe a condenfation of the juices, till at lengtii they
become coated over with a ftony matter, which we call

iiiZOAR, or BEZOARD.

Acacia, bajlard ot falfe, in Bo/any. See Robinia.

Acacia Iiul'tana, fignifies Tamarind.

Acacia, tbree-thorned. See Gleditsia.

Acacia Zeylnnka, fignifies logwood.

Acacia, in the Materia Mcdka, is a fubadringent
gummy fubdancc, prepared by infpiffating to a due con-
iidence, the juice expreffed from the unripe pods of the
ytcacla faU'u fcorpioldis Lf^uminofx of Baiihine, or the Mimosa
Kdol'ua of Linnxus. For an account of the pods, and man-
ner of preparing the juice, fee Murray's Apparatus Med.
vol. ii. p. 412. This fubdance is brought from Egypt,
in roundifli mafies, wrapt up in thin bladders from four to
tight ounces in weight. It is outwardly of a blackilh brown
colour, and inwardly of a rcddifli or yellowidi brown. This
juice totally diffolves in water ; but reflificd fpirit produces
little or no efFeft upon it ; it is therefore truly of the gummy
kind. It has no fmell, and applied to the tongue it foon
foftens, and manifeds firft a moderately rough and then a
fweetldi tade.

This mild gummy aftringent may be given to advantage
in diforders arifing from laxity and acrimony, as habitual
diarrhoea*., uterine fluors, and catarrhal coughs. By the
Egyptians it is ufed againd fpitting of blood, in dofes of a
tlram ; and alfo in collyria for ftrengthening the eyes, in gar-
garifms for quinfeys, and glyfters for diarrhoeas. Among
113 it is feldom otherwife ufed than as an ingredient in mi-
thridate or theriaca. The above fubdance has been called
yicjcia vera, by way of diftinftion from the German Acacia,
which is a counterfeit of the other, and often fold for it in
the fliops. This is the infpifTated juice of unripe floes, formed
by boiling the juice to the confii^ence of a folid extraft. It
is didinguidied from the true Acac'ia chiefly by its colour,
which is as black as that of Spanifh liquorice, and alfo by
being harder and heavier, and of a fnarper taft^, and by
giving out its aftringency to reftified fpirit. This is ad-
miniftered in fliixes, that indicate the want of ftyptic me-
dicines, in dofes from a fcruple to a dram. Lew is, Mat.
Med.

Acacia, among Antiquaries, denotes fomcthing refem-
bling a kind of roll -or bag, feen on medals in the hands of
fevcral of the confuls and emperors from the time of Ana-
ftafius.

According to Du-Cange, the axaxiK, properly fo called,
was a purple bag filled with earth, or fand, and born by
the priace la hk left hand, to remind bim of his frailty and

A c; A

mortality ; and thus to prevent his being too much elated
with his llation.

But aiuhors are not agreed, either about the ufe of this
roll, or about the fubdance whereof it confifts ; fome taking
it for a handkeivhief rolled up, which the perfon who pre-
fided at the games threw out as a fignal for their begin-
nin"- ; whilft others rather imagine it intended to reprefent a
roll of memoirs, or petitions.

ACACIANS, in Church Kijlary, the followers of Aca-
cius, bidiop of Cxfarca, who flouriihed about the middle of
the fourth centuiy. He fucCeedcd his preceptor, the fa-
mous Eufebius, in 340, wrote his life, and feveral other w-orks,
viz. 17 books upon Ecclciiaftes, fix books of Mii'ccl-
laneous (^uelHons, and a book againd Marcellus, and died
about the year 366. He was furnamcd Lufcus, or Mo-
nophthalmus, becaufe he could fee only with one eye.
He is generally reckoned a man of unfteady principles,
but he was fenfible and eloquent, and a (Icllful difputant.
Some of the Acacians maintained, that the Son was not of
the fame, but of a fimilar fubdance with the Father : others
held that he was of a different fubftance from the Father.
This was likewife the denomination of another feft, derived
from the name of their leader, a patriarch of Condantinople,
in the fifth centur)-, who favoured the opinion of Eutyches.
See Eutychians, and Monophysites.

It was by the advice of this Acac'ius, who fucceeded Gen-
nadius in .471, and died in 489, that the Henoticon was
publidied, by the emperor Zenoin 482. In this conneftioir
we cannot forbear introducing a circumftance, that redounds
much to the honour of another Acacius, bilhop of Amida,
in 420, whofe name, fays Gibbon, (Hifl;. Decl. and Fall of
the Rom. Erap. vol. v. p. 427, 8vo. ) might have dignified
the faintly calendar. Boldly declaring that cups of gold and
filver are ufelefs to a god, who neither eats nor drinks, this
generous prelate fold the plate of the church of Amida ;
employed the price in the redemption of 70CO Perfian cap-
tives ; fuppUed their wants with affeftionate liberality ; and
difmiiTed them to their native countiT, to inform the king
of the true fpirit of the religion which he perfecuted. The
king, it is faid, was fo affefted with this aft of benevolence,
that he wifhedto fee the bidiop ; and the intei-view produced
a peace between this prince, Veranius, and Theodofius I.

ACACIUS, a name given to feveral bifliops, and other
eminent perfons befides thofe mentioned under the preceding
article ; particularly a martyr under the emperor Decius ;
a patriarch of Antioch, who fucceeded Bafil in 458, and
died in 459 ; a bidiop of Miletum in the 5th centurj' ; ano-
ther bifliop of Beroea in Syria, who was prefent at the
council held at Conftantinople in 381, the friend of Epi-
phanius Flavianus, and the enemy of John Chn,'foftom,
biihop of Condantinople, whom he caufed to be depofed,
and who, at the age of no years, advifed Theodofius the
younger, to confirm the fentence pronounced againll Nef-
torius, and alfo againd Cyril, biftiop of Alexandria : he wa$
eminent for wlfdom ar»d fanftity, fays Theodoret, and died
in 436 : — and a famous rhetorician in the reign of the em»
peror Julian.

ACADA, fee Porto Bello.

ACADEMICS, a feft of philofophers who followed the
doftrine of Socrates and Plato, as to the uncertainty of
knowledge, and the incompi-ehenfibility of truth.

Academic, in this fenfe, amounts to much the fame with
Platonid ; the difference between them being only in point
of time. They who embraced the fydem of Plato, among
the ancients, were called Academtci ; whereas thofe who did
the fame, fince the redoration of learning, have aflumed the
deuoraiuation of Platonists..

i We

A C A

V/e ufually reckon three fefts of Academics ; though
fome make five. I'he ancient Acatlnny was that which was
founded by Plato; and confided of thofc followers of this
eminent philofopher, wlio tauglit the dodrine of their maf-
ter without mixture or corruption. The firfl of th-jfe was
Speusippus; he was Aicceeded by Xenocratts. After
his death the direftion of the academy devolved upon Po-
LEMO, and then upon Cratfs, and terminated with
Grantor. After the death of Crates, a new tribe of philo-
lophers arofe, who on account of certain innovations in their
manner of philofophifing, which in fome meafure receded
from the Platonic fyllem, without entirely dcfcrting it, have
been diftlnguiflied by the appellation of the Second or Mid-
dle Academy. The firll preceptor, who appears in this clafs,
and who, in confequence of the innovations which he intro-
duced into the Platonic fchool, has been commonly con-
fidered as the founder of this Academy, is Arcesilaus.

In order to conceive jullly concerning the nature and
caufes of this revolution, it will be proper to advert to the
ftate of opinions in the preceding period. It had been very
generally maintained by both the Greek and Barbaric plii-
lofophers, that there can be no certain knowledge of things
ib variable and fluduating as thofe mater' il objedts which
fall under the notice of the fenfes. But they did not ima-
gine, that human reafon is wholly incapable of arriving at
truth ; ngr was the doftrine of univerfal fcepticifm intro-
duced in the infancy of philofophy. In excluding material
objefts from the department of fcience, the firll philofophers
diicovered an inclination to inquire with modefty concerning
the nature of things, to divert themfelves of prejudice, and to
fatisfy themfelves with a fober alTent to thofe truths which lay
within the reach of the human underftanding. Befides, the
Barbaric philofophers, and after them the Greeks, held two
kinds of doftrine, the popular for the amufement of the
vulgar, and the concealed, which was communicated in the
confidence of mere private inftruftion to their profelTed dif-
ciples. Such was the (late of philofophy, when Socrates
appeared, and exerted him.felf in regulating the conduft of
the human mind. In oppofition to the Sophills, who
boafted that they knew every thing, he confeffed that he
knew nothing ; by which acknowledgment he did not mean
to alTeit the univerfal uncertainty of human knowledge, but
merely to convince his followers of the futility of thofe fpe-
culations, which do not reft upon the firm foundation of ex-
perience, and to teach them modefty in their inquiries, and
diffidence in their affertions. Among the fefts who fprung
out of the fchool of Socrates, the greater number deviated
into the mazes of difputation,andrefumed the Sophiftic mode
of arguing on either fide of every queilion, that was pro-
pofed. Plato inclined to a ftricler method of philofophifing ;
and in his public diiputations after the Soeratic manner,
whilil he refuted the opinions of others, and left his hearers
imdecided concerning his own, he fully explained the prin-
ciples of his philofophy to thofe pupils who were indulged
with his private and confidential inllruelion. His doftrine
was, that no certain knowledge can be obtained concerning
the varying forms of natural bodies, and that ideas are the
only objerts of fcience. This doftrine was univerfally
taught in the Old ylcademy ; but before the time of Arcefi-
laus, it was never denied, that ufeful opinions may be de-
duced from the fenfes. Cic. Acad. 1. I. c. 8. torn. ii. Ed.
Olivet. Two fefts arofe about this time, which threatened
the deftruCtion of the Platonic fyllem ; one was founded
by Pyrrho, which held the dotlrine of univerfal Icepticlfm,
and the other by Zeno, which maintained the certainty ot
human knowledge, and taught with great confidence, a
dodriae elfeatialTy different ftom that of Plato. In this

A C A

fituation, Arccfilaus ihonght it ncceflV.ry to fxcrcifo a cats-
tious referve with regard to tlie doflrine of his mailer, and
to conceal his opinions fi-om tlie vulgar, under the appc.v-
ance of doubt and uncertainty. Profelfnig to ilerivc hit
dodrine concerning the uncertainty of knowledge from
Socrates, Plato, and other philofophers, he manitaincd,
that though there is a real certainly in the nature of
things, cverj- thing is uncertain to the liuman underAand-
ing, and confequently that all confident affertions arc un-
reafonable. He ihoiiglit it difgraceful to affent to any pro-
poliiion, the truth of which is not fully cftablifhed, and
maintained that, in all queftions, oppofitc opinions may be
fupported by arguments of cqu:d weight. He dilputcd
agalnll the teillmony of the fenfes, and tlic aulhoiity of rea-
fon ; acknowledging at the fame time, that tluy ftiniifli
probable opinions fulficient for the condud of life. I low-
ever, his fecret dtllgn feems to have been to cft.iblifh the
dodriue of Plato, that the knowledge derived from fenfiblc
objeds is uncertain, and that the only true feieuce is that
which is employed upon the immutable objeds of intelli-
gence, or ideas.

After the death of Arcefilaus, the Platonic fchool was
fucceffively under the care of I.ACvnES, who is faid to
have founded a new fchool, merely becaufc he changed the
place of inllrudion, and held it in the garden of AttaJus,
within the limits of the Academic grove, and of Evanderand
Egefinus. Arcefilaus, however, had oppofed the Stoics
and other dogmatical philofophers, with lucli violence, and
extended his dodrhic of uncertainty fo far, as to alarm not
only the general body of philofophers, who treated him as a
common enemy to philofopliy, but even the governors of
the ftate, who apprehended that his opinions would diffolvc
all the bonds of focial virtue and of religion. His fucceffors,
therefore, found it difficult to fupport the credit of the
academy; and Carne adf.s, one of the difciplcs of this
fchool, relinquifhed, at leaft in words, fome of the more ob-
noxious tenets of Arcefilaus.

From tills period the Platonic fchool alTumed the appel-
lation of the Neil) Acndemy, which may be reckoned tiie
th'ird in order from its firft eftabhftiment. It was the doc-
trine of this Academy, that the fenfes, the underftanding,
and the imagination, frequently deceive us, and therefore
cannot be infallible judges of truth ; but that, from the
impreffions produced on the mind, by means of the fenfes,
called by Carneades phantafies, or images, we infer ap-
pearances of truth, or probabilities. Thefe images do not
always correfpond to the real nature of things, and there is
no infallible method of determining when they are true or
falfe ; and confequently they afford no certain criterion of
truth. But, with refjied to the condud of life and the
purfuit of happlnefs, probable appearances are a fufficient
guide, becaufe it is unreafonable not to allow fome degree
of credit to thofe witneffes who commonly give a true re-
port. See Probability. According to the dodriiic of
the Nrzv Acmlemy, the judgments ariling from the operation
of the mind in cftimating the different degrees of probability,
are not fcience, but opinion, which is all the knowledge that
the human mind is capable of attaining. Tiie chief point of
difference between the Middle and the Neiu Academy, feems
to have been, that the latter taught the dodrinc of unca--
talnty in lefs exceptionable terms than the foiTiier. Dr.
Waiburton, however, offers fevcral reafons to lluw that
both thefe AcademieH were in reality the fame, and that
they were as real fceptics, as the fed which was fo deno-
minated. See Div. Leg. of Mofes, vol. ii. p. 117, n8,
4th ed. Arcefilaus, in his zeal for overturning all other
feds, furuiflied his opponents with a prete.vt for charging
N z iiiin

AC A

Mm wii!i attirmpts to vindcrmine the whole foundation of
miT-sls. CariRMdcs, a-.slling hiinfi-lf of prohability, afforded
fufficicnt fcupc for praitioal principles of coiijiift. Arcefi-
laus was ca;tfly employed in oppofing the tenets of other
philol'ophers in lojjic and phylics, and paid little atlentlon
to ethics. Carncadcs, whillt he inculcated the necelHty of
fiifpence in fpceulativc refearches, prefcribed rules for the
direction of lift: and manners. The immediate fucci?flbr of
Carneades in the iV^w jiaiiUmy, was Clitom achus. He
was fuccetded by Philo of LarifTa, who is confidcrcd by
fome writers as the founder of -ji. fourth Academy ; und a Jifth
is fsid to have lKi.'n eftablilhed by Antiochus of Afealon,
who w.is '.he lall preceptor of the Platonic fchool, and who
atten^ntcd to reconcile the tenets of the diiTcrent fedls, and
maintained tint the dodrines of the Stoics were to be
found in the writings of Plato. After his time the pro-
ftflbrs of the Academic philofophy were difperfed by the
tumu'ts of war, .-uid the fchool itfelf was transferred to
Rome. Here the philofopliy of the OU Academy, revived
and corrcfted by Antiochus, found many advocates.
Amongll the moll eminent of thefe we may reckon Lu-
CULLUS, ALircu! Brutus, M. Tcvrnthts Varro, and ^I/.
Piso. The AliJJie Academy had likewife its patrons in
this city ; as it was founded upon a conviftion of the imbeci-
lity of human reafon, without running, vvitli the Pynho-
nills, into the cxtniv;<gancc of an entire fufpenf;on of opi-
nion, it became a fav)urite fe£t among the Romans. Ci-
CFKO, to wiiofe profeflion, as a public pleader, whofe bu-
fuiefs it was to collect arguments from all quarters on op-
pofite fides of every doubtful quelUon, it was peculiarly
adapted, additled himfclf to this feft ; and having himfelf
been inftrucled by Philo, he would not find it difficult to
ir.duee others to follow his example. Cicero De Off. 1. 2.
c. 2. Oper. torn. iii. p. 328. Tufc. 1. 2. c. 2. torn. ii. p. 353.
— 1. 4. c. 4. torn. ii. p. 419. Acad. Qii. palTim. tom. ii.
p. 5 — 99. De Fin. 1. 2. c. I. tom. ii. p. 129 — 1. 5.
c. 3 — 5. tom.ii. p. 24?! — 2;i. De Orat. 1. 3. c. 16 — 18.
torn. i. p. 32S. De Nat. Deoruni, I. i. c. 5 — 7. tom. ii.
p. 504. Philof. Fragm. tom. iii. p. 585. Ed. Olivet.
Genev. — Diog. Laeit. 1. 3 — 4 — 6. tom. i. Ed. Amft. —
tjext. F.mp. 1. !. c. 33. p. 56. Contra Logic. 1. 7. p. 401,
&c. Ed. Fabr. Lipf. Enf. Hift. of Philof. b. 2. c. 8.
vo'. i. p. 238, &;c. b. 3. c. I. vol. ii. p. 9 — II. See Eclfc-
Tics, Pl'atonists, and Sceptics. For the difference
b-tween the Academics and Sceptics; See SctPTic?.

Academics, Academicians, or Academists, is alfo
lifed among us for the members of the modern academies,
or inllitu'cd focieties of learned perfons.

ACADEMY, AcADEMiA, in A:iUqmty, a public grove,
or villa, fituate in one of the fuburbs of Athens, abo.it fix
ft.'.dia, or j of a mile from the city ; where Plato, and the
■wife men who followed him, held affemblies for dispute and
philofophical conference ; and which gave the denomination
to the feci of Academics.

It took its name aciid-my, from one Academus, or Eca-
demus a citizen of Athens, to whom it originally be-
longed ; and who appropriated It to gymnallic fports or
exercifes. — H.- lived in the time of Tli^lcus.

Some, erroneoufly, d:rlve its name .ind origin from Cad-
mus tiie Phoenician, as being the firfl who introduced learn-
ing, and the ufe of letters, among the Greek?.

The academy was farther improved and adorned by Ci-
mon, with fountains, trees, fliidy wal!;";, &c. for the con-
venience of the philofophers and men of learning who here
met to confer, difpute, &c. — Hipparchus, the fon of
Pififtratus, built a wall round it : and, in order to defray
tlie charges, laid fo heavy a tax on the people, tliat ever

A C A

after 'Irr«f;^» tiix«i was ufed proverbially for any cxpen-
five buiinels. It was alfo the burjing-place of illullrious
perfons, who had defervcd well of the republic. Of this
retreat, fo well adap'<d to philofophy and the mufes, Ho-
race fpeaks, Epill. II. 45.

•' Atque inter fylvas Academ! quserere venim."
" 'Midll academic groves to fcarcli for truth."

Within this inclofure Plato pofleflcd, as a part of liia
humble patrimony, purchafedat the price of three thoufand
drachmas, or about 1 16I. los. 6d. fterliiig, a fmall garden, in
which he opened a fchool for the reception of tliofe who
might be difpofed to attend his inllruclions.

Here he taught his philofoph./ : and from this clrcum-
llancc all public places, delHned for the affemblies of the
learned and ingenious, have been fince called academies.

Sylla facrificed the delicious groves and walks of the aca-
demy, planted by Cimon, to the laws of war ; and em-
ployed thofc very trees to make machines with which to
batter the city. Cicero alfo had a villa, or countiy retire-
ment near Pu/.zuoli, ivhich he called by the fame name,
academia ; whei-e he ufed to entertain his philofophical
friends. — It was here he compofed his Academical Quef-
tions, and his book De NaturaDeorum.

Academy is more frequently ufed among the moderns,
for a regular society, or company of learned perfons ; in-
ftitutcd generally under the protection of a prince, for the
cviltivatioii and improvement of arts or fciences.

Ptolemy Soter, in order to encourage and improve the
liberal arts in his dominions, founded an academy at Alex-
andria, or a fociety of learned men, who devoted thcmfelves
to the fludy of philofophy, and all other fciences ; and he
provided them with a collection of books, which became by
degrees the finefl library in the world, and has been known
under the name of the Alexandrian hbrary.

Thcodofius the younger, founded an academy at Con-
ftantinople, which he fumiHied with able profefTors of every
fcience, intending it as a rival inftitution to th;et at Rome,
which, with other literaiy feminaries, had been deftroyed by
Alaric a.>d the Goths, towards the clofe of the fourth, and
beginning of the fifth centuries.

Some authors confound academy with univerfity ; but
though much the fame in I.,atin, they are very different
t/iings in Englifh. — An univerfity is, properly, a body com-
pofed of graduates in the feveral faculties ; of profefTors,
who teach in the pub'.;c fchools ; of regents or tutors, and
iludents who le;irn under them, and afpire likewife to de-
grees. Whereas, an academy is not intended to teach or
profefs any art, fucli as it is, but to improve it : it is not
for novices to be inftrufted in, but for thofe that are more
ki-owing ; for perfons of diilinguilhed abilities to confer in,
and con-iir.unicate their lights and difcoveries to each other,
for th:ir nuitual b nefit and improvement.

The firfl academy we read of, was eflablifhed by Charle-
magne at the motion of Alcuin : it was compofed of the
chief wits of the court, the enip ror hiir.felf being a mem-
ber.— In their academical conferences, every perfon was to
give an account of what ancient authors he had read ; and
each of them affumed the name of fome ancient author who
pleafed him mofl, or fome celebrated perfon of antiquity.
Alcuin, from whofe letters we learn tiiefe particulars, took
that of FhccuG, the furnamje of Horace ; a young lord
named Augilbert, took that of Homer ; Adelard, bifhop
of Corbie, was called Auguflin ; Riculf, bifhop of Mentz,
was Dametas ; and the kiug himfelf, David.

Moft nations have now their acadtmies j but Italy has the
grcateft number.

Of

A C A

Of tljefe ufcful inflitutions wc {hall give an account in
the following order,

A C A D V M I E s of j'tnUquitifs ; as

The Ac^di-my at Coiioiia, cR.^bliflicd for the ftiidy of the
Hetnirian antiquities; which are numerous and cxtt-nfive.
Their head is called Lucumon, a name taken from the an-
cient governors of Hetnnla. One of their Ijws is to give
audience to poets only one day in the year : another is, to
fix their fcfi'ions, and iinpofe a tax of a dilfcrtation on each
member in liis turn.

The j1cM(hmy of AnUqu'il'.cs at Upfal, owes its rife to
queen Chriftina, but its dlabliiliment chiefly to Charles
Guilavus her fucceiTor. Its defign is for illuflrating the
northern languages, and the antiquities of the country, as
fiones, coins, and the hke monuments ; in which notable
difcoveries have been made by it. The more eminent of
in members have been Verelius, Loccenius, Schcffer, Rud-
feecks, Keder, Salin, Perlvilsiold, &c.

Academy, of ArckUetJnre, was eftablilhed at Paris by
M. Colbert, in 1 67 1, conlifting of a company of (Ivilful
artills, under the direction of the Superintendant of the
buildings.

Academy, Royal, of Arts, war inftituted in London for
the encouragement of Di-fv^tnng, Painting, Sculpture, &.C.
&c. in the year 176S. This academy is under the imme-
diate patronage of the king, and under the direction of forty
artiils of the firll rank in their fevcral profeffions. It fur-
niHies, in winter, living models cf different charaftcrs, to
draw after ; and in fummer, models of the fame kind to
paint after. Nine of the ablell academicians, are annually
elefted out of the forty, whofe bulinefs is to attend by ro-
tation, to fet the figures, to examine the performances of
the ftudcnts, and to give them neccflary inftruftions.
There arj likewife four profeffurs of Pmnting, of Archtlec-
ttire, of Ana'omy, and of Perfpe^ive, who annually read
publ c ledlures on the lubjefts of their feveral departments ;
befide a prefid^nt, a council, and other officers.

Tie admiffion to t'lis academy is free to all ftudents, pro-
perly qualified to reap advantage from the ftudies cultivated
in it ; and there is an annua! exhibition of paintings, fculp-
tures, and defigns, open to all artills of diftinguilhcd merit.

The Academy of Arts, at Peterlburg, was eftablilhed by
the emprefs Elizabeth, at the fuggeftion of count Shuvalof,
and annexed to the Acc.cicmy of Sciences. The late emprefs
Catharine has formed it into a feparate inftitution, enlarged
the annual revenue from 4000I. to l2,OOol., and augmented
the number of fcholars from 40 to 300. She has alfo con-
ftrucled, for the accommodation of the members, a large
circular buHding, which fronts the Neva. The fcholars are
admitted at the age of fix, and continue to iR; and they
are lodged, clothed, fed, and taught, at the expence of the
crown. All of them are inftrufted in reading and writing,
arithmetic, the French and Gennan languages, and draw-
ing. At the age of 14, they may chufe any of the fol-
lowing arts, which are dillributtd into four claffes : I.
Painting in all its branches of hillory, portrait, battle, and
landfcape ; architcAure ; mofaic ; enamelling, &c. 2. En-
graving on copper-plates, feal-cutting, &c. 3. Carving in
wood, ivory, and amber. 4. Watch-making, turnery, in-
ftrument-making, calling ftatues in bronze and other me-
tals, imitating gems and medals in pafte and other compo-
fttions, gilding, and varnifliing. Prizes are annually d'dri-
bated among thofe who excel m any particular art ; and from
thofe who have obtained four prizes 12 are feledcd, who
are fent abroad at the public charge. Their travelling ex-
pences are deftayed ; and when they fettle in any town,
ttey receive an anuualfalary of 6c 1. for four years. There

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18 an alTortnoent of paint-. igs and models for the ufc of the

fcholars.

Academies, of Pti.'nting, Sculfiliirr, ^vul Arthilffliirr : M
thcfe celebrated ones ancitntlv at liorcnce and Milan, callid
?i\Uyfcho(ii ; and tliat other at 15olo;jna, incoiporated into
the new inllitutc; to wliich may be added the academy
of paiiiting and fculi>turc at Paris and Vienna} another of
deligning at Rome.

Academy of Painting nml Sculp'ure at Paris, was firft
projei'lfd by Le Unni, Sarazin, Coriicillc, &c. for which
thty obtained an arret of council in 1(148, and tUal'lifiied in
1654 and i6jf, under the Cardinal Mazarine, firft pi"otoc-
tor thereof; and the chancellor Seguicr vice-prote£tor. In
16(^3, a penfion of 40C0 livres was granted to the academy
by tlie inteqiofition of M. Colbert. It confilts, btfides, of
a director, a chancellor, four reftors, a treafurcr, and four
profclTors, one of anatomy, and another of geometry ; ad*.
junfts to the reftors and profefibrs ; coiinfcllors ; a fecrc-
tary ; an hiftoriographer, and two ulhers.

Perfons are here admitted either in quality of painters or
fculptors, who model from a naked pcrion. — 'I'he painters
are admitted according to their refpeC\ive talents ; there
being a diftinflion made between thofe who work in
hiftory, and thofe who only paint portraits, or landfc.ipes,
or bealls, or fruits, or flowers, or paint in miniature ; or
•only defign, or engrave, or car\e, &c. In the Academy of
painting there are 1 2 profeflors, each of whom attends a
month in the year, and tlieir place is fnpplied by 1 2 adjuncts.
The profeflor upon duty places the naked man as he thinks
proper, and fets him in two different attitudes cvei-y week.
This they caW fitting the moilel. In one week of this month
he fets two models together, which is called _/(-//;n_5' iht group.
The paintings and models made after this model are deiio-
minated academics, or acadcmv-figures. They have likcwife a
wom.an who Hands for a model in the pubhc fehool. Three
prizes for defign are diftributed evci-)' three months among
the eleves or fcholars ; two others for painting, and two for
fculpture every year. An account of this academy has been
pub'ifiied by Guerin, under the following title, Dtfcript.
De I'Acad. Roy. de Peinture & Sculpt.

There is alfo a French academy of painting, fculpture,
&c. at Rome, eftablilhed by Lewis XIV., wherein thofe
who have won the annual prizes in the like academy at
Paris, are received and enteitained for three years with a
view to farther improvement.

An Acadimy of drawing and fculpture was eftablillicd at.
Manheim, by Cliarles Tlieodore, eledor Palatine, in I775>
with a view of encouraging and promoting the tine arts.

The y^f(7^/< my of painting and fculpture, at Stockholm,
has nine pi'ofeiTors, and commonly about 400 fcholars. This
academy annually diftributes three large and three fmnll
medals ; aid the iludcnts who moil diiUnguilh themfclvcs,
are permitted to travel into France and Italy, at the expence
of tlie inftitution.

Academies of Belles Lrllres, thofe wherein eloquence
and poetry are chiefly cultivated. Italy abounds with
thefe ; and in France there are not a few ; fuch are

Tiie Academy o/"lTmidi at Florence, called aftcrvrnrds La
Floreritina, in honour of the grand-duke Cofino I. who de--
clared himfelf its protecflor in 1549, is illullrious both for
the works it has produced, and its members ; which for
thefe two liift ages have included n.oll of the eminent men,
not only in Tuicany, but in all Italy. Their chief atten-
tion is to the Italian poetr)'.

Academy if Humor'jh, Umorifti, had its oririn at
Rome, from the marriage of Lorenzo Mnncini, a Roman
gentkmaii, at wliich ftveral perfoa*. of rauk were gnefts ;

aud.

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and it being carnival time, to give the ladies Tome diverfion,
tliL-y took thcmlVlvos to the reciting of verfeB, fonncts,
fpecciies, and comedies, firft, r.v temporf, and aftcnvards
prenieditatedly ; which gave tiiem the denomination of BiU'i
hiimori. After fome experience, coming more and more into
the talle of thefe exercifes, they refolved to form an academy
of Belles 1. Hires: and changed the title of Belli Humor't ior
that of HumorijU ; choofing for their device a cloud, which,
after being formed of ihe lalinC exhalations of the fca, re-
turns in a gentle fweet lliower, with the motto from Lucre-
tius, redil agmine Jiilei.

AcADRMY o/"^nWy waseftabliflied at Rome in 1690, for
reviving tlie ftudy of poetr)', and the belles lellres ; and com-
prehends mod of the politer wits in Italy, of both fexes ;
many princes, cardinals, and other erckriallics : to avoid all
difputes among whom, about pre-eminence, it is wifely pro-
vided, that all appear maflced, after t!ie manner of (hepherds of
Arcadia. Witliin ten years from its firil eilablilbnient, the
number o( ylciidemi/ls amounted to 600. They hold aflemblies
feven times a year,in a mead or grove ; or in the gardens of fonic
nobleman of dillinftion. Six of thefe meetings are employed
in the recitation of poems, and vcrfcs of the ylraidi reliduig
at Rome, wlio read their own compofitions : except ladies
and cardinals, who are allowed to make ufe of other (liep-
lierds for this office. The feventh meeting is fet apart for
the compofitions of foreign, or abfent members ; in which
there is more entertainment than in all the reft ; becaufe the
pieces produced here are written in all the different ftyles
and dialects of Italy. The go\-ernment of this academy is
wholly democratical, allowing of no prince or proteClor,
but only a cujlos, who rcprefents the whole fociety, chofen
each olympiad, that is, evei-y four years ; with a power of
electing twelve others yearly, to affift him in the admini-
llration. Under thefe are two fuhcujlodes, one vicar or
frociijlos, and four deputies or fuperintendants, annually
chofen. There are five ways of elefting members ; the firft
called acclamaUon, ufed when fovereign princes, cardinals,
and ambafikdors of kings, dcfire to be admitted ; in which
cafe the votes are given viva voce ; the fecond, aninimerntion,
introduced in favour of ladies and academical colonies ;
where the votes are taken privately : the third, reprefciitatlon,
tftablilbed in favour of colleges and univerfities, where the
young gentry are bred ; who have each a privilege of re-
commending one, or two members, privately to be ballotted
for : the fourth, furrogatwn, whereby new lliepherds are
fubrtituted in the room of thofe dead, or expelled: the laft,
(iijl'inal'ion, v hereby, when there is no vacancy of members,
perfons of poetical merit have tlie title Arcml'i conferred
on them, till fuch time as a vacancy fhall happen. All the
members of this body at their admilfion, affume new pafto-
ral names, in imitation of thofe of the ancient Arcadians.
The academy has divers colonies of Arcad'i eftablidied in
other cities in Italy, all regulated after the fame manner.

AcADF-MV, Roynl vA Ca(?n, was eftablifhed by letters pa-
tent in 1 705 ; it had its rife fifty years earlier in private
conferences, held firft in the houfe of M. de Brieux. M.
de Segrais retiring to this city, to fpend the reft of his
days, reftored and gave new hiftre to their meetings. In
1707, M. Foucault, intendant of the generality of Caen,
procured the king's letters patent for erecting them into a
perpetual academy, of which IM. Foucault was to be pro-
tector for the time, and the choice afterwards left to the
members, the number of whom was fixed to thirty, and
the choice of them, for this time, left to M. Foucault.
liefide the thirty, leave is given to add fome fupernumerary
members, not exceeding fix, from the ecclcfiaftical commu-
nities in that city.

A C A

An afTembly of men of letters was formed at Lyons,
which merely wimted letters patent to conftitute a royal
academy, interior to few in France. It coniifted of twenty
academirts, with a direftor at their head, and a fecretary
who is perpetual. F. Lombard, a Jefuit, one of the mem.
bers here read a learned diffcrtation on infinity.

Theie is an Academy of Belles Lettres, Hiftory, and An-
tiquities at Stockholm, the Memoirs of which are publifhed
in the Swediih language.

Academies, Chirurgical ; as that firft inftitutedat Paiij
in 1 73 1, and finally eftablilhed by letters patent from the
king in 1748 ; the members of which are not only to pub-
liflt their own and correfpondents' obfervations and im-
provements, but to give an account of all that is publiflied
in furo-ery, and to compofe a complete hiftoiy of this art,
by their extrafts from all the authors, ancient and modern,
who have wrote on it. A queftion in furgeiy is to be pro-
pofed by the academy yearly ; and a prize of a gold medal
of five hundred livres value to be given to him who furnifhes
the moll fatisfaftory anfwer.

Academy ofSiirgery was inftituted fome years agoat Vien-
na by the emperor, under the direction of the celebrated Brara-
billa. It had at firlt only two profeffbrs, who had the
charge of inftrutting 130 young men, of whom thirty had
been furgeons in the army. But the number both of
teachers and pupils has been much increafed. They are pro-
vided with a large edifice in Vienna, which affords habita-
tion for the teachers and ftudents, and alfo for pregnant
women, and patients for clinical lectures, and new arts.
They have alfo a medical libraiy, a complete fet of chirur-
gical inilruments, an apparatus for experiments in natural
philofophy, a colleftion of fpecimens in natural hiitory, a
number of anatomical and pathological preparations, and a
variety of other ufeful articles. Adjoining to the build-
ing, there is alfo a good botanical garden. Three prize-
medals, of the value of forty florins each, are annually be-
ftowed on the ftudents who return the beft anfwers to the
queftions propofed in the preceding year.

Academies, Cofmographical ; as that of the Argonauts
at Venice, inftituted at the folicitation of F. Coronelli, for
the improvement of Geography. The deiign of the acade-
mia cofmographica is to procure exact maps, geographical,
topographical, hydrographical, and ichnographical, of the
celeftial as well as terreltrial globe, and the feveral regions
and parts thereof, together w'ith geographical, hiftorical,
and aftronomical defciiptions : in order to which, the feve-
ral members oblige themfelves, by their fubicription, to take
one or more copies of each piece, publiihed under the di-
rection of the academy ; and to advance the money or part
of it, in order to defray the charge of publication. To
this end, three focieties were fettled at Venice, Paris, and
Rome : the firft under F. Moro, provincial of the Mino-
rites of Hungary ; the fecond under the abbot Laurence
au Rue Payenne au Marais ; the third, under F. Ant.
Baldigiani, Jefuit, profcfTor of Mathematics in the Roman
college ; to whom thofe addrefs themfelves, who are willing
to engage in this defign. The number of members in the
feveral countries of Europe has been confiderable ; their de-
vice is the terraqueous globe, with the motto, plus ultra.
At the expence of this academy, all the globes, maps, and
geographical writings of F. Coronelli have been publiihed.

Academy of Dancing. One of this kind was inftituted
by Louis XIV. with extraordinary privileges.

Academies, Ecckfiajlical ; as that at Bologna, inftituted
in 1687, and employed in the examination of tlic doCtrine,
difcipline, and hiftory of each age of the church.

Academies, Iljhrlial ; as the Royal A^adsmy of Fori w

S"'J*

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gxiefe Bijlory at LifVion, wliich was inflituted by king John
V. ill 1720, as appears by a medal Itnick by the academy,
on the front whcreot is that prince's effigy, with tlie in-
fcription Johannes V. LuJ'iianorum Rex ; and on the re-
verie, the fame prince Jlandiiig is reprcfented fupporting
aid laifing Hiftory, almoll prolliate before him, with the
legend H'ljlorij Rtj'urges : underneath arc the following
wnvtl;! in abbi-CYiatnre, REGia ACAIIcmia HISTorix
LUSITanK INSTITuta VI. Idns Decembris MDCCXX.
This academy coniifls of a director, four ccnfors, a fe-
cretaiy, and (ifly members ; to each of whom is afhgned
fome part either of the ecclefuiftieal, or civil hiilorv of the
nation ; which he is to treat either in Latin, or Portuguefe.

Academy of Suab'un H'ljiory, at Tubingen, was eihi-
blithed by fome learned men, for publifhing the bell
hillorical writings, the lives of the chief hillovians, and
compiling new memoirs, on the fcveral points and periods
thereof.

Academies ofLatigunge,?Lre called by fome, Gramnuilical
Academies : as the Aeademy della Cnifca, Aciidemla furfuralo-
rum, or the Bran Academy, alUiding probably to the end of
their inilitution, which is to lift out and rejedl as hullis or
bran, all Italian words that are not good Tufcan, is famous
for its vocabulary of the Italian tongue, and was formed at
riorenoe, in 15S2, but fcarce heard of before the year 15S4,
when it became noted fur a difpute between Taffo and feveral
of its members. Many authors of note confound this with
the Florentine academy. The famous Torricelh delivered
many of his philofophicul difcourfes in this academy. This
academy is now united with two others, viz. the Fiorentina,
and the Apatiili, under the name of Reale Accadem'ia Fioren-
tina.

Academy of FruSifert had its rife in 1617, at an affem-
bly of feveral princes and nobility of the country, who met
■with a defign to refine and perfect the German tongue.
It flourifhed long under the direction of princes of the em-
pire, who were always chofcn prefidents. In 1668, the
number of members arofe to upwards of nine hundred. The
hiftory of this academy is written in the German tongue by
George Neumarck.

Academy, French, had its rife in a private meeting of
men of letters in the houfe of M. Conrart, in the year
1628. Cardinal Richelieu, in 1635, at the inftance of M.
Cliapelain, erefted it into an academy for refining and af-
certaining the French language and ftyle. The number of
the members was limited to forty, out of whom a direftor,
a chancellor, and fecretary, are to be chofen ; the two for-
mer hold their poft for two months, the fecretary is per-
petual. Several privileges and immunities were conferred
on the new academy, particiJarly the droll de commllllmiis,
or a privilege of not appearing to anfwer before any court,
but that of the king's houlhold. Their firft alTemblies were
held in the cardinal's apartment ; after his death, in that of
the chancellor Seguier. At lall an apartment was given
them in the Louvre, now called I'Academle Frantplfe. They
meet three times a week in the Louvre ; at breaking up, forty
filver medals are diftributed among them, having on one fide
the king of France's head, and on the reverfc, proleBeur de
r academic, with a laurel and this motto, a I'lmmortallte, By
this diibibution, the attention of the academills is fecurcd :
thofe who are prefent receiving the furplus, otherwife in-
tended for the abfent.

As to the employments of the academy : its defign being
not only to give rules but examples of good writing ; they
began with making fpeeches on fubjefts taken at pleafure,
each member in his turn ; twenty of thefe have been printed.
Their next work was a critique of the Cid of M. Corncille,

A C A

a talk enjoined them by the cardinal. They next fet about
a dictionary of the French tongue, which after about fifty
years fpent in it, in order to fittlc tlic words and phtafes tii
be ufed in writing, &c. was publilhcd in xfx}^; having in
the mean while given oecafion to fome fniart tlifpntcs with M.
I'Aljbc Fureticre, one of their own members.

Their hiilory is written with great elegance to tlie year
1652, by M. IVlilfon ; improved and continued to tlie year
1700, by M. I'Abbe d'Olivet : the fame is given rhetorical-
ly, by F. le Camus.

A fimilar Acad:my was founded at Petcrfluirg by the
late Emprefs, upon a plan propofed by the princifs Dalhkof,
and a fund provided for its ellablilhment and fuppurt. It is
to confill of do members.

The royal Siveiii/h Academy was formed on the plan of the
French academy by Guftavus III., who attached a pcnfion
to fome of its members. Its objciit is the improvement of
tlie Swedilh language, poetry, and eloquence.

Academy, Royal Spanl/h, is an academy for cultivating
the Callilian tongue, ellablilhed at Madr'd, on thf model of
the French academy. — The defign of this was laid by the
duke d'Efcalona, and approved of by the king in 1714, who
declared himfelf protestor thereof. — It cunlills of twenty-
four academills ; including the direftor and fecretary. Its
device is a crucible on the fire, with this motto, /impia, fja,
y da efplendor : i. e. it purifies, fixes, and gives brightnefs ;
which fome have criticifcd. Their objeiFl, as marked out
by the royal declaration, is to cultivate and improve the
national language : in order to which, they are to begin
with choofing carefully fuch words and phrafes, as have
been ufed by the bell Spanilh writers : noting the low,
barbarous, or obfolete ones, and compofing a dictionary,
wherein thefe may be diftinguidied from tiie fonner, &c. by
which means, adds that prince, it will clearly appear, that
the Caftilian tongue is inferior to none of thofe mod elleem-
ed in the world ; and may be employed with ^advantage
either in teaching the arts and fciences, or in exprelTmg the
mod perfe<5l Latin or Greek originals in exatl trandations.
The academy is to have its own printer ; yet not to put any
thing to prels without the permiinon of the council. For
farther encouragement all privileges and immunities enjoyed
by the domeftic officers, aftually in the king's fervice, and
the royal palace, are granted the academills.

Academies of Law : as that famous one at Ber)ta, and
that of the Sitientes at Bologna.

Academy of Medals and InfcripUons at Paris, was fet on
foot by M. Colbert in 1663, and diftingiiilhed by its pre-
fent appellation, in 1691, for the lludy and explanation
of ancient monuments, and perpetuating great and me-
morable events, efpecially thofe of the French monarchy, by
coins, relievos, infcriptions, &c. The number of members
at firll was confined to four or five, but in 1 701 was in-
creafed to forty ; whereof ten were to be honoraries, ten pen-
fioners, ten altoclates, and the fame number of novices or
eleves, which has been fince annexed to the clafs of eleves.
The king nominates their prefident and vice-prefident year-
ly ; but their fecretary and treafurer are perpetual. The
red are chofen by the members themfcUes, agreeably to the
conllitutions given them on that behalf. Their chief work
is a kind of rnedallic hiftor)- of the reign of Louis XIV.
which, after fome interruptions, was continued to the ad-
vancement of the duke of Anjou to tlie crown of Spain.
Befide which we have feveral volumes of their cdays, under
the title of memoirs : and their hiilory, written and conti-
nued by their fccretaries. Their motto is vetal morl.

Academies, Aledlial, as that of the Naturx Curiofi in
Gennany : that founded at Pidcrmo, in 1645; another at

Venice,.

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Venice, in 1 70 J, which meets weekly in a hall near the
pfTTind hoQjital ; another at Geneva, i:i 1715, in the' houfe
i)f M. le Cirrc. The colleges of phyficians at I^ondon and
■ Edinbunrh, are alfo I>y fome raaked in the number of medi-
cal acadjniies.

Academy of Nafur^ Curiofonim, in Germany, wai fird
founded in l6ji, by M. naiikli, a phyfieian, who invited
all pliylieians to communicate their extraordiiiaiy cafes, and
was elected prcfid^rit. Their works were at lirll publiflied
fcpara'tely ; but, in 1670, it was propofed to publlfh a vo-
lume of obfervatlons ever)- year. The liril volume appeared
in 16S4, under the title of Epliemerides, which was con-
tinued wit.h fome interruplions, and variations of the title,
&c. In 16S7, this academy was taken under the protec-
tion of the emperor Leopold, who granted the members
fevei-al privilege?, and particularly that their prefidents ihould
be counts palatine of the Roman empire. From him it has
been fometimes deiuminated the LeopoUine ncademi.

This academy differs from all others, in that it has no
fixed relidence, or regular alfemblies ; inilea^ whereof is a
kmd of bureau, or office, fird cilublilhcd at Brefluw, after-
ward* removed to Nuremberg, where letters, obfcrvalions,
fee. from memb.rs and correfpoiidents are taken in. The
academy confilh of a prelident, two adjunfts, or fecretaries,
and colleagues or members. The colleagues, at their ad-
milTion, oblige tliemfelves to two things ; firft, -to choofe
fome fubject out of the animal, vegetable, or mineral king-
dojn to handle, provided it had not been treated of bv any
colleague before ; the fccond, to apply thcmielves to fiirnilh
materials for the annual Ephemeiidcs. Each member is to
bear a fymbol of the academy, iv's;. a gold ring, whereon,
inllead of a ftone, is a book open, and on the face thereof
an eye : on the other fide the motto of the academy, mm-
quam ot'tnfus, i.e. never idle. Sec the hiftory, laws, &c. of
tiiis academy, with the names of its members, and the titles
of its pieces, in Ephem. Germ. dec. I. an. i, & 2, Pref.
and the continuation of the fame in the prefaces and appen-
dices to the enfuing volumes.

Academy, Mufcal, confifls of the managers and direc-
tors of the opera.

An academy of tliis kind, called the Acmhmy of Ancient
Mujtc, was eftablifhed in London in 1710, by fcveral per-
fons of diftinclion, and other gentlemer, in conjunftion
■with the mod eminent matters of the time, with a view to
the_ dudy and pi-ac"llce of vocal and inftrumental hannony.
This hiditution, which had the advantage of a library, con-
fiding of the mod celebrated compofitions both foreign and
domedic, in manufcript and in print, and wliich was aided by
the performances of the gentlemen of the chapel royal, and
the choir of St. Paul's, with the boys belonging to each,
continued to flouridi for many years. In 173 1, a charge
of plagiarifm brought againd Bononcini, a member of the
academy, for claiming a madrigal of Lottl of Venice as his
own, inteiTupted the harmony, and threatened the exidence
of the inditution. Dr. Greene, who had introduced the
■•:iadrigal into the academy, took part with Bononcini, and
withdrew from the fociety, taking with him the boys of St.
Panl's. In 1734 Mr. Gates, another member of the fo-
ciety, and mader of the children of the roval chapel, re-
tired in difgud ; and it was thus deprived of the alFidance
which the boys afforded it in finging the foprano parts.
From this time the academy became a feminaiy for the in-
dructlon of youth in the principles of mufic, and the laws of
harmony. Dr. Pepufch, who was one of its founders, was
active m accomplifliing this meafure ; and bv the expedients
of educating boys for their purpofe, and admitting auditor
jnembcrs, the lubfidence of die academy was continued.
4

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The royal acarlmy of Miiflc was formed by tlie principal
nobility and gentiy of the kingdom for the performance of
operas, compofed by Mr. Handel, and condufted by him at
the theatre in the Haymarket. The fubfcription amounted
to 50,000/. and the king, befides fubfcribing looo/., al-
lowed the fociety to alfume the title of R'jyal Academy. It
confided of a governor, deputy governor, and twenty di-
rcdtors. On occafion of a conteil between Handel and Se-
nefino, one of the perfomiers, in which the directors took

r!,,

the part of the latter, the academy was diifolved, after hav-
ing fubfided with reputation for more than nine years.

'Academy, Navcd ; as that of Petedhurgh, and thofe in
England. See Academy.

AcAiiEMV, Political, fuch as that of Paris, compofed of
fix pcrfons, who met on certain days each week at the
Louvre, in the ciiamber where the papers relating to fo-
reign affairs were lodged. Here they peruled fuch papers as
were put in their hands, by order of the fecretaiy for fo-
reign affairs, who acquainted the king with the progrefs they
made, and the capacities of each, that his majedy might em-
ploy them accordingly.

Academies of Sciences chiefly denote thofe erefted for
improving natural and mathematical knowledge, otherwife
called philofophical and phyfic.d academies : Inch as the aca-
demy ftcrelontm nature, formed at Naples in the houfe of
Baptida Porta, about the year 1560, the fird academy of
the philofophical kii\d. It was fucceeded by the

Academy ofLyncei, founded at Rome by Prince Fi-ederic
Cefi, towards the clofe of the fame centurs- ; fevcral of whofe
members rendered it famous by their difcoveries : the ce-
lebrated Galileo Galilei was of the number.

Several other academies contributed alio to the advance-
ment of the fciences ; but it was by fpeculations, rather
than by repeated experiments on the phenomena of nature :
fuch were the academy of BefTarian at Rome, and that of
Laurence de Medieis at Florence, in the fifteenth century ;
in the fixteenth, that of Inlrammati at Padua, of Vegjna
Juoli at Rome, of Ortolani at Placentia, and of Umidi at
Florence. The firil of thefe iludied fire and pyrotechnia }
the fecond, wine and vineyards ; the third, gardens and pot-
herbs ; the fourth, water and hydraulics. Add to thefe,
that of Venice, called La V^eneta, founded by Frederic
Badoara, a noble Venetian ; another in the fame city,
whereof Ciimpegio, bidiop of Feltro, appears to have been
the chief; and that of Cofenza, or la Confentina, whereof
Bernadin Telefio, Sertorio Quatromanni, Paulus Aquinas,
Julio Cavaleanti, and Fabio Cicali, celebrated philofophers,
were the chief members.

The compofitions of all thefe academies of the fixteenth
century were good in their kind, but none of them com-
parable to thofe of the Lyncei.

Academy del Cimenlu made its appearance at Florence
fome years after the death of Torricelli, under the protec-
tion of Prince Leopold, afterwards cardinal de Medieis.
Galileo, Ton-icelli, Aggiunti, and Viviani, prepared the
way for it ; and fome of its chief memh.ers were Paid del
Buono ; who, in 1657, invented the indrument for evincing
tile incompreiribility of water, which was a thick globular
fliell of gold ; Alphonfus Borelli, Candide del Buono, bro-
ther of Paul, Alexander Marl'di, Vincent Viviani, Francis
Redi, and count Laurence Magalotti, were fome of its
chief members. The latter was fecretary of this aca-
demy, and publidied a volume of curious experiments in
1677, under the title of Saggi di Naturali Efperienze : a
copy of which being prefented to the Royal Society, wa«
tranflated into Enghlh by Mr. Waller, and publilhed at
London, in 4to. in 1684.

Th«

A C A

Tin Ac.vpr.MY of jlpaOfis, or Imptvt'iul ^-lauhinv T.i Fl.ir-
Tcnce, which compivhends witliiii the extent ot 'its ;>lati all
arts and fcicnces, lioldo from time to time public mcetinirs,
where any psrfon, whether acadcnaill or not, may read his
works, on any fubjcft, and in anv lantjuaj^e : tlie academy
receiving all with t!\e greatcit impartiality.

Academy ilijl' Inqu'iet't, at Bologna, incorporated after-
wards into that Di-lta Traccui in the la;nc city, followed the
cxar'.ple of that del Cimc!i!o ; its meetings were at the
houfe of the ahbot Anronio Sampieri. Here Gemininno
Montanari, one of the chiijf members, made Cixcellent dif-
courfes on pliyfical and mathematical fubjecls, part whereof
v/as publilhed in 1667, under the title of Penfieri Filico-
Matematici. This academy afterwards met in an apartment
of Euftachio Manfredi ; and afterwards in that of Jacob
Sandri, but arrived at a higher lullre, when its alTemblies
were held in the palace MarliUi. Some writers have repre-
fentcd Manfredi as the fovinder of this academy in 1690.
Its motto was, Jilciis ag'nat. In 1705, J. B. Mavpfa'rm
4iew-modelled the academy, and received Marfifrli intoliis
houfe. Several learned men became members of it, and it
was united with the InjFilule, founded by Marfigli, in
the year 17 12, under the title of the ylcanemy of the
Infinite. Tiie arts of pair.tinj, ftatuar)-, and architeclurc,
introduced by Mariigli, were at lirll confidered as diftindl
and fepxrate from the plan of the Academy of Inftitute ; but
they were afterwards incorporated with it ; and the univer-
fity finally acquired the name of ylcadem'ia Clementina,
from its patron Clement XL A printing-office was
added to the academy by the munificence of Benedict XIV.
In this Inftit\ite, not only the learned of each fex were ad-
mitted as members, but feveral ladies have been promoted
to profefTorfhips. Among thefe we may mention the cele-
brated Anna Manzolini, profed'or of anatomy, and Laura
BafTi, who died in 1778, renowned for her knowledge in the
abilrufe fciences. Of this lady we have a particular account
in the 6th volume of the Cnniment. Bonan. The philofophi-
cal apparatus is large. This academy, in an early period
of its exiilence, publidied the Acia Bunomenfm.

AcADtMY of Rnjfano, in the kingdom of Naples, called
La Soeicta Scientifica Roffunefe tiegl' Inniri fi, was founded
about the year 1 540, under the name of Naviganti, and re-
newed under that of Spenfierati by Camillo Tufcano, about
the year 1600. It was transformed from an academy of
belles Icttres into an ?.cademy of fciences, at the folicitation
of the learned abbot Don Giacinto Gimma ; who being made
prefident under the title of promoter-general thereof, in
1695, gave a new fct of regulations. He divided the acade-
mifts into feveral clafTes, fiz. grammarians, rhetoricians,
poets, hiftorians, philofophers, phyficians, mathematicians,
lawyers, and divines, with a clals apart for cardinals and
perfons of quality. To be admitted a member, a man mud
have degrees in fome faculty. The members are not allow-
ed to take the title of acath-m'fs, in the beginning of their
books, without a written permiffion from the prefident,
which is not granted till the work has been examined by
the cenfors of the academy. This permiffion is the greatell
honour the academy can confer ; fince hereby they, as it
were, adopt the work ; and are anfwerable for it againft all
critiques which may be made of it. The prefident or pro-
moter himfelf 'is I'ubjeft to this law. Add, that no aca-
demill is allowed to publiih any thi'.g againil the writings
of another, without leave from the fociety.

Tiiere have been feveral other academics of fciences in

Italy, which have not fubiuled long, for want of being fup-

ported by the princes. Such were at Naples that of the

hv'fli^n'nllf founded about the year 1679, by the Marquis

. Vol. L

A C A

d'Ar.'nS, Don Andrea C<inctil>Icllo ; and 'list which met
in 169S, in the paliice of the duke dc Medina, Don Levvm
della Creda, vli.croy of Naples. At Konic, that of Fiji.o-
Miilanatici, >vhich met in 16H6, in tlic lioufe of Si;;. Cium>
pini : at Verona, that of ylLliifiii, founded the fame year
liy Sig. jofejih Gaiola, which met in the houfe of the
Count Screnghi della Ccicca : at Urclcia, that of Filftiici,
founded the lame year for the cultivation of jiliyfici ai d ma-
thematics, and ended the year following ; that of !•'. I'ran-
ciio I>.ana, a^tl'uit of great (Ivill in thofc fciences: lallly,
that of Vifico-Ciilici., at Sienna, founded in 1^191, by Si^.
Peter Maria GabricUi. Some other academics Ihil fubiilliig
in Italy , have repaired with advantage tlie lofs of the former.
One of the principal is the academy of FHannonici, at Ve-
rona, liberally fupported by the Martinis Scipio M:i(!ii,
one of the moll learned men in Italy, in honour of whom the
members, of the academy ere<i\ed a marble llatue over the en-
trance of the palace, w.th a:i appropriate infcriplion : and in
1 543-, the In'-alinnii of Ancona were mcorpoi'ated with this aca-
demy. Though tlio members of this body apply thenifelves to
the belles lettres, they do not negleiit the fciences. The aca-
demy of Ricovrali, at Padua, has Ijng fubfilled with repu-
tation ; in it, learned difcourfcs have b, en held from time to
time on phyfieal fubjccts ; fuch, for inllance, ii tl at whicli the
celebrated Slg. Antonio V.iUifiiieri, firll profcPor ofphyfic
in the imiverlity of that city, delivered here on the origin of
fprings, fince printed. The like may be faid of the aca-
demy of the Mtiti de Rrggio, at Modeiia ; to which the
fame Sig. Vallifnieri, a native of that city, prefented an ex-
cellent difcourfe on the fcale of created beings, fince in»
ferted in his Hiftoiy of the Generation of Man and Ani-
mals ; printed at Venice in 1721. In the number of thefe
academies may alfo he ranked the aflembly of learned men,
which met at Venice in the houfe of Sig. Chrillino
Martinelli, a noble Venetian, and great patron of learn-
ing. Among the new academies, the firil place after
the inftitute of Bologna, is given to that of the countefs
Donna Clelia Grillo Boromeo, one of the moll learned ladie»
of the age, to whom Sig. Gimma dedicates his Literary
Hillory of Italy. She had lately cllabliflied an academy of
experimental philofophy in her palace at Milan ; of which
Sig. Vallifnieri was nominated prefident, and had already
drawn up the reguhtions of it, though we do uot find it
took place. There are likewile many other academies
of lefs note in Italy ; Jarchius enumerates 550, of which
the names are very curious. F. Merfenne is faid to
have given the firll idea of a philofophical academy in
France, towai-di the beginning of the feventcenth centiiry,
by the conferences of naturalillij and mathematicians, oc> a-
fionnlly held at his lodgings ; at which Gadendi, Des Car-
tes, Hobbes, Roberval, Pafcal, Blondel, and others afiilU J.
F. Merfenne propofed to each, certain problems to examine,
or certain experiments to be made. Thefe private alTem-
blies were fucceeded by more public ones, formed by M.
Montmoit and M.Thevenot, the celehnittd traveller. The
French example animated every Englilhmaii of dilllnifliou
and learning to ercA a kind of philofophical ;'.eadcmy at
Gilford, towards the clofe of Ciomwcli's .idmiiiillration ;
which, after tlie reftoratlon, was ereAed by authority into
a Roval Society. The Englifh example in its turn ani-
mated the French. Lewis XIV. in l6fi6, afFiiled by the
counfels of M. Colbert, founded an academy of fciences at
Paris, called the

AcADF.MY, Royal, of Sciences, for the improvement of
plivfics, mathematics, and chcmiftry. In the year 1699, it
had as it were a fccond birth ; the fame prince, by a regu-
lation, dated the 26th of January, giving it a new form,

O ani

A C A

and pnttint; it on a new and more folemn footing. In virtue
of that regilation, tlie academy was to be compofed of lour
kinds of member?, viz. honorary, ptnfiunary, a/fuciates, and

tleves The firll clafs to coufiil of ten pcrfons ; and tlie rclt

of twenty each. — The honorar)- academiils to be all inha-
bitants of France ; the penrioiiaries all to rcfide at Paris ;
eight of the affociatcs allowed to confill of foreignei-s ; and
the cleves all to live at Paris. The oiTicers, to be a pre-
fident, n.initd ever)' year by the king, ont of the clafs of
honorary academifts j and a fccretary ai\d treafurer, to be
perpetual.

Of the penfionaries, or thofe who receive falaries, three to be
geometriciaiis, three aftronomers, three mechanics, three ana-
tomifts, three chemills, three botaniils; the remaining two, fe-
cretar)- and trenfurer. — Of the twenty affociates, two to apply
themfc]vestogeometP,-,twoto botany,and two to chemiilry.—
The eleves to apply tiiemfelves to the fame kind of fcience
with the penfionaries they are attached to ; and not to
fpeak, except when called upon by the prefident. — No re-
gular or religious to be admitted, except into the clafs of
honorary academills ; nor any perfon to be admitted, cither
for affociate or penfionaiy, unlefs known by fome confidcr-
ahle printed work, fonic machine, or other difcoveiy. —
Farther, no perfon to be allowed to make ufe of his quality
of acadcmill, in the title of any of his books, unlefs fiich
book have been read to, and approved by the academy.

The eflablinimcnt of tliis academy, as well as of that of
the Belles Lettres, was confinned by royal patent in 1713.
In the year 17 16, the duke of Orleans, then regent, made
an alteration in their conllitution ; augmenting the number
of honoraries, and of affociates capable of being foreigners,
to twelve ; admitting regulars among fuch affociates ; fup-
prefiing the clafs of eleves, and eftablilhing in Heu thereof,
a new clafs of twelve adjunfls, to tlie fix feveral kinds of
fciences cultivated by the academy ; and, laftly, appointing
a vice-prefident, to be chofcn yearly by the king, out of the
honorary members ; and a director, and fub-direclor, out of
the penfionaries.

In the year 1785, the king farther confirmed, by letters
patent, the cftabllfiiment of this academy ; added clafles of
agriculture, natural hiftoiy, mineralogy, and phyUcs ; and
incorporated the afTociales and adjunfts, limiting to fix tlie
members of each clafs, -uiz. three penfioners, and three af-
fociates. The academy, by this regulation, was made to
confift of eight claffes, i>/z. geometiy, allronomy, mechanics.

A C A

giums on fuch academifts as have died in the courfe of th«
year. A genei-al Index to the volumes has been publifhed
every ten years. In the volume for 1783, &c. the extraiTts
from the regiilers are omitted, but the c'loges of dilliu-
guiOied men lately deceafed, are continued. M. I'Abbe
Rozier has publifhed, in four quarto volumes, an excellent
index of the contents of all the volumes, and the writings
of all the members, from the commencement of their publi-
cations to the year 1770. M. Rouille de Meflay founded
two prizes, one of 2500, and the other of 2000 livres,
which are alternately dillributed every year ; the fubjccls
for the firll mull relate to phyfical aftronomy, and thofe for
tlie latter, to nivlgaticm and commerce. Indeed they have
an advantage over moil academies, in being defrayed their
expences, and even paid for time and attendance. Their
hillory to the year 1697 was written by M. Du Hamel j
and fince that time continued from year to year by M.
Fontenelle, under the following titles : Du Hamel Hilloria
Regise Academic Scientianim, Paris, 410. Hiftoirc de
1 'Academic Royale des Sciences, avcc les Memoires de Ma-
thematique et de Phyfique tirez des Regiftres de TAcademie,
Paris, 4to. Hift. de I'Acad. Roy. des Sciences depuia
fon Etabllfferaent en 1666, jufqu'en 1699, en 13 tomes, 410.

A new hillory, from the intlitution of the academy to
the period from whence M. de Fontenelle commences, has
been formed ; with a feries of the works pubUflied under the
name of this academy, during the tirit interval. — Their
motto ib invenit £3* perfect!. This academy was fuppreffed ;
and, in 1793, abolillied by the Convention of France ; the
lad volume of its memoirs being that for 1790; and other
inllitutions of various kinds have been eftablifhed ; fee In-
stitute.

The memoirs of the academy, abolifhed by the edi£l of
the Convention, becaufe it was a royal inllitution, and roy-
alty was overthrown, are comprehended in 139 volumes in
quarto : 1 1 from the foundation of the academy in 1666 to
its renewal in ifi99; 92 from 1699 to 1790; the year
1772 containing two: 1 1 of memoirs prefented to the aca-
demy ; Q of priz.e3 ; 9 of tables to J 780 ; and 7 of drawii^s
of machines. '

The French have alfo confiderable academies in mod of
their great cities ; as, the academy at Caen, eilabliHied by
letters patent in 1705; the royal fociety of fciences ia
1706, at Montpelier, which, fince 1708, formed one body
with the royal academy of fciences at Paris ; acad;mie des

genci-al phylics, anatomy, chemiftiy and metallurgy, bo- jeuxjloratix at Touloufe, befides the academy of fciences and

tany and agriculture, and natural hitlor)' and mineralogy.
Each clafs was to remain irrevocably fixed at fix members,
viz. three penfionaries, an'l three affociates, befides a per-
petual fecretary and treafurer ; twelve free affociates, and
c-ight affociate foreigners ; and the adjun£l geographer was
lienceforth to be called the affociate-geographer. Thefe
feveral claffes were filled with perfons, whofe names have
been refpeClable in the commonwealth of letters. Their
meetings, which were formerly held in the king's libraiy,
have fince 1 699 been held in a fine hall in the Old Louvre.

This academy has done great things for the fer\-ice of
learning, by the continuation of the meridian, bv fending
pei-foni to different parts of the world for makiag obferva-
tions ; but efpecially by the excellent writings they have
publifhed, either in a feparate, or a joint capacity ; parti-
cularly their memoirs. Thele have been regularly publilhed
every year, fome late years excepted, ever fince the re-
eftablifhment of the academy in 1699. To each volume is
prefixed the hiflory of the academy, or an extraft of the
memoirs ; and, in general, of whatever has been read or
feid at the acadcnr.y. At the dofe of the volume are eulo-

belles lettres, founded in 1750; and other academies at
Bourdeaux, founded in 1703 ; at SoifTons in 1674, at Mar-
feilles in 1726, at Lyons in 1700, at Par in Beam in I72i,at
Montauban in 1744, at Angers in 1685, at Amiens i:i
1750, at Villetranche in 1679, at Dijon in 1740, at Niljnes
in 1682, at Befan^on in 1752, at Chalons fur Maine in
1755, at Rochelle in 1734, at Beziers in 1723, at Roueq
in 1744, at Metz in 1760, at Arras in 1773, &c. &c.
Academy, Royal, of Sciences, at Berlin,\vas founded by Fre-
dericl. ofPrufliain 1700, on themodelofthat of England, ex-
cepting that, befides natural knowledge, it likcwife compre-
hends the belles lettres. A newfonn, andanew fct of flatutes,
were given it in 1 7 10; by which it is ordained, tliat the
prefident fhall be one of the counfellors of flate, and nomi-
nated by the king. The members were divided into four
claffes ; the firll, for profecuting phyfics, medicine, and
chemiilry ; the fccond for mathematics, allronomy, and me-
chanics ; the third, for the German language, and the liif-
tory of the country ; the fourth, for Oriental learning, par-
ticularly as it may concern the propagation of the Gofpel
among infidels. Jiach clafs to elcd a diredor for themfelves,

A C A

m/ho ftiafl liolcl Ills poU for life. Their meeting to be in t1i«
caftle called New Maillial ; one ckfs to meet every week in
their turns. The members of any of the claffes to have
free admiifion into the affemblies of any of the reft. The
great promoter of this inlUtution was the celebrated M.
Leibnitz, who accordingly was made the firft diretlor. The
academy has puljlilhed feveral voluines of its tranfaeiions in
Latin, under the title of Mifcellanea Berolincniia. The ill
volume war, publilhed in 1710; and, though undilliiiguiflied
by any peculiar tokens of royal favour, they continued to
publilh new volumes in 1723, 1727, 1734, 1737, and 1740.
At lall, however, viz. in 1743, Frederic III. gave new vi-
gour to this academy, by inviting foreigners of liteiaiy ine-
l-it to Berhn, encouraging the culture of fciencc among his
fubjefts, by fuitable rewanis, and conferring the honour of
preildent of the academy on M. Maupertuis. He alfo pro-
pofed new regulations for the academy, and alRimcd the
title of its proteftor. The members hold two public af-
femblies annually ; at the latter of which, viz. in May, is
given a gold medal, ot hfty ducats value, as a prize for a
diflertation, the fubjeift. of which fliall be fucccflively natu-
ral philofophy, matlieni:nics, metaphyfics, and general lite-
rature. Since 1743, ^'"^ academy has publilhed feveral vo-
lumes of its tranfadions in French, under the title of Hif-
toire de I'Academie Royale des Sciences et Belles Lettres,
a Berlin.

Some new arrangements relating to this academy were
propofed by his PrufTian Majefty, in the year 179S. The
reconomical commillion of the academy, which had fubfillcd
to this time, was abolilhed, and its place fupplied by a direc-
tory, which fhould be formed of a prefident, the four direc-
tors of the claffcs, and two members, to be chofen not from
the academy, but men of bufinefs, equally diftinguifhed by
their literaiy merit, and capable of prelei-ving the neceffary
order in the ceconomical ftate of the academy. The mem-
bers of the academy were to be either honoraiy or ordinary.
The latter members were divided as before, into four
clafles : and each clafs coir.pofed of a direftor and fix mem-
bers, fonning an aggregate of 24 academicians, befides the
members of the diretlory. It was propofed that this num-
ber (hould continue invariable, and that no new members
ifiould be admitted except in the cafe of vacancies. The
right of elefling members is preferved to the academy ;
■whilft the king referves to himfelf the right of confirming
or rejefting. The large public library at Berlin, as well as
the collection of natural curiofities, are united to the aca-
demy, and entrufted to its direttion. The grand defign of
the new regulations is to direfl the attention of the acade-
my to objttls of real utility ; to humanife it, as the king
cxprefles himfelf in liis letter to the academy, by giving en-
couragement to efPorls that contribute to the happincls of
common life, to the improvement of evciy thing that con-
cerns its wants, and to its conveniences, by the conllant ap-
plication of the theoiy of the fciences to things ratlier than
to fpeculative meditations ; to excite the national iudulb y,
by furnilhing it with tiic principles fuited to that art, which
it exercifes ; to purify the different fyftems of moral and li-
terary education, from many vague and erroneous principles,
which falhion, and the imagination of fome enthufialUc pe-
dagogues, have introduced, and which muft degrade future
crenerations ; and to combat the prejudices and dehifions of
the people, as well as the licentious and deilruftive eFortS
of the falfe philofophers of the prcfent day.

There are other academical inftitutions at Berhn, and
other parts of the north ; feveral of which have diftinguilli-
ed themfclves by their journals, ephemerides, 5cc. The rea-
der vnW tliid iome account of them under the article
Journal.

A C A

Ac>i.T)T.}.\v, /mpftlfJ, cf Slrienret, nt Prlrr/hiir:;, \nf pro-
jofted by czar, IVtcr the Great, who, durnig jiis travels m
I 7 1 7, having obferveJ the iitihly of iiillitiitionii of this kind,
determined to ellablifli a iiniiiar one in liis own countiy.
Wolf and Leibnitz were confulted as to tiie regiilationii
which were proper to be adopted. Tlie death of Pet.r,
however, prevented the execution of the plan which he had
drawn up and figncd in 1724. At the ciofe of 1725, hU
defign was liappily executed by the munificence of the cza-
rina, Catherine I., his wife and fucccdor, on the model nearly
of the academy of Paris, wliereof the czar was a number.
The academy held its lirft iMiblic meeting on the 27th of
December, r725, in the pretence of the duke of HoKlcin,
and a large appearance of perfons of diftinclion. Tlic
eniprefs lettled a fund of 49(12/. prr annum for its fupport ;
and ij members, eminent for their talents and learning,
were admitted and penlioned under tlie title of Profcdors,
in the various branches of literature and fcience ; amoiifj
whom were Nicholas and Daniel Bernouilli, the two De
Lifles, Bulfinger, and Wolf. The academy languil'ud un-
der Peter II., and was again revived by the emprefs Anne,
who added a feminary for the education of youth. At
the accellion of Elizabeth, the original plan was enlarged and
improved by letters patent in 1 747 ; whieii, befidts the acade-
my, cftabliihed in connexion with it an univcrfity, having re-
gular profefFors, who read leftures ; and the academy ac-
quired reputation and vigour by the influx of feveral learned
foreigners. The annual income was incrcafed to 10,^59/.

The late emprefs took this fociety under her cnvn imme-
diate protedion ; corrcfted many of its abufes, and infnfed
a new fpirit into the refcarches of its members. In order
to encourage ingenious profeflors to vifit the variou» pro-
vinces of her dominions, (lie granted an extraordinary bcne-
faftion of 2000/., which (lie occafionally renewed. Tliefc
travellers were inftrucled by the academy, to profecutc
their inquiries into the different forts of foil and water, the
bell methods of cultivating barren and defart fpots, the lo-
cal diforders incident to men and animals, and the bed
means of reheving them, the breeding of cattkvand cfpeci-
ally of flieep, the rearing of bees and f'llk-worms, tiic pro-
per places for fifliing and hunting, the various minerals and
plants, and the arts and trades. They were alfo enjoined
to reftify the latitude and longitude of the chief towns, to
make ailronomical, geographical, and meteorological obfer-
vations, to trace the courfe of rivers, to take the moil cxaft
charts, and to obferve the manners and culloms of the dif-
ferent people, their drefs, language, antiquities, traditions,
hiftoi-v, and religion ; and, in a word, to obtain every infor-
mation which might lend to illuflratc the real flate of the
whole Ruffian empiri. Tliefe expeditions have pmduccd,
in the courfe of a few years, a great variety of excellent
publications on the feveral obieiTis above enumeratid.

The firll tranfaftions of this I'ociely were publirtied in
172S, and intitled Commentarii Aeademix Scientiariim
Imperialis Petropolitam ad Ann. 172^). Tiie publication
was continued till the year 1747, when its traiifaftions
were called Novi Commentarii Academict, &c. In 1777,
the title was again changed into Nova Afta Academise
Scientiaruni Imperialis Pctropolitana:. Of (he commen-
taries 14 volumes were pubhibed. The full of the new
commentaries appeared in 1750, and the 2Cth in 1776.
About 30 volumes have been publilhed, and tw» arc
printed, in the Latin language, ever)- year, all of which
abound with important and ufeful difquifitiona upon
various parts of fcience, and natural liillory. This aca-
demy, from the mal-adminiUration of fotne of its direc.
tors, was, for feveral years, tom by internal diffinfions,
which retarded ibc laboure of the academicians, and put a

O 2 Hop

A C A

ftop to the ufiial publicalioji of its colleftions. By an ediA
< f the emprcfs, the government of tlic acaJcmy was ncw-
modjUed ; and the acjJcmy rtfolved to begin a nc\v feries
of publications. From this sera the liilli.ry commences,
which is prefixed to Vol. I. of the Nova Acl.i, &(;. piibhihed
in 1 7M7. nie academy is compofed of 1 5 profeflurs, bcfides
a prefident and director. Each profedbr has a.houfe and
an annual ll'pcnd, from 200/. to Oco/. There are alfo four
adjunai, who arc penfioned, attend the fittings of the fo-
ciety, and fucceed to the firll vacancies. The ordinaiy af-
feinblies are held twice a week, and public or folemn ones
thrict in the year ; wherein an account is ^iveu of what has
been done in the private ones. The building, apparatus,
&c. of this academy, are extniordinaiy. They have a fine
Lbi-ar)-, confiding of 36,000 books and manufcripts ; an cx-
tenfive nuifeum ; an obfervatoiy, &c. Their motto is pau-
lalim, and their device, a tree bearing fruit not ripe.

Academy of Sciences, called the Jiijlitttle of Bologna, tvas
founded by count Marfigli, in 1 7 12, for the cultivating of
phyfics, mathematics, anatomy, medicine, chemillry, and na-
tural hiltory. Its hiftory was written by M. de Limierr.,
from memoirs furniflied by the founder himfelf, and pub-
li.hed at Amfterdam in 1723. The academy founded not
long before by Pope Clement XI. for architeiture and
painting, was incorporated with this ; and for its further
encouragement the city purchafed and appropriated to ;t3
vfe the palazzo Ccleli, that the library-, mufeum, obfervato-
Ty, fchools, and the apartments of the profefrors, might be
under the fame roof. On the entrance of tliis edifice is the
following infcription : Bonomcnfe Sc'ienUarum et ylftium In-
Jiitvlum, ltd publicum tolius orlis ufum.

Academy, Imperial and Royal, of Sciences and Belles
Leitres, at Brujlls, was founded in 1773 ; and fcveial vo-
lumes of their memoirs have been publiflied.

Academy, Roytil, rf Science-, st Stockholm, 6en\td its ori-
gin from fix perfons of diilinguidied learning, one of whom
was the celebrated Linna;us ; who, in 1739, formed a pri-
vate fociety for" reading difTertations on literary fubjedls.
As their number increakd, it attracted public notice ; and
the fociety <i'as incorporated by the king, in 1741, under the
title of the Royal Sivedyh Academy. Though it has no
penfion from the crown, its fund has been gradually aug-
mented to a large fum by legacies, and private donations.
The only perfons who receive falaries, are a profeffurof ex-,
perim.ental philofophy and two fecretaries. Each member
refident at Stocldiolm becomes prcfident by rotation, and
continues in office tliree months. The members, both na-
tive and foreign, are admitted without fees. The difTerta-
tions read at each meeting are written in the Swedifh lan-
guage, and are collefted and pubh'hed four times in the
year ; and the annual publications make a volume in 8vo.
The firft 40 volumes, which were iinilhed in 1779, are called
the Old TiT.nfa(ft!on6 ; for in the next year, the tide v/as chang-
ed into that of New Trnnfactions. Any perfon who fends a
treatifc, which is thought worthy of publication, receives the
tranfadlions for one quarter gratis, and a filver medal of the
value of three (hillings. All papers relating to agri-
culture ate publilhcd feparately, under the title of Oecono-
mlca Atl?. Ann^ial premiims in money and gold medals
are dhlribated by the academy, principally for the encou-
ragement of agriculture and inland trade. The meetings
of this academy are fometimes attended by the king.

Academy, Royal, of Sciences, at Copenhagen, took its rife
from the occafional meetings of fix literati, whom Chriftian
VI. in 1742, employed in arranrring his cabinet of medals.
With thele perfons others gradually affociated ; and they
formed a ftciety, under the patronage of the count of Hol-
ftcin, whofc inuncdiate objetl was to make rei'earches into

A C A

the a«tiqiiities and liiflory of their covmti-V, and to eipli;«
them. In 1743, his Danifli majclly took the fociety undes
his protcdion, gave it its name, endowed it with a fund-,
and directed the members to extend their purfuits to natu-
ral hiltory, phylics, and mathematics. The academy lia?
puWilhed 15 volumes in the Danilh language ; fome of
which have been tranflated into Latin.

Academy, Royxl, of Sciences, at I.ifbon, was foimded in
the year 1779, by tiie Duke de Lafoens, uncle to the
queen. The fovereign is the immediate patron, and tlia
founder is piefident. Twenty-four effective members, di-
vided into three claiFes, viz. natuial fciences, mathematics,
and national literature, form the main body of the fociety ;
and the refiduc is corapofcd of 36 free members ; a fmall
number of literaiy foreigners, and a larger one of great
perfonages of the nation, as honoraiy members ; fome vcte»
ran members and a confiderable proportion of extra con-ef*
pondents. Government allows them a revenue, by means
of which they have eilabliflied an obfervatory, a mufeumj
a library, and a printiag-office. The academy has hitherto
direfted its attention to the encouragement of many objefts,
which do not, in other countries, require the care of an acp.«
demy of fciences. The ift volume of its memoirs was pub-
liflied at Lilbon in 1797. The memoirs commence at
1780.

Academy, of Arts and Sciences, American, wzi eftabliflied
in 1780, by tlie council and houfc of reprefentatives of the
province of Maffachufett's bay, for promoting and encois-
raging the knowledge of the antiquities of America, and of
the natiu-al hiftory of the countiy ; for determining the
ufes to which its various natural produftions might be ap-
phed ; for promoting and encouraging medicinal difcoveriesj
mathematical difquifitions, philofophical inquiries, and ex-
periments, aftronomical, meteorological, and geographical
obfcrvations, and improvements in agriculture, manulafture';,
and commerce ; and in (hort for cultivating every art and
fcience, which might tend to advance the intereft, honour,
dignity, and happinefs of a free, independent, and virtuous
people. The members of this academy are never to bft
more than 200, nor lefs than 40.

Academy, Royal Irijli, fprung out of a fociety, eflab-
liflied at Dublin, about the year 17S2, and coniiiling of an
indefinite number of gentlemen, moft of whom belonged to
the uiiiverfity, who held weekly meetings, and alternately
read eiTays on vai"ious fubjefts. The members of this fo.
ciety, anxious to make their labours redound to the hc»
nour and advantage of their countr)^, formed a more cxten-
five plan, and admitting only fuch names as might add dig»
nity to their new inllitution, became the founders of the Royal
Irijb Academy, which profefles to unite the advancement of
fcience with the hiftory of mankind and polite literature.
The firft; volume of their tranfaftions for 1787 was pub-
liflied in 1788, and the publication has been occafionaliy
continued. We fnall here add, that a fociety was formed
in Dublin, fimilar to the Royal Society in London, as
early as the year 1633'; but the diftrailcd fliate of the
country was unpropitious to the cultivation of philofophy
and literature. The plan was refurned about the beginning
of the prefcnt centuiy, and the Earl of Pembroke, then
Lord Lieutenant, was prefident of a philofophical So-
ciety cftablifhed in Dublin Coilege. In the year 1740, there
was inftitutcd a Phyfico-l.iilorical Society ; of which two vo-
lumes of minutes are extant; but this fociety foon declined.

Academy, of Sciences, at Manheim, was eftabliflied in
J7G3 by Charles Theodore, eleftor Palatine, according to
a plan of the learned Schopflin, and divided into two claffes,
viz. the Hiilorical and Phyfical. The latter clafs \V3S fub-
divided, in 1780, into the Pliyfical, properly fo calk-d, and

Meteo- '

'A C "A

Mt-teorologlcnl. The papers of tlie academy linve heen
publilhcd in ll volumes 410., under the tiik of ylfia ylcadr-
vu<e ~T hcoihro.ralanns: . The Meteorological obfervatioiis,
from lylii to 1782, form 12 volumes 410. with the title of
ILphcmcriihs Soc'ulat'is Melem-ohr'tca Putatiiu.

For a farther account of fimilar inftilutions, fee Sociftv.

AcADi:My, is vlio iifed ainoiig us as a kind of coUcj^'ate
fc'iool or feminary; wiiere youth are inllruSted in the libe-
ral arts arid iclcuccs in a private way ; now indeed it is ufed
for all ki.ids of icluiojs.

. There were two public academies in the Roman empire ;
one at Rome, founded by Adrian, in which all the fcicnccs
were taught ; and the other at Beiytus in Phanicia, which
was principally dellined for the education of youth in the
fcience of law* In confequcnce of the protcftion that was
given to the fcjences in the ijtli centui-y, academies were
erected- in various parts of Europe, peculiar privileges of fe-
vei-al kinds were granted to the youtklhatfreqi:ented them;
and thefe learned focieties acquired, at length, the form of
political bodies ; /. e. they were inverted with a certain ju-
rildiclion, and were governed by their own laws and ilatutes.
hi the public fchoois. or academics that were founded at
Padua, Modena, Naples, Capua, Thouloufe, Salamanca,
Lyons, and Calogn, the application of the youth was re-
ftricled to certain branches of learning, and thus the courfe
of academical education remained iinperftft. The academy
of Paris, which furpaffcd all the reil, both with refpcft. to
tiie number and abilities of its profefTors, and the mul-
titude of Undents by whom it was frequented, was the
JiHl learned focicty which extended the fphere of education,
comprehended all the fciences, and appointed' mailers for
every branch of education. Hence it was diftinguifhed,
before any other academy, with the title of University,
to denote its embracing the whole circle of fcience ; and in
procefs of time, other fchoois of learning were ambitious of
forming themfelves upon the fame model, and of being ho-
noured witli the fame title. In the l6tli century, academies
were founded by the Lutherans at Jena, Helmlladt, and
• Altorf ; and by the Calviniils at Franeker, Leyden, Geneva,
under Calvin and Beza, and many other places.

Frederic I. king of Pruflia, cuabliflied an academy in
Berhii ill 1703, f-r the education of the young nobility of
the court, fuitable to their cxtraAion. The expence of
the fiadents was very moderate, the king having undertaken
to pay the extraordinaries. This illullrious fchool, which
was then called the Academy of Princcj, has now loll much,
of its firft iplendor.

The Romans had a kind of military academies eftablilhed
in all the cities of Italj^, under the name of Cawjii liLrrtii^
Here the youth were admitted to be trained for war at the
public expence. The Greeks, befide academies of this
kind, l:ad military profeffors called Tadid, who taught all
the higher offices of v/ar. Sec. &c.

We have two royal academies of this kind ; one at
Portfmouth, for teaching navigarioii,. drawing, &c. which
tr.ay be (lyled a naval or maritime academy, foimded by
George I. in 1722, and under thedirecliou of the board of
admiralty, v/hich gives falaries to two raallers ; and another
at Woolwich, v.here youth are taught fortification, gunne-
ry, and fuch branches cf the math-aaatics as are neceflaiy
to qualify them for engineers. This was ellabliflicd by ■
George 11. ill 1741, and is under the direction of die inaf-
t<r-general and board of ordnance. None arc now educat-
ed in. tills academy, but the gentlemeis-cadeta, to the number
of 90 or 100. The mailers are now 12 ; viz. a profeiTor
cf m.-\the:r.atic3, and two other mathen^atica! mailers, a pro-
feiTor of fortification and an aflillant, two drawing mafters,

A C iE

a Ficneli mafter, with ir.afters for fir.eiiijj, dancirip, -End
chemil'ry. 1'liis iullitution is important, and admits of im-
provement. It has now the btnifit of the valuaLlc fcrvice*
ot Dr. Hutton and Mr. Uonnyeafllc, wliofe names arc well
known among men of fcience. The roy:d ucadvmy of ma-
rine at Brefl, in Fnnce, was ellablirtied in 1753.

The noncor.fonniil minillcT.'!, &c. are bred up in private
academies, as not approving the common univerfity eduea-
tiuB. The principal of ilitir academics arc ihofe in Lon-
don, Manchellcr, Exeter, Wymondlty in Herts, Rotlicr-
am, Caniiarthen, and Wrexham.

Academy Js llkewifc a name given to a riding fehuoi,
where young gentlemen are taught the great horfe, and
other fuitable exercifcs, as fencing. Sac. Sec MASfct.

Academy is alfo ufed in fpeaking of the fchooU of the
Jews ; /. e. thofe femiiniries wlicrc tlie rabbins, or do<Aors,
inilruft tile youth of their uatitin in the Ilcbievi' tongue;
explain to them the Talmud ; teacli tlicnithc Cabbulj, 5:c.

Soon after the dellruftion of Jernfalein, and the difperfton
of the JewSi they are faid to have ercdcd ncademlts at
Japhne, Lydda, Babylon, and Tiberias; which lall place
in paitlcular Ixcame famous for its learned men, luch us the
compilers of the MisiiNA, and the Masohites. Accord-
ing to Buxtorf, this academy fubfillcd in Jerora's time. See
Stephanusde Urb. vol. i. p. 4^^2. n. I,

Of the Babylonian fchoois, tlie mofl famous, in later
times wei-e thofe which were eRabliP.ud in l]ic cities of So-
ra, Nahardea, and Pumbcditha. Saadiaa, a celebrated
grammarian, was reftor of the academy at Sora in 927. But
thefe academies were dcmolilhed by the Mahometan kings
of Perfia, about the year 1046. See Mafclef's Gi-am. Meb.
vol. ii. p. J4.

Academy, or Academy /7^;/;-c, in Painting, is a draw-
ing, or DESIGN made after a model of a naked irun or wo-
man, taken after the life ; which i; ufually done on paper,
vi'ith red or black clialk, and foiuetimes with palVils err

CRAYONS.

ACADIE or Acadia, in Geography, a name foniurly
given to Nova Scotia, or A^cw Seothnt/,in America. The
name was firfl applied to a trail of country between the
40th and 46th dcgreei of latitude, grafted to De Moiis in
1(103, by Henry IV. of^Franee.

AC.3iNA, ax<y-t">'-t in ylntiouliy, a Grecian deccmped, or
ten-foot rod, ufed in meafunng of their lands. Jleverin.
Syntag. de Ponderibus, &c. p. 177. RiccioL Geo. 1. ii.
c. 4. Salmaf. Ex. in Solin. p. 684.

AC^NA, in Botany, a genus of the lelrandria monogytiia
clafs and order of plants ; the generic charadlei-s of which arc
thefe : the c;Jyx is a four-leaved perlanthium, with ovate,
coacave, equal, permanent leaflets ; there is no corolla, un-
lefs the calyx be confidered as fuch : the ftamina coiifill of
equal filaments, of middle length, oppofite to the calyx, and
the anthers are quadrangular, twin, and erecl ; tlie pillil-
lum has an obovate, hlfpid germ, a vci-y fmall inllcited
ilyle, and the iligma is a fmall thickifli, coloured membrane,
divided into manv fegments ; the perlcarpium is a diy, oho-
vate, lingle-celkd beriy, with fjiines that ai-c bent back-
wards ; and the feed is fingle. i'herc is only of.c fpecies,
which is a Mexican plant. Mllleris Diifl. by Mailyn.

ACA.GUNA, in Geograply, a mountain on the coaft o{
Peru, in the South Sea, about four leagues S. I', froni the
river Hilo, and as far N. W. from the nver Sama. It is a
good fea-mark ; but a llrong furge hes on tlie coaft, fo that
fnips (liould not keep too near, till they are furc of an entrance
into fomc port.

ACAJOU, and Acijuba, in Botany. Sec Anach-

DIUM.

ACALAN.

A C A

A^AT.^NDRA. See Calandra.

AC'ALANORUS, in ^««Vn.' C'o^raphy, a nver falling
into the bay of Tareiitum, not far from the Mttapontum.
This river is mentioned by Pliny (Hill. Nat. 1. iii. c. lo.
torn. i. p. 165.), and by Slrabo, (Geog. torn. i. p. 429.)
It is now riume de Roleto.

ACALEPHK, a nettle. It alfo fignifies a certain fini,
the fle(h of which is verv- tender. IJIccwife a fea-iowl men-
tioned by Nicander, and a fca-animal, mentioned by GcUius.

ACALOT, an al>ridgnicnt of AcACALOTL.

ACALYPHA, in Botany, a genus of plants belonging
to tlie manoecia momuhlphia clafs, and the natural order of
Trkoccf, called by Bocrhaave, and others, Rkhiocjifos o\-
Tirl-fniil. It derives its name AxaX^'?>i, from its not being
pleafant to handle, ;. <•. wa^i to /xn i';^"' "-"^^^^ "?"''• ^'' ^^^'
ratlers are thefe : the male Howers are crowded above the
female ones ; the calyx is a three or four-leaved perianthium,
with roundiih, concave, equal leaflets ; it has no corolla ;
the (lamina have from eight to fixteen fdamcnts, which are
ftiort, crowded, and conneded at the bale, with roundidi
anthera:. The female flowers are fewer, and received into
a large divided involucrum. The calyx is a three-leaved
perianthium, with fubovate, concave, convergnig, Imall,
permanent leaflets ; there is no corolla ; the piftillum has
a roundilh germen, three ilyles, branching, ulually tri-
partite, and long, and the lligmas are fnnple ; the pcricar-
pium has a roundifli, three-furrowed, three-celled capfule,
the valves gaping two ways, and the feeds are loUtary,
roundifli, and very large. There are fourteen fpecies.
The firfl fort, or ^. Firgimca, grows naturally in Vir-
ginia, feveral parts of North America, and alfo in Cey-
lon : the fecond, or yl. i:irgala, is a native of the warmeft
countries, and grows plentifully in Jamaica, and its leaves
refemble tliofe of the annual nettle, and fling as much ;
the third, or Indian Acalypha, was difcovered in great
plenty by Dr. Houlloun at La Vera Cruz, and is alfo found
upon dunghills in the Eail Indies, and its leaves are Uke
tliofe of Mcrcuiy, whence thefe plants have fometimes been
called three-feeded Mercury : the fourth, or Villous Acalypha,
is found in the woods about Carthagena : the fifth is a
native of South America, whence it has its name : the reft
are all natives of the Weil Indies. Thefe plants have no
beauty to recommend them, and are preferved in fome
botanic gardens merely for the fake of variety. Martyn's
Miller. In the laft edition of Linnaeus's Syft. Nat. by
Gmelin, the Acalypha is made a genus of the Monadelphia
dodtcandria clafs and order, and includes twenty-one fpecies.

ACALZIKE, a town and fortrefs of Afiatic Tartary.
N. lat. 41^ 30'. E. long. 44° 14'.

ACAM. See AcHAM, and Akam-

ACAMACU, or AcAMAKV, in Ornithology, the Bi-afi-
lian name of the crefted Moucherolli; of Butfon ; the
crefted Brafilian Flycatcher of BiilTon, and the crefted
Brafilian ToDus, or variety of the ToDus Paradifieus oS.
Gmehn, and of the Muscicapa Paradiji iii\M\ws.\\i. It
is found in Africa and Madagafcar.

ACAMANTIS, in Andml Gi-oi^ral^hy, the name of the
ifland of Cyprus, taken from its weftern promontory, called
Acamas and Cacamo, now cape Pifanio, or Epifftnio, where
there was formerly a town of the fame name, now a village,
called Cr\ifoco. The wood in this part of the ifland (fays
Mr. Bruce, Travels, vol. i. p. 4.) remains as thick and im-
pervious as at the firft difcovtry ; and in thefe woods large
ftag5, and wild boars of a monllruus fizc, flicker themfelvcs
in perfcci fccurity.

ACAMAS, in Ancient Hijlary, the fon of Thefeus, who
followed the other Grecian princes to the fiege of Troy,

A cr A

and was deputed with Diomedes to rcftore Helen. Laodicf,
Prian\'s daughter, had a fon by him, called Munitus. He
was one of the heroes who were concealed in the wooden
horfe. One of the tribes of Athens was called Acamantides
from him, by the defirc of the oracle ; and he founded a
city in Phiygia Major, called /Icamantium. Homer ( Uiad.
1. ii. 823. and 1. xiv. 47J.) mentions two other heroes of
this name ; one a Thracian prince, v\'ho came to fuccour
Priam ; and another, a fon of Antenor.

ACAMATOS, among Phyfcians, means that difpofition
of a limb, which is equally diftant from flexion and extenfion.

ACAMBOU, \n Geography. See Aciuamboe.

ACAMEA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Aflyria, ill
the province of Sittaccne.

ACANACEOUS, feeAcANTHACEous.

ACANGA, in Botany. See Bromelia.

ACANGIS, i. e. Ravagers, or Adventurers, a name
given by the Turks to their huflars, or light troops, who
are generally fent out in detachments to procure intelligence,
hnrafs the enemy, or ravage the countiy.

ACANNY, orAKANNI, feeAcHEM.

ACANOIl, a particular fort of chemical furnace. See
Athanor.

ACANOS, \n Botany. See Onopordum.

ACANTHA, fonned from ajci, point, and avSoc, Jlower,
in a general fenfe, a fpine or prickle, chiefly of plants of
the thorny kind.

Acantha, in a more particular fenfe, denotes a fpine,
or quill of certain fifties, as the echinus marinus, or fea-
hcdge-hog. Hence the thorn-back, a fpecies of the
raja, is by fome called aeantbias, from the two pricliles on
its back. Ron»elet. de Pifcib. lib. xiii. c. 2.

Acantha, among fome Anatomijls, is apphed to the
hind or pofterior protuberances of the vertebrae of the
back ; formin-g what we call the spina dorji.

ACANTHABOLUS, compounded of axx»5«, a thorn,
and ^aWai, to cajl aiuay, in Surgery, an inftruraent, where-
with to extraiSl foreign bodies, which by the fliarpnefs of
the points have penetrated, and entered any part of the
body.

The acantbahnlut is the fame with the inftrument which
is otherwife called imlfella. Its chief ufe is for extiafting
fifli-bones, or the like, fticking in the cefophagus ; as alfo
the fragments of weapons, bones, hair, &c. remaining in
wounds. Its figure refembles that of a pair of pincers ;
fometimes it is alfo made crooked, for more commodious
application to the fauces. Celfus, lib. vii. c. 30.

AcANTHABOLUs is alfo fomctimes ufed for an infliniment,
wherewith people pull out the hairs from their eye-brows.

ACANTHACEOUS, among Botanijls, a term applied t»
a clafs of plants, that are armed with prickles ; popularly-
known under the name of the thistle kind.

ACANTHALZUCA, the fame as ecbinopus, or glole

THISTLE.

ACANTHARIS, m Entomology, a fpecies of the Cimex,
in the Linnnean fyilem, and of the Redovius, in the ar-
rnngement of Fabricius, the characters of which are, that
it has a fpinous thorax, and a ciliated abdomen, with fpines.
It is found in Jamaica.

ACANTHE, in the Materia Medica of the ancients, a
name given to the plant we now call the artichoak.

AcANTHE Arubica, in Botany, a name given by fome of
the Greek writers to a plant called alfo leucacanthe, and by
the Arabian phyficians biinkon. It was a prickly plant,
\vhofe roots were fomewhat like thofe of the cyperus, and
compofcd of feveral knobs or joints, and of a bitter tafte.
It was brought for medicinal ufe frcin the Eaft Indies, and
I fome

A C A

feme parts of Arab!a, and w-as the root of the amgaVa of
Avicenna and others.

ACANTH I A, in Entomology, a genus of the clafs oi Ryn-
gota, in the diftribution of Fabriciuf, and forming a divilion
in the arrangement of the Cimex by Gniilln, in his edition
of Linnaeus. The acanthiie of Fabrlcius have no lip, and
Gmehn comprehends inider this disifion llie apcrh tlie co-
leoptraii, and the membranace'i.

ACANTHIAS, in Ichtbyoln^y, a name given by fome
authors to the filh, tlie flcin of wliich is ufed by our artifi-
cers in polifhing, and called by them fimply iilh-flcin. In
the Linnasan fyftem it is a fpecies of squalus, and the
^/V/J«/ DOG-FISH of the Britilh zoology. A variety of this
is mentioned by Gmeliii, and defcrlbed under the name of
Squnliii Feniandlnus. Its dorfal fins are fpinofe like the other,
and its body round and ocellated. It is found in all fcas,
and rarely in the Baltic. Its length is about three and a half
feet. Acanth'uxs is alfo a fpecies of Gasti: rosteus, with
four fmall fpines before the dorfal fin, and three rays
appertaining to the branchiollegous membrane. It is fouitd
in the Danilh feas. See Galeus Acanlhias.

ACANTHICE, majlich, among ancient Naturalifls, a
kind of gum, yielded by the herb htlxine. Gaza explains
it hy f pit! alts viajlicha. Plin. Hift. Nat. 1. xxi. c. l6. Hard.
Not. tom. ii. p. 2 JO.

ACANTHINE, in Andtnt Geography, an ifland men-
tioned by Ptolemy, in the Arabian gulph on the fide of Egypt.

AcANTH IN E, acanth'tnns, denotes a thing relating to, or re-
fembling the herb acanthus.

In this fenfe, we read of acanth'ma vejiimenta, acanth'me
ganncnts, of which we have two different explications.
Some underftand by it a kind of embroidery, wrought in
imitation of the Egyptian acanthus or thorn, whofe fmall
fprigs are much interlaced. Others will have it a peculiar
kind of filken ftuff, made of the lanugo, or down ot a plant
of the thiftle kind, growing in Sicily and the Eaft. Phn.
Hiit. Nat. 1. xxiv. c. 12. Hard. Not. tom. li. p. 343.

AcANTHiNOM lignum is ufed by fome writers for brazil
■wood.

ACANTHION, among Nulm-a/ijls, a plant of the thorn,
or rather of the thiille kind ; whole down, being cleanfed
from the prickles, was manufaftured into a kind of fluff,
not unlike filk. Plin. ubi fupra. See Onopordum.

ACANTH IS, in OmillyJo^y. See Goldfinch.

ACANTHOCEPHALUS, in Natural Hi/lory, a name
given to the Echinorhynchus carpwnls, a fpecies of
worm which is found in the iiiteftines of the carp.

ACANTHOPTERYGII, derived from axavfe, a //w/;,
or prickle, and 'alt^xjyim, a fin, in Natural Hi/lory, a term
ufed by Artedi to exprefs one of the general claffcs or fa-
mihes of fifhes ; the charafter of which is, that the rays of the
fins are bony, and fome of them prickly at the extremities.

ACANTHOS, Acanthus, or Achantus, in Ancient
Geography, a town of Egypt, near Memphis, nov/-Bifalta ;
or, according to Savary (v. i. p. 484), correfponding with
the prcfent Dachhour, whither the waters ot the Nile nre
condnfted by a canal, and near which is the ruin of the
temple of Ofiris, and to the weft of it a great pyramid.
(Strabo, tom. ii. 1163.) Alfo a maritime town of Mace-
donia, a colony of Andrians ; now ErifTo : near which was
fhewn Xerxes's ditch of feven ftadia, in order to feparate
Mount Athos from the continent, and convey his fhlps,
without doubling Athos, into the Singitic bay. Herodotus,
1. vii. c. 121, &c. Pliny, Nat. Hiil. tom. i. p. 202.
Acanthus is alfo a town of Epirus.

ACANTHRUS, in Natural Hijlory, a name given to the
Echinorhynchus tvr/.v//V/w, which is found in the intcf-
tines of niany difTaent fpecies of lith.

A C A

ACANTHUS, Btnr''t Breech Or Dmnc-Vrfmf, In Bo.
tany, a genus of the ilijynnmia ani^ivflvrmij clafs, and be-
longing to tiic natural order of )'rrfonals; of which the
generic chambers arc thrfe : the calyx is a periantiiium,
with leaflets in three alternate pairs, unequal and permanent ;
the corolla is fingle-pctalled and unequal, having a fliorl tube
clofed with a beard, no upper-lip, wry large under-lip,
which is flat, llraight, verj' broad, three^lobed, oblufe,
and of the length of the upper-lip of the calyx ; the llamin.i
have four filaments, fubulate, fliorter than the corolla, the
two upper rather longer, recurved, and incurved at the top ;
the anthers are obk)ng, comprefled, obtufe, the lateral om s
parallel, and villous before ; the pillillum has a conital
germ, liliform llylc, of the length of the ilamens, and two
acute lateral ftigmas ; the periearplum is a fiibovate pointed
capfule, two-celled and two-valved, with a contrary parti-
tion, alternate claws, curved, and fadened to the partition ;
the feed is ovate, and gibbous, and fingle ; fometiincs double.
There are ten fpecies: 1. 'V\\e fmoolh acnnlhiis, with white
flowers, proceeding from about the middle to the top of
the flalk, is the fpecies ufed in medicine under the name of
Branca urfna or Branlurfine. It is a native of Italy, about
Naples, of Sicily, Provence, and the illands of the Archipe-
lago, and is cultivated in our gardens, and flowers in June and
July. Turner (in his Herbal iuHort. Kew.) informs us, that it
cultivated in Slon gardens fo long ago as the year 1551.
The leaves, and particularly the roots, abound with a foft,
infipid mucilage, which may be readily extrafted, either by
boiling, or by infufion. Reftified fpirit, digefled on the
leaves, extrafts from them a fine deep green tinfturc, which
is more durable than that which is communicated to fpirit
by other herbs. Brani nijl.ie is feldom or ever ufed medi-
cinally in this country. But where it is common, it is em-
ployed for the fame purpofes to which the Althxa orMarfti-
mallow, and other mucilaginous vegetables are apjJ'.ed among
us. In foreign countries thecow-parfnep is faid tobefubfti-
tuted for it, though it polfefTcS very different propertied.
The laft edition of Linnaus by Gmelin, contains twelve
fpecies.

The ancients have not only called the herb bear's brecfh
by this name, but alfo a thorny tree growing in Egypt.

An accurate examination of the ancient writers will, how-
ever, fhew very plainly, that they meant tv.o very dlffennt
vegetables under this name. Virgil has two veiy different
plants under the fame name. The acanthus with which he
adorns the handles of Aleimedon's cups, in the 3d Eclogue,
jiid places in the Corycian's garden, in the 4th Georgic,
and the Egyptian acanthus of Theophraftus, are two very
different plants, Virgil mentions another acanthus as being an
ever-green plant, and producing berries, or a fmall round
fruit; l/accas femper frunilcntis acanthi, are his words; and
Theophraftus tells us, that his Egyptian acanthus is a jirick-
ly tree, and bears pods like thofc of beans. The Greek
fculptors adorned their works w ith the figure of the latter ;
as the Gothic did with that of the former, which they re-
prefented not only in their capitals, but alfo in other orna-
ments. It is plain, that the r*.-anthus of Tlv.ophi-aflus is
the acacia, a tree, from fome fpecies of which we have the
gum arable now in ufe : and the acanthus of Virg'l, men.
tloned in the places above clttd, is a garden he-b, defcribcd
by Diofcoridcs, under the name of Axa.??., which is fuppof^ed
to be the fpecies of acanthus already noticed, though Lin-
n-Tus takes it to be the fourth Cp/cies. The oilier acanthus,
iiieutioned by Virgil in the fouith Eclogue, and fec>.ncl
Georgic, is the acanthus of Theophraftus. See ProfilFor
J. Martyn's notes on Virgil.

The leaves of this fpecies of acanthus accidental'y grovf-
ino- rouad a baflict covertd with a tile, gave occdlii'u to

Caili.

A C A

CsUiiT^aclw'i lo iiivcr.t the Coiiiithian capital. Fee Abacvs.
lorllic appeal aiK-e of the l.iilna of btai's breech in tlie mi-
troffi'pc, fee J'ltile of MkroJ'copical OhjciU. 2. The
th'iJIU-leiitfJ ncanlhus was found by Spanniaii at the Cape of
Good Hopf, and has many kaves, proceeding immediately
from the root, rcfembhn^' vhofe of the thiltie. 3. Tiic
pricUy acanthus grows wild in Italy and Piovcnce, and
I^ovms from July to Septcir.btr. lt.s leaves are dividtd into
ferments, termii'ialed with a (liai-p fnlne, which renders this
plant troublefome to tliofe who iianule it. 4. The acanibus
of Di'J'cinJcs, as Linna?us fujipofes it to be, grows naturally
in the Eall, on Lebanon, &c. 5. The boUy-'teavid acan-
thus is an evergreen Ihnib, about four feet high, a::d fepa-
rating into many branches, vith leave', rtlembiing thofe of
the common holly, ^nd ber.nng white flowers, hmilar to
thofe of the coo.moii acanthui, but fmaller. 6, 7, 8, 9.
Thefe fpecics, viz. the ent'in-haved, proaimhnl, frrked,
and Ciipe acmithi, are natives of the Cap ■ of Good Hope.
10. The Madias acanthus is a native of tlie Eall In-
dies.

Thefnwolh and prickly acavlhi are pcrciinial plants, and
may be propagated cither by feeds, which (hould be fown
in a light dry "foil towards the end of March, and left to
crow, about fi.x inches afundcr, till auttimn, when they
Hiould be tianfi)l:'.ntcd where they are to remain-; or by
roots, which may be planted either in fpring or autumn for
the third fort ; but the others muft only be removed in the
-fpring, becaufe if they are tranfplanted in autumn, they may
be in danger of being dcltroyed by a cold winter. Thefe
plants take deep root, and when they are once eilabliflied in
a garden, they cannot be eafily eradicated. The 5th and
10th fpecits are too tender to thrive out of a ftove in Eng-
hmd, and <:annot be propagated, except, by feeds, which
do not ripen in Europe. The other forts mull be treated
in the fame manner with Cape plants.

Acanthus, in j-lrchitedure, an ornament in the Corin-
thian and Cumpofite orders: being the reprefentation of
the leaves of an acanthaceous pknt, in the capitals thereof.
See Tab. Jrch'tt.

Acanthus Avicula, in Ormlhokgy, the name given by
Gefnertothe Fringilla ///'hw of Linnaeus, or Siskin of
Others. See Spinus.

Acanthus, in Ancient Geography. See Chalcidica.

Acanthus, in Enloniology, a fpecies of Papilio, in
the divifion of PhheU, with entire brown wings, blue bands
underneath, and yellow limb ; found in Surinam.

ACAPALA, or Acapnia, -a town in the province of
Chiapa, in New Spain. It is fituated on the Tabafco
river, five leagues north-weft from Chiapa.

ACAPAM, or AcAPARAMi, a town of Afia, on the
Euxine fea.

ACAPATLI, in Botany, a name ufed by fome authors
for the plant v.hicii produces the long pepper, ufed in me-
dicine. De Latt. Ind. Occ. p. 231.

ACAPNISTON, axawnrov, from a, and xp.'mtii, J/noie,
a term applied to the excellent honey of Hymettus, in
Attica, both by Pliny, 1. xii. c. 16., and Strabo, torn. i.
p. 613, from the mode of its preparation.

ACAPNON, axKTTvov, a nyme of the samp such us, or
MARJORAM ; alfo of dry wood.

ACAPULCO, in Geography, a confiderable town and
harbour in Mexico, fituate on a bay of the South Sea, a-nd
diftant from the city of Mexico about 210 miles, fouth-
eaft. The haven is large and commodious, and capable of
containing fevtral hundred fliips ; and the entrance is
fecured by a fmaU ifland, whieii runs acrofs it, and forms
at each end a deep channel of fufficicnt breadth for the largt ft
■vcntls. The only inconvenience is, that fliips muft enter by

A C A

the fca-hrceze in the day-time, and go out by the kind-
bree/.e in the night, which feldoin fail to iucceed each otlier
alternately, fo that they are frequently blow n off to fea, af-
ter repealed attempts to make the harbour. A-capulco it-
felf i.s a mean and ill-built town, and derives its importance
and extenr fixim the great trade carried on with the Eaft-
-Indies and Peru, and the number of v-arehoufes and habi-
tations for ftrangers which this commerce requires. The
•houfes are llightly conftrudled on account of the frequent
earthquakes to which this country is expofed ; and good
buildings are the lefs necelTary, as the principal inhabitants
icti.e from the fea-coaft, when bufineis does not dem.and
their immediate attendance. Belides, the climate is ex-
ceedingly unhealthy, and very prejudicial to ilrangers. L'p-
on the arrival of the galleons, the town is populous and
g.iy, being crowded with the richeft merchants of Mexico,
Peru, and even of Chili, who provide themfeh es with tents
in the vicinity of the town, and fonn a kind of large en-
campment. For the trade of this town, fee Alamla Galleon.
Dppofite to the town, on the eaft fide, is a ftrong caftle,
faid to h". provided with forty pieces of Cannon, and the
platform at the end of the town is alfo mounted with guns ;
and fliips ride near the bottom of the harbour ; fo that this
placets not fo eafily acceffible as fome have imagined. The
port is a b;;f3n i'uiTOunded with verj- high mountains. Two
iflands, off the fort, parallel to the port, are to be left on
the larboard, and within the harbour is a fmall illand near
the (hore, on the larboard. Within a league of the call of
the town, is a veiy good harbour, called Port Marquis,
where the ftiips from Peru generally run in contraband goods.
W. long. 102° 20'. N. lat. I7'^22'.

ACAIliV, in Ichthyolcgy, the name of a fifh caught in
the freih waters in the Brazils, and efteemtd a very delicate
and weU-tafted one. It feldom exceeds three or four inches
in length, and has a high back like the pearch. Its mouth
is fmall, and its jaws rough like a file. It has one long
back-fin, which is fupported by a great num.btr of rigid and
prickly rays, and reaches to the tail. Its fcales are large ;
its back is of a gloffy brown ; its fides and belly white ; its
tail is not forked. It has a large black fpot on the middle
of each . fide, and another near the tail. Its fins are all
brown . Marcgrave.

ACARAAYA, the name of a fifli caught on the Bra-
filian fliores, and by fome called alfo garanha. It grows to
three feet in length, and is of the iliape of our carp. Its
lower jaw is furnifhed with an even range of fliarp teeth,
like httle needles. Its upper jaw has two very long ones, and
befide thefe, a multitude of other very fhort ones. Its eyes
are large, and their iris red. Its tail is broad, and a httle
forked. Its fcales are of a moderate fize, and of a filver
hue, with an admixture of pui-ple. Its belly, and the un-
der part of its head, are wholly white; and its fins of a fine
pale red, except thofe under the belly, which are white,
with a flight edge of red. It is eaten in Brafil, both frefli
and faltcd. Marcgrave.

ACARAI, in Geography, a town of Paraguay, in South
America, built by the Jefuiis in 1624. N. lat. 26^. W.
long. 51-5

ACARAMUCU of Marcgrave and WiUughby, in Ich.
thyology, is the Balistes Monoceros in the Linnsan fyftem
by Gmelin. See Monoceros.

ACARAPKBA, the name of an American fifh, called
alfo by fome brafeme. It has a fomewhat broad ar.d Hat body,
covered with large fcales of a fine filver whitenefs. It grows
to a foot in length, and to four or five fingers in bre idth.
It has a large mouth, but without teeth ; and its tail is
forked. It has one long black fin, the anterioi rays, or
naves, of which are rigid and prickly, the hind paves foft
2 and

A C A

and flexile. The fins are all like the reft of the body, of a pure
white. This (ilh foems to be a kind of smaris. ^I:ircj;r;ivc.

ACARAPINIMA, the name of a Bralihan filh, of the
CANTHARUS kind, and fecming to be of the fame fpecies
with the rtitithans of the Mediterranean. Ray.

ACARAPITAM15A, the name of a iiHi cauglit in the
Brafihan feas, of an oblong figure, vefembling the mvi-lkt,
and growing to two feet or more in length. Its mouth and
teeth are veiy fmall. It has one h>n^ tin on the back, run-
ning very nearly to the tail, wliich is fiipportcd by rigid
and prickly rays. Its tail terminates in two oblique horns.
Its fcales are large, and of a purplirti colour, with a line
admixture of blue ; and along the middle of each fide there
runs, from the gills to the tail, a veiy broad ai.l beautiful
gold-coloured line. Its back, down to this lin .-, is varie-
gated alfo with fmall gold-coloured fpot? ; ani the lides
under the line are veiy beautifully variegated witli fmall and
fine longitudinal, but (hort gold-coloured lines, of a fomc-
what paler colour than the broad one. Its belly is white,
and its fins yellow. Marcgrave and Wilhighby.

ACARAPUCU, the name of a Brafilian fi'lh, caught in
the frelh waters, and growing to eighteen inches in length.
It is of a rounded body : and its mouth is fmall, and not pro-
minent. It has lips, which it can hide, or fuller to appear,
at pleafure, and has no teeth. Its tail is long and forked ;
its fcales are all of a filvery hue. On the back it has a fine
golden glofs, iliining in the whitenefs ; and on the fides five
or fix large blue fpots. Its back and fide fins are of a pale
blue, as is alfo the tail : the belly fins are yellowidi. It is a
well-tafted fifii. Marcgrave.

ACARAUNA, of Marcgrave, Willughby, Ray, and
Jonrton, is the Ch.t;todon ti'igricu/is of Linnaeus, with a lab-
bifid tail, nine fpines in the dorfal fin, and a lateral fpine on
each fide of the bifid tail. Its eyes are large, with a filvery
iris ; the teeth in each mandible are from ten to fixteen,
cylindric, and narrow in the lower part, and above wider,
veiy hard, fub-pellucid, and diipofed in a ierics, the fore-
teeth being the longell ; the tongue is Ihort and thick ; the
operculum of the gills is long and narrow ; the lateral line
proceeds from it in a direftion parallel to the back : moll of
the fins have ramofe rays ; the peftoral and caudal are cine-
reous, the ventral black ; the dorfal and anal white at
their bafe, and in other parts of a dulky hue, and they have
bifurcated radii. This fifh is found in the Indian, Brafil,
and Red Seas, and grows to the length of two feet ; it is
trovered with fmall fcales, bh.ckifh above, and whitifh be-
neath, and brown on the fides. It feeds on young crabs
and teftaceous fifh.

The fmall black Acarmma of Willughby, is the Ch^eto-
BON nrcuatus of LinntEus, with an entire tail, eight ipines
in the dorfal fin, and four white arches, and is called by
Marcgrave and Ray, Guaperva. The Acarauna altera
viiijor of Willughby and Ray, is the Ch^todom cUiiirh of
I^innaeus, with an entire tail, fourteen fcales in the dorfal
fin, fpinofe opcrcula, and ciliated fcales. This fi(h is
found in India; it is of a cinereous colour, white beneath,
the iris of the eyes is reddilh ; the mouth very Imall, the
lips ftrong, the mandibles equal, tlie aperture of the gills
large, the operculum furniflied with three fpines, the lateral
line near the back and parallel to it, the anus in the middle
of the body, and the fins brown at their edge, with ramofe
rays, and a black ring before the dorfal fin.

"^rhe Acnraiina inac!ilata\&x\\i Qniv.rcfDO^ Incolor. It is
alhed to the pearch, of an oblong ihape, thick body, part
of which, and the tail, are white, and the other parts brown.
It is found in South America and India. Linn. Syil. Nat.
by Gmeiin, torn. i. pt. 3. p. 12^.3 — 1245 — 1253—125!^.

ACARI Port, m Cto-fYf/Av, lies on ihv coaft of P>ru.

Vol. 1.

A C A

S. lat. if JO'. W. long. 74° 40'. To the N. W. is the
headland of ^[orro <ie Acari. This port is fomctimes called
Port l^omc).

ACARNA, in lio/.wy, a name by whicli Thcophraftui,
and fome other writei-s, cxprefs the common artichoak.
See Atractvlis, Carduus, Carlina, and Cnicus.

AGAR NAN, in Ichthyology, the name of a imall fca-fi(h
very common in the Mediterranean, and brought to market
among the rubellios, or erjthriiii, and called by the filher-
men by the name/raW/no, or phragoUno. It viiy much rc-
fembles thcerythriiuis in Uiape ; but as that is of a fnic red,
tiiis, on the contrary, is of a filver)- white. Its mouth ii
moderately large ; its teeth (lender and jiointed ; and iti
eyes large, having fine yellow irifes. Its lins are uliitc, hut
have each a black fpot at their origin. It fecms doubtful
whether this be really any way diflVrtnt from the ciytlirinun,
except in colour, v.hieh alone is not dillinttioii fufficient to
make a fpeeies. Rondelet.

ACARNANIA, in Ancient Geography, the firft coun-
try of Free Greece, or Greece Proper,' bounded b) the
Sinus Ambracius, and the river Athclous ; the latter of
which feparales it from jlitolia, on the call ; and the former
from Epirus, on the well. Ptol. Geo. I. iii. c. 15. Slnibu
1. X. Phny, I. iv. c. i. Tliucyd. 1. ii. Paufan. 1. viii.
Acarnania was a free (late, and governed by a prxtor, or ge-
neral aflcmbly, and other fiibordinatc magift'rates, of the fame
defciiption and authurity as thoi'eof the Achxansand iEtoli-
ans. The inhabitants of this country were called Acarnanej, at
fome fay, from axbysilot, /. e. people wiJ}!orn, as the Curttes
on the other fide of the Acheluus W(.re (a called from nofoptMi,
i. it.Jbuni. But Paufanias fays, that they were thusdenominated
trom Acarnanes, the Ion of Alcmaeon. Stephan. de I'rb.
vol. i. p. 41;. Strabo Geog. torn. ii. p. 690^714. Ac-
cording to Lucian (Dial. Meret. apud op. torn. iii. p. 298.)
they were noted for effeminacy and incontinence, whence
the proverb, xc'?"'>'-"f-'^>'-«j»"'"'»>", /"""'"''/''''■' Acai-nanivs. A>(ot|>iK»;
iTiro; is likewife proverbial to denote any thing excellent in
its kind, becaufe this country was famous for its breed of
horfes. It is now called la Carma and // Defpotato.

The Acarnaiiians are reprefented by Polybius (I. iv.
p. 299. ed. Cafaub.) as faithful to their promife, and
extremely jealous of their liberty. They derived their
origin from difterent nations, but affociated in a gene-
ral confederacy, and were almoll always at war with
their neighbours the iErouiANS. They were the only
people of any note that did not appear amongft the Gre-
cian forces in their expedition agaiiill Troy. Thev were,
more than all the other Greeks, attached to the kings of
Macedon, and principally to Philip, the father of Perfcs,
and valued themfelves upon an inviolable fidelity in the ob-
fervancc of treaties. The Romans made many attcm|>ts to
withdraw them from their allegiance, and to deprive Philip
o( his only lupport. After more gentle efforts had failed,
I-ucius Flaminius rcfolved to reduce tiiein by force, and laid
fiege to Ln'CAs, their capital. Jt was at length betraved
by iome Italian exiles, who, being acquainted with the
place, had introduced many Romans into the city. The
Acarnaiiians were furrouiided, and tliofe who refufed to fub-
mit were put to the fword. 'I'he reduclion of the capital
(Iruck inch terror into the whole nation, that thev defeiled
Philip, and (ubmitted to the Romans, under wliofe protec-
tion thev lived according to their own laws till the dellrue-
tion of Corinth, when Acarnania became part of the ])ro-
vince of Achaia. I.iv. 1, xxxii. c. 4.

AcARMASiA was alfo the name of a town in Sicily, f.i.
mous for a temple of Jupiter.

ACARO, in Gtograpl.y. .See A(ii'\M«of,

ACARON, in Botany, the wild Mvri te.

P Ac.\»oa

A C A

Ac \fi.os, \>i Gio^rnji/jy. Sec Accarov.

A c A R o N Bny. See Berklf.yV Sound.

AGAR US, the Tick or Mite, in Natural Hifoiy, fo
called, probably tioin a pr'iv. a;id ksijh Io cut, bccinife it is
(Icemod fo fir..ill lliat it cannot be cut, is a genus of infefts
bclonginji; to the order of upteni, in the Linnaean fyllcm,
and to the ciglith cIhIs called aniliala in the diftvibution of
rabriti'is. Tlic dillinf^uilliing ciiarafters of this genus
arc, that the mouth lias no probofcis, that the hauftellum
or fucker is included in a biv.Jve, cylindric Iheath ; that the
feelers are two in number, equal, and of the length of the
hauftwlluin ; that the eyes are two, placed at the fide of the
Lead, and that it has ;Mght legs. Fabricius reckons forty,
and Gmelin, in the lall edition of Lirinxus's fyilem, eighty-
two fpecles; of which, lome are inhabitants of the earth,
others of water ; foroe live on trees and plants, others
among (lones, and others on the bodies of other animals,
and even under their (liin. They are as follow ; viz.
elfpl.'ontinus, with an orbicular, deprefTed, livid body, and
a black ovated fpot at the bafe, found in India : JE^ypthis,
ovated and black, with a white margin, a native of Egypt :
Reduvius : Indus, oval and ferruginous, with a black
ovated fpot at the bafe, found in South America and India:
Aimrkanus, obovated and ruddy, with white fcutellum
and joints of the legs, found on the cattle and horfcs of
America : Sanguisucus : Ricinus or Tick : crajfipcs,
with the fecond pair of legs very thick, nimble, gregarious,
and found in the foil of Europe, and frequently in that of
gardens : Vefpert'd'toms, with an angulated thorax and un-
guiculated legs longer than the body, called the mat-Iou/i;
and found on the murine bat : pajj'crinus, found on various
fparrows, and called the fparrow-loufe : motator'nis, of a
yellow colour, and with its firft legs very long and adapted
to fwift motion, found on muflirooms : Apbidloidcs, red,
with the fore-legs long and fit for running ; and the hinder
part of the abdomen terminating in two horns ; and lodging
111 the putrefcent wood of Europe : cohriptratus, black,
with acute-angled TkIcs, found under the bark of trees in
Europe : tclar'nis, of a greeniih-yellow colour, with a brown
fpot on each fide of the abdomen, found on plants in Europe
that are not much expofed to the wind, or piaccd in a hot-
houfe, which it penetrates with its iling, and fuffocates ;
and frequent on the leaves of the lime-tree in autumn :
S'lra or fvIiTE : laS'is, with an ovated, obtufe abdomen, and
the hinder part having four declining briltles as long as the
body, found in four cream and unwafhed milk-vefiels :
Jy/eiiteyiii, with two briftles to the legs, and four horizontal
briRleS at the hinder end of the ovated abdomen, of the
length of the body, found in beer-eaflcs, &c. : esidcerans,
with very long fctaceous legs, and the two fore-legs fhort,
fuppofed by fome to be the caufe of the Itch, and neftino-
in the ulcers of this difeafe, but by others not to be fuffi-
ciently diftincl from the A. fcalnei : geniculatus, black, with
lub-globofe joints of the tliighs, found on the dead branches
of trees : tiiulorius, with a red hairy abdomen, the hinder
part obtufe, and the anterior tibia; of a paler colour, a native
of Surinam and Guinea, and lately introduced into the
praiiice of dyeing : aquat'icus, with a fanguineous deprefled
abdomen, covered with a velvety down, obtufe behind, found
fwimming brilkly in the frelh waters of Europe : holofenrus,
with an abdomen like that of the fonner fpecies, and found
in dry Utuations in Europe and America, generally under
the fiirface of the earth, and fometimes among hay : haica-
rum, with a diilended red abdomen, and fides of a darker
hue, found on hemes, and particularly currants and goofe-
berrics : mufcorum, with a red abdomen, and hinder legs
very long and filifonn, found on the moffes of Europe :
Batatas': gymno^tcnrunii with a red abdomen, and two

A C A

crlmfon-colourcd fpots on the fides, found on bees, wafps,
the libellula, alilus, and other infeds : co'eop/ratorum, with
an ovated red body and whitilh anus, freqi ent on bcet'es,
whence the common black beetle is fomet mes called the
loufy beetle : niptjiris, brown, with a do^fal line of two
colours, frequent under the ftones of Europe : longicornis,
red, with bifid antennx longer than the roilrum, found In
the rocks of Europe : lilloraUs, ovated and red, with a
fubulated extended roftnim, found among the rocks on
the (hores of Europ-' : fungorum, of a reddilh-brown colour,
with a fubglobofe, fmooth, unfpottcd abdomen, gregarious,
and moving flo^'ly on difle;-ent fungi : trcmelLi:, iubglobofe,
of a black-blueiih colour, found on the Tremella juu'ipi-
rana: fcaher, depreded and a(h-co!oured, and rough f;ci.-s,
found in the earth at the beginning of fpring : faliciniu,
red, with a double brown dorfal line, and in the fore-part
bifurcated, found fwiftly running on the willows ; croceus,
yellow, with a red fpot on the fides of the thorax, found on
the galls oi the Willow : Ursellus : g''oJ[iis, ovated,
fomewhat deprefTed, of an olive-brown colour, with a
blackifii fcutellum, and the bafe and ap;x of a golden cop-
per colour, found on the animals of South America, and
fuppofed to be the fame with the elephanfmu- : und.;tus,
orbiculated and black, with waves of white on the fides,
and a black fpot, found in New Holland : Ltp/ienjis, ovated.
and brown, with a thick margin, found at Leipfick : Igunna;
ovated and ipotted with gold, with the margin of the ab-
domen ilriated and fomewhat jagged, jjxing itfelf to the
throat of the lacerta Iguana ; Cnycrjis, ovated, and va-
ried with gray and white, with the hinder margin elevated,
.and ftriated, a native of Cayenne : Jiiieatus, ovated and fer-
ruginous, with two white wavy lines, found in America r
aureolatus, obovated and brown, with two fmall lines and a
palmated fpot on the hinder part, of a green and gold eo-
loiu', a native of America : holfatus, ovated and ferruginous,
with a brown thorax : palTipc , ovated and brown, with the
antennx and legs of a pale while: hifpanus, ovated and black,
with ferruginous legs and white joints, found in Barbary :
HiRUDO : vibrant, roundiili, teftaceous, and without fpots,
with the fore -legs longer than the others, found in Cayenne :
domcjlicus, white, with two brown ipots, an ovated body
contrafted in the middle, very long hairs, and equal legs,
found in the houfes of Europe, but fuppofed not to be dif-
ferent from the y7;-o.- ylYJ^/V/', white, with reddifh legs, and
the hinder having four very long brillles, and much lefs than
X\\tJivo, and found in the ulcei-s of perfons iufefted with the
Itch, exciting irritation, and fuppofed to be either the caufe,
or rather a lymptora of the difeafe : 'Aojlent, roundilh and.
whitilh, with a red abdomen, found in the fuci of tlie Norwe-
gian feas : phalang'n, ovated and red, with an extended roilrum
and long legs, frequent on the phalangii and fpiders :
phaetan'is, ovated, and behind acuminated, with the legs
fafciculated at their apex, found on the phaeton of the
Southern Ocean : fucorum, pale-coloured, with two winding
black lines and the hinder legs verv fhort and bent, foundon the :
fuci of the feas of Norway : rufipes, ovated and white, with,
ferruginous legs, found in Europe : Ikhenisf with the firft
and fourth pair of legs longer, and the fecond thick, found
on the lower furface of the lichen : leucurus, with the fecond:
legs very thick, a tellaceous body, and a pale-coloured anus, ,
iound on carcafes : lociijla, with four briftles in the hinden.
part, and as many on the fides : conferva, ovated and brown, .
with tlic fecond joint of the legs fmall, and the third fur-
niilied at its apex with a long briille, found in the filaments
of the conferva under water, but dying out of the water :
cadaverum, with a body formed with t\\-o lobes and four
long briftles to the hinder part of the body, found on the
carcafes of infeds : deJlruSor, ovated, with many long

briftles

A C A

Tsrirtles to tlie amia, anil one to the legs, fouiul on tlic
exiivi^ of infefts in moill phccs : emditus, with the firll
pail- of legs veiy thick, and clawed, and the fecond having
two vei7 long bridles at their apex, found in books that are
kept in moill places : olauda, with the hinder part of the
anus emarginated, found on the Ahuula arvnifis : ^ramimm,
red, with the legs of the firfl: pair very long, and the iiinder
part of the abdomen jagged, found on the leaves of gralfes :
appenii'iciilatus, fubgloboie and crimfon-colourcd, with lonn-
legs of a paler hue, and the hinder legs longer, found
under tlie lichen pulmonnnus : ivVw, ovated, fetoie and red,
with equal legs and feveral bridles, found fwiftly ru:ininor
on the vine : pigei; red, with paler legs, and the hinder part
of the abdomen furnifhed with fmall bridles, found upon
mofs : denticuhilus, with four teeth to the anterior part of
the body, found imder garden-pots : tejlmlineus, with a
fmooth abdomen, lodged in the foil at the commencement
of fpriiig : nd'L-ns, red, ovato-oblong, with iubequal legs,
fonnd under mofs: pm^nans, red, globofe and verv fmootii,
fcarce vilible to the naked eye, found in the foil in fpring :
mi'fci, corneous, haiiy and black, found on mofs : limiicum :
fvlionim, ovated, greenidi, and naked, with all the
legs equal, found on the leaves of various plants in
fummer : putrefcenlhf, ovated, greenidi, and bridly, with
vmequal legs, found in the earth : cardudis, ovated, greenidr
and blackilli, naked, with unequal inflated legs, found jon
the frin^dln : cocchieiis, ovated and of a crimfon-colour,
with a rtrait body, lodged on various infefts : vegetans,
crudaceoiis, brown, emarginated and convex, and plain
beneath, found on various infefts of the coleoptera order :
fainbitci, red, with pale legs and feelers, with long bridles
fcattered over the body and legs, found flowly moving on
the leuves of the black elder: nwjinrum, found on the mtij'ca:
acarorum, hemifpheric, pale-coloured and fmooth, with
equal legs, found on the ncarus crajjlpes : card'maUs, ovated,
downy and red, black below between the legs, and fur-
nilhed with an ovated black fcutellum, found on nlodes

m the grove adjoining to the Hague. Aridotle, (Hid.

Anim. 1. V. c. 32. Oper. tom. i. p. 857. Ed. Du
Val.) mentions the acarus bred in wax, as the lead objeft
of human fight. Thefe infedts, which arc often very
troublefome on plants and in hot-houfes, may be effeftually
dedroyed by the mixture recommended for dedroylng thofe
on the PifiE-app/e. The following mixture will be alfo
equally efRcacious : Take two ounces of foft green foap,
one ounce of common turpentine, and one ounce of flowers
of fulphur ; pour upon thefe ingredients a gallon of boiling
water, and work the whole together with a wliift, and let
the mixture be ufed wami. This mixture may alfo be of
ufe for preventing the mildew on the peach and apricot.
However, this method fliould never be praftifed on fiuit-
trees near the time when their fruits are ripening. A drong
ley made of wood-allies will likewife deflroy the Acan ;
but plants are greatly injured by this, and other briny and
fpirituous compofitions. The Acari may be alfo dedroyed
in plants, by brufliing them with a common painting brufh,
by often dulling them with flowers of fulphur, by keeping
a hot-houfe in a moid date, by dipping the tops of plants
frequently in clear ^^•ater in which flowers of kilphur and
to^bacco have been infufed, in the hot fummer months, and
ahvays keeping the hot-houfe clean.

Acarus is the name given by Brown (Jam. 41S.) to
the Vxjttx penetrans of Linnxus. It is alio a fpecies of the
Trichoda, in the order of Infusoria, and clafs of
Worms.

ACASABASTIAN, in Geoxraph, a river in the pr6.
vince of Vera Paz, in Mexico, whole I'ourcc is not far from

A C A

llic South Sea, whicii runs into the C.xifo Dolce. There
is a town of the fame name fituatcd on its l<;uiks.

ACASATHULA, a fea-port fituattd on a point of
land, in the province of Guatimah Proper, in McxiiO. oil
a biy of the South Sea, about four leagues from Trinidad.
It receives the grcatcft part of the treafnres from Pern and
Mexico. Tlicre are three volcanos in its vicinity. N. Lat.
12° 50'. W. Long. 93'.

ACASTA, m Entomology, a fpecies of Papilio, found
in India, with roundilh wings, having five tranfverfe fpotc,
and brown apices, and the under part yellow.

AcASTA, in Mythol'gy, one of the nymphs, callcdOcEASl-

DFS.

ACASTUS. in Clajtcal Hlflary, the fon of Pelias king
of Theflaly, and one ofthe mod famous hunters in his time.
He married Atalanta, according to Suidas, or Adydamea,
as his annotator calls her, who, failing in love with Peleus
her for.-in-law, and not having her wilhes gratified by him,
acculed him to her luifliand of a rape ; upon which he made
waragainil Acallup,and llew his wife. Suidas, tom. i.p. 365.

Ac A ST I- s, in En'omrd'jgy, a fpecies of Papilio, with
black wings, the fore-wings having a fnowy band, and the
hinder green beneath, marked with yellow ridges ; found
in Surinam. It is alfo a name given by Ci-nmer to the
Papdio Phidias.

ACATALECTIC, Acatalecticus, formed of the
privative a. and x.o^a'Kmlmo:, from xa1a^ll'•)iJ, to ceafe or end,
in the Ancient Poetry, a term applicable to fuch versrs as
have all tlieir feet and fyllahles, and are in no refpeA lame
or defcdlive at the end. In the following ftrophe of
Horace, the two firll verfes are acatale^ie, and the h,i\cata!eai;:
Solvitur acris hycnu, grata vice
Veris isf Favuni :
Irahuntquejiccas mach'mtt carinas

ACATALEPSIA, Acatalepsy, compounded of the
privative « and xxTaXajiWavw, dcprchendo, to find out, in Phdo-
fophy, an impoflibillty of a thing's being conceived or com-
prehended.

Acatnhpfia is fynonymous with incomprehenfibility.

AC AT ALUS, in Bolim)>,-A juniper berry.

ACATASTATOS, formed of a and xxSiri^, conjijlo, in-
eonjlant, is a phyfical term, anciently applied to irregular
fevers, whofe paroxyfms are uncertain, and which are indi-
cated by frequent changes in the urine. It is likewife ap-
plied to thofe fliivering fits in fever':, which have no conftant
return, and to turbid urine, that depofits no regular fediment.

ACATECHILI, or Acatechichictli, in Ornitho-
logy, the Fringilla Mexicaua of Gmelin, and the Mexi-
can Siskin of Latham, is about the fize of the filkin, and
has the fame fong, and feeds on the fame fubdances. Its
head and the upper part of its body are a greenidi brown,
and the throat and under part white, fliaded with yellow.
Its Mexican name Acatechichiaftli, fignifies the bird that rubs
itfelf againd the reeds, and may allude to fome of its habits.

ACATERY, orAcCATRY, in the king's houfehold, a
kind of check betwixt the clerks of the kitchen and the
purveyors.

ACATHARSIA, of a and y.a5ai,-i., to cleatife, in Me-
dicine, denotes an impurity of the blood or humours.

ACATHISTUS, aw-^^ro:, in an ecclefuijlieal fenfe, a fo-
lemn hymn, or vigil, anciently fiuig in the Greek church
on the Saturday ofthe fifth week in Lent, in hopouv ofthe
Virein, for having thrice delivered Conftantinople from the
invafions of barbarous nation.^.

It was called axaOij-o,-, i. e. ivilhovl fitting, becaufc it was
celebrated Handing : the people dood all night, finging tht
praifes of their deUverefs. The fame name is alfo given to

P s die

A C A

tlif day whereon it was peifoniied, wliich is called the ftaft.

ACATIUM, in the ancient Navigation, a kind of boat
or pinnace ufcd for military purpofcs.

The acat'mm was a fpecics ot tliofe called a^tiaiiie navts,
i. e. fuch as w-cre wrought with oars. It was fomctimes
made ufe of in battle. Str.ibo repixfer.ts it as a kind of pri-
vateer, or pii-atc floop ; and .Suidiis, as a iithing ve(rcl.

ACAULIS, and Acaulose, in Bofany, a term ap-
plied to certain plants, the flowers of which have no (talk or
pv-dicle to fiipport them, but reft immediately on the
j^ronnd : of this kind arc tlie carline tiiiftlc, and fomc others.

ACBAB, in Ornilholo^y, a name given by the people
of the Philippine iflands to a bird very like our common
hen, which is very frequently wild among them. It lives
on rice, and other vegetables, and docs a great deal of mil-
chief ; but is fhort-winded, and docs not fly well, I'o that it
is eafily deftroyed.

ACBAR, the name of an idol of enormous fizc, which
the Arabians are faid formerly lo lu've worlhipped. It was
with difficulty that Mahomet rellrained them from thii fpe-
cics of idolatrv. Hyde's Diff. voh i. p. 25;.

AC B A R A BAD, in C^ogmphy. See A c; r a .

ACCA (St.) mEcchfiaJlhalNi/lory, bilhop of Haguftald,
or Hexham, in Northumberland, who fucceeded Wilfrid in
709. Befides ornamenting the cathedral, he ereded a
noble library, confifting chiefly of ecclefiailical learning, and
a colleftion of the hves of the faints. He was accounted a
Tery able divine, and famous for his (kill in church mufic.
He wrote feveral books, particularly Pajfwnes Sandorum,
and pro illujlrandis Scripturls ad Bedam. He died in 740,
under Egbert. Simeon of Durh,--.!!! relates feveral miracles
performed by his relics.

ACCA B A, in Geography, the name given by the Arabs to
a chain of mountains near the Red Sea ; and which formed
the eafternmoll range of the ps^al^a o^h of Ptolemy. The
caftle of ^(-cai/2 is fituated below thefe mountains on the
ebnitic point of the Red Sea. See HoR.

ACCABAAR, in Natural Htjlory, the Isis Ochracea of
Linnxus, the red Indian coral of EUis.

AccABAAR is alfo a name given to the Antipathes
pennacea of Linnaeus.

ACCABARIUM, in Natural H'tjlory, a name given by
Rumphius to the Madrepora Octtlala of Linnreus, or the
white coral ot the (hops; and alio to the Is is H'ippuris of the
fame author.

ACCAD, AccHAD, or asthe LXX has it Archad, in
Scripture Geography, a town in the kingdom of Nimrod or
Babylonia, to the eaft of the Tigris. Wells (Geog. O. T.
vol. i. p. 228) fuppofes that the city Sittace orPsiTTACE
was foi-merly called by this name, and that Artacene,
mentioned by Strabo, was formed from Arcad.

hCQ.AXiYM.\Pi.,\x\Muf:cal Language, ?i term ufed in Italy
to denote a private ?oncert.

ACCALIA, in Ar.ttrju'ity, folemn feafts, held in honour
of Acca Laurentla, wife of the lliepherd Fauftulus, and
nurfe or fofter-mother of Romulus. She was deified
by the Romans, and the flamen of Jupiter once a year of-
fered facrifices to her on a holiday inlHtuted to her ho-
nour.

Thefe were othenvife called Laurentalia. — To the fame
Acca is alfo attributed the inftitution of the fratres
ARVALEs. Varro, de Ling. Lat. & Scalig. Conjeft. in Vano.

ACCAPITARE, Accaptare, Acaptare, in ancient
iiTw-books and records, the aft of becoming vaflal of a
lord, or of yielding homage and obedience to him.

The word i« compounded of the Latin ad, to; and caput.

A C C

head', becaufe vatTals owned their lords for their head.
Whence alfo the lords are fometimes called domin'i cap'itales :
as thofe who command in an army are called capitaui-i, cap-
tains ; and in old t'rench, chevdalnes, chieftains, in refpecl of
their luldiers.

ACCAPITUM, a fum of money paid to a vafTal, upon
his admilTion to a feud.

The word is alio written acnpiium, acapit amentum, acap-
tio, acapttitio, and acaptagium.

AccAPiTVM, in our ancient Zaw-books, fignifies relief
due to the chief lord.

ACCARBAAR, in Natural Hijlory, the Gorgonia Sa-
fiippo of Linnxus; and alfo the Alcyonium arloreum of the
fame author.

ACCARBAARIUM, the Gorgonia Antipathes of
Linna;\is, or the blach coral of other authors.

ACC.\RISI, Francis, in Biography, an ancient civilian
in the 1 6th and 1 7th centuries, who was born at Ancona, and
obtained celebrity as a profefTor of civil law in the univerfity
of Sienna. At lirft his leftures coniiiled of illuftrations of
Juftinian's Infl;itutes ; they were afterwards extended to the
pandefts : and at length comprehended civil law in general.
After having occupied the chulr of law-profefTor at Sienna
with high reputation for twenty years, and refilling many-
advantageous offers from other Italian univerilties, he was
induced to accept the propofals of the duke of Panna, who,
befides pecuniary rccompence, tempted him with the title of
his counfellor ; and he removed to Parma. However, he
was foon recalled by the Grand Duke of Tufcany, who af-
figned him the firft profenbrlhip in law at Pifa. He died
at Sienna in 1622. Gen. Dift.

ACCA RON, in Scripture Geography, a town of Judea
called Ekron, i Sam. vi. 17. vii. 14. and mentioned in Jo-
fephus. Ant. 1. vi. c. I. It was the boundary of Philillia
to the north, not far from the fea, and from Bethihemefli,,
(Jodi. XV. ii. 46.) and famous for the idol Baalzebub, who
%vas worlhipped here under the fame attribute with Achor,
the god of flies, from which, according to Bryant (Mytho-
logy, vol. i. p. 83.), this city derived its name. It was-
about thirty-four miles from Jerufalem. It firll fell to the
lot of Judah, and was afterwards given to the tribe of Dan.
N. lat. 31° 55'. E. long. 34° 57'.

ACCAS IJland, in Geography, lies off the mouth of
Ancobar river, on the coaft of Guinea, and extends fo near
the (hore on each fide as to render the channel very narrow.

ACCEDAS ad Curiam, in Law, an original writ, which
lies for the removing fuits in any court baron, except the
county court, into the king's court ; upon apprehenfion of
partiality, or falfe judgment in the other.

A like writ lies for him who has received falfe judgment
in the county court ; where it is called de faljo judicio.

An ylccedas ad Curiam lies alfo for juftice delayed, as
well as falfely given ; and is a fpecies of the writ recordari.

AccEDAs ad Vicecomitem, is a writ direfted to the coroner,
commanding him to deliver a writ to the (heriff, who hav-
ing a PONE delivered to him, fuppreffes it.

ACCELERANDO, in Mufc, is an Itahan term for
accelerating the time in the middle of a piece of mufic,
as raltntando is for retarding it. This lall is a fafhion-
able effeft lately introduced in the perfonnance of mufic, and
much abufed by the excefs and too frequent ufe of it.
The gradual change of meafure, when praiftifed in the midft
of a rer;ular movement, feldom produces any other effeft on
common hearers than that of breaking time. Perhaps in a
very pathetic and exprcffive palfage, even in an allegro,
when very dehcately done from real feeling, the effeCl may
be approved j but tJte imitators of die licences and retim-

ments

A C C

nicnts of great mafters dilp^rncc the compofitions wliicli tliey
mean to embellll"h, and diitjiill their hearers. Darliii^ imi-
tators of the bold rr.oduUitioii of Hnydii, and of the rapid
running up and down the keys in half notes, as Mozart did
in his juvenile days, have deformed melody, and corrupted
harmony. Theic great mailers knew when to ftop ; but
their apes think they never can feafon their prodiielions
too highly ; and, it is to be feared, that the lovers of lim-
plicity will never be indvdged again with plain food,
even by thofe who have no means of gratifying them with
hixuries.

ACCELERATING Force, in Mechanics. Sec Force.

ACCELERATION, in 7Wrf/ja«;rx, the increafe of ve-
locity in n movmg body.

Accelerated mohon is that which continually receives frcfli
accelTions ol velocity, and is eithcj- equably or unequably ac-
celerated. If the accefTions of velocity be always equal in
equal times, the motion is laid to be equably or uniformly
accelerated; but if the accefiions in equal times either in-
creafe or decreafe, the motion is uneq.iably or variably ac-
celerated, ylcce/eratioii (iands directly oppoied to retardation,
which denotes a diminution of velocity.

AcCELKRATiON is chiefly ufed in Phvfia, in refpeft of
falling bodies, i. e. of heavy bodies tending towards the
centre of the earth by the force of gravity.

That natural bodies are accelerated in their defcent, is evi-
dent from various confiderations, both ci priori and pojleriori.
—Thus, we aftually find that the greater height a body
defcends from, the greater imprefiion it makes, and the more
vehemently does it ftrike the plane or other obftacle on
which it falls.

Various are the fyftems and opinions which philofophers
have produced to account for this acceleration. Some at-
tribute to it the prclfure of the air : the farther, fay they, a
body falls, the greater load of atmofphere is confequently
incumbent on it : and the prclTure of a fluid is in propor-
tion to the perpendicular altitude of the column thereof. —
Add, that the whole body of the fluid prcffing in innume-
rable right lines, which all meet in a point, viz. the centre of
the earth ; that point, by the meeting of thole lines, fuf-
tains, as it were, the preflure of the whole mafs : confe-
quently, the nearer a body approaches to it, the effeft or
prefTure of more united lines muft it fuihiin.

But what overturns this account is, that as the preflure
of the air downwards increafes ; fo, by the known laws of
ftatics, does the refiftance, or the force wherewith the fame
fluid tends to repel, or drive the body upwards again.
Others infill, that the incumbent air is the grofler and more
vaporous, the nearer the earth ; and filled with more he-
terogeneous particles, which are not true clailic air : and
hence, fay they, a defcending body, meeting continually
.with Icfs refiftance from the elailicity of the air, and having
the fame force of gravity ftill afting on it, muft neceflarily
be accelerated. Hobbes (Philof. Probl. cap. i. p. 3.) at-
tributes acceleration to a new impreflion of the caufe which
makes bodies fall ; which, on his principles, is alfo the air.
As part of this mounts, part alfo muft defcend ; for reafons
drawn from the motion of the earth, which is compounded
of two motions, one circular, the other progrefTive ; confe-
quently, the air defcends, and circulates at once. As the
body, in its fall, receives a new preflure in every point
in its defcent, its motion, he fays, mull needs be accele-
rated.

But what overturns all accounts where the air or atmo-
fphere is concerned, is, that the acceleration holds in vacuo,
and even more regularly than in air. See Vacuum.

The Peripatetic account is worfc than this : the motion
of heavy bodies downwards, fay they, ariles Irom an intrin-

A C C

flc principle, wlu'ch makes thtm fend to the ccntrf, as th. ir
proper feat, or clement, where they uould be at nil : liciicff
add thiy, the nearer bodies approach to it^ the more in thtir

motion accclenited.

The Gafl'cndiib, on the other hand, ho'd that ihe earth
enuts a fort of attraclivc elUiivia, innnnKrahIc threads where-
of continually afccnd and dtfccnd ; which thre.-.ds, proceed-
ing lik^ radii from a common centre, diverge the more the
farther they go : fo that the nearer a heav)- bidy is to the
Centre, the more of thefe magnetic threads it receives; and
hence the more is its motion accelerated. But this is re-
futed by an eafy experiment : for if a hall he kt fall out of
the lowcft window of a high tower, and alfo out of the
higheft, the acceleration will be very nearly the fame in K.th
cafes, notwithllanding the greater vicinity to the centre in
the one, than in the other cafe.

Tiie Cartelians accoimt for acceleration, from the repeated
pulfcs of a fubtile ethtrial matter, which is continually a(fling
on the falling body, and impelling it downward-;.

After all, the immediate catife of acceleration is rot
myilerlous ; the principle of gravitation being once ad-
mitted, will determine the b< dy to defcend, and its motion
will be accelerated by neceflary confequencc.

Suppofe a body kt fall from on high : the primary- caufe
of its beginning to defcend, is dcnibtlcfs the power of gra-
vity ; but when once the defcent is commenced, that ftatc
becomes in feme mcafure natural to the bcdy ; fo that if
left to itfelf, it would perfevere in it for ever, even though
the aftion of the firil caufe fliould ceafe : as we fee in a
ftone caft with the hand, which continues to move after it is
left by the caufe that gave it motion.

Bnt, beiide the propenfity to defcerd, imprcffed by the
firft caufe, and which of itfelf were fuflicicnt to continue
the fame degree of motion once begun, in iiifnitum ; there
is a conftant acccffion of fuhfequent eflorts of the fame
principle, gravity, which continues to aft on the body al-
ready in motion, in the fame manner as if it were at reft.
Here, then, being two caufes of motion ; and both afting
in the fame direftion, the motion they jointly produce muft
neceff;\rily be greater than that of any one of them. — And
the velocity thus increafed having the fame caufe of in-
creafe ftill periifting, the defcent muft of coutfc be con-
tinually accelerated.

For, fuppofing gravity, whatever it be, to aft uniformly
on all bodice, at equal diftances from the earth's centre ;
and that the time in which a heavy body falls to the earth be
divided into equal parts indefinitely fniall : let this gravity
incline the body towards the earth's centre, while it moves
in the firft indefinitely fmall part of the time of its defcent ;
if after this, the aftion of gravity be fuppofed to ceafe, the
body would proceed unifonnly towards the earth's centre,
with a velocity equal to that which refults from the force of
the firll impreflion.

But now, fince the aftion of gravity is here fuppofed
ftill to continue ; in the fecond moment of time, the
body will receive a new inipulfc downwards, equal to
what it received at firft ; ar.d thus its velocity will be
double of what it was in the firft moment ; in the third mo-
ment it will be triple ; in the fourth quadruple, and fo on
continually : for the impreflion made in one moment, is not
at all altered by what is made in another : but the two are,
as it were, aggregated or brought into one fum.

Wherefore, fincc the particles of time are fuppofed inde-
finitely fmall, and all equal to one another ; the velocity
acquired by the falling body will be evei7 where propor-
tioned to the times from the beginning of the defcent j and
the velocity will be confequently proportional to the time ia

which it is acquired. ^,

Thus

A C C

Thus, if .1 body, by means of this conftant foi-cc, ncqiiii'c
a velocity of ■;2i feet in one fcconJ of time, it will acquire
a velocity of 6+4 feet in two feconds, of 96! feet in three
fccondS ; and all bodies, whatever be their quantity of mat-
tei-, "will acquire, by the force of gravity, the fame velocity
in the fame time. For ever)- equal particle of matter being
er.dued with an equal impelhng force, v-iz. its gravity or
w.ight, the fum of all the forces, in any compound mafs
of matter, will be proportional to the fum of all the weights
or quantities of matter to be moved ; confcquently, the
forces and mafTes moved, being thus conflantly incrcafed
in the fame proportion, the velocities generated will be
the fame in all bodies, great or fmall : /'. c. a double force
moves a double mafs of matter, with the fame velocity that
the fingle force moves the fingle mafs, &c. or, the whole
compound mafs falls altogether with the fame velocity, and
in the fame manner, as if its particles were not united, but
as if each fell by itfelf, and all were feparated from one
another ; and being put into n.otion at once, they
would fall together, juil as if they were united into one
mafs.

Galileo, who firft difcovered the above-mentioned law of
the defcent of falling bodies, illullrated it nearly in the fol-
lowing manner.

The fpace paffed over by a moving body in a given time,
and with a given velocity, may be confidered as a reftangle
made bv the time and the velocity. — Suppofe A {Plate i.
Mechanics, Jig. I.) a heavy body defcending, and let AB
reprefent the time of its defcent ; which line we may fup-
pofe to be divided into any number of equal parts, AC,
CE, EG, &c. reprefenting the intei-vals, or moments of
the given time. — Let the body defcend through the firft of
thofc divifions, AC, with a certain equable velocity arifmg
from the propofed degree of gravity : this velocity will be
reprefented by AD ; and the fpace pafied over, by the reft-
angle CAD.

Now, as the aftlon of gravity in the firft moment pro-
duced the velocity AD, in the body before at reft ; in the
fecond moment, the fame will produce, in the body fo mov-
ing, a double velocity, CF ; in the third moment, to the
velocity CF will be added a farther degree, which together
therewith will make the velocity EH, which is triple of the
firft, and fo of the reft. So that in the whole time AB,
the body will have acquired a velocity BK. — Again, takino-
the divifions of the line, e. g. AC, CE, &c. for the times,
the fpaces gone through will be the areas or reclangles
CD, EF, &c. So that in the whole time AB, the fpace
defcribed by the moveable body, will be equal to all the
rcftangles, i. e. to the dented figure ABK.

Such woirld be the cafe, if the accefilons of velocity only
happened in certain given points of time, e. ». in C, in E.
&c. fo that the degree of motion ftiould contin\ie the fame
tin the next period of acceleration occurs. — If the divifions
er intervals of time were fuppofcd lefs, e. g. by half; then
the dentures of the figure would be proportionably fmaller ;

and it would approach fo much the nearer to a triangle

If they were infinitely fmall, i. f. if the acceffions of velo-
city were fuppofed to be made continually, and in every
point of time, as is really the cafe; the reftangles thus fuc-
ceffively produced will make an exaft triangle, e. g. ABE
(fg. 2.) — Here, the whole time AB confitting of the
little portions of time A i, 12, &c. and the area of the
triangle ABE, of the fum of all the little triangular fur-
faces anfwering to the divifions of the time ; the whole area
or triangle expreftcs the fpace moved through in the whole
time AB ; and the little triangles A 1 /, &c. the fpaces
j[one through in the divifions of time A i , &c.

A C C

Cut tliefe triangles being fimilar, their areas are to nrn
another, as the fquares of their homologous fides A B, A i,
&c. and confcquently, the fpaces moved are to each other
as the fquares of the times.

If the velocity were unifoi-m, the fpace would be equal
to the product of the velocity and time ; i. e. by an ob-
vious notation S=VxT ; but, in this cafe, the velocity in-
creafes from o till it becomes equal to V, and therefore the
fpace defcribed muft be equal to half the above produdl ;
/. e. S = i VxT, and s=i vxt, and S : s : : * VxT : ♦
V X t : : VT : vt. But V : v : : T : t, and VT : vt : :
T X T : t X t : confcquently S : s : : T-' : t-.

Hence we may eafily infer the great law of acceleration,
viz. " That a defcending body uniformly accelerated, de-
" feribc!, in the whole tune of its defcent, a fpace which
" is juft half of what it would have defcribed in the fame
" time, with the accelerated velocity it has acquired at tlie
" end of its fall." For, the whole ipace the falling body
has moved through in the time Wi, we have already fliewn,
will be reprefented by the triangle ABE ; and the fpace
the fame body would move through in the fame time with
the velocity BE, will be reprefented by the rectangle ABEF.
— But tlie triangle is known to be equal to juft half the
rectangle. — Therefore the fpace moved is juft half of what
the body would have moved with the velocity acquired at
the end of the fall. Hence we infer, that the fpace moved
with the laft acquired velocity BE, in half the time AB,
is equal to that really moved by the falling body in the
whole time AB.

From the preceding principles and reafoning we deduce the
following general laws of uniformly accelerated motions: viz.

1. That the velocities acquired are conftantly propor-
tional to the times.

2. That the fpaces are proportional to the fquares of the
times ; fo that if a falling body dcfcribe any given length in
a given time, in double that time it will defcribe four times
that length, in thrice the time nine times the length, &c.;
and univerfally, if the times be in arithmetical proportion, i,
2, 3, 4, S:c. the fpaces defcribed will be i, 4,9, 16, &c.
Thus, a body, which falls by gravity through 1 6 -J, feet in the
firft fecond of time, will fall through four times as much, or
64 I feet in 2 feconds, &c. And fince the velocities ac-
quired in faUing are as the times, the fpaces will be as the
fquares of the velocities: and both tlie times and velocities
will be in a lubduplicate ratio, or as the fquare roots, of the
fpaces.

3. The fpaces defcribed by a falling body in a feries of
equal moments or intervals of time, will be as the odd num-
bers I, 3, 5, 7, 9, &c. which are the differences of the
fquares or whole fpaces, /'. e. a body which has fallen through
1 6-pV feetin the firft fecond, will fall in the next fecondthrougk
48 5 feet, and in the third fecond through 80 y- feet, &c.

Retaining the above notation, S : s : ; T" : t' or : : V* ■;
v=; and V : V or T : t : : ^ S : v/ s '• ^- : : S| : s i : and
the times will be reciprocally as the velocities, and diredlly as
the fpaces; for S : s : : TV : tv, and Stv=sT V : con-
fcquently T : t :: Sv : sV; orT=|-. \Mien the ac

celerating forces are different, but conftant, the fpaces will
be a? the produAs of the forces into the fquares of the times;
and the times will be in the fubduplicate ratio of the fpaces di-
rectly,and of the forces inverfely. For when the force is given,
the velocity (V) is as the time (T) ; when the forces are diffe-
rent, but conftant, and the time is given, the velocity (V) will
be as the force (F). But v/hen neitherthe force northe time
is given, the velocity (V ) will be parily as the time and partly
as the force, or as their produd ( F x T). Thus, V : v : ':
5 ¥xT

A C C

F X T : f X t.confequently F x T" : f x t • : : VT : vt : : S : s.

Tlierefore, T^ : t"

JT

^: A~, andT
i: t

J

'F

4. If a body fall thipugh any fpacc in any time, it ac-
quires a velocity equal to double that fpace ; ;. e. in an equal
time, with the laft acquired velocity, uuiformly continued,
it would pai's through double the fpace. Thus, if a body
fall through 16 ^r i<^<-'t in the lirfl: fecond of time, it will have
acquired a velocity of 32 -i in a fecond : i. e, if the body
move uniformly for one fecond, with the velocity acquired,
it will pafs over 32 -i feet in this fecond ; and if in any time
the body fall through ico feet, then in another equal time,
if it move uniforml)- with the velocity laft acquired, it will
pafs over 200 feet, &c.

To thofe who difapprove of Galileo's dcmonftration of
the laws of accelerated motion, the following method of
illuflrating and evincing them, may poflibly be more fatis-
faftory. Let the whole time of a body's free defc-ent be
divided into any number of parts, each of which is called i ;
and let a denote the velocity acquired at the end of the firfl
part of time ; then 2 <?, 3 «■, 4 a, &c. will reprcfent the ve-
locities at the end of the 2d, 3d, 4th, &c. parts of time,
becaufe the velocities are as the times ; and for the fame
reafon, | a, I a, 5- a, &c. will be the velocities at the middle
point of the ill, 2d, 3d, &c. parts of time. But as the ve-
locities increafe uniformly, the fpace defcribed in any one of
thefe parts of time may be confidered as uniformly defcribed
with the velocity in the middle of that part of time ; and
tlierefore, multiplying each of thofe mean velocities by their
common time i,we ihall have the fame fractions la, -' <7, ia,
&c. for the fpaces pafTed over in the fucceifive parts of the
time ; /. e. the fpace \a in the firfl time, |-a in the fecond,.
-l-fl in the third ; and adding thefe fpaces fuccefilvely to one.
another, we fliall obtain ia, ^a, -|(j, '/(7, &c. for the whole
fpaces defcribed from the beginning of the motion to the end
of the firll, fecond, third, fourth, &c. portions of time, viz.
I a in one fpace of time, -jrt in two fpaces, Ja in three fpaces,
'/a in four, &c. and the fpaces will be as the numbers I, 4,
9, 16, &c. which are as the fquares of the times.

From this mode of dcmonftration, all the pn.perties above
mentioned will evidently follow ; fuch as, that the whole
fpaces, la, 4n, -%a, are as the fquares of the times i, 2, 3,
&c. and thefeparate fpaces ia, i-a, ^a, &e. defcribed in the
fuccefilve times, are as the odd numbers i, 3^ 5, &c. And
that the velocity a, acquired in any time I, is double the
fpace I a defcribed in the fame lime.

From the properties above di . lonilrated, we obtain the
following practical theorems or formulic for ufe. Let ^■^
denote the fpace pafled over in the firft fecond of time by a
body urged by any conftant force, denoted by I, and / de-
note the time or number of feconds in which tlit body paiTes
over anv other fpacc s, and v the velocity acquired at the
end of that time : then we Ihall have 'v=2gt, and s=:gt' :
and from thefe two equations we obtain the following gene-
ral lonnuLe : viz.

I. ;:

~ Zg~ 11 " -J

^8

3- " = 81'

^•tS""" ^2~"*..

47'

V

u

2

4^

A C C

Hence it appears, that when the ronflant force I i« the
natural force of gravity, then the dillancc f; dcfccnded in
the hrll fecond, m the latitude of London, is i^),', fctt :
but if it be any other conflant force, the value of _!j will be
different in proportion as tlie force is greater or Ids. See
Hutton's Did. Art. Atccleral'ton, where two propofitiona
are introduced, which were comnuiiiieatcd to the author by
Mr. Abram Robertfon of Chrill Church College, Oxford,
ni which the laws of accelerated motion are dinioiiftrated in
a manner fomewhat different from that which is above given.
See farther on tliis fiibjea, Latvs of the Descent of Bodies,
and La'ivs of Motion, uniformly accelerated and retarded.

Having above illuRrated the laws of accelerated motion,
when the accelerating forces are conftant, and deduced the
formula? for exprefling them in finite determinate quantities,
we fliall now fubjoin thofe that pertain to the cafes of va-
riably acceh rated motions. Here the fomiul.e will lie fluxi-
onar)' expreflions, the fluents of which, adapted to parti-
cular cafes, will give the relations of time, fpace, velocity,
&c. Let t denote the time of motion, v the velocity gene-
rated by any force, s the fpace pafled over, and 2g the va-
riable force at any part of the motion, or the velocity which
the force would generate in one fecond of time, if it fliould
continue invariably like the force of gravity during that one
fecond, and the value of this velocity 2g will be m propor-
tion to 32! feet, as that variable force is to the force of
gravity. Then, becaufe the force may be fuppofed con-
ftant during the indefinitely fmall time/, and the fpaces and
velocities, in uniform motions, are proportional to the times,
we fliall have two fundamental proportions, viz. v. s •.: i " :
/, or J =1 ; 0) : and 2 g : v : : \" : t, ox v =-2 g t : from
which are deduced the following formula', in which the va-
lue of each quantity is exprcfled in terms of the reft.

I.

S V

~ v" 2g

2.

2gs

3-

11 11

4-

V -V V

t s

Thefe theorems are equally applicable to the deflruftion of
motion and velocity, by means of retarding fiircts, as to the
generation of them by means of accelerating forces. Hutton's
Did. uii fupra. Parkinfon's Syftem of Mechanics, &;c.

E-50-

Themotionof a body afcending, or impelled upwards, is
diminiflied or retarded from the fame principle of gravity
ailing in a contrary direftion, in the fame manner as a
falling body is accelerated. Sec Rktard.ition.

A body, thus projcdled upwaids, rifes till it has loft all its
motion ; which it does in the fame time that a falling body
would have acquired a velocity equal to that with which the
body was thrown up. Hence, the fame body thrown up, will
rife to the fame height from which, if it fell, it would have
acquired the velocity with which it was projecled upwards.
And hence the heights to which bodies thrown up with
dilferent velocities afceiid, are to oiic another as the fquares
of thofe velocities.

Acceleration of todies on In^/ined planes. The fame
general law obtains 111 this cafe, as in bodies falling perpen-
dicularly ; viz. that the velocities are as the times, and the
fpaces defcendcd down the planes as the fquares of the times
or of the velocities. Cut the velocities arc lefs, according

10

A C C

to the fine of ilie pbiit's inclination, and the fpaccs
kfs according to the fquare of the line. Sec Inclined
Plank.

Acceleration of ihc Motion of Pendulums. See P e n -

DVI.VM.

Acceleration of the Motion of ProjeSiles. Sec Pro-

JFCTItr.

AccKLERATiON of thf Molion of Compicjfed Bodies, in
expanding or rclloring thcnifelves. See Compression,
Dilatation, and Elasticity.

Acceleration, in ^IJIronomy, is a term applied to the
fixed ftars. Thus, the diunial "acceleration is the time by
wliich the ftars, in one diurnal revolution, anticipate the
mean diurnal revolution of the fun, which is 3"" ;Sts] pf
mean time, or nearly 3 minutes 56 feconds ; i. e. a ftar riies
or fets, or paffes the meridian, 3'" 56" fooner each day.
This appirent acceleration of the ftars is owing to the real
retard ition of the fun ; and this depends upon his apparent
motion towards the eaft, which is at the rate of about 59'
SI" of a degree every day. In confequence of this, the
ftar which palTed the meridian at the fame moment with the
fun vellerday, is to-day about 59' 8" beyond the meridian to
the wdli when the fun anives at it ; and this diftance it
will require about 3'" 6' for him to pafs over ; and therefore
the ftar will anticipate the motion of the fun at this rate
ever)' day. The true quantity of tliis anticipation or accelera-
tion, is found by the following proportion, via. 360° : 59'
8!" :: 24 hours : 3" 55 tV> 'he acceleration required.
This diurnal acceleration ferves to regulate the lengtlis and
vibrations of pendulums. If the pendulum marks f. ^.
8" 10"', when a fixed ftar fets or paftcs behind any inter-
vening ob'iecl to-day, and on the next day, the eye being
in the fame fituation, the fame appearance occur at 8'' 6" 4'
by the pendulum, it may be inferred that fuch a pendulum
is' truly regidated, or juftly meafures mean time. See
Clock.

Acceleration of the moon, is a term ufed to exprefs
the increafe of the moon's mean motion from the fun, com-
pared with the diurnal motion of the earth ; fo that it is
now a little fwifter than it was formerly. Dr. Halley
(Phil. Tranf. No. 218) was the firft who made this dif-
coveiy ; and he was ltd to it by comparing the ancient
cclipfes obferved at Babylon with thofe obferved by Alba-
tegnius in the ninth century, and fome of his own time.
He was not able to alcertain the quantity of this accelera-
tion, becaufe the longitudes of Bagdat, Alexandria, and
Aleppo, where the obfervations were made, had not been
accurately determined. But fince his time, the longitude of
Alexandria has been afcertained by Chazelles, and Babylon,
according to Ptolemy's account, lies 50' eaft from Alex-
andria. From thefe data, Mr. Dunthome (Phil. Tranf.
No. 492. abr. vol. x. p. 84. &c. ) compared feveral ancient
and modern eclipfes, with the calculations of them by his
own tables, and thus verified Dr. Halley's opinion : for he
found, that the fame tables reprefent the moon's place in
the ancient eclipfes behind her true place, and before it in
later eclipfes : and thence juftly inferred, that her motion in
ancient times was flower, but in later times quicker than
the tables give it ; and therefore, that it muft have been
accelerated. But he did not content himfelf with merely
afcertaining the faft. He proceeded to determine the
quantity of the acceleration ; and by means of the moft
ancient edipfe of which any authentic account remains,
obferved at Babylon in the year before Chrift 721, he con-
cluded that the obferved beginning of this eclipfe was not
above an hour and three quarters before the beginning by
the tables ; and therefore the moon's true place could pre-

A C C

cede her place by computation but little more than 50' of a
degree at that time. Admitting the acceleration to be
uniform, and the agg'-egate of it as the fquare 6i the time,
it will be at the rate of about 10" in too years. M. de la
Lande makes it 9".886. In Mayer's tables it is 9'', be-
ginning from I 700.

Dr. Long (Aftron. vol. ii. p. 436.) attributes the acce-
leration above dcfcribed to one or more of thefe caufes :
either, i. the annual and diurnal motion of the earth con-
tinuing the fame, the moon is really carried round the earth
with a greater v;locity than it was fonnerly : or, 2. the
diurnal motion of the earth, and the periodical revolution of
the moon continuing the fame, the annual motion of the
earth round the fun is a little retarded ; which makes the
fun's apparent mouon in the ecliptic a httle flower than it
fonnerly was ; and, confequently, the moon, in pafling from
any conjtmftion with the fun, fpends lef? time before fhe
again overtakes the fun, and forms a fubfcquent conjunc-
tion : in both thefe cafes, the motion of the moon from the
fun is really accelerated, and the fynodical month aftually
ihortcned : or, 3. the annual motion of the earth, and the
periodical revolution of the moon continuing the fame, the
rotation of the earth round its axis is a little retarded : in
this cafe, days, hours, minutes, feconds, &c. by which all
periods of time muft be meafured, are of a longer duration ;
and, confequently, the fynodical month will appear to be
fhortened, though it really contain the fame quantity of
abfolute time as it always did. If the quantity of matter
in the body of the fun he lefl'ened by the particles of light
continually ftreaniing from it, the motions of the earth
round the fun may become flower ; if the earth increafes in
bulk, the motion of the moon round the earth may be thus
quickened. M. de la Place (Mem. de I'Acad. Roy. des
Scienc. for 1786.) has evinced this acceleration of the
moon's motion to arife from the aftion of the fun upon the
moon, combined with the variation of the excentricity of
the earth's orbit. By the prefent diminution of the ex-
centricity, the moon's mean motion is accelerated ; but,
when the excentricity is arrived at its minimum, the acce-
leration will ceafe : after which, the excentricity will in-
creafe, and the moon's mean motion will be retarded.
M. de Lambre found, by comparing the modem obferva-
tions at about the diftance of a century, that the fecular
mean motion of the moon in the laft tables of Mayer was
too great by 25" ; and that the place of the moon cal-
culated by thefe tables ought to be corrected by the
quantity — 25" n -\- 2", 135 n^ + o", 04398 n', n being the
number of centuries from 1700. M. de la Lande, in his
tables of the moon, has thus con-efted Mayer's tables.
Hence it appears, that the 'prefent acceleration of the moon
is nothing more than an equation, _the period of which is
very long. It will be accelerated and retarded by the fame
quantity ; and therefore, if the mean motion be taken for
the whole time of acceleration or retardation, it will be
found never to vary. Vince's Aftron. vol. i. p 206.

Acceleratiom, in Mufic. See Accelerando.

ACCELERATORES Urin^f, called by Winflow
Bulbo-caverno/t, and by others Urime Jlimulatores and ejacu'
latores feminis, in Anatomy, a pair of mufcles whole oflice it is
to expedite the difcharge of the urine and of the femen.
Thefe mufcles may be faid to arife from juft before the
verge of the anus, where the fphinfter ani terminates. They
are fpread over the bulb and a fmall portion of the coi-pus
fpongiofum tirethrx ; having that appearance, which anato-
mifts have termed a doubly penniform mufcle. From the
anterior part of the mufcle a fafcicula of fibres proceeds on
each iide, by which the l>ody of the penis is encircled
I When

A C C

When tliefe mufcles aft, they generally contrary in a -fudden
and convulfive maimer, and hy this meiuis expel in jels tlie
lad portions of urine, or any other fluid whieh may be con-
tained in the urethra.

ACCENDENTES, or accensors, in Ecclcfiqflircil
lurilers, a lower order of iniiiillers in the church of" Rome,
ivhofc office is to hght, fnuft, and trim the candles or tapers.
Spelman.

The accendenles are much the fame with tliofo otlierwife
called acoly'.hi and arofernri't.

ACCENDONES, orAccEDO»Es, m Roman Antiquity,
a kind of GLADIATORS, whole office was to excite and ani-
mate the comb.\tants, during the engagement.

ACCENSI, in Ant'iqu'tty, an inferior order of officei-s,
appointed to attend the Roman magi Urates, fomewhat in
the manner of urtiers, ferj;ants, or tlp-flaves, among us.
They were thus called from acari, to fend for : one part of
th-'ir office being to call afTemblies of the people, fummon
parties to appear before the judges, &c.

AcCENSi alio denote a k:-id of fupernumerary foldiers in
the Roman armies ; whofe office was to attend the motions
of their principals, and fupply the places of thofe who were
killed or difabled by their wounds.

Tiiey were thus denominated quia accetfebantur, or ad
tfnfum adjickbar.lur : Vegetius calls them fupernumtrar'n
legUinum : Cato calls them frentarii, becnufe they furnilhed
thofi^ engaged in battle with weapons, drink, &c. Thoflgh
Nonnius fuggefts another reafon of that appellation, viz.
becaufe they fought with ftones, (lings, and weapons, qiix
f^riunfur, fuch as are thrown, not carried in the hand. They
were fometimes alfo called v^l'iles, and •veltil':, becaufe they
fought clothed, but not m armour ; fometimes adfriptitii
zni adfcriptivi ; fometimes rorarii. The accenji, Livy ob-
fervcs, were placed in the rear of the army, becaufe no
great matter was expefted from them : they were taken
out of the fifth clafs of citizens. Feilus in voc. Ferentarii.
Salmaf. de Re Milit. Rom. c. ly.

Ace EN SI was alfo an appellation given to a kind of ad-
jutants, appointed by the tribune to aflift each centurion and
decurion. In which fenfe, accenfus is fynonymous with
optio. — In an ancient infcription, given by a Torre, we meet
with ACCENSus EQ^MTUM ROMANORUM ; an office no-
where elfe heard of ; that author fufpefts it for a corrup-
tion, and inftead thereof reads a censibus. A.&.. Erud.
Leipf. 1701. p. 2^9.

ACCENSION, AccENsio, in Phvfa, the acl of kind-
ling, or fetting a body on lire.

The word is formed of the Latin <7i.\v7.'.'/crc, to k'mdle ; a
compound of ad, to ; and candere, to glow. Though fome
grammarians fufpeA the primitivf ligniiieation of accendcrs,
to have been, to render fimoiis.

Accenfion, on other occafions, is called i>jplammation,

IGNTnO><, CONFLAGRATIOM, &C.

Accenfion ilands oppofed to extin-ctiom.

Chemills furnilh uj with various inilimces of the accnficn
o£ cold liquors by bare mixtion : as of the acid (pints of
■minerals, aijd the cfftutial oils of plants.

ACCENT, iu its primitive fenfe, an aff^dion of the
voice, which gives each fyllable in a word its due pitch, in
refpecl of height or lownels.

The word is originally Latin, accentus,7i compound of ad,
to, and cano, to /ing. In this fenfe, accent is lynonymous
with the Greek roro;, the Latin tenor, or lonor, and the
Hebrew DyQ g''f"'t 'l/i'-

The accent, proper! v, only refpefts high and low, or
acute and grave. — Though the modern grammarians ufe

Vol, I.

A C C

it alfo in refpecl to loud and foft, long and iTiorl ; but thii
confounds accent with (juantily.

rile difference between the two may be conceived from
that which we obferve between the beat of a drum, and the
found of a trumpet ; the former exprcfTcs every thine; be-
longing to loud and foft, and long and (hort j but fo long
as there is a monotony in the found, there '\i nothing like
accent.

The ingenious Mr. Harris (Philological InquirieR, p. 64.)
compares quantity to mufieal tones differing in long and
Ihort, as upon whatever line they lland a fcmihicve differ*
from a minim ; and accent to mufical tones dilftring in high
and low, as D upon the third line differs from G upon iTie
firll, whether its length be the fame, or it be longer or
flio- ' :r.

Accent is alfoufcd in Grammar for a charaftcr placed
over a fyllable, to mark the accent, i. e. to (liow that it
is to be pronounced in a liigher or a lower tone, and to re-
gulatc the infle'lions of the voice in reading or in fpcaking.
It is diitinguilhed from emplnfis, as tlie fonner regards the
tone of the voice, the latter the llrength of it. tor other
dilUnefioiis between accent and emphafis, fee Emphasis.

It has been long difputed among the leanad, whether
accents were originally mufical characters, or marks of
PROSODY : it is not cafy to detennine a qucftion con-
cerning which the arguments on both fides are fo numerous.
But as mulic, fays Dr. I5urney, ( Hiil. of Mufic, vol. i. p. 13. )
had characters different from accents fo eariv as the time of
Terpandcr, to whom the invention is afcribed by the Ox-
ford marbles, which place this event about 670 years before
Chritt ; and as accents for profody are likewife proved to
be of higli antiquity, there feems to have been no necetnty
for the antients to ufe the one for the other. Mr. Welt
(Piiid;ir, vol. ii. p. 194, limo.) maintains, that accents
were originally mulical notes, fet over words, to dircft the
feveral tones and inflexions of the voice rcquifite to give
the whole fentence its proper harmony and cadence. Th<r
names cf the Greek accents, he fays, exprefs their mufieal
origin, and correfpond exactly to thofe teniis made ufe of
in our modern mufic ; viz. (harp, flat, and a grave, called
the turn, and conGfting, like the circumllex, of a fliarp and
a flat note. The Abbe du Bos (Reflex. Crit.i. iii. p. 85.)
afl^rts, that as poets originally fet their own vei-fes, they
placed for this purpofe a figure, or accent, over each fyl-
lable. The learned author of " The Origin and Pvogref^
of Language," has alfo taken pains to prove that the
Gre.'k accents were muiieal notes, invented and accommi -
dated to ralfe, deprefs, and fuipend the voice, according to
a fcale of mufical proportions.

We reckon three gnunmatieal accents in ordinary ufe
all borrowed from the Greeks, viz. the acute, frjtr, and
ciratmflex, .,•>,,,

'i iie acute accent fhows when the tone of the Voice is to
be raifed and ihar])encd. In modern writings it i> a fma'l
lino, or virgula, placed over tlie vowel, a little Hoping or
inclined in its defcent froni right to left, as ('). It ii not
ordinarily uled cither in Englilh or Latin : tiie French in-
deed retain it ; but it is only to marktheclofeormifculine .'•.
"Wii gnmc accent is uled when the note or tone of the voice
is to be deprcffed and flattened ; and is figured thus (').

The circumfles accent is compoted of both the acut^.' anj
grave ; it points out a kind of undulation of the voice,
whicii is firfl raifed and fliarpened, and then deprclfed and
flattened ; or it is an acute tone dying away into a gi-ave,
3!id conlequcntly lengthening the fyllable. It is exprclled
thus (~) or (*). Upon a nearer conlidwation of the fub-

A C C

jeft. fays a lear-.cd writer, " On the Profodies of ihe Greek
and Latin I.anjjuai;es," it appr.us, that the acute accent,
which is a fhurp llroke of the voice Mpon fomc one fyllable
of the word, is in -truth the only pofitive tone. The grave
comIIIIs mcicly in a negation of this acutencfs, and is not
mnrkcd except it be upon the lail fyllable of certain words ;
but is to be underltyod upon eveiy fyllable of the word,
which carries neither the acute nor circumflex : and it feems
to amount to no more than this, that what grammarians
call the grave tone, confifts in a mere negation of acutenefs,
and of clrcumflexion, if that be different from acutenefs.
Accordingly, the general doftrine of accents is, that, with
the exception of fourteen monofyllablcs in the Greek lan-
guage, which carry no accent, unlcfs it be in particular
circumdances, and for that reafon are called a-ro;;!, or atouia,
feme one fyllable of evei-y word, and one fyllable o:ily, bears
an accent, cither acute or circumflex.

If it be true, that the whole fyllem of pronunciation de-
pends upon three accents, it is no lefs true, that each of
thefe _three admits of foveral degrees. The acute accent,
for inllance, may be cither higher or lower ; may be iimply
acute, or very acute : and the like holds of the grave and
circumflex. So .that each of the three common accents is,
as it were, a genus including various particular fpecies ;
though the ancient Grammarians have not thoupht fit to
annex particular names and figures to all thefe differences.
Vander. Hardt. Arcan. Accent. Gi-^c. 1715, l2mo.

Mr. Sheridan, in his Lcclures on Elocution, p. 38, ob-
ferves, that the meaning of the term accent, among the
ancients, was veiy different from what it is with us. They
dillinguiflied accents by certain inflexions of the voice like
mufical notes ; but the manner in which they did it muft
remain for ever a fecret to us ; for, with the living tongue
paiihed the tones alfo, which we in vain endeavour to ex-
plore in their viiible mai-ks. With us, the term accent de-
notes a peculiar mode of diftinguifhing one fyllable from the
reft ; and this dillinftion is made in various ways : either by
dwcUing longer upon one fyllable than upon the red:, or by
giving it a fmarter percuffion of the voice in utterance.
Of the firfl. of thefe we have inftances in the words glory,
fiilher, holy : of the laft in iatlk, hal'it, borroiv. So that
accent, with us, is not referred to tune, but to time ; to
quantity, not quality ; to the mere equable or precipitate
motion of the voice, not to the variation of notes or inflexions.
He proceeds to obferve, that the quantity depends upon
the feat of the accent, whether it be on the vowel or con-
sonant : if on the vowel, the fyllable is neceffarily long, as
it makes the vowel long i if on the confonant, it may be
either long or fliort, according to the nature of the confo-
rant, or the time taken up in dwelling upon it. By
changing the feat of the accent in the inftances above fpe-
cified, we fliould change their quantity : if, inftead of glory
w- fhould fay glor'y, inftead of ftther, fat'her, inftead of
h'jly, hol'y, the firft fyllables would become fliort : and, on
the otlier hand, if we were to dwell on the vowels inftead of
the confonants in the laft inftances, they would be changed
from flioVt to long, as bcule for lal'tk., habit, for hah'it, and
biirrciu, for bot^row. This, he fays, is one of the chief
fources of the difl"erence between the Scotch and Englifli
gentlemen in the pronunciation of EngliOi : /. e. laying the
accent on the vowel inftead of the confonant, fo as to make
fyllables long that are fliort with us. He adds, it is an un-
erring rule, that whenever the accent is on the confonant,
the preceding vowl4 has a fliort found ; and there is another
infalhble rule in our tongue, that no vowel ever has a
long found in an unaccented fyllable ; and therefore, if the

A C C

accent were properly adjufted, it would prove a mafl-cr-key
to the pronunciation of our whole tongue. In another
place, (Art. of Reading, vol. ii.) Mr. Sheridan fays, that
when the feat of the accent is on a vowel, the fyllable is
long-: when on -a confonant, fliort ; and that all unaccented
fyllables arc fliort.

But the ufe of accent in our language is not confined to
quantity alone. It is alfo the chief mark by which words
are diftinguilhed from mere fyllables. The effence of a
word, favs this author, confifts in nccent as well as articula-
tion. The Greeks alfo diftinguiihed words from mere
fvllables by a certain tone or note annexed to each word,
which made their fpeech more mufical or pleafing to the
ear, than that of any other nation in the world. Thefe
tones they learned from their infancy, and they ufed them
with fuch accuracy, that even the vulgar among the Athe-
nians would have hiffcd an aftor or aclrefs from the ftage,
and an orator from the pulpitum, on account of a few
miftakes in the enunciation of thefe notes. The wonderful
eft'etts of the harangues of the Greek orators on the en-
raptured minds of their hearers were owing, in a confider-
able degree, to thofe artificial mufical tones, by which their
fvllables were fo happily diverfified. To this purpofe con-
fult Dionyfius Hal. de Compofitione Verborum, apud
Oper. tom. ii. p. 17. &c. Ed. Oxon. 1704. This har-
mony of utterance is not ftudied by any of the modeiTis,
except the Chinefe. Words are alfo diftinguiflied from
fvllables by making a perceptible pause at the end of
each word. Mr. Sheridan is of opinion, that the nioft evi-
dent and precife as well as the moft eafy and certain mode
of diftinftion, is that of accent ; and that it would con-
tribute moft effeftually both to utihty and to ornament.

As to public fpeakers, who can pronounce Englifti
properly, the only rule neceffary to be obferved by them is
to lay the accent always on the fame fyllable, and the fame
letter of the fyllable, which they uiually do in common
difcourfe, and to take care not to lay any accent or ftrefs
upon any other fyllables. Such perfons ftiould recoiled,
that, in the Enghfli language, every word which confifts
of more fyllables than one, has one accented fyllable ; and
that there is feldom or never more than one fuch fyllable in
any Englifli word, however long. See Pronunciation.

In the Enghlli language there is a remarkable pecuharity
of throwing the accent farther back ; that is, nearer the
beginning of the word than is done by any other nation.
In Greek and Latin no word is accented farther back than
the third fyllable from the end, or what is called the ante-
penult. But, in Englifli, we have many words accented on
the fourth, fome on tlie fifth, fyllable from the end, as
m'emorallci, convcnieTicy, ambulatory. See. The general effeft
of this praftice of haftening the accent, or placing it fo
near the beginning of a word, is to give a briik and fpirited,
but at the fame time a rapid and huiried, and not very mu-
fical, tone to the whole pronunciation of a people.

The Hebrews have a grammatical, a rhetorical, and a
mufical accent : though the firft and laft feem, in effect,
to be the fame ; both being comprifed under the general
name of tonic accents, becaufe they give the proper tone to
fyllables : as the rhetorical accents are faid to be euphonic,
inafmuch as they tend to make the pronunciation more
fweet and agreeable.

There are four euphonic accents, and twenty five tonic:
however, authors are not agreed as to the number of either
clafs. Of thefe, fome are placet^ above, and others below
the fyllables : the Hebrew accents ferving not only to re-
gulate the rifings and falhngs of the voice, but alfo to dif-

tinguifli

ACQ

tinguilTi tlie feftions, pcviodt;, and niembevs of periods, in a
dircourfe ; and to anfwer the fame piirpofes with the puiuts
in other hingviages. Their accents are divided into em-
perors, kings, dukes, &c. each bearing a title anfwerable
to the importance of the diftinftion it makes. — Their em-
peror rules over a whole phrafe, and terminates the fenfe
eomplctely ; anfvvering to our full point. — Their king cor-
refponds to our colon ; and the duke to our comma. The
king, however, occafionally becomes a duke, and the duke a
king, a$ the phrafes are more or lefs (liort. — It mud be noted,
by the way, that the management and combination of thefe
accents differ in Hebrew poetiy from what they are in profe.
The ufe of the tonic or grammatical accents has been
much controverted ; fome holding that they dillinguifli the
fenfe, while others maintain that they are only intended
to regulate the mufic or finging : alleging, that the Jews
fnig, rather than read, the icriptures in their fyiiagogues.
The truth feems here to lie between tlie two opinions :
for though we incline to think, that the priman- intention
of thefe accents was to direft the finging ; yet, the finging
feems to have been regulated aceordinj to the fenfe ; fo
that the accents might ferve not only to guide the finging,
but alio to point out the dillinftions. — Though it mull be
confefi'ed, that many of thefe diftinftions arc too fubtle and
inconfiderabli ; nor can the modern writers, nor the editors
of old ones, agree in opinion on this fubjeil : fome of them
making tv/ice as many of thefe diltinftions as others. The
Hebrew accents have, indeed, fomething common Avith thofe
of the Greeks and Latins ; and fomething peculiar to
lliemfelves. What they have in common is, that they mark
the tone ; fliowing how the voice is to be raifcd and funk,
in certain fyllables. Wliat they have peculiar is, that they
perfoiTn the office of the points in other languages. The
llx following are of this latter kind, viz. Svlluk,Athnach,
Rebhiamg, Segolta, Zakeph-kacon, and Zakeph-
GADHOL. To which we might alfo add, Tiphtha and
Sarka, on account of their occafional application to the
fame purpofe. It is certain the ancient Hebrews were not
acquainted with thefe accents ; fo that, at beft, they are
not jure dlvino. — The opinion which prevails among the
learned is, that they were invented by the Jcwifli dotiors of
the fchool of Tiberias, called the Ma sorites. The learned
Hennin affirms them to be of Arabic invention ; and to
have been adopted and transferred thence into the Hebrew
by the Maforites, efpecially by the celebrated Rabbi Ben
Afcher ; and it is faid they were introduced on occafion of
the emperor Juftinian's prohibiting the reading of their
traditions in their fynagogues, or about the middle of the
fixth century. However, the revifal of the facred writings
by Rabbi Afeher on the part of the Weftern Jews, and by
Rabbi Neptbali on that of the Eaftern Jews, was folely em-
ployed about the accents and points : and thefe two Rabbis
lived, according to fome writers in the llth century, and
according to others about the year 940. See Mafclef's
Heb. Gram. vol. ji. p. 24. Hennin adds, that they were
firft brought to their degree of perfeiSion by- Rabbi Judah
Ben David Chiug, a native of Fez, , in the nth century.
It is indeed poflible the Jews might borroiv their points from
the Arabs ; but how they fliould have their accents from
them it is not eafy to conceive, fince the Arabic language
has no fuch thing as accents, cither in pvofe or verfe.

The introduftion of accents by the Maforites has been
the fource of gi-eat difficulty in learning the Hebrew Ian-
guage, and of equal confufion and error in the interpretation
of it. Few of them have nov.- any known ufe, except tl>at
of diilinguilhing periods. Biblical interpreters are difagreed
concerning the pofition, neceffity, and utility of thtra. The

A C C

do£lilne of Helircw accents lia« occafioncd much difput*-
amongft learned critics. Sei.' Buxtorf'a Thtf.iuruj, and
Evcrard Vander Hooght's Pref. to the Bibles of Atliias, 1 70J.
As to the Greek atccnls, now feen both in manufcripl and
printed books, there has been no lefs difpule about tiuir
antiquity and ufe, than about the ufe of thofe of the He-
brews. On the fuhjetl of Uiis difputi- we may oliftn'c, in
general with a learned writer, Bifliop Lowlh, (rreliir. Difl".
to his Ifaiah, p. 10.) that there were certain laws of Hebrew
metre is veiy probable, and that the living Greek language
was modulated by certain rules of accent la beyond difpute '
but a man born deaf may as rcafonably pretend to acquire
an idea of found, as the critic of thefe dajs to attain to the
true modulation of Greek by accent, and of Hebrew by
metre. To which wc may add, that tliough the ancient
Greeks had no accentual marks, they learned ihofc modi-
fications of voice by praftice from their infancy ; and in
pronunciation they are fo obferved to this day.

li'aac Vofiius, in a trtatife " De Accenlibus Gnrcorum,"
endeavours to prove that they are of modem invention, and
that anciently they had nothing of this kind ; but only a
few notes in their poetry, which were invented by Aristo-
phanes the Grammarian, al)Out the time of Ptolemy Phi-
lopater j and that thefe were of mufical, rather tiian of
grammatical ufe, fcrving as aids in the finging of their
poems ; and very different from thofe which were after-
wards introduced. This appears from infcriptions as well
as manufciipts, none of which, till 170 years after Chrift,
have either accent, fpirit, apollrophus, or ivra fubfcribcd.
He adds, that Arilfarchus, a difciplc of Ariilophanes, im-
proved on his niafter's art ; but that the wliole of what they
both did was only defigned to affill youth in the more readily
making of verfes. The fame Voffius (hows from fcveral
ancient Grammarians, that the manner of writing the Greek
accents in thofe days was quite diflerent from fuch as arc
now ufed in our book?. It is alleged by others, that ac-
centual marks, which, they fay, were invented by Arifio-
phanes, were not in common ufe till about the feventh
century ; at which time they were found in MSS. Ajnongft
thofe who totally rejeft the accents, on the fuppofition that
they would confound the quantity, as it is determined by
the rules of profody, we may reckon Beza, Scaliger, Spel-
man^ Ger. Jo. Vofiius (De Arte Gram. 1. ii. p. .174)1 ^>d
Salraafius in F.pilt. ad Sarrafium.

Hen. Chrifh Hennin thinks, (fee his EJAmis-fiof op-^i'tJo,-,
feu Diffeitatio Paradoxica, Gr^cam I.inguani non efle
pronuntiandam fecundum Acceiitus, 1664,) that accents
were the invention of the Arabians fo late as the eighth
centuiy, and that they were only ul'ed in poeti-)' ; that
they were intended to afcertain the pronunciation of the
Greek, and to keep out that barbarifm, which was then
breaking in upon them ; tliat the ancient accents of Aiiflo-
phanes were perfectly agreeable to the genuine Greek
pronunciation, but that the mcdeni ones of the Arabs de«
llroy it. Wetftein, Greek profeffor at Bafil, in a learned
Differtation, endeavours to prove the Greek accent.s to be
of an older {landing : and that the Greeks, long before the
birth of Chrift, regulated their pronunciation by accents,
veiy much like thofe that are now in ufe. He o\vns that
they were not always formed in the fame manner by the
ancients j but thinks that difference owing to the different
pronunciation which obtained in the feveral parts of
Greece : and he adds, that accents weie not ufed except in
the fchools of grammarians, who rteuired to them in read-
ing the old poets. He brings fevcnJ rcalons a priori for
the ufe of accents, CTcn in the earhcll days ; as that, thea
they wrote wholly in capital letter* equidjiluut from tsi h

Q_2 other,

A C C

other, without any dirtiiii^ion of words or phrafcs •, fo that
without acciMits thi'v could fraiTtlv be intcUij^iblc ; and th:it
accents were necefTary to diiliiiwuifh ambii^iious wori'is, and
10 point out their proper meaning ; and this fentiment he
confirms from a difputc on a pnlTagc in Homer, mentioned
by Arillotle in his Poetics, ch. v. Accordingly he obferses,
that the Syrians, v. bo have tonic, but no ditUnc^ive accents,
have yet invented certain points, placed either above or
below the words, to (hew their mood, tenfe, perfon, or fenfe.
iSee farther, in his DlfTcrtatio Epitlolica de Acccntuum
'Grafcorum Antiquitate ef Ufu. Balil. r6S6.

Montfaucon, (Pah Gi-rc. p. 33) after obfcrving that
Arillophqnes of Byzantium invented profody, or accents,
adds, that the Greek language was not, before his age,
totally deilitate of accents and afpirates, becaufe, without
thefe, no language can be pronounced ; but, that he directed
the regulation of them, invented the marks and forms by
which they were to be exprcffed, and tiie place in which
they were to be introduced. The fame lentiments are
•likewife mainViined by Dr. Foilcr, in his (" Eliay on the dif-
ferent Nature of Accent and Quantity. Eton. 1763. ed.
2d,") who explodes the notion that th.e Greek accent
teaches the quantity of pronunciation ; and who maintains,
with many others, that it is a mufical note. ProftlTor
Gefner, in a diiTertation " De Accentuum genuina Pro-
nuntiatione," printed in 1755, has laboured to remove the
principal ohjeclions againtl the antiquity of accents, viz.
that they Jo not coincide with the profody of the Greeks ;
and are, therefore, to be confidcred as a modern corruption
of the Greek language. His opinion amounts to this,
that the accents do not at all determine which fyllable is to
h: pronounced longeft ; that the accent *•. f . of avvfiwo,-,
being placed on the firft fyllable, does not oblige us to pro-
nounce the word as a dactyl ; that, as the Greeks fpoke
more mufically than we, liiey pronounced fome fyllables
more diftinrtly tiian others ; that they raifed their tone and
dropped it ; and that the elevation and full of the tone
were determined by the accents. Sec Monboddo's Origin
and Progrefs of Laiguage, vol. ii. b. 2. paffim. Mr. Marlh,
the learned trandator of Michaelis's Introduction to the
New Tellameut, informs us (vol. il. p. 892) that Eu-
genius, a Greek pried and archbifhop of Cherfon, in
reading Greek, dil^inftly marked by his pronunciation both
accent and quantity, lengthening the found without railing
the tone of his voice, when he pronounced a long fyllable,
which had not an acute accent, and raifrng the tone of his
voice without lengthening the found, v;\ea he pronounced a
fliort fyllable which had an acute accent ; in the fame manner as
in mufic, where the higheft note in a bar is frequently the
fliortcft. Hence he infers, that the opinion advanced by
Prof. Gefner and Dr. Fofter, is not merely theoretical, but
confirmed by aftual experience. An example of this kind,
however, is very rare ; becaufe the modern Greeks, in gene-
ral, pronounce accjrding to accent alone. In England the
Greek accents are rejeeV^d ; and quantity alone, as it is
generally iuppofed, is regarded in pronunciation. But Mr.
Marfh obferves, that we ftlll pronounce Greek according to
accent, though according to rales different from thofe which
are followed by the G'.eeks themfelves. In reading Greek
we obferve the fame rules Vi'ith rea;ard to the pol'ition of the
tone, as in reading Latin ; and here we do not regulate the
tone of the voice merely by the length of the fyllables.
e. g. V'trtus, pravus, fH'Sn, hf/nTu, are pronounced in the
fame manner, though they differ in quantity : and crlmims,
patulis, koniinis, luciins, are pronounced alike, though they
vary in quantity. We are therefore direfted in placing the
accent, or raifing the tone of the voice, by fome principle

A C C

diftinft from thr.t of quantity. The nile for placing the
accent in Latin words, which has been laid down by Latiii
grammari.ins, is the following. In Latm diffyllables the
accent is alwavs on the lirll fyllable, whether it be long or
(hort. In polyfylltibles the accent is on the penultimate,
if it be long ; but, if it be lliort, the accent is on the anlc-
pen\iltimate, v.hether this be long or (hoit. See Diomedcs
de Accentihus, 1. ii. p. 426, printed in the Gi-ammaticx
Latince Auciores Antiqui. Op. ct Stud. Helic Putfchii,
Hanov. 1 605, 4to. See alfo Quindihan Inll. 1. i. c. v. p. 59,
Ed. Burman. According to this rule, there is only one
cafe in which accent and quantity mult coincide, and that
is in poly fyllables, which have the penultimate long ; but,
ill polyfyllables which have the penultimate fliort, and in
all diifyllables, it is merely accidental, whether accent and
quantity coincide or not. This difagrec.nent conftitutei
the harmony of Latin verfe, vs-hich would be intolerable
if accent and quantity always coincided ; as any one will
find, wlio makes an hexameter confiiling of fix words, of
which the firil five are dactyls : whereas, thofe verfes arc ''

the moil harmonious, in which the number of words, where
accent and quantity difagree, is equal to the number of thofe
in vhfch they coincide. In the fiiit line of Virgii's Bucolics,
which is a very harmonious verfe, accent and quantity toin- 'L

cide in "7V/)'rr and /."fw/.vc, but dif:;gree in rectibar.t and pa.'ul^. m

The Greeks adopted a very different principle from the
Latins in determining the fyllable which was to be elevated
in fpeaking ; for in ati^j^izo; they railed the antepenulti-
mate, in ai-Sfiils-a they fliortened the penultimate. Thus
Diomedes (ubi fupra, 1. iii. p. 421?.) obferves, that the acute
accent of the Greeks occupied three places, the ultimate,
penultemate, and antepenultimate ; but amongft the Latins |
only two places, viz. the penult and antepenult. Since we Ir
then, in order to avoid a method attended with fome dif-
ficulty, regulate the tone of the voice in Greek as we do in
Latin, it follows that we read Greek, neither according to
Greek accent, nor Greek quantity ; but according to the
rules of the Latin accentuation. The whole difficulty of
the Greek accents, fay Meffrs. Port Royal, confifts in two
points ; the firft, in knowing the quantity of the penulti-
mate and ultimate, and the fecond, in knowing on what
fyllable the words fhould have their elevation by nature i
becaufe, even fuppofing the fame quantity, the elevation
may not be the fame, which never happens among the
Latins. This is a difficult and embarraiiing t>ufinefs, for
which grammarians have given a nnmb:-r of rules and a
greater number of exceptions. See Port Roy. Gr. Gram,
vol. ii. p. 291, &c.

The bed advocates for accents have not contended, that
the ancient Greeks ufed them in common book^, much lefs
in letters, but only in their fchools ; and Michaelis appre-
hends that they do not occur in any copies of the New Tef-
tament ftlli extant, which are antecedent to the 8th century,
and but feldom in thofe which are more modern. He adds,
tluy were not v.-ritten by the Apoftles ; but were probably
firtt added by Euthalius in the year 458. See Wetftein's
Prolegomena, p. 73. His trandat-or, however, has dif-
covered both accents and marks of afpiration in feverrd MSS.
w'lich he mentions ; particularly the Vatican »nd tiie Cla-
rom.ontane. The Alexandrian, Cambridge, and four other
MvSS. are without accents. Marfh's Tranfl. of Michaelis's In-
trod. vol. ii. p. S94. In a treatife de Rhvthmo Gnecorura, not
long fince publilh d, and afc-ibed to a learned Prelate of the
Englifh church, the author controverts the opinion, aliam
ejfe in fniuta oratinne fctinjlone rhyihmicam, aliam in r.tetris, in
oppofition to Faber, Dacier, Pearce, Cla-ke, and others.
Another learned writer, fuppofed to be Eilhop Horfeky, in
4 hia

A C C

his " EfTriy on the Profodios of the Greek and Lntin Im-
giuge?," maintains, tliat the marks of tlic accents were in-
troduced in riic writing of the Greek l:uir;uage feme time
before the commencement of the Cluiliian :era, and that
they exhibit the tnie fpeaking tones of tlie language ; fuch
as were uled by the G reeks ihcmfelves, when it was a livin-r
language, fpi;ken in it.i purity. This writer ably refut«
the fyllcin of Mr. Primatt, who (in his " Aecentus Redivivi,"
pubhlhcd in 1764,) is an advocate for t!\e antiquity of the
accents, and who defends the accented pronunciation of
Greek profe ; whillt he agrees with the oppofers of the
Greek accent*, that they are not calculated to regnlnte the
recitation of verfe. According to Mr. P. verfc and profe
were pronounced, by the ancient Greeks, by two diflerent
rules : the one, by Uie rule of the Latin accent, which he,
as well as molt others who difufe the Greek accents, confi-
iler as an univerfal rule of quantity, or metrical recitation :
the other, by the proper accents of the Greek language.
He is thus reduced to the neceillty of adopting the ind;-fen-
fible hypot'ietis; that it is the nature of the acute accent to
lengthen the fyllable on which it falls, and yet, with evi-
dent inconi"ilKiicy, he admits, tint, in muilc, length of I'ound
and acuterels of tone are not always united. The learned
prelate, juil mentioned, condemns the ruL', vvhich has been
fanftioned by fome of the claiTical fcholar; of our two uni-
verlities, that we are to read by accent in profe and quantity
in verfe ; and he obferves, that it is not very probable, that
any people fhould have had two pronunciations efTentially
different, one for p.ofe, and another for verfe. He equally
condemns the pofition, that profe as well as verfe in Greek
mull be read by quantity, that is, as he fays, by the
Latin accent, and thinking that the Greek accentual
Inarks exp'^efs, as we have already faid, the true fpeaking
tones of the language, he propofes rules of recitation, on
the fuppofition that tone was not always laid on connecled
words, where the accentual marks appear ; whofe pofition,
however, was not changed, to prevent the confufion which
would follow from making the pofition of the written mark
different in connefted from what it is in ifolated words ; and
he cenfures the printing of books unaccented. He alfo
maintains, that, though in placing accent, regard is had to
quantity, eiiphotiii gniiia, and though it may therefore be a
fymptom of quantity, it is never a caufe of it, and never
creates it ; and he calls the opinion of Mr. Primatt and
others, that the acute accent lengthens the tone of the fylla-
ble on which it falls, a common prejudice. In order to pre-
vent accent from intcTfering v.'ilh quantity, he propotes to
tranfpofe it : as in the line, M?inv aiih. Ssi rtuXiia^Ei; 'A;ti.\ii^,
the word A;^A^®' muft be pronounced 'A;^iXii'2^.

An ingenious writer, viz. Mr. A. Browne, in his ob-
fervations upon Greek accjnts, publiihed in the Irifh Tranf-
aftions, vol. vii. p. 359, &e. profefTes, that he never could
affent to a pofition fo contradiftory to the teftimony of his
ear, a.-> that of the aeute accent not lengthening the fyllnble
on which it fal's ; and that his mind was much impreffed by
an obfervation of Mr. Primatt, that it is one of the extraor-
dinary powers of the acute accent, even to change the real
quantity, and alfo with his affertion, that the opinion of
Meff. De Port Royal, viz. that the accent only raifes the
voice without giving any duration in pronouncing, is erro-
neous. Neverthelels, he is difpofcd to acquiefce in the fen-
timent, that the accents denote only tone, or elevation and
deprefiion of the voice. This writer, conceiving it of im-
portance to afcertain the pronunciation of the modern
Gietks, and their mode of ufmg the accents, made fome
attempts for this purpcfe. The importance of this inquiry
is obvious, bccaufe the Greek is at this day a living lan-

A C C

guage ; whereas the Latin has in this rcfptfl been exdnft
for 1200 years.

The refult of his inquiiy, after convcrfing with forr.e
modern Greeks, was, that tin y have not two pronuncialion*
for profe and verfe, and that in both tht y read by accent.
But they make accent the caufe of quantity, fo as to govern
and controul it ; and lluy make the fyllable long on whicit
the acute accent falls, and they allow the acute <»cetrt to
change the real quantity. They pronounced ».S',»-r3, Jhort,
and av5,«Ti» long, with a marked attention to the alteration
of the accent with the variety of the cafe. Iiillead of
KxXnjjL'fx, they faid kxMjj'.^x, and for S-i',a1r; they pronounced
Zuy.fo.'iri;, He was affurcd by them, that verfe at well :.s
profe was read by accent, and not by quantity, and thejr
exemplified thdr mode of reading by reciting fevcral lines of
Homer. Our author concludes, upon the whole, that the
ancient Greeks as well as the modem read both verfc and
profe by atccnt,and that they allowed the accents to controul
and alt IT the quantity. Dneier, Pcarcc, and Clarke admit,
that they read profe by accent, not by quantity : and the
learned Prelates, to whofe opinion and writings we h.ivc re-
ferred, contend that they could not have had a diflcrcnt
mode of reading profe and verfe.

To ihcfe two propofitioHS Mr. B. accedes, and the com-
bination of them confirms his opinion. He diffents, how-
ever, from the inferences deduced from them by their advo-
cates, viz. that verfe is not to be read by accent, as the drR,
mentioned gentlemen maintain, or as the Prelates athrm,
that, though it is, its quantity is not thereby affeiltd.
Our author adds, that the modern Greeks ufe for accents
the word ojsx, thus confirming the opinion, that there is
properly no accent but the acute, the grave being the nega-
tion of accent ; and that the word •s-^-cs-iJiii in the ancietit
Greek language, is the term ufed (ur accents ; which word,
when tranflated into Latin, is accinlus or adcnntvs, implying
elevation of voice, or a kind of fong, fuperadckd or raifcd
in the common tone of the voice, and cannot be applied to
the grave, which is the negation of any departure from the
ufual level. He is of opinion, that the cireumflance which
has been mentioned as the peculiarity of the Englilh, viz.
that we always prolong the found of the fyllable in which
the acute accent falls, is true with regard to every nation
upon earth. It is true of the modern Italians and modern
Greeks. In the Englilh language, quantity is not affefted,
becaufe quantity and accent always agree. The cafe is the
fame, as Sir William Jones has (hewn, among the Perfians ;
and he obferves, with refptft to its pofition, that the Per-
fians, like the French, ufnally accent the lall fyllable of the
word. We (hall here add a remark, though not immedi-
ately connecled with the fiibit A of this article, fi'ggtlled to
Mr. B. by his converfation with the modem Greeks, that
we are much mitlaken in our idea of the fuppofed lofty
found of •770^1 Ja'jiV,?oio ^a>,'x(T(Tr\!. ; as the Borderers on the coall
of the Archipelago take their ideas from the gentle laving of
the Ihore by a fummcr wave, and not from the xoaring of a
winter ocean ; and they accordingly pronounced it Pofyphlif-
I'co Thnlaffis.

On the fubjec^ of Greek accents we may refer to tht
Port Royal Gr. Gram. vol. ii. p. 288, &c. l.abb.xi Rc-
gulx Accentuum, Paris \Gcj7,. Lamberfi Bos Reguhr Ac-
centiuim 17.^3- Morell's Tliefaurus Grrcx Poefeos, an
edition of which was printed at Venice in 1767. Frankhn
dc Tonis. Poller, ubi fupra, Primatt, &c. &e.

The ufe of accents to prevent ambiguities is moft re-
markably perceived in fome eailern languages, particulariy
the Siamefc and Chinefe. The Chintfe only reckon four
accents ; for which the miiiionaries ufe the following marks

A C C

»a, a, a, a, to which they have added a fifth, thus s ■■,
They maki- a kind of modulation, fo tliat by prolonging the
duration of the found of the vowel, they vary tlio tone,
raifing or falling it by a certain pitch of voice :_ and
their t-ilkin i ii a fort of mufic or fniging. The fame lound
J I, according to the accent affixed to it, fi^nifies GoiJ, a
Will/, fXidlint, JIup'ulily and a s^ooji-. If they deviate ever
fo little from the accent, ilicy fay quite a conti-ary thing to
what WIS intended. Thus, meaning to compliment the
pcrfon with whom you are converfing with the title of Sir,
you call him a bcall with tlie fame word, by merely a flight
vaiiation of the tone. Spizel. de Re. Liter. Sineiif. p. 106.
BuUTing. Dili", de Litt. Sinenf. p. 308. Le Compte, Nouv.
Mem. fur la Chiiic, torn. i. p. 270.

The Siamefc are alio obfcr\ed to fing rather than talk.
Their alphabet begins with fix charadei-s, all only equivalent
to K, but differently accented. For though in tiie pro-
nunciiilion the accents are naturally on the vowels, yet they
have fome to diverfify fuch of their confonants as are in
other refpecls the faine. De la Loubiere du Royaume de
Siain. tom. ii. ^ 8.

As minutely as the accents of words have been ftudied,
thofe of fcntences fcem to have been utterly overlooked ;
yet it may be obferved, that all mankind lower the voice at
the end of a period, and elevate it in interrogations, and
the like. See Bacon de Augm. Scien.J. vi. c. I. Elem.
Crit. vol. ii.

Accent is applied, not veiy properly, to the charafters
which mark the quantities of iyllables, or the time during
which the voice is to dvytll upon them. The fpurious ac-
cents anfwer to the characters of time in mufic, as crotchets,
quavers, &c. The genuine accents rather anfwer to the
mufical notes, fol, fa, &c. Such are the long accent,
which fliews that the voice is to flop on the vowel, and is
exprelTed thus, {' ) : and the (hort accent, which (hews that
the time of pronunciation ought to be (liorter, and is mark-
ed thus ( ' ). Some even rank the hyphen, diallole and
apoftrophc, among accents.

Accent alfo denotes a certain inflexion of the voice;
or a peculiar tone, and manner of pronunciation, contrafted
from the country, or province, where a perfon was bred.
In this fenfe, we fay, the Welfh tone or accent, the
Northern acceiK, the Gafcoign accent, Norman accent, &c.
See Pronunciation.

Accent is alio a tone or modulation of the voice, fre-
quently ufed as a mark of the intention of the fpeaker, and
giving a good or evil fignification to his words. One may
give offence with the fofteft and moft foothing words imagin-
able, by a proper management of the accent and manner of
j)ronouncing them. The accent frequently gives a contrary
fenfe to that which the words themfelves naturally im-
ported.

Accent, in Muf.c. In the mechanifm of melody, or
meafured mufical tones, muficians have long agreed to
regard \.\iifirfi and third notes of a bar, in common time,
whether vocal or inftrumental, as accented, and iheficoml
and fourlh notes as unaccented. In triple time, divided
into three portions, the Jtijl note and lajl are accented, the
feond unaccented. But thcfe accents are varioufly modi-
fied ; often to produce fome comic effefl, as wantonly
limping to ridicule lamenefs. If the third note in triple
time is accented in ferious mufic, it is always !efs forcibly
marked than the firft. In the fpeech or elocution of the
natives of every country, and almoft in every province of a
country, there is a peculiar tone or tune, by which nice ob-
fervers difcover the rcfidence of the fpeaker. A native of
Scotland, e. g. however carefully educated, and accurate his

A C C

pronunciation, has a cantilena, a tone of voice, by which an
Englidimaa difcoveis his country. The language that ii
the moft forcibly and frequently accented, is indifputably
the bed fitted to receive mufical tones. When it was faid
in a converfatlon with Mctaftafio on the fubjecl of languages,
that the Italian was the beft calculated for mufic of any
dialeti in Europe, he cried out " e imijicajlipa," it is mufii
itfelf. Another Italian (Eximeno) obf,.i-ved, that the con-
verfation of a Roman matron, vol uri arln, is equal to an air.
In letting fong«, the llrufture of the vei'fe regulates the
mufical accents ; and inftrumental mufic is but a fucceda-
neum to vocil. It may be faid, therefore, that no mufic,
even for inftruments, is fo generally pleafing as that which
can be lung. The geniuo of inftruments, and abilities of per-
formers, require more notes to difplay their powers, than a
human voice can, witli propriety, attempt to execute. la
very rapid divifions, afcending or defcending the fcale ia
notes of equal length, no regard is had to accents ; and,
though the execution may be neat and articulate, an Italian,
fond of fiinpKcity, would fay of it, as of a fhake mifappii :d ;
non dice nitmc, it lays nothing. Without accent there is
no more melody in fong, than in the humming of a bee ;
and without the regular ari-aiigement of long and fliort fyl-
lables, there can be no verfification. There are as many
different accents in mufic as in fpeech, or m.odesof enforcing
or enfeebUng the meaning of word.?. There is a yes that
fays no, and a no that fays_)'cj-. There are accents of fpirit
and accents of violence, of tendjrnefs and of friendlhip.
The voice of a feeling finger can modulate all thefe fliades,
or affeft the hearer on the fide of intelleft as well as of
fenfe. Dionyfius Halicarn. regards accent as the fource of
all mufic. Accents is a poetical name for verfe itfelf.

" Wings on your wings to heav'n her accents bear
Such words as heav'n alone is fit to hear."

Paffions and affeftions are the food of vocal mufic. Dry-
den's Virgil, paft. iii.

" Give to the mufician (fays Rouffeau) as many images
and fentiments to exprefs as poffible ; for the paJTiona fing,
the underftanding only fpeaks."

" Accent, according to Holder (Elements of Speech),
as in the Greek names and ufage, feems to have regarded
the tune of the voice ; the acute accent raifing it in fome
certain fyllables to a higher, i. e. more acute pitch, or tone,
and the grave depreffing it lower, and both having fome
emphafis, i.e. more vigorous pronunciation." See Accunt
in Grammar.

The variety of inftrumental expreffion produced by the
different manner of ufing the fame pafTage or groupe of •
notes on the violin and violoncello, on the flute by the
coup deUangue, on the hautboy by the prefiure of tlie lip,
is beyond calculaiion, ArticiUation, emphafis, pointed
bowing, flun-ing, tonguing, &c. are all technical terms, \vhich
will be feverally explained, as connefted with accent.

Accent, in Poetry, See Rest and Versification.

ACCEPTANCE, the adl of receiving or admitting.

Acceptance, among Civilians, is the concurrence of the
will, or choice of the donee, which renders the aft com-
plete ; and without which the donor may revoke his gift at
pleafure. ^

In beneficiai-y matters, the canonifts hold, that the ac-
ceptance ftiould be figned at the fame time with the refigna-
tion, not ex inter'uallo.

Acceptance, in Common La'-j.^, denotes a tacit agree-
ment to a preceding aft, which might have been defeated
and avoided were it not for fuch acceptance. — If a man
and^ his wife, feifed of land in the right of the wife, make
a joint kafe, or feoffment by deed, referving rent ; the man

dying,

A C C

Oyi:ig, and tlie wife receiving the rent ; fuch receipt is deem-
ed an acceptance, and fhall make tlic Icafe good : fo that
Ihc ihiill be barred from bringing the writ, Cui in vita.

So if aL-.T;e for thi term of twenty years, accept a leafe
of the fame land for ten years : by the leflee's acceptance
of the new leafe, the term of twenty years is determined in
law. 2 Roll. Abr. 469.

Acceptance, in Commerce, is particularly ufcd in re-
fpect of bills of exchange. — To accept a Bill of exchange,
is to fign or fubfcribe it ; and thereby become principal
debtor of the fum contained therein : with an obligation to
pay or difcharge it at the time prefixed.

Tlie acceptance is ufually performed by him on whom tlie
BILL is drawn ; upon its being prefented to him by the per-
fon on whofe behalf it was drawn, or by fome others by his
order.

A fmall matter amounts to an acceptance, fo that there
be a right underftanding between both parties ; as, " Leave
, •' your bill with me, and I will accept it ;" or, " call for it
" to-moiTow, and it ihall be accepted." This obliges as
effeftually by the cuftom of merchants, and according to
law, as if the party had aftually fubfcribed, or ligned it,
which is ufually done.

But (hould a man fay, " Leave vour bill with me ; I
" will look over my accounts and books between the drawer
" and me, and call to-moirow, and accordingly the bill
*'■ (hall be accepted." This (hall not amount to a complete
acceptance ; for this mention of his books and accounts was
really intended to give him an opportunity of examining if
there were cfFefts in his hands to anfwer ; without which
perhaps he would not accept the fame ; and fo it was ruled
by the Lord Chief Juflice Hale, at Guildliall, London.

A bill may be accepted for part ; becaufc the party, upon
whom the fame was drawn, had no more elTefts in his hands ;
which being ufually done, there muft be a proteft, if not for
the whole fum, yet at lead for the refidue ; however, after
payment of fuch part there mull be a proteft for the remain-
der.

Bills payable at fight are not to be accepted ; as being to
be acquitted at their prefenting ; or in defeft of payment,
to be protefted. — In bills drawn for a certain number of
days after fight, the acceptance mull be dated ; becaufe the
time is to be accounted therefrom. — The form of this ac-
ceptance is accepted fuch a day ; and then the fignature.

Bills drawn, payable on a day named, or at usance, or
double ufance, need not be dated ; ufance being reckoned
from the date of the bill itfelf. — On thefe it is Tufficient to
write, accepted, and the fignature.

If the bearer of a bill be contented with an acceptance to
be paid in twenty days after fight, where, in the bill itfelf,
only eight days are exprelfed, he runs the rifque of the
twelve additional days : fo that if the acceptor fail he has
no remedy againft the drawer. And if the bearer contents
himfelf to receive a lefs fum than is exprelfed, in part, he
is to (land the chance of the reft.

ACCEPTATION, in Grammar, the signification
of a word ; or the fenfe wherein it is taken and received.

ACCEPTILATION, in the Clwl Lanv,m acquittance
given without receiving any money, or a declaration of
the creditor in favour of the debtor, fignifying, that he
is fatisfied for his debt, and forgives all farther claim, or de-
mand ; though in reality no payment has been made.

ACCEPTOR of a bill of exchange, the perfon who ac-
cepts the bill. See Acceptance.

ACCESS, in a general fenfe, fignifies the approach of a
thing towards another.

In which fenfe, acccfs ftands oppofed to recefs.

A C C

We fometiincs fay, the acccfs of bodies, tlic acccfs of the
moon, the fun, plants, &c. but more frequmtly, the ap-
prjach of bodies, the appulfe of the moon, the riling of the
fun, &c. Geomctiicians fpeak of a line called the curve of
equal accefs, or approach.

Access, in a more particular fenfe, denotes entrance, or

admlllion.

We fay fuch a perfon has acccfs to the prince : the acccft
on that fide was very difficult, by reafon cJ rocks, &c.

Access, in Medicine, denotes a fit, or return of fome pe-
riodical difeafe.

We fay an accefs of the gout, but efpccially of an ague,
an intermitting fever, an epilcpfy, ^^c. an accefs of madncfs;
fometimes alfo a prophetical accefs, a cold accefs, ike. Acccfs
is frequently confounded with paroxyfm : but they are dif-
ferent things ; an acccfs being frequently the beginning or
firft onfet of a difeafe, a paroxysm the height of it.

ACCESSIBLE, iomething that may be approached, or
to which we may have accefs.

Such a place, a fortrefs, is acceffible from the feaward ; 1. e.
the paffage to it is prafticable. See Fortification.

In furveying, it is fuch a place as will admit of having a
dillance meafured from it ; or fuch a height or depth as can
be meafured by a proper iiiftrument : for the means of doing
which, fee Altimetrv, Altitude, Distance, Height,

and LoNGIMETRY.

ACCESSION, in a general fenfe, is the aft of approach-
ing or going to a place, perfon, or thing. It is more par-
ticularly ufed for the aft whereby a thing is joined, or united
to Something that exifted before.

Accession, in Politics, is ufed for the aft of engaging
and becoming a party, in a treaty before concluded between
other powers ; on the fame conditions as if originally com-
prehended in the treaty itfelf : fuch as the accefTion of the
States General to the treaty of Hanover, of the Czarina to
the treaty of Vienna, &c. It likewife iignifies a prince's
fucceeding to the government upon the death of his prede-
ceffor.

Accession, in the language of the Conclave, is a me-
thod of elefting a pope, by procuring for fome candidate
two-thirds of the voices, upon which the reft are enrolled by
way of acceffion.

Accession, in the Civil Latu, denotes a method of ac-
quiring property in certain things, by virtue of their con-
neftion with other things, which already belong to us.

Acceffion is effefted divers ways, whence arife feveral
fpecies of it, nmple and mixed, natund and artificial, dif-
crete and concrete acceffion. See Alluvion and Speci-
fication.

Accession, m Medicine. See Access.

ACCESSORIUS Flexor di^itnrum pedis, in Anatomic
a name given by Dr. Hunter to that portion of mufcle which
was defcribed by Sylvius, and generally dillinguilhed by the
title of Maffa carnca Sy/vii.

ACCESSORII mufculi ad facro-himharem. See Sacro-
LuMBARis.

ACCESSORY, or Accessary, fomething that accedes,
or is added to another more confiderable thing : in which
fenfe the word ftands oppofed to Principal.

Accessory, in Grammar, is ufed by Mr. Harris to de-
note fuch words as are fignificant by relation in oppofition
to principal, which is applicable to words that are fignificant
of thcmfelves. See Wo i; n.

Accessory, or Acceffary, in Common Latv, is chiefly
ufed for a perfon guilty of a felonious offence, not princi-
pally, but by participation ; as, by advice, command, or
cunceahnent.

3 There

A C C

Tho-c arc two kir<!i of ncoeffvirics ; Ufort tlic facV, and
oflcr it. — The lirft is lit who com:>nuds, or procuea an-
other to commit felony, and is HOt prclcnt himfclt ; for if he
be prefeiit, he is a principal.

The f--con,! is lie who receives, aflifta, or comforts any
man ihJt has done murder, or felony, whereof lie has know-
ledge. A man may alfo be acccflTorN- to an accclfoiy, by
aiding, recei%ing, &c. an accedorj' in telony.

An acccnbr)' in felony fi\all have jvidnr.ent of life .ind
member, as well as the i)rii.cipa), wlio did the felony ; but
not till the principal be fiift attainted, and convicted, orout-
* lawed iherton. — Where the principal is pardoned without
attainder, the acceflbry cannot be an-aigned ; it being a
maxim in la\v, L'Ih non eft [ir'.iuipnrts, non pol'Jl eff- accijjorius.
IJut if the principal be pardoned, or have his chrgy after
attainder, the accelTor)- fliaU be anaigned. 4 & J W, & M.
cap. 4. And by ftat. l Ani.e, cap. 9. it is enadled, that
where the principal is convicted of felony, or (lands nnite,
or challenges above tr^nty of the jwy, it fliall be lawful to
proceed agamll the aeccflbry iji the fame manner as if the
principal had been attainted ; and notwithftandiug fuch
principal (hall be admitted to his clergy, pardoned, or deli-
vered before attainder. In fome cafes alfo, if the principal
cannot be taken, then the acceflbr)' may be profccuted for a
mifdemeanor, and punilhed by fine, imprifonment, &:c. Stat.
ibid. See Stat. 5 Anne, cap. 31. In the loweil and hightft
offences there are no accefTories, but all are principals : as
in riots, routs, forcible entries, and other trefpalTes, which
are the loweft offences. — So alfo in the highell offence,
which is, according to our law, high treafon, there are no
acceffories. Cok. Littlet. 71.

Acceflbries, in petty treafon, murder, and in felonies of
fcveral kind,;, arc not to have their clergy. — There can be
no acceffor)' before the facl in manflaughter ; becaufe that
is fudden and unprepenfed.

Accessory by Jlatute, is fuch a one as abets, advifes,
aids, or receives one that commits an offence, which is made
felony by ftatute.

Accessory nerves, Accessorius JVillffii, or Par Ac-
CEssoRiUM, in yinatoniv, a pair of nerves, which, ariling by
feveral filaments from the medulla fpinalis of the neck, and
having advanced to the firft vertebra, where each of them is
fixed to the pofterior fide of the ganglion of the nervus fuboc-
cipitalis, or tenth pair, afcend through the great foramen
of^ the OS oceipitis into the cranium ; and communicating
with the 9th and loth, pafs out again clofe to the 8th pair.
Afterwards turning backward, and perforating the mufcu-
lus llerno-maftoideus, they terminate in the trapezius, hav-
ing firft diflributed fome branches to the rhomboides. Phy-
fio'ogifls have been at a lofs to account for tiie Angular ori-
gin and courfe of thcfe nerves. The ancients confidered them
as branches of the 8th pair. Willis alfo confidered them as
appendages to that pair, and called them acceJforVi. They
are fometimes called the fpinal pair, but as this denomina-
tion comprehends the nerves of the fpine indifcriminately,
Willis's name is more appropriate, and therefore it has been
generally preferred. See Origin and Courfe of the Nerves.

Accessory, among Painters, an epithet given to fuch
parts of a history piece, as ferve chiefly for ornament,
and might have been wholly left out : fuch as vafes, ar-
mour, &c.

ACCHO, in Geography, a port called by the Greeks
Ptolemais, and now Acre.

ACCI, in yinclent Geography, a town in the confines of
BcEtica, fuppofed to be Guadix, in the province of Gra-
nada, in Spain. It was alfo called Colonta Acdtuna, and its

A c: c

inhabitants were denominated Gemeknfes, and the colony
G.m.//ii, bccaulc; it was formed from two legions, viz. the
third and the fixth. '

ACC1AC.\ riTRA, in Mufte, k a term, as it fhould
ftem, by the little fuccefs of tliofe who have attempted it,
dlrhcuit to be deiined by words, or to be exemplified in
notes. It is putting down with any interval the half note
below it, and inllantly taking off (as if it were red hot)
tiio finger which has flruck the loweft of the two notes,
continuing the found of the other note, till the harmony is
changed. An organift never puts down a iiugle flow note
on his inflrunient without touching, at the fame time, the
femi-tone below, and fometimes keeping it on, or maki^ig a
beat with the forefinger, while the tiiuinb remains firm on
the principal found. The term acciacatura, though un-
common, is not new ; as it occurs ui " I'Armonieo Prac\ico
" al Cembolo," of the eminent opera compofer Francifco ^
Gafparini, the mailer of Dominlco Scarlati, and of the fl
celebrated finger la Faullina : this trad, which is in faft
a treatite on accompaniment, was lirfl publilhed at Venice
in '703. The teclinical term acc':aca!iira is derived from
acciarnre, to bruif, cnijh, or jam doivn. Gafparini com-
pares it to the haily bite of an iufecl, that inllantly flies
away. See pi. i. No. I. Mafic; fome examj)Ies from the
5th edition of this excellent httle tracl, printed in 1764.

ACCIAIOLI, DoNATUs, in Biography, a learned Flo-
rentine of the 15th century, was born in 1428, and diflin-
guiflicd by the honourable employments which were af-
iigned him in his native country, and by the probity and
difintereftednefs of his character. He publilhed commen-
taries on the ethics and politics of Ariflotle, which he col-
lected from the Icdures of Argyropolus the Byzantine, and
tranflations of the lives of Alcibiades and Demetrius from
Plutarch, to which were added thofe of Hannibal and
Scipio, and of Aretino's twelve books of the hiflory of
Florence, printed at Venice in 1476. He alfo wrote an
Abridgment of the Life of Charlemagne, and fome other
Treatifes. Having been fent to France by the Florentines
to fue for fuccour from Louis XL againft Pope Sixtus IV.
he died on his journey at Milan, in 1473 ; but his body
was carried to Florence, and buried in the church of the
Carthufians. His dai.'ghters, like thofe of Ariftides, were
married, and portioned at the public expence, as an ac-
knowled'i'ment of his fervices. His funeral eulogium was
pronounced by Chrillopher Landini, and an elegant epitaph
by Politian, was infcribed on his monument. Gen. Dift.

AcciAioLi, Zctiobio, a learned Dominican, of the fame
family with the former, continued to enjoy the office of
library-keeper to Pope Leo X. from the year 15 18, to his
death in 1520, ,as fome fay, in 1537 according to others,
at the age of 58. He learned Greek and Hebrew towards
the clofe of his life, tranflated fever.l of the fathers, and
wrote feveral orations and poems, fermons on the Epiphany,
and fome other pieces. He likewife collefted a \-olume of
Politian's Greek epigrams, which were publifhed in I495<
Bayle.

AcciAiOLi, Angela, cardinal, legate, and archbifhop of
Florence, died in 1407. He prefei vcd the Florentines in
their obedience to the pontiff Urban VI. when attempts
were made to feduce them in favour of Clement VII. He
wrote a work, with a view of healing fchifm, which then
rent the church.

AcciAioLi, Renatus, defcended from a noble family of
Florence, atchieved the conqueft of Athens, Corinth, and
a part of BoEOtia, at the beginning of the 15th century.
Having no mule iffue by Eubois, his wife, he bequeathed

Athens

A C C

Athens to tlie Venetians, Corinth to Theodofms Palcologus,
who had married his eldeil daughter ; and tie gave Boeutia
to Anthony, his natural fon, who alfo made himfelf mailer
of Athens ; but it was taken from his fucccffors in 1455, by
Mahomet 1 1.

ACCIDENCE, Accidentia, a name chiefly ufedfor
a little book, containing the firll elements, or rudiments of
the Latin ton<jue.

ACCIDENS, in PhUofiphy. See Accident.

/•c/- Acciden's, ia frequently ufed among pliilofophei's to
denote what dues not follow from the nature of a thing,
but from fome accidental qualities thereof, in which fcnfe it
ftands oppofed to per yj, which denotes the nature and
ieffencc of a thing.

Thus fire is faid to burn per fe, or confidered as fire,
Tisx^ \\n1 psr acc'ulens ; but a piece of iron, though red hot,
only burns ^cr accidois, by a quality acc'uknlal to it, and not
confidertd as iron.

ACCIDENT, mthepopular fcnfe of the word, fignifics
a coNTiN-GENT effeft, or fomething produced cafnally, and
without any foreknowledge or defign in the agent that pro-
duced it.

Accident, in Grammar, denotes a property attached
to a WORD, without entering into its elTential definition.
Thus every word, wliatever be its fignification, will be pri-
mitive, derivative, fimple or compound, which are the ac-
cidents of words. Befides, each particular fpecies of words
has its accidents : e. g. thofe of the noun fubflantive are
gender, declenllon, and nurriber, and the adjeciivc has an-
other accident, t;s. comparifon.

Accident, in Heraldry, is an additional note or mark in
a coat-armour, not neceflarily belonging to it j but capable
either of being retained, or omitted, without altering the
effence of the armour. Such are Abate memts, Diffe-
rences, and Tincture. Edmonfon obferves, that acci-
dents of arms, though frequently mentioned by authorsj can
have no meaning in blazonry.

Accident, in Logic, fomething additional, or fuper-
added, to a substance ; or not effentially belonging to it,
but capable, indifferently, either of being or not being in
it, without its deftruftion. The fchoolmen dillinguilh three
kinds of accidents, •verhal,predicalJe, 7mA. predicamental. J'^'er-
W <ifr/W«(/ Hands oppofed to eflence ; and in this fenfe the
adjunfts to a thing, though fubilances themfelves, are de-
nominated its accidents. Thus a man's cloaths which are
not effential, but adventitious or acceffory to his perfon, are
accidents. Predicable accident is ufed in oppofition to ji>;-o-
i>er. — Such is any common quality ; as whitenefs, heat, or
the like. Thefe are called in the fchools, predicable acci-
dents, becaufe ufually laid dow.i and explained in the doc-
trine of predicables. They may either be taken in the ab-
stract, as whitenefs, learning ; or in the concrete,
as white, learned. If taken in the af>/Irad,dLS is done by Por-
phyry, the accident is defined as above, that which may
either be prefent, or abfent, without the deftruftion of its
fubjeft. If it be taken in the concrete, accident is ufually
defined by the fchoolmen, to be fomething capable of being
predicated contingently, of iflany, in rtfpeft of quality. —
As learning, which may probably be predicated of you,
him, &c. Predicatnental accident is a mode or modification
of fome creating fubflance, inhering or depending thereon,
fo as not to be capable of fubfifting without the fame. In
this fenfe, accident is oppofed to fubftance. — Whence, as
fubftance is defined a thing that fubfifts in itfclf, and the
fithjlralum of accidents ; fo an accident is faid to be that cujus
eje ell inejfe : and therefore Ariftotle, who ufually calls fub-

Vol. I.

i- c c

flanccs fimply o'x, entities, beings ; commonly cajli acci-
dents, ojTo,- ow>,, entitles of entity ; rcquiiiiig fome fiibHance
wherein to reljde, as their fubjcrt •<( adhcfioii. So that ac-
cident lias an immediate and efFcntial dependence on its fub-
flance ; both as to its prodiidlon, its continuation, and it)
effeifts ; it arifes or is deduced from its fubjctt, is preferred
or fubfilled by it ; and can only be aiTedled by what alters, or
afFL-ds, the fiibjecl. The old fchoolmen, liowever, will not
have accidents to be mere modes of matter, but entities
really dillinft from it : and, in fome cafes, fepamblc from
all matter. — But the notion of ri-al accidents, and qualities,
is now exploded. Ariilolle and the Peripatetics make nine
kind of clafTes of predicameutal iiccidenis : others contrail
tiiem into a lefs number. The term abj'olule accident h ufed
ill the Romifli theology for a prcdicamental accident, wliicli
fubfifts, or may pofiibly fubfift, at leaft iniiaculouny, and
by fome fupernatural power, without a fuhjeft.

Such, they conlciid, were the accidents of the bread and
wine in the eueharift, c. gr. the cohiur, flavour, figure. Sec.
thereof, which remain afur the fubftauccs they Lihmgcd to
are changed into other fulillances of flefh.

The Cartefiaus univerfally combat the notion of abfolute
accidents ; it being their doftrinc, that the efience of mat-
ter confifts in extenfion ; and that accidents are only modi-
fications thereof, in no wife diftiuA from it ; an accident
therefore without a fubjeft muft be a contradiclion. — And
hence Cartefiauiim is branded as contrary to the Roman ca-
tholic faith.

Various expedients have been invented by the Cartefians,
to account for traiifubftantiation, &c. without the hypo-
thefis of abfolute accidents. — Some hold that the ufual im-
preflions are made on the fenfe by the immediate agency of
God ; and without any thing remaining of the fonner na-
ture. Others afcribe the whole to heterogeneous matter
contained in the pores of the bread, 5cc. which remaining
unaltered by the tranfubftantiation, produces the fame fenfa-
tions as the bread produced.

Accident, among Phyfuinns, is fometimes ufed for what
is more generally called Symptom.

ACCIDENTS, in AJlrolony, denote the moll extraordi-
nary occurrences in the courfe of a pcrfon's life : fuch are a
remarkable inftance of good fuccefs, a fignal deliverance, a
dangerous ficknefs, &c.

ACCIDENTAL, in z general fenfe, fignifies fomething
that partakes of the nature of an accident ; or, what is not
effential to its fubjeft, but is indifferent. Thus, whitenefs
is accidental to marble ; and fenfible heat to iron.

Accidental, in Philofophy, is applied to that cffeft,
which proceeds from a caufe occuning by accident,
without being fubjeft, according to appearance, to general
laws or regular returns. In this fenfe, accidental is oppofed
to conftant and principal. Thus, the fun's lefs or greater
diftance from the earth is the conftant and chief caufe of
the heat in fummer, and cold in winter ; whereas winds,
fnow or rain are accidental caufes, which often alter and
modify the aftion of the principal caufe.

Accidental colours, fo called by M. Buffon, are thofe
which depend upon the affeftions of the eye, in contradif-
tinftion to fuch as belong to the light itfelf. The impref-
fions made upon the eye by looking ftedfaftly on objedts of
a particular colour are various, according to the fingle co-
lour, or affemblage of colours, in the objecl ; and they
continue for fome time after the eye is withdrawn, and give
a falfe colcmring to other objefts wliieh are viewed during
their continuance. M. BufTuii has endeavoured to trice the
conneftiou which iLcfe accidental colours liavc with thofe

R that

L

A C C

thM are natiirali in arariety of iiiftance?. Tlie fubicft has
likcwifc been conridercd by M. dc lu Hire, and M. Epinus ;
and M. d'Arcy haj contrived a machine for mcafuring the
duration of the above-mentioned imprcHions on the eye ; and
he inferred in the refult of feveral trials, that the cfFeft of
the adtion of light on llic eye continued about eight thirds
of a minute. Sec Aca. Par. 1743, aud 1765. Nov. Com.
Petrop. vol. 10. And for an abllnift, Priellley's Hill. &c.
of Difcoveries relating to Vifion, &c. p. (131.

Accidental Point, in Pcrfptd'ive, is a point in the hori-
zontal line, in which, a right line drawn from the eye, pa-
rallel to another right line, interfeds the piiilure or perfpec-
tive plane. Tliis is alfo the accidental point of all other
lines parallel to the originid line, fince the fame line drawn
from the eye is parallel to them all ; and the repicfentation
of all thefe parallels, when produced, concur in the acci-
dental point. Sec Perspective.

AccrDESTAL Dignities and Delililies, in j4Jlro!ogy, arc
certain cafual difpofitions and affeftions of the planets,
whereby they are fuppofcd to be either llrengthened or
weakened, by their being in fuch a houfe of the figure.

Accidental, in Miijic, is an epithet added to fuch
fliarps, flats, and naturals, as occur not at the clef, and
which imply fome change of key or modulation different
from that in wliich the piece began. In the key of C na-
tural, for inftance, an accidental C*, implies the key of
D minor ; a D *, the key of E ; an F a, that of G ma-
jor ; and g «, the key of A minor. In like manner a flat
placed before B, implies the key of F major, or D
minor, &c.

ACCIPENSER, in Tcthyology. Sec Acipenser.

ACCIPESIUS, a name given by Athenaeus and others
of the Greek writers to the sturgeon, called by others
On'tfcos.

ACCIPITER, a name given by Gallius and fome
ethers to the filh, called by others the m'llvus and hicerna.
It is a fpecies of trigla in the fyftems of Artedi and
LinntEus.

ACCIPITRES, or RAPACIOUS birds, in the Linman
fyilem of Ornithology, tlie firft order of birds ; the charac-
ters of which are, that the bill bends downwards, that the
upper mandible is dilated a little on both fides towards the
point, or armed with a tooth-like procefs, and that the
noftrils are wide ; the legs are fhort and ftrong : the feet
are of the perching kind, having three toes forwards and
one backwards ; the toes are warty under the joints, with
claws hooked and (harp at the points. The body, head
and neck are mufculoiis, and the flvin very tough. The
birds of this order fubfift by preying on other animals, and
on dead carcafes, ?.nA they arc unfit for food. They live
ia pairs, and are monogamous ; and build their nefts in
lofty fituations. The female is generally larger and ilronger
than the male, and ufually lays four eggs at a time. I'his
onler correfponds to that of ferje and comprehends four
genera, viz. vultur, falco, strix, ar.d lanius. Mr.
Latham hr.s removed this laft genus to the order of Pic.«.

ACCIPITRINA, in Botany, a name by which fome
authors have expreffed the hawkweed, and others, the flix-
•vtccA or fophia fhirurgorum. See HiERACiuM and SisVM-
srium.

ACCISMUS, denotes a feigned refufal of fomeihino-
which^ a perfon earnelUy defires. The word axxic-juo; i"
fuppofcd to be fom-.ed from Acco, the name of a foohih old
•woman, famous in antiquity for an affeftation of this kind.

Accifmus is fometimes confidercd as a virtue, fometimes
as a vice, which Auguftus and Tiberius praftifed with {--reat
fucccfs. Cromwell's refufal of the crown of England^may

3

A C C

be brought as an inftance of an accifmus. Ia rhetoric, the term
is ufed U'T a fpecies of irony.

ACCIUS, Lucius, in Biography, a Latin tragic poet^
who, according to St. Jerome, was born in the year of
Rome, 583, B.C. 170. Several of his tragedies were
founded on the moll celebrated ftories which had been
rcprefented on the Athenian Rage, as Andromache, An-
dromeda, Atreus, Clytemneilra, Medea, Meleager, Phl-
locletes, the civil wars of Thebes, &c. He alfo compofed
one dramatic piece entirely Roman, called Brutus, which
related to the expulfion of the Tarquins. Some fay thia
he wrote comedies ; and the Wedding and the Merchant
are afcribed to him. See Voffius dc Poet. Latin, p. 7.
Befides his dramatic writings, he left other works, particu-
larly his Annals, mentioned by Macrobius, Prifcian, Fciljs,
and Nonius Marcellus. He was much applauded by
Decimus Brutus, who was conful in the year of Rome 6 15, for
the verfes which he wTote in his praife ; and he was fo much
efteemed by the public, that a comedian was punifiied for
only mentioning his- name on the ftage. However, he hss
been cenfured by fome for the harlhncfs of his ftyle, though
he was generally allowed to be a very confiderable poet.
The particular charafter of Accius feeras to have been that
of vigour and fublimity. Horace ftyles him altus, elevated,
and Ovid, anhnofus, fpirited : the latter applies the epithet
atrox, cruel, to his works, which is thought to refer to the
fubjedls of them, or the great cataftrophes treated of by the
Greek Diamatifts. Cicero (De Clar. Orat. apud Oper,
tom. i. p. 395, Ed. Genev.) fpeaks with deriiion of one
Accius, who had written hiilory : and fome have fuppofcd
that, as Accius had written Annals, he refers to him ; but
this is not probable, as Cicero himfelf, Horace, Quinftilisn,
Ovid and Paterculus have expreffed thernfelves in terms of
diflinguifhed applaufe of the Accius, that is the fubjeft of
this article. .

There was alfo another Pectus, or 'Auius, called Pifau^
rienjis from Pijaurium, the place of his nativity, who was
efteemed a good orator, againft whom Cicero defended Au-
lus Cluentius. See Cicero de Clar. Orat. (J 78, apud Op.
tom. i. p. 473. Orat. pro Cluent. apud Op. tom. v. p. 57,
&c. Valerius Maximus mentions a poet of tins name, who
was accuftomed not to rife when Julius Caefar entered che
affembly of the- poets, as he reckoned himfelf, in that place,
his fuperior. Gen. Dift.

ACCIUS, Zucchus, an Italian poet of the i$th cen-
tury, who is faid to be the author of Italian fonnets by way
of paraphrafe on the fables of ^fop, on which Julius
Scaliqer bellows great commendation.

ACCLAMATION, a confufed noife, or (hout of joy,
by which the public exprcfs their applaufe, efteem, or ap-
probation of any thing.

Acclamation, in a more proper fenfe, denotes a certain-
formula of words, uttered with extraordinary vehemence,
and in a peculiar tone, fomewhat rcfembling a fong frequent
in the ancient alTembhes.

Acclamations were ufually accompanied with applaufes,
with which they are fometimes confounded, though they
ought to be diftinguilhed ; as acclamation was given by the
voice, applaufe by the hinds ; befides, acclamation was alfo
beftowed on perfons abfcnt, applaufe only on thofe prefent.
Acclamation was alfo given by women, whereas applaufe
feems to have been confined to men.

Acclamations are of various kinds; ecchfiajlical, military,
nuptial, fenatorial, fynodical, fcholajlic, theatrical. Sec.

Bilhops, and other ecc'efiallical off.cers, were eleclcd by
the acclamations of the people. We meet with loud accla-
mations, niuficai and rhythmical acclamations, a<;clamations

oi

A C C

ef joy and refpeft, and even of reproach and conhimely.
The former, wherein words of happy omen were ufed, were
nMo c?i[\£& Inuila!!oiies l^ L'ot:ci vo/ii, or good wl(l\es : the lat-
ter, exfcrationss l^ caiiv'icia. Of this latter kiiwl of accla-
mation Suetor.ius has given an iullance, (Opcr. vol. ii.
p. 1056, Ed. Pitifc.) on occafion of the decree for demo-
lilliing th^^l?.tues of Domitian, when the fenate rejoiced,
and uttered very bitter and contumelious acclamations againll
the deceafed. Tlie formula ufed for the pui-pofe of accla-
mation was repeated fevcral times, fo that we fmd in Ro-
tnaii writers, accljtnaium ejl quhirjula et vla:-s, i, e. five and
twenty times ; and, on lomc occafions, much more frequent-
ly. The emperor Claudius Aipprefied thofc indecent accla-
mations, which cullom had introduced into tlis fenate, as un-
becon-.incj the gravity of that refpedlable body. But that
cullom, founded on flattery, prevailed again in fucceediug
times ; and hiftorians have given us fuch inllanccs as fully
juftify Claudius's contempt of it.

The acclamations of the theatres, which were at firft con-
fufed and tumultuous fhouts, became in procefs of time a
kind of regular concerts. Nero contributed very much to
this improvement of them. When this emperor played in
the theatre, a fignal was given by clapping ; upon which
yooo foldiers, called Au^uJIam, began to chant his praife,
which the fpeftators were obliged to repeat. This bufmefs
was conduiTted by a mufic-maller, called Mefochorus, or
Panfarius. The lervile band was divided into choruffcs, who
pra&ifed a kind of meafure in their applaufes, and modu-
lated thtir noife in different ways : the chief of each chorus
had a falaiy of 40,000 fefterces.

The honour of acclamations was chiefly appropriated to
empfrors. On them it was bellowed to the moil extravagant
cxcefs. The talk of applaufe was not abandoned to the
rude and fpontaneous voices of the croud. Pcrfons of all
iiaelions and parties vied with each other on this occaiion ;
and after confliils which had fliaken the capitol, infenfibly
funk into the emulation of lenfitude. From either fide they
echoed in refponfive melody the praifes of the emperor ;
their poets and muficians directed the choir, and long life
and viftory were the burthen of every fong. The fame ac-
clamations were performed at the audience, the banquet, and
the church ; and they were repeated in all languages by the
mercenaries, who fuftained the real and fiftitious charafter
of the nations in whofe refpective languages they were pro-
nouivced. Confi;antini Porphyrogenitus has reduced this
fcience of form and flattery into a pompous and trifling
volume, which, fays Mr, Gibbon, the vanity of fucceeding
times might enrich with an ample fupplement. But this
writer vei-y juftly oblerves, that the calmer refleftion of a
prince would furcly fuggeft, that the fame acclamations
were applitd to eveiy charafter, and every reign ; and if he
had rife;: from a private rank, he tnight remember that his
own voice had been the loudeft and mod eager in applaufe,
at the very moment when he envied the fortune, or con-
fpired againfl. the life of his predeceflbr. Deck and Fall of
the Rom. En;p. voL x. p. 128. 8vo. In proof of this it
may be remarked, that the acclamations of the populace
Were eonferrevl on the ftupid Vitellias, and the cruel Nero,
as well a" on Trajan, who merited the title of opthnus. In the
latter inftance, however, they were received with lively feel-
ings of fatisfaftion and delight, to which the former were
utter ttrangers. His fubjedis were frequently heard to ex-
ciami in his prefence, '" Happy citizens ! Happy emperor ! ,
" Long may he lead this great and virtuous life ! Long
" may he hear our ardent willies for him !" At which ten-
der exprcfiion'; Trajan blufhed, and (lied tears of joy ; for he
■W4s^c»fiblc, it was to himiclf, and not to his fortune, that

A C C

ihcy were applied ; and the fenalc, after obuininp the
pruice's leave with great ditficulty, ordered fuch acclama.
tions to be mfcribed on plates of brafs. that ihcy might be
a permanent monument and motive of emulation for fuc
ceedmg emperors, and a lelfoii to teach them to dilliiiguilli
between flatu-r)' and the language of the heart.

The honour of acclamatiJns was not wholly rcftrlfled to
emperors. It was alfo Conferred on their children and favou-

ame!<.
perfoni

rites, and on the magillratcs who prefided at gai
We have likewife inllances of its being rendered to per.„.„
of dillinguiihed merit, as in the cafe of Cato and Virgil,
mentioned by Quinftilian. The moll ufual forms of acela-
mntion were, " TvAW/r/-, lon^iorcn vilam, aimos j'Akci." 'J'lie
adors,' and thofe who gained prizes in the games of the cir-
cus, were not excluded from thi-. honour.

The Greeks were accullomed to piaclife acclamation on
extraordinary occafjone, as well as the Romans. Plutarch
mentions an acclamation fo loud, in conliquence of Flhini-
nius's reftoring liberty to Greece, that the birds fell from
the ilcy with the ihout.

1 he^ Turks obfen-e a fimilar ceremony on tlie figlit of
their Emperors and Grand Viziers to this day ; and the prac-
tice of faluting kings, conqueror:;, and dillinguiflud perfonp,
with fome forms of acclamation, is \tty general and prevailing.

Authors and poets, who recited their works iii public,
were always anxious to obtain this honour ; and their ad-
mirers endeavoured to render it in the moft folemn and re-
fpeftful manner. Sometimes prcfents enforced the iiivita-
tions that were defigned for convening numerous aflcmblies
for this purpofc. The acclamations, like thofc of the
theatre, were attended with mufic, and they were adapted
to the perfon, and to the fubjed ; fo that philofophers, ora-
tors, hillorians, and poets were diff'erently dillinguidied.
One of the mod ufual forms was o-ojo,-, fnf>bos, repeated
three times ; but Martial comprehends other cullomary
forms in the following verfc :

" Graviter, cito, ni'quha; Enge, Btale."
Acclamations made alfo a part of the ceremony of marriage.

Acclamations, which were at lirfl; praftifed in the theatre,
and which pafled from hence into the fenate, and other de-
partments ot civil fociety, were, in procefs of time, received
into the afts of councils, and the ordinary atTemblies of the
church. Chryfollom reproved, and checked acclamations of
this kind ; but Auguftine received them very willingly.
Sentwns were applauded with the hands and feet, by leap-
ing up and down, and exclaiming " orthodox," and by
fhaking the loofe gamients, moving plumes, and waving
handkerchiefs. See Lardner's works, vol. iii. p. 81. But
their principal ufe has always been at the folemn entries of
princes and heroes; where they are ufually attended with
good vvidies, prayers, vows, S;c. Antiquity lias tranfmitted
to us ieveral fomis of acclamation, fome of which we hare
already recited. The Hebrews ufed to en.-, " Hofanna ;"
the Greeks, " AyaOn nxn, good luck." The Romans ad-
drefied their princes, generals, &c. with fuch expreflions at
thefe ; " Dii te nobis fcrvenl ; vijlrafalus, vojlrafalus ; i.e.
" May the gods preferve you for us; )-our fafi.t", our fafety.'*
The acclamations of the army were generally, " lo iri-
" umphe," or " Salvi Imperalor." Schlemon. de Ac-
clam. Vctcr. Gen. Ato. i66y. Pitifc. lex Ant. torn. i. p. 12.
Ferrar de Acclam. et Plauf. lib. i. cap. 8. Suicer.Thef. verb.
j^p'A,-. Aquinas Lex. Milit. tom. i. p. 6. Bingham Grig.
Ecclef. lib. xiv. cap. 4. §. zy.

Acclamation is alfo applied among the antiquarict to

certain medals, on which tiie p'.ople are reprefented exprcf-

fing their joy for fome coniiderable favour. In this fenfe

acclamation ii alio ufed to denote the vowj reprefented o«

R I mcdalt.

A C C

medals for the profpcrity of the emperor and common-
wealth.

AccLAMATioi alfo dcnotc3 a method of ckaion, prac-
tifc-J in the ACADF.MV of .r'/'ra^;.

Acclamation, in IVvtirL; is a figure of fpecch, thus
calUa bv the Latins, and by the Greeks k pip hose ma.

ACC'LIVIS, in Jnalomy, a mufde, olherwife called obli-
oyvs n/.ftil.nj.

ACCLIVITY, the ftecpnefsor (lope, oFa line or plane
incliiK-d to the hori/on, tak.cn upwards. The afcent of a
hill ii an acclivity : the decent of the fame a declivity.
Some writers of fortification ufc the term acclivity for

TALUS.

ACCO, in Gfo^rj/./> Sec Acre.
ACCOL.-^, compouivLd of i7</, to, and «/.?«, to dvjell,
in a gen;r.il feufe, denotes an inhabitant near any certain
plici.-, in conti-adillinclion to incola, who dwelt in it ; ac-
cording to the verfe,

" A:c'j!a non propnam, profr'uvn colit incola terram.'
ACCOL.^DE, a ceremony anciently ufed in the con-
feiTni^ of k'.'.jghthood.

The word literally denotes an embrace, being foniicd of
ady to ; and col, or collum, met.

Antiquaries are not agreed, wherein the accolade properly
confilled. The generality fuppofe it to be the embrace, or
kils, which princes anciently gave the nt;w knight, as a
token of their affedlion. — Whence the word accolade, q. d.
a clafping, or taking round the neck. A very ingenious
author will rather have it to be a blow on the chine of the
neck, given on the fame occafion. Fauchet feems to recon-
cile the two opinions : he fuppofes it to be the kifs ;
but withal, imagines the kifs to be intended as a ftroke on
the cheek. En Uur ba'iffant fur lajoue — The ceremony being
only an imitation of that praftil'ed among the Romans, in
the manumllJion of their flaves, where it is known a blow was
given. Skinner. Cafeneuve. Orig. Franc. Colomb. Theat.
d'Honneur.

As for the accoUe, or blow, John of Salifbury afTures us,
it was in ufe among the ancient Normans : by this it was
that William tl-.e Conqueror conferred the honour of knight-
hood on his fori Henry.

At firft, it was given with the naked fiil ; thus Lamber-
tus Ardenfis, defciiblng the manner in which Baldric, count
de Guines, was created knight by Thomas a Becket, fays,
€ldim comili in fignum milttiit glatlium lalcri ct calcano fu: militis
pedibus aptavit, <jf aiapam collo ejus inflty.it. But this was
afterwards changed into a blow with the flat of the fword,
on the Ihoulder of the knight.

Salmonet, and after him the continuators of Moreri,
mention an order in England, called knights of the accolade ;
fo called from the manner of their creation. The order here
meant is that of knights bachelors, or equites aurati. But
the name, if ever, is now no longer known among us.

ACCOLE'E is fometimes ufed as fynonymous with Ac-
colade.

Accolee is alfo ufed in Heraldry, in divers fenfes, when
two things are joined together, as two fhi;lds divided at the
flanks, they are faid to be accolee. It n^oreover is alfo ap-
plied to lions, dogs, and other animals, which have collars, or
crowns about their necks ; as the hon in the arms of Ogilvy;
others ufe the term accolee, when two keys, battoons, maces,
fwords, &c. are faltier wife, behind the fliield. Nifbet's
Effay on Armor. Englifh heralds ordinarily fay, collared,
or gorged with an open crov.-n, inftead of accolee.

ACCOLTL Bctiedid, the Tounger, in Biography, was
grandfon of Benedidl Accolti, the elder, who flourlthtd
about the year 1376, was born at Arczzo, in 1415, and

4

A C C

was dlftinguifiied abo\it 1450, when he is faid to have fuc-
ceedcd Poggius as ftcretary to the Republic of Florence.
He wrote " Four books concerning the war which the
Chridians carried on againll the Inlidels, in order to re-
cover Judiea and the holy fepulchre ;" which work was
printed at Venice in 1532, 4to. and ferves as the ground-plot
to TaiTb's Jerufalem d-Ilve;ed ; and alfo an account " of the
excellent perfonages 01 his time," in the form of a dialogue,
printed at Panna, in 1 692, 8vo. He died in 1466.

Accolti, Benedict, was alfo nephew, or, as fome fay,
grandfon to Peter Accolti, and was bom at Florence, in
1497. He made a great progrefs in the lludy of the law,
and became fo much a mafter of the Latin tongue, that he
was called the Cicero of the age. He was alfo dillinguifhed.
by a very retentive memory. The ecclelialllcal honours which
he erjoyeu were very conllderable. Leo X. gave Irim the
bilhopric of Cadiz, Adrian VL that of Cremona, and the
archbllhopric of Ravenna ; and Clement VH. created him
a cardinal. At the nqueft of this pontiff, he wrote a trea-
tlfe in vindication of the right of the pope to the kingdora
of Naples. He left feveral other works, and particularly
fcveral pieces of poetry. He died at Florence in 1549.
Gen. Diet.

Accolti, Francis, the brother of the former, was pro-
fefibr of jurifprudence in feveral academies, and flyled the
prince ol lawyers. He is faid to have poffelTed a vigorous
underftanding, coinpreheiifive knowledge, and powerful elo-
quence. He afpired to the purple under the pontificate of
Slxtus IV. ; and by a fordid parfimony amaffed large trea-
fures. He was born about the year 141 8, and died about
the year 1470. He left behind him feveral treatifes of law,
and trandations of fome of the works of Chryfoftom. VofT.
de Hill. Lat. 1. iii. c. 7. Gen. Dift.

Accolti, Peter, the ion of Benedift the younger, was
born at Arezzo about the year 1455, and died at Rome ia
1532. He was profefTor of law, and taught with great
applaufe. He was employed by the popes, and ralfed fuc-
ceflivcly to feveral biihoprics, and became a cardinal in
15 II. He wrote feveral hiftorical trafts. His brother,
Benedift, duke of Nepi, was celebn.ted for the extent
of his erudition, and the excellency of his poetical ta-
lents. Pope Leo X. in 1520, created him prince of
the Hate of Nepi. His Virginia, a comedy printed in
1553, 8vo. ; and his poems, at Venice, in 1519, and 1553,
were much applauded bv his contemporaries. Benedift
Accolti is faid to have taken a lead in a confpiracy againft
pope Pius IV. and to have been brought to capital punifll-
ment in 1562. Gen. Dift.

ACCOMA, in Geography, a town of New Mexico, in
North America, fituated on a high mountain, with a ftrong
caftle, which is the capital of the province. It was taken
by the Spaniards in 1599. W. long. 104° 15'. N. lat.

35°- ^

ACCOMACH County, m Virginia, is fituated in a penin-
fula, bounded on the north by Maryland, eafl by the ocean,
and weft by the Chcfnpeak bay, and contains 13,959 in-
habitants, of whom 4262 are flaves.

ACCOMMODATION, in Philojophy, the application of
one thing by analogy to another. To know a thing by ac-
comodation, is to know it by the idea of a fimilar thing re-
ferred to it.

Accommodation is alfo ufed in Theology ; thus, a pro-
phecy of fcripture is faid to be fulfilled properly, when 3
thing foretold comes to pafs ; and improperly, or by way
of accommodation, when an event happens to any place or
people, like to that which occurred fome time before to an-
other. This method of explaining fcripture by accomoda-

tioa.

A C C

tion, ferves as a key for folving fome of t!ie greatcrt di(Ti-
culties relating to the prophecies. Tlus convenient prin-
ciple of accommodation is applicable to thofe padages, in
which are iifed the tbong txprenions, " then was jfulfillcd
" that wliich was fpoken by the prophet," or " this was
" done that it might be fulfilled whicli was fpoken by tlie
" prophet." Wetllein, in his note to Matlh. i. 22. (vol. i.
p. 237-S.) has produced, in fupport of this principle, an
example from Ephrem Syrus, and fimilar cxpreffioiis from
other writers. This principle of accomodation has been
adopted, not only by WetRein, butby Grotius, by Nicholls
in his " conference with a theilt," (vol. i. p. 335.) Mi-
chaelis in his " Introduflion to the New Teilament,"
(fee Marfli's Tranfi. vol. i. p. 214.) and particularly by Dr.
Sykcs, who has ilUiftrated, defended, and applied it in the
introduction to his " Paraphrafe on tiie Hebrews," J. 3.
p. 28, &c. and in liis " Truth of the Chriilian Religion,"
ch. 13, 14, 15.

Dr. Eckermann, profeffor of divinity in the univerfity of
Kiel, extends the do Arine of accommodation to eveiy quota-
tion in the New Teilament without ey.ception, proceeding
on the hypothefis, that the Old Teilament contains no pro-
phecy, which literally and immediately relates to the per-
Ibn of Jefus Chrift. On the contrai-y. Dr. Owen in his
" modes of quotation ufed by the evangelical writers," §. 5.
entirely rejefts the principle of accommodation, admitting, as
many others have done, a typical meaning, in order to re-
folve the difficulties that occur in the explication of parti-
cular pafTages. Dr. Sykes obferves, that if we were better
acquainted with the Jewifh phrafeology, we (hould lefs hefi-
tate in admitting the above mentioned principle. As for
the particular term " fulfilled," he fays, the Jewiih wri-
ters often meant no more by it than the happening of a
fimilar event, or an exaft agreement in particular circum-
ftances of latter things with former. An ingenious and
much admired writer (Ice Paky's View of the Evidences of
Chriftianity, vol. ii. p. 298.) fpeaking of thofe quotations
in the Old Tcftaraent found in the New, fome of which are
applied in a fenfe and to events apparently different from
that which they bear, and from thofe to which they belong
in the original, obferves, " it is probable to my apprchen-
fion, that many of thofe quotations were intended by the
writers of the New Teilament as nothing more than accomo-
dations. They quoted paffages of their fcripture which
fuited, and fell in with, the occafion before them, without
always undertaking to affert, that the occafion was in the
view of the author of the words. Such accommodation .,f
paffages from old authors, from books efpecially which are
in every body's hands, are common with writers of all coun-
tries ; but in none, perhaps, were more to be expefted than
in the writings of the Jews, whofe literature was almoft en-
tirely confined to their fcriptures." This writer adds,
" thofe prophecies which are alleged with more folemnity,
and Vv'hich are accompanied with a precife declaration, that
they originally refpefted the event then related, are, I think,
truly alleged. But, were it otherwife, is the judgm.ent of
the writers of the New Teilament, in interpreting paf-
fages of the Old, or fometimes, perhaps, in receiving cfta-
blilhed interpretations, fo conncfted cither with their vera-
city, or with their means of information concerning what
was paffnig in their own times, as that a critical millake, even
were it clearly made out, (hould overthrow their hillorical
credit ? Does it diminilli it ? Has it any thing to do with it ?"
The queftion of faft, whether the Jewilh Rabbins, in
quoting paffages from the Old Teilament with a formula of
this kind ; " In this the Scripture was fulfilled," did con-
jCder thofe paffages as having therafelvea reference to the

A C C

event to which they applied them, or jjrotinJcd the quota-
tion on a mere parity of circumllanccs, lias been accurately
examined by Surcnhufius in his Hi^>.o>- xalxXXxyti;, printed at
Amllerdam in 1713. In his tiilrd tla/i«, " Dc fonnuliii
allegandi," he compai-es the exprcffion " i'rXri;-Jjr, n -ifxpn,"
with Rabbinical Hebrew fonnulea of a fimilar kind ; and
concludes upon the whole, that the exprellion id not only
allufive, but dcmonllrative. Sec Qjl'otation.

The primitive church accomodated multitudes of jewidi,
and even heathen ceremonies and praifliccs to chriilian pui-
pofes ; but the Jews had before done the fame with regard
to thofe of the Gentiles : fome will even have circumcinoii,
the tabernacle, brazen ferpcnt, &c. to have been originally
of Egyptian ufe, and only accommodated by Mofes to the
purpofes of Judaifm. Saurin's Difftrt. Old Tell. toni. i.
p. ;o6. Spencer de Leg. Hebr. Difc. i. lib. 3. p. 32.
Middleton's Letters from Rome in his Works, vol. in. p 63.

This accommodation, in the moll txtenfivc fenfe of the
term, is the fubjeft of two prize differtations in Teyler's
Theological foeiety ; and the difcnfijon of it by Van Hemerl,
profeffor of Philofopliy and Literature in the foeiety of
Remonftrants in Amllerdam, and De Vos, miiiiller of the
Baptill congregation in the fame city, may be tound in the
I2th volume of thefe Differtations. The learned Profeffor
had prepared the way for this difcuilion by an oration wliich
he had delivered upon being appointed to this office. In this
difcoui-fe he maintains, that Chriil, who was the wifcll and
beil of all teachers, adapted both the manner and matter of
his inftruclions to the capacity and habits of his hearers.
With regard to the former there can be no difpute ; and,
as to the latter, he obferves, that our Saviour manifclled an
evidently intended condefcenfion to the ignorance, imbe-
cility, and prejudices of his hearers. Whilll he avoided the
difcuffion of fubjefts that were fuperior to the capacity of
his difciples, and that philofophical train of reafoning, which
would have been unintelhgiljle to them ; he made ufe of
arguments, which, coinciding with their popular notions
and national prejudices, were likely to make the deepcil
impreffion on their minds ; without warranting them to
conclude, that thefe notions were in themfelvcs juft, or that
he approved them as fuch. That our Saviour never at-
tempted to correft thofe errors of his countiymen which
related to opinions merelyphilofcphical,is abundantly evident ;
but there were others that might be fuppofed to have a more
intimate connexion with rchgion, which, however, for wife
reafons, he did not think it proper to reform ; cither becaufe
he did not deem them of importance, or becaufe, by op-
pofing them, he might have unneceffarily irritated the minds
of his hearers, and have rendered them averfe from his in-
(lrui£lions. In proof of this obfenation the Profeffor refers
to the converfation of Chriil with the woman of Samaria,
his difcourfe with the Sadducees concerning the rcfurreftion,
his anfwer to the mother of Zebcdce's children, and his
reply to his difciples, when they believed his appearance
to be that of a gholl, or fpeftre. He diilin^uilhcs, how-
ever, between wliat is effential to religion itfelf, and what
relates merely to theology, or the mode of teaching it. The
ftrift propriety and abfolute neceffity of this kind of accom-
modation he vindicates by a furvey of the fliipid ignorance
and inveterate prejudices of the Jewifh nation. As proofs
th.at our Saviour condefcended to found his arguments even
on the erroneous notions of his countrymen, when they
fuited his purpofe, and did not interfere with the effential
doftrines of the Gofpcl, he refers to Matt. xv. 26, Mark vii.
27 ; to his dillinftion of the precepts of the law into greater
and lefs. Matt. v. 19 ; and to his ufing the temi gclienna,
and the iudicial flyle of the Saiihcdrim, m Matt. v. 22.
•* The

A C C

The apodles and evancrclifta alfo imitated liis example, of
which inihnccs occur m l Thcff. v. 23. Coloir. i. 16.
Ephcf. i. 21. iii. 10. Rom. viii. 38. i Pet. iii. 22. In re-
lating fadj, the ^vritcrs of the New Teftament conform to
the popular opinion. Of this nature, (fays this author)
in aU thofe paflages whicli refer to demons and demoniacs,
and thofe which reprcfent the dsvil as the principle of evil,
iiiftii^ating mankind to fm. Tlil-fe, he adds, were opinioni
which properly related to philofophy, and did not materially
ificft religion ;' as long, at leaft, as it was believed that thcie
malignant agents were under the control of divine power,
and might be vr.nqiiilhtd by good men. The ProfelTor is
of opinion, that the exiflence of fuch a malignant being,
csertmg an influence over the minds of men, and impelling
tiem to vice and mifery, is utterly inconiillent with the
perfctlions of ihe Deity, with the wifdom of the divine
government, and with the free and moral agency of man.
The Jews had derived from the Chalda:an3 a notion, that
the air was peopled with da:mon5, and that fome of thefe
were confined in dark prlfons, in the infernal world ; and
fome commentators have fuppofed, that what the apoflles
Peter and Jude have faid concerning the punidimcnt of
angels, was borrowed from the apocr^^phal book of Enoch,
which might probably have been written by fome Helleniftic
Jew. Of the acquiefcence of the writers of the New
Tiftament in the current, but erroneous notions of their
countrv-men, this author mentions St. John's account of the
vonderful virtues of the pool of Bethefda, and what St.
Luke fays of the Sadducees in Afts xxii. 8. There are alfo
many cafes, in which Chrill ufed, what logicians call, the
tir^um.'nlum ad hotnwan ; of which there is a ftriking ex-
ample in the anfwer given to the Pharifees, when they ac-
cufed him of calling out devils by Beelzebub. Thus
alfo, in the parable of the rich man and Lazarus, Chrill
founded his defcription of the future ftate of reward and
punilhment on the notions of the Jews concerning their pa-
Yadlfe and gehenna, which were nearly the fame with thofe
of the Greeks and Romans concerning the Elyfian fields
and Tartarus. See alfo Luke xxii. 30. The acquiefcence
of Chrift and his apollles in the prejudices of their countiy-
men is alfo evident in the quotations from the books of the
Old Teftament. Thefe, as their claffic authors, the Jews
cited on every occafion ; but being, like all the orientalifts,
verv' fond of allegory, they fuppofed that, befide the obvious
and literal meaning of thefe writers, which they confidered
as comparatively of little value, there was a hidden and
myfterious fenfe which referred to the Mcfliah and his
kingdom. With this cuftom, fays the Profeffor, though
in itfelf injudicious, the writers of the New Teftament judi-
cioully complied. Hence, he adds, moft of, if not all, the
pafTages of the Old Teftament, which are quoted in the
New, are adduced in a fenfe very different from their pri-
mitive fignification, and form a kind of «;-^um™/(T ad homhifm,
founded on the principles of thofe to whom they were ad-
dreffed. Of the fame kind of accommodation to Jev.-ifh
prejudices the author deems the condefcenfion of St. Paul
in adopting the puerile allegories of the rabbies concerning
Sarah and Hagar in Gal. iv. 24 ; and that of the apoftles
Peter and Jude, in referring to a ftor}-, related in fome
apocryphal book, of a difpute between t!ie archangel Mi-
chael and the devil about the body of Mofes. Such are
the outlines of the Differtation above cited, in which the
author produces other inftances of accommodation. The
Plijirifees believed the metempfychofis or tranfmigration of
fouls (fee Jofephus Bell. Jud. 1. ii. c. ?) ; and M. Hemert.
-imagines, that they applied this hypottitfis to the prophecy
in Malachi iv. 5, and that our Lord did not contradift it in

A C C

his difcourfe with his dlfciples, M.ttt. xvi. 14. And agaiil,
he apprehend:;, that in Matt. xi. 14, Chrift not only forbear!
to correft this notion of the Jews, but indircftly allows it,
as what he did not at that time think proper to oppofe ;
and (hews them that, even on this liypothefis, the propliecy-
of Malachi was fulfilled. The blended accounts that arc
given of the deftriitlion of Jerufalem, and of the refuncAion
andlaft judgment in Matt. xx. 34, &c. are confidered by this
writer as an acquiefcence in the popular notion, with a view
of animating the firft Ciiriftians to conftancy and diligence
amid the peculiar difhcuUies wliich they h?.d to encounter.
The Profeffor having by fuch modes of reafoning flated t!iS
faft, proceeds to inquire how far this hyi^othefis of accom-
modation to popular notions may be extended, confiftently
with the veneration and efteem due to the charaSer of our
Saviour and his apoft'es. Whilft our Lord generally left phy-
fical errors ancontradi6led, he conftantly oppofed thofe pre-
judices and miftakes that were contraiy to the perfuafion of
God's impartial love to all mankind, or detrimental to the
nature and principles of pi-a£lical piety and virtue. In
anfwer to the objeftions which may be alledged agai!:ft his
hypothefis, the Profeffor begins with evincing the abfurdities
to which thofe have been reduced, who have endeavoured
to vindicate the philofophlcal accuracy of the Scriptures.
In accommodating their inftruction to the different capaci-
ties of thofe to whom they v.'ere communicated, and adapting
them to the peculiar charafter of their age and nation, ax
well as to their particular prejudices and habits, Chrift and
his apoftles did no more than wh?it might be cxpeiTted from
wife teachers, endued with a divine ccmmilTion ; and they
who on this account objeft to them, mp.nifeft an ignorance
of the human heart, as well as of the office of an iiiftniftor
of mankind. They alfo mifappreliend the defign of
Chrift's mifllon ; which was not to make his hearers philo-
fophers, nor even to inftruft them in all thofe particular
truths which may be confidered as influencing religious opi-
nions. Mankind in general, and the Jews in particular,
■were not qualified to receive fuch inftruftion. Without this
accommodation the defign of our Lord's miflion would have
been counterafted and defeated, if either he or his apoftles
had encountered every error of the age and nation to which
they were fent. To thofe who alledge that, among the
inftances cited by the author, of popular errors, in which
Chrift and his apoftles are fuppofed to have acquiefced, there
are fome which relate to the efiential doctrines of the
gofpel ; he replies, that while he allows that important
truths might fometimes be inculcated on the attention of
the people, by arguments founded on their own erronco'iis
notions, he abfohitely denies that thefe notions themfelvcs
have any necelTar)' connexion with the effential truths of
the gofpel. Perhaps, he adds, it may be afked, whether the
exiflence and power of the devil be not religious tenets ? —
but by wbom, or on what foundation, were t-hefe ever made
articles of Chriftianity ? Does the belief of fuch an enemy
of mankind at all contribute to promote that integrity, and
that fanciity of heart and condiift, which the Saviuur came
to eftablifh ? Or is not this notion rather calculated to fill
the weak and fuperftitioiiS with vain terrors ? For this
reafon, fays this profeffor, the apoftles, though they did
not contradift the popular notion, took care to obviate its
pernicious confequences by always reprefenting tlie deyil as
vanquiihed by Chrift. Is the belief of demons that inhnl-.it
the air, that haunt the defert, or that infmuate themfjlves
into the bodies of men and afflicl them with difeafes, an
effential doftrine of the gofpel ? May we not beheve tlie
Chriftian doctrine of a future ftate of retribution, without
acqniefcing in the notions uf the Jews concerning paradlfe

and

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and gcTienna, snd ctiltivate a firm hope of the refurrc£tion of
the dead by Chrift, without believing that tlie archangel will
found a trumpet to awaken us from the llecp of death ? Is
it ncceflar)- to our belief that Jefus is the Chrill of God,
that we refer to him uU thofe paflages which the Jewilh
doftors, and, after their example, the Jcwidi converts to
Chrillianity, from their love of allegones and types, ex-
plained as relative to him ? &c. &c. In a word, if we con-
fider the genuine nature of our religion, as taught by our
divine mailer, v.-e iliall fee, fays the author, that none of the
inftances, in which it has been htre fuppofed, that Chrill
and his apoftlcs accom.modated their inlhuftions to the
pn judices and not:.'is of their countrymen and contempo-
raries, have any neceffaiy conneftion with the defign of t!ie
gofpel, or interfere with any of its effential truths. The
rrofcflbr proceeds to fpecify fome rules by which we may
difcriminate thofe pafiiigcs of fcripture that n;;iy be con-
ildercd as inftances in which the facred writers acquiefee in
popular prejudices ; and he clofcs with fome obfen'ations
on the utility of th.is hypothcfis of accommodation in ex-
plaining the fcriptui-es. M. De Vos traces nearly the fame
ground of argument ; but without extending the hypo-
thefis of accommodation fo far or fo intrepidly ccntrovert-
ing received opinions ; opinions which the reader of this
article will not incautioufly rejeft, and without the previous
hefitation and fubfequent examination which they' demand,

ACCOMMODATION, in La-Ji, is ufed for an ami-
-cable agreement or compofition between two contending
parties. Thus we fav, the procefs is become fo intricate
and perplexed that there is no hope of getting out of it
but by an accommodation. The!e accommodations are
frequently effefted by means of compromife and arbitration.

ACCOMPANIMENT, fomething attending or added
as a circumllance to another ; either by way of ornament,
or for the fake of fymmetry, or the hke.

Accompaniment, accompagnamento, accompag-
■»Kiv^k,m Mufic, iinplicsthe inftruments that ^m3m^<2n)i the
voice, folo, or concerto, to fuftain the principal part, whe-
ther vocal or infa-umental, as v/ell as to enrich the harmony.

The Crufca Diflionary gives no authority from early
writers in Italian, of accompagnamento, accompaniment,
being ufed as a technical term. In the fourth and laft ac-
ceptation of the verb accompagnare, it is only faid, in
general, to be a mufical term, fignifying " to play on un
inllirument in harm.ony with the voice :" and this definition
aopears in no edition anterior to that of 1 746.

Italian mufical tenns have now been adopted by all
Europe ; yet we are acquainted with no profeffed mufical
diclionaiy in that language. But the words pecuhar to the
art being taken from the common language of the countiy
where it v.-as firil cultivated, they need no explanation to
tlie natives ; yet, in other countries which have derived their
knowledge, or at leaft, their tafle, from the Italians, thefe
words are become technical, and need a gloflary.

To write, make, or compofe, an accompaniment, are
fynonimous terms with muficians, for letting, or adding parts
for vioHns, flutes, or other inftruraents, to a melody, vocal
or inlhumental, in order to be performed with it. In the
early operas the accompaniments were very thin. In the
firft: operas, indeed, none appeared, except in the fympho-
nies and choruifes ; but, in proceis ot time, as dramiatic
mufic advanced towards perfeSion, it was found that ef-
fetls could be produced by the orchelli-a which were pic-
turtfque, coloured fentimcnts, and augmented auricular
fleafure. A fimple melody, unlefs performed by a great
iinger, became infipid. But, though much ingenuity and

A C C

fcience appear !n a rich and full accompaniment en fnfr,
yet in performance, the compofcr and the orcheftra tit-
qucnlly abufc ihcir power, ar.d tyrannilc ovit the voice,
which they fhould cheiilh, and difguifc the poetry l.y tom-
plication and noifc, which tlicy (liould help to explain and
enforce. And i't is a general complaint at the o])eia, when
a cantilena, or vocal part is good, and performed by a finger
of the firft clafs, that the acccmpanimtnlt are too loud — licft
cl.agc, fay the French, and ttxppe caricalo, cr)- the Ita-
lians.

AccompammenI is likewife another word for jhoron^l>-lafe,
by giving in chords the wliole harmony on which ihe
melody is built. Thefe chords are cxprcfltd by f;gurci
over the bale, v.hich figures fupply the place of a treble
part for the ri^ht hand on keyed-infiruincnt;.

The rules for accompaniment are few, with rcfptft to
harmony, but their ufe depends on judgment and good
talle. Some, fond of crowded harmcmy, tliink it can never
be too loud or full ; while others, who prefer a fimple aiid
beautiful melody to the mod artful combinationj of kindred
found:, almoll th.ink harmony a grievance. There are who
prefer a meagre and monotonous accompanimait in triplets ;
and others imagine that the voice is beft fupportcd by being
accompanied in unifon. But RoulTeau, in enumerating the
qualiikations of an acconipanier, has fettled this point :
" Whoever undertakes to accompany a fong or folo, Ihould
be a confummate mufician, well ikllled in harmony, and the
conilruftion of the feveral parts ; f.iould have a nice and
cultivated ear, a hand prepared for all difiieulties of execu-
tion in the.bafe, ar.d modulation into different keys, with a
found judgment and good taftc. It is the bufincfs of the
accompanur on the organ, harpfichord, or pianoforte, to give
the pitch to the feveral iuilruments, and the time to the
whole band ; to have always under his hand the note which
the finger is about to deliver, in order to correft, if falfc,
and enforce, if feeble ; and, at the beginning of an air or
movement, to mark with energy and prccifion the feveral
portions of the bar, that the orcheftra, if a quick air, may-
proportion the rapidity to the abilities of the finger ; and,
whether quick or flow, indicate fuch a fpccific motion as
fuits the genius of the compofition, and the defign of the
compoier. But, above all, whoever is nccompany'ing another
to whom the principal melody is afligncd, fliould remember,
that he is a fei-vant, an humble attendant on a temporary
fuperior, and ihould fupprefs all ambition of (hining at the
expence of the voice or inilrument which he aciompatiics."

A great player accuilomed to be hitened to with delight,
and applauded with rapture, feldom accompanies well : his
fingers itch to be ih aciion, and to call the attention of the
audience from the principal performers to himfelf.

No genei-a! rules can be given for accompanying that will
be apphcable on all occafions. After the harmony is well
known, and the hand well exercifed, experience, good fenfc,
and propriety mud do the rell. Accompaniment, though it
require little brilliancy of execution, is the laft thing which
a praftical mufician acquires. There is nothing which a
finger fo much dread.? as an ignorant or injudicious accom-
panier. If ignorant himfelf, the iinger wants alTiftance ;
if his tafte is refined, and his voice good, all his art and na-
tural powers are deftroyed by a cltimfey accompaniment.

Nothing but confummate experience, and a familiar ac-
quaintance with all ftyles, with the beft compofition* of
great mafters, aud the being able to grafp at a finglc glance
a whole line of a fcorc, and occafionally felcft the moft im-
portant paffages in the inftrumental parts to play with the
right hand, inllead of the chords, can completely qualify 4

perfonbcr

A C C

«)«rform« on fl kej'ed-inftniment to accompany a good or
a bad linger.

Rouffcaii, though no deep theorlft, had a vcr>' good taltc
in miific, and excellent views concerning its refinements and
tffefts 5 and, in his " Letter on French Mufic," the bed
piece of criticifm on the art, perhaps, that has ever been
written, fpcaking of accowpanimcnt on the Jmqjfichord, he
fays J " when burlctta operas were fnll perfonned at Paris,
ever)- one was ilruck at feeing the manager's fon, a child of
ten years old at mod, accompanying the fingers, and pro-
ducin"- with his little fingers cffetls fo different from tliofe
of m1 Noblet, the ufual performer on the harpfichord, a
good harmoniil, and exaCi in giving the full complement to
«iach chord. 13ut w'nat was my furprife in watching the
hands of the little man, and obferving that he hardly ever
gave tlie wliolc harmony to the bafe ; but fuppreffing many
of the founds, and frecjuently uling only two fingers, with
one of which he generally played the odave to the bafe,
and with the othsr the interval mod important in the
melody ! What ! fays I to niyfclf, has a mutilated harmony
more effcA than one 'that is complete ? And do our thorough,
bale players, by gi^'ing the full chords produce only a con-
fufed noile, while this cliild with fewer founds enforces the
melody more, and renders the accotnpaitimeni more ufeful
and agreeable ? This was a problem which I was unable
to folve ; but 1 became more fenfiblt of its importance af-
terwards, by obfcrving that all the Italians accompany good
fino-crs in the fame manner as this infant did ; and upon the
fame principle as the compofers have their fcorts thin, often
making the tenor play only in octaves above the bafe, and
the fecond violin in octaves below the fird. I remembered
that I had read fomewhere in Rameau, that every concord
had a different character, or power of affecling oiu- fenfi-
bility, peculiar to itfelf ; that the effect of the 3d was dif-
ferent from that of the 5th, the 4th from the 6th. In the
fame manner 3ds and 6ths minor muft produce different
affeftions from thofe of 3ds and 6ths major. Thefe fads
once edablidied, it evidently follows, that even difcords and
ever)- kind of interval will be included in the rule : an idea
which reafon confirms, fince, when the relations are different,
the imprcffion cannot be the fame."

The reafoning of the citizen of Geneva on this principle
is very fpecious and ingenious. " I fee clearly," continues
he, " that, by adding concord to concord, injudicioufly,
though agreeable to the doftrine of chords, by augmenting
the harmony, we may weaken and counteraft the effeft of
each found. If the entire and pure effect of a 5th, be
neceffary for the expreffion which I want, I riik the weak-
ening this impreffion by a 3d found, which, dividing the 5th
into two 3ds of different kinds, tho\igh when druck together
the harmonical effeft is good, yet they may mutually di-
minilh the peculiar effeft of each other. In like manner, if
the fir.iultaneous impreffion of the 5th and two 3ds were ne-
ceffary to my defign, I diould fail in producing the effect I
intended by retrenching either of the 3ds from the chord.
This reafoning becomes dill more intelligible, applied to

difcords." " It follows from all this, that, after having

well dudied the elementary rules of harmony, the mufician
diould not hadily lavifh it inconfiderately, nor behtve him-
felf a compofer b-:caufe he can croud the chords with un-
meaning notes ; but, before he begins to combine founds,
he fhould apply himfelf to a much longer and more difficult
ftudy : that of the different impreffions which the concords,
difcords, and all the intervals make on the ear of fenfibility,
and often fay to himfelf, that the great art of a compoier
conCfts no lefs in difcerning what foun(^ occafionally to

A C C

fupprefj, than what to admit. It is in ftudyhig and turn-
ing over inceffantly the mader-pieces of Italy, for vocal
mufic, (andof Gennany for indrumental, he would now liave
added) that a compofer vi'ould learn to make this exquifitc
choice, if Nature has given him fufficient genius and tafte to
feel its neceffity ; for the difficulties of the art are only per.
ceived by thofe w-ho are able to vanquifli them ; and fiiclj
will not treat with contempt the vacant lines in a fcore ;
but, feeing with what eafe a mere Tiro might fill them up,
they will fufpeft, and feck the reafons for this feeming fim-
plicity : fo much the more admirable, as it conceals prodi-
gies under a feigned negligence, and that I'arlc chu tutio fa,
nulla f> fenopre. Thefe ieem to me (coRtinues Rouffeau)
the caufes of thofe furprifing effefts which the Italian mufic
produces, though much lefs crowded with harmony tliaii
ours, (that is, the old French mufic) of which the effects are
fo fn-.all and the labour fo great. This does not imply
that a fcore diould never be full, but that it fliould be fiUed
with choice and difcernment ; neither is it to fay that to
accomplidi this, the mufician ftiould make all thefe reflexions;
but that he diould feel the refult. It is his bufinefs to have
o-enius and tade to find thefe effefts, and that of the thcorift
to feck and explain whence they arife."

To accompany recitative on a keyed-indniment, where no
regular time is obferved, and the finger utters in mufical
tones, a foliloque or dialogue, under no more redraint, as
to meafure, than if he were declaiming in common fpeech,
the indrumental accompanicr mud attentively read the
words, and drike the chord firmly which is given to the mod
accented and energetic part of a verfe or period, exaftly
when it is pronounced by the finger, except at a clofe or
termination of a fcene or period, w-hen two chords are given
without the voice : one to the bafe of the 5th of a key, with
a diarp 3d, and the other ufually to the key note, in what-
ever key the modulation is carried ; but this expeftation is
often difappointed, except at the clofe which immediately
precedes the air.

We fiiall purfuc the fubjeft of Accompaniment dill
further, under the articles Harmony, Cmords, Tho-

ROUGH-BASE, ReGLE DE l'oCTAVE, FIGURING A BASE,

and Recitative.

Accompaniments, \t\ HcraUry, are all fuch things as
are applied about the fliield by way of ornament, as the belt,
mantUngs, fupporters, &c. A thing is alfo faid to be ac«
companied when there are feveral bearings or figures about
fome principal one, as a faltier, band, fefs, chevron, or the like.

Accompaniments, in Po'inting, denote fuch objefts as
are added by way of aptitude or ornament to the principal
figures ; as dogs, guns, game, &c. in a hunting-piece.

ACCOMPLICE, compounded of ad, to, con, together,
and plkare, to fold, in Law, one that has a concern in a
bufinefs, or that is privy in the fame defign or crime with
another. See Accessory.

By the law of Scotland, the accomplice can only be pro-
fecuted after the conviction of the principal offender ; unlefs
the acceffion of the accomphce be immediate, in ipfo aBu,
fo as in etTeft to render them co-principal. By the general
nile, the accomplice fuffers the fame punidiment with the
principal offender. Yet if he be remarkably lefs guilty,
judice will not permit equal punidiment. The council of
Sens, and feveral other fynodical datutes, exprefsly pro-
hibit the reveahng of accompUces. See Discovery of
accomplices.

ACCOMPLISHMENT, in a general fenfe, the entire
execution, atchievement, or fulfilling of fomething propofed,
or imdertaken.

AccoM-

I

A C C

Accomplishment, in TL-olo^y, is principally nfcd in
fpeaking of events fi)i-ctold by the Jcwilh propliL-ts, in the
Old TclUmcnt, and fullllk-d luidcr the New. In the writ-
ings of biblical commentators and critics, we i-ead of a lite-
ral, niyilical, typical, fintjle and double accomplillmient.
Prophecy may be accomplilhed either direftly or by way of

ACCOMMODATION. SeepROPHECY.

Accomplishment is more particularly ufed for anv
perfonal endowment, mental or corporeal.

ACCOMPT. Sec Account.

ACCORD, in La^w, is a verbal agreement between two,
at the leaft, to fatisfy an offence which the one hath com-
initted againlt the other; whether it be a trefpafs, or the
like ; for which the one agrees to make, and the other to
accept, a certain fatisfatlion. — This, if execnted, becomes
a good bar in law to any fuit to be brought for the fame
matter. Accord with fatIsfa£lion is a good plea in per-
fonal aftions, where damages only are to be recovered, and
in all aftions, which fuppofe a wrong, -v't et armis, where a
capias and exigent lay at the common law, in trefpafs and
ejcftment, detinue, &c. So in an appeal of Mail.vm. But
in real aftions, it is not a good plea. 4 Rep. i. 9. 70.
9 Rep. 77. By feveral late ftatutes, particularly 1 1 Geo. II.
c. 19. in cafe of irregularity in the method of dillraining,
and 24 Geo. II. c. 24. in cafe of millakes committed by juf-
tices of the peace, even tender of fufRcient amends to the
party injured is a bar of all atlions, whether he thinks pro-
per to accept fuch amends or not.

Accord, in Mufic, is more ufually called Concord.
It is alfo ufed by old authors for Chord.

The word is formed, according to fome, from the latin
ad, to, and cor, the heart ; but others, with greater pro-
priety, derive it from the French corde, a Jiriug ; on accoimt
of the agreeable union between the founds of two firings
flruck at the fame time. Whence alfo fome of the confo-
nants in mulic are called telrachord, liexachord, &c. which
are a fonrth and a fixtli.

ACCORDARE, //«/.■)
ACCORDER, Fr. j

Accord, in Painting, denotes the harmony that prevails
among the lights and (hades of a pifture.

ACCORDS, Sti^phen Tabourot, Seigneur des, in
Biography, an advocate in the parliament of Dijon in France,
was born in the year 1549. The lorddiip of Accords is an
imaginary fief or title, derived from the device of his ancef-
tors, which was a drum, with the motto, a tons accords ;
" chiming with all." S. Accords was a man of genius
and learning, but too much addiftedto trifles, and to a licen-
tious mode of writing. This appears from his piece en-
titled " Les Biguarres," printed at Paris in 1582 ; and
another called " Les Touches," publifhed at Paris in
1585, which is a coUeftion of witty poems indelicately
written. Bayle.

ACCOSTED, in Heraldry, a term not often ufed, but
of the fame figniflcation with Cottised.

ACCOUCHEUR, and Accoucheuse, Fr. a man or
woman praftifnig midwifei'v.

ACCOUCHMENT, Fr. the aft of delivery.

Accouchment premature, Avortement, or Fausse
Couche', Fi. the premature exclufion of a foetus.

ACCOUNT, or Accompt, of ad, to, and computus, a
compulation, in /Irithmetic, a calculation, or computation of
the number or order of certain things ; as the computation
€»f time, iic. There are various ways of accounting, as by
enumeration, or telling one by one ; and by the rules of
arithmetic, addition, fubtradlion, &c.

Account, in Chronology., is nearly fynonymous with
Vol. I.

to tune inftruments.

A C C

Stylf. We account time by yearn, months, &c. the
Greeks accounted it by olympiads ; the Romans by indic-

tions, lullres, &c.

Account is alfo ufed in refpccl of a company or fo-
ciety, when two or more pcrfons have received or difburftd
money for eacii other; or when tliis has M^n done by
their order or COMMISSION. ^^

Account, or Accounts, is alfo ufed collcftivcly, forthe
feveral books or regillers whicli merchants keep of their
affairs and negociations.

There are divers kinds of accounts among merchants, at
perfonal, real, imaginary, general, particular accounts, &c.

AccoUN T%, perfonal, arc tiiofe which difcover v/hat eiich
perlon, or fubjcft, with whom a man has dealings on credit,
owes to, or has owing to liim.

Accounts, real, are thofe whereby a dealcT difcovers
what effefts are on hand at any time, and what is gained or
loll on eacli.

Every account is diflingulfhed into two parts, for which
two oppofite pages are afngiied of one ft^lio or opening ;
tlie name ol the perfon with whom a man has account being
written on the top of each, v.ith the word debtor on the
left fide, and creditor on the right.

AccovtiT, perfonal, is to contain on the debtor fide what
the perfon ov.es me, and the payments I make to him ; and
on the creditor fide, all tiiat I owe to him, and the payments
he makes of his debts to me.

Account, real, muft contain on the debtor fide the
quantity and value of what vras upon hand at the beginning
of the account, and all afterwards received, witli the cidn
and charges tlicreof ; and on the credit I'lde, the quantity
and value of what is difpofed of or any way taken out of it,
with the returns made by it.

Accounts, imaginary, are then brought in to make a
balance between credit and debt, and in cafes where the real
and perfonal accounts will not in tlie articles belonging to
them make, as they ufually do, fuch balance.

The chief of thefe is the account of pro/it and lofs ; on the
debtor fide of which are entered all lofles, and on the credi-
tor fide all gains. Such alfo is the Jloci account, &e.

Accounts, yi/Hi/rji, when one account is balanced by
fundiy, i. e. when one is debtor or creditor for a fum, and
I'undiy 'accounts creditors or debtors for the parts of the
fum ; it is entered under the head of to, or hy, fundry accounts.

Accounts, general, are thofe where all the goods of the
fame name are put into one account.

Accounts, particular, are thofe where each fpecies, or
fubdivifion of things under the fame name, have their fcpa-
rate account.

Account, open, is ufed for an account not liquidated or
fettled.

Account, in lank, is a fund of money, which merchaHts,
or others, phtce in the common calli of a bank, to be in
readinefs for the payment of bills of exchange, or promiJTory
notes, purchafes, and other debts contracled in the courfc of
bufinefs.

Account, current, amounts to the fame with an open
account.

Account, tbening an, with any one, fignifies the placing
him, for the firft time, in the great book. This is done by
writing his name, fumame, and place of refidcnce in large
charaiSers, and aftciv%'ards charging him with aiticlcs, either
of debtor or cred'tor, as affairs turn up. When an account
is opened with any perfon in the great book, his name i« at
the fame time to be entered in tlie index or alphabet book,
with the page wherein his account is to be found.

AccovtiT, placing a fum to an, is to enter down in the
S great

A C C

erreai book the fevei-al particulars for wliich a perfon become*
either debtor or creditor.

AccovnT, exjminin^ an, is the r<;ading it exaftly oyer,
pointing the feveral articles, and verifying the computation,
in order to find whether there be any error, and whether
the fum total, or the balance, be juR.

Account, cnjling up, or clofmg an, is the dating and
fettling of it, to find the balance : this is called alfo ia/unchig
Qt fettling an account.

Accounts are clofed in the great book, on two occafions :
the firft, when it is required to terminate an affair entirely,
either with debtors or creditors, in order to learn what is
due. The fecond, when it is ncceffaiy to carry on the ac-
count to another page of the fame book, or to a new book,
for want of room.

Account, lalance of an, is the fum by which the debt
exceeds the credit, or vice ivrfa, upon ftating or fettling of it.

Account of fait s, is an account given by one merchant
to another, or by a faftor to his principal, of the difpofU,
charn-es, commiffion, and net proceeds of certain merchan-
dize, fent for the proper, or company, account of him, who
configned the fame to fuch faftor or vender.

Wiien the like account is inland or domeftic, the fame is
tranfmitted in the current money of that country wherein
the bufinefs is tranfafted. As from a Blackwell-hall fador
to tlie clothiers in the country, or from the warehoufemen in
town, who deal by commiffion for the country manufac-
turers.

Account, money of, is an arbitrary fpecies, contrived for
the facihtating, and expediting the taking, and keeping
of accounts. Sucli are pounds fterhng in England ;
l=vres and fols in France ; roupees in India ; mllrees in
Tortugal.

Accounts, hooks of, of merchants and tradefmen, are
eonfidered as a fort of private inftruments, and in the civil
law, and lavi' of merchants, are allowed to make a half proof.
The reafon is, that merchants are often under a neceffity of
dialinof on truft without note or writing. Hence the fup-
pletor)' oath of the merchant, with his book of accounts, is
admitted abroad as a full proof againfl, his chapman. But
in England this is under fome limitation. See ftat. 7 Jac. I.
cap. 12. which confines this fpecies of proof to fuch tranf-
aftions as have happened within one year before the aftion
brought ; unlefs between merchant and merchant, in the
xifuil intercourfe of trade.

Account, or Accompt, in a ^^.i/ fenfe, is a particular de-
tail or enumeration, delivered to a court, a judge, or other pro-
per officer or perfon, of what a man has received or expended
on the behalf of another, whofe affairs he had the manage-
ment of.

In the remembrancer's office in the exchequer, are en-
tered the ftates of all the accounts concerr.ing the king's re-
venues ; for cuftoms, excifc, fubfidies, &c.

The great accounts, as thofe of the mint, wardrobe, army,
navy, tenths, &c. are called imprcjl accounts.

All accounts which pafs the remembrancer's office are
brought to the ofSce of the clerk of the pipe. See Tally
•and Auditor.

Account, in Covunjn Laiu, denotes a writ or aftion
which lies againff a perfon, who by his office oug'ut to give
an account, but refafes.

A writ or aftlon of account properly lies only agaiaft bai-
liffs, receivers, and guardians in socagf ; though others are
alfo brought in as a fecondary intendment.

By 4 and j Anne, aftions of account may be brought
againft the executors and adminiil-ators of guardians, bai-
liffs, receivers, &c. and by one joint-tenant, &c. againft

A C C

the other, his executors and adminiftrators, as bailiff, for
receiving more than his Hiare : however, aftions of account
are now vciy feldom ufed ; the mod rv^ady and effcftual
way of fctthng matters of account being by bill in a court of
equity.

Accounts, chamber of, in the former French polity, is a
fovercign court of great antiquity, where the accounts re-
latinf to the king's revenue were delivered in, and regillered.
This anfvv-crs pretty nearly to the court of exchequer ia
England.

There are prefidents of accounts, mafters of accounts, cor-
reftors of accounts, &c.

ACCOUNTANT, or Accomptant, in a general fenfe,
denotes a perfon flcilled in accounts. In a more limited fenfe
it is apphcd to a perfon, or officer, appointed to keep,
or make up the accounts of a company, office, court, or
the like.

Thus there are accountants in the cuftom-houfc, the ex-
cife, bank, South-fea, and Eaft India-houfe.

AccouNTANT-G^wra/, an officer in the Court of Chan-
cery, appointed by a£l of parhament, to receive all monies
lodged in court, inilead of the mailers, and convey the fume
to the bank of England for fecurity. Cour.tcrteiting the
hand of the accountant-general is felon.y without clergy, by
12 Geo. I. c. 33.

ACCOUNTANTSHIP, the aft of keeping and ba-
lancing account"-. See Book-keeping.

ACCOUNTS, Public, CmnmtlfwnLT' of, are five perfons
appointed by letters patent under the aft of 25 Geo. III.
c. 52. who are invefted whh the powers fcraicrly entrufted
to the AUDITORS of the imprejl, and who receive falaries
paid out of the aggregate fund, not exceeding in the whole
4000 /. They hold their office quamdiu fc bene gefferint,
except two of them, who are comptrollers of the army ac-
counts, and who continue commiffioners fo long only as
they are compti'oUers. The Treafury likewife appoints of-
ficers, clerks, &c. to make up and prepare for declaration
the public accounts of the kingdom, and all charges are al-
lowed out of the aggregate fund to an amount not exceed-
ing 6000 /. per annum, v/hich ium precludes all fees and per-
quifites. The purpofes for which thefe commiffioners are
appointed are '' to examine and ftate in what manner, and
at what times, the receipts, iffues, and expenditures of the
public monies are now accounted for ; and to confider and
report, by what means and methods the public accounts
may, in future, be paffed, and the accountants compelled to
pay the balances due from them, in a more expeditious, move
effeftual, and lefs cxpenfive manner." The commiffioners
have already made a sfreat number of reports.

ACCOUTREMENT, an ancient term ufed for an ha-
biliment ; or a part of the apparatus and furniture of a fol-
dier, knight, or even of a gentleman.

The word is formed from the ancient German, iu/!er ;
whence cou/re, a name ufed in fome cathedrals in France, f.^^.
at Bayeux, for the facriftan, or officer, who has the care of
furnhhing, and fetting out the altar, in the church : called
in German Infltr, v:aiy.ofo^.

ACCRETION, of ad, fo, and crefccre, to grow, in
Pi'jf/ijs, the growth or increafe of an organica! body, by the
acceffion of new parts : alfo a growing togctlur, as of the
fingers to one another.

Accret on is of two kinds ; the one confilling in an exter-
nal appoiition of new matter. This is what we otherwifc
C3.\\,juxfaprfltion; and it is thus, ftones, fliells, &e. are fup-
pofed to grow.

The other is by fome fluid matter received into proper
vcffels, and gradually brought to adhere, or grow to the

fides

A C C

diei thereof. This is what we call intro/n/cplm ; and it is
thus that plants and animals are ivc.irilhed.

AccRKTioN, in the Civil Law, denotes the union or ac-
cession of a thing vague or vacant, to another ahcady oc-
cupied or difpolcd of.

A legacy given to two perfons jointly, tarn r: qiiam verbis,
falls wholly to him that iurvives the lellator, by right of ac-
cretion. Ai.LvviON is another fpecies of accretion.

ACCROCHE', in H.-ra/Jry, denotes a thing being hook-
ed into aniither. Coats Herald.

ACCROJHING, in old Ln-M books, the aa of in-
croaching or ufurping on another's right ; and particularly
the attempt to exercife royal power, which was a very vague
charge, and led to a multitude of conllruftive treafons. Tln-fe
are limited and defined by Jlat. 25 Ed. III. cap. 2. The
word is originally French, accrochcr, which fignifics to fallen
a thing by a hook.

ACCRUE, or AccRKv.', in Laiv, is undcrRood, of a
part that accedL'S to, or iolljws the p.-opcrty of, anotticr part
or perfon.

Accrued, in UcraU'ry, a term applied to a tree full-
grown.

ACCUBAl'ION, a pofture of the body, between fitting
and lying.

The word is compounded of ad, to ; and cuho, I He do'wn.
Accaiation, or accubilus, was the table poft'are of the
Greeks and Romans ; v.'hence we find the woiils particu-
larly ufcd for the lying, or rather, as we call it, fitting down
lo meat.

The Greeks introduced this pofture. The Romans, dur-
ing the frugal ages of the republic, were itrangers to it.
l>\it as luxuiy got footing, this pofture was adopted, at
Icaft by the men ; for a.s to women, it was reputed an inde-
cency in them to lie down among the men ; though after-
wards this too was got over. But children did not lie
down, nor fervantp, nor foldiers, nor perfons of meaner
condition ; but took their meals fitting, as a pofture lefs
indulgent.

The Roman manner of difpofing themfelves at table was
this ; a low round table was placed in the cosnaculum, or
dining-room, and about this ufually three, fometimes only
two beds, or couches ; accord ng to the niunber of which,
it was called biclinium, or Iriclinium. Thefe were covered
with a fort of bsd-cloaths, richer or plainer, according to
the quality of the pe'.'fon, and furniihcd with quilts and pil-
lows, that the guefts might he tlie more commodiouily.
There were ordinarily three perfons on each bed ; to crowd
more was cftetmed fordid. In eating they lay down on
their left fides, with their heads refting on their pillows,
or rather on their elbows. The firft lay at the head of the
bed, with his feet extended behind the back of the fecond :
the fecond lay with the back of his head towards the navel
iif the firft, only feparated by a pillow, his feet behind the
back of the third ; and fo of the third, or fourth. The
middle place was efteemed the moft honourable. Before
they came to table they changed their cloaths, putting on
what they cnlled cienaloria vijfis, the dining garment, and
pulled off their flioes, to prevent foihng the couch. Pitifc.
Lex. Ant.

ACCUBITOR, an ancient officer of the emperor of
Conftantinople ; whofe bufinefs was to lie near the emperor.
The accubitor wiis the head of the youths of the bed-
chamber, and had the cubiculariiis and procubitur under
bim.

ACCUMULATION, compounded of ad, to ; and cu-
mulus, heap 5 the aft of heaping, or apiaffing fcveral things
together.

A C C

Acoumuuahom, in a /^.f(// fcnfe, denotej 1 concurrency
of fcvei-al titles to the fame thing ; as, when a perfun clainiit
lands, a benefice, or the like, in virtue of fevcnil titlc«, or
pretcnfions of different kinds ; e. g. by death, by refigna-
tion, 5cc, Or it denotes a concurrence of fevcril clrcum-
ftances to the proof of one facl : thus, we read of accunui.
lative trcafon ; which is, where a fac^ is not trvafon in itftlf,
but becomes fo by an accumulation of circumftances.

The earl of .''.trafTord was condemned of accumulative
trcafon ; none of the faC\s alleged againft him amoimting
fingly to trcafon. But his attainder was rcvcrfed by 13 & 14
C."ir. II. cap. 29.

Accumulation, in the ancient /1'^iiculture, denote* the
operation of covering up the roots of trees, by throwing on
them the enrlh that had been before dug from ihein ; in
which fenfc, accumulation (lands oppofcd to ABLAeiUEA-
TiON. Pliny Nat. Hift. vol. ii. p. 88. Ed. Hard.

Accumulation of nrm.t, cuniulalio armorum, in Heral-
dry, is what the moderns call q^jarterinc of arms.

N;fi-,Gt.

Accumulation of D.'^rees, in an Uni-jerflv, is ufcd
for the taking of feveral BrcRrEs together, and with fewer
exercifes, or nearer to each other, than the ordinary nJei
allow of.

ACCURSED, fomething that lies under a curfe, or fen-

tcnce of EXCOMMUNICATION.

In the Jewilh idiom, accurfal and crucified were fynony-
mous. Among them, every one was accounted accurfcd,
who died on a tree.

This ferves to explain the difficult pafTagc in Rom. ix. 3.
where the apollle Paul wiflics hinilelf accurfcJ afirr the man-
ner of C.hrijl, i. e. crucified, if hrjipily he might by fuch a
death fave his counti^men. The prepofition i.-\ here made
ufe of, is ufcd in the fame fenfe, 2 Tim. i. 3. where it ob-
vioufly fignifies afUr the manner of.

ACCtfRSIUS, in Bio-^raphy, a profelTor of law in the
13th century, bom in Florence, who, on account of his
great authority, was called the idol of the lawyers. Three
other lawyers of eminence had the fame name.

ACCURSIUS, Maxiangi-lus, a famous critic of the
1 6th century, born at Aquilo, in the kingdom of Naples.
His Diatribse, printed at Rome in 1524, fol. on Aufonius,
Solinus, and Ovid, evince his diftinguiftied enidition. In
his edition of Ammianus Marcellinus at Augft^urg, in I J33,
there are five books more than in any preceding ones, and
he fays that he had coirecfled 5000 errors. Although his
predominant palTion was the collefting of old MSS. he
neverthelefs made Latin and Italian verfes, was mafter of
the French, German, and Spanlfti languages, and under-
ftood optics and mufic. Having been charged with pla-
giarifm in his edition of Aufonius, he purged himfelf by
oath. Bayle.

AccuRSius, or Arcopso, Francis, the /•/</< r, an emi-
nent lawyer, was born at Bagnolo, near Florence^ in 11S2,
and became profefTor of law in the uuiverfity of Bologna,
where he had ftudied. He undertook the great work, -of
forming into one confiftent and liarmoi.ious whole, the nu-
merous comments on the Code, the Inftitu-.es and the Digcfts.
This work, intitled, " A perpetual Commentary," was
much valued, and is printed with the " Body ol Law,''
publiihed in fix volumes foho, at Lyons, in 1627. Accorfo
died very rich, in 1260. His fon, the younger Francis
Accorfo, fucceeded him in the chair of law ; and, in 1273,
accompanied Edward I. on his return from tlie crufadcs lo
England. Gen. Did.

A ecus AT I( J, among Piivficians, is a word of the fame
import as Indicatio.

S 2

ACCUSA.-

A C C

ACCUSATION, compounded of ad, to; and cmifuri,
to fliad, in ttio C't-uil I.n:i; the charging any pcrlon with a
criminal aftign, either in one's own name, or on behalf of
the public.

By tiis Roman law, there was no public accufer for public
crimes ; every private perfon, whether mterelled in the
crime or not, might nccnfe, and pmfccute the accufed to
punifhment, or abfoUition. Cato, who was elleemed the
moll innocent per''on of his age, had bi-en accufed forty-two
times, and ablolved as often. But tiie accufation of private
crimes was never received unlefs from the mouths of thofe
who were immediately intcrelled in them. Thus, none but
the hu(b.ind could aecufc his wife of adultery. Indeed, it
was not properly an accufation, except in public crimes ; in
private ones, it was called fimply action, or intenting an
action, inl miere aaionnn, or littrn. When the accufed ac-
cuftis t'le accufer, it is called recrimination, wliich is not ad-
mitted till the pccufed has been fnlt purged.

The ancient Roman lawyers didinguiihcd between pojlu-
*iiUo, Jelalio and accufalio : for, firft, leave was defired to
bring a charge againft any one, which was called pojlulare ;
then he, againft whom the eharge was laid, was brought
before the judge, which was called deferre, or dcminls dela-
tio : laftly, the charge was drawn up, and prefented, which
was properly the accufalio. Voff. Etym. Lat. The accu-
fation propel ly commenced, according to Paedianus, when
the reus, or party charged, being interrogated, denied he
was guilty of the crime, and fiibfcribcd his name to the
delatlo made by his opponent. Calv. Lex. Jur. p. 17.

The accufers, or aciors, as they are called, were, by the
laws of Pompey, A. U. C. 702, allowed two hours for
pleading their caufe, and the party charged three hours for
a reply. Dion. Caff. hb. xl. 52. torn. i. p. 255, Ed. Rei-
mari. They had a recompencc afligned them, part of the
property of thofe who were condemned, and they were
frequently honoured with the fuperior offices of the ftate.
lb. torn. i. p. 100. 485. 867. 887, &c.

By the cruel laws of the Inquisition, the accufed is
forced to accufe himfelf of the crime objeftcd to him. There
are three ways of entering an information in the tribunal of
the inquifition. The firft, by way of inquifition^ whei a
prlx-ate perfon, applying to the inquifitor, declares he ,vill
neither be denunciator, nor accufer, but that common fame
gives out, that fuch and fuch a perfon is a heretic : the
l«cond, by way of accufation, when the informer takes on
him the office of accuf r, which rarely happens, becaufe in
this cafe, the accufer is obliged to prove, and expofes him-
felf to the lex ralionis, if his infor.nation (liould prove falfe.
The laft, and moll ufual way, is by denunciation, that is
by namin T thofe who know the faft.

It ha: formerly been the cuftom in fome parts of Europe,
where the accufation was very heavy, cither to decide it by
combat, or at leaft to make the accufed purge himfelf by
oath ; which, however, was not admitted, unlefs a certain
number of his neighbours and acquaintance fwore together
with him.

In the French law, none but the procureur general, or
his deputies, can form an accufation, except for high trea-
fon, and coining, where accufation \i open to every body.
Jn other cafes, private perfons can only aft the part of de-
nouncers, and demand reparation for the offence, with
damages.

In Britain, by Magna Charta, no man fhall be imprifoned
or condemned on any accufation, without trial by his peers,
or the law : none f lall be vex;d with any accufation, but ac-
cording to the law of the land ; and no man may be molefted
by petition to the king, &c. unlefs it be by indictment or pre-
I

A C C

fcutment of lawful men, or by procefs at common law.
Promoters of fuggellions are to find fecurity to purfue
them ; and if they do not make them good, (hall pay da-
mages to the party accufed, and alfo a fine to the king. No
perfon is obliged to anfwer upon oath to a quellion whereby
he may accufe himfelf of any crime.

Writers on politics treat of the benefits and inconveni-
ences of public accufers. Various arguments are alleged,
both for the encouragement and difcouragemcnt of accufa-
tions againft great men. Nothing, according to Machlavel,
tends more to the prefervation of a ftate, than frequent ac-
cufations of perfons trufted with the adminillration of public
affairs. This, accordingly, was ftriftly obferved by the
Romans, in the inftance of Camillus, accufed of coiTuption
by Manlius Capitolinus, &c. Accufations, however, in the
judgment of the fame author, are not more beneficial than
calumnies are pernicious, which is alfo confirmed by the
praftice of the Romans. Manlius, not being able to make
good his charge agiinft Camillus, was call into prifon.
Mach. de Repub. 1. i. c. 7. p. 35. Solon facilitated public
accufations, becaufe they are more neceffary in a democracy
than under any other form of government. Without this
formidable check, the general liberty would be perpetually
endangered by the liberty of each individual. At Athens,
if an accufer had not the fifth part of the votes on his fide,
he was obliged to pay a fine of a thoufand drachmas,
^fchines, who accufed Ctefiphon, was condemned to pay
this fine. At Rome, a falfe accufer was, by the Roman
law, branded with infamy, by marking the letter K on his
forehead. Guards were alfo appointed to watch the accu-
fer, in order to prevent his coiTupting either the judges or
the witneffes. See Montefq. Spirit of Laws, vol. i. p. 283.

ACCUSATIVE, in Grammar, the fourth cafe of
nouns that are declined. Its ufe may be conceived from
this, that all verbs wliich exprefs aftions that pafs from the
agent, as, to beat, &c. muft have fubjefts to receive thole
aftions, or imply effefts that are produced by thein ; fo
that fuch verbs evidently require after them a noun, or
name, to be the objedt of the aftion expreffed. Hence,
in all languages which have cafes, the nours have a termina-
tion, which they call accufative ; as, " Achtlhs •vtdmrav'tt
" Nefforcm :" " Achilles wounded Heftor:" here the ac-
cufative denotes the fubjeft. " Lyftppus fecit Jla.'u.is :^^
" Lyfippus made ftatues :" here the accufative denotes the
effeft. In whatever other manner, fays Mr. Hairis,
(Hermes, p. 283.) whether figuratively, or with prepofi-
tions, this cafe may have been ufed, its firft deftinatiou
feems to have been that here mentioned, and hence he fonns
its charafter and defcription. Accordingly, the accufative
is that cafe, which to an efficient nominative and a verb of
action, fubjoins either the effeft: or the paflive fubjeft. But
it has been alleged, that this defcription does not give us
an appropnate and difcriminating charafter of the accufa-
tive, and futlicientlv diftinguifhit from the Dative. E. G.
" Anton'ms lisjit Cicfroncm," and ' " Anlonius nocuit Ci-
" ceront," are expreffions of the fame import ; and in each
the aftion of hurting is conceived as proceeding from An-
tony to Cicero. It has, therefore, been reafonably af-
firmed, that the only thing efTential to thefe two cafes is
the appoiition or junftion of one objeft with another; and
they denote this much in the fame manner, although from--
the cuftom of language they may not be indifferently fub-
joined to the fame verb. See Case.

In Englifli, we have nothing to diftinguifh this cafe from
the nominative ; but as we ordinarily place words in their
natural order, it is eafily difcovered : the nominative con-
ftantly preceding, and the accufative following the verb.— ■

Thus,

ACE

Thus, when we fay, " the prince loves tlie priiictfs," and
" the princefs loves the piincc ;'' the prince is the nomina-
tivf in the firft, and the accufative in the lad ; and the princefs
the accufative in the firll, and the nominative in the fccond.

ACE, a card or die, marked only with one point.

Ace, in u4naent Geography, a name given by icvci-al of
the ancient writers to the city afterwards called Ptoli;-
MAis, and now Acre. Strabo. Geog. vol. ii. p. logo.

ACELA, a city of Lycia.

ACELDAMA, was a place without the fouth wall of
Jernfalem, beyond the river of Siloam, and was called the
Potter's field, (Matt, xxvii. 7 — 10.) becaufe they dug out
of it the earth of which they made their pots, and the FiJ-
ler's field, becaufe they dried their cloth there ; but being
afterwards bought with the money by which the high priells
and rulers of the Jews purchafed the blood of Jefus Chrill,
it was, by the Providence of God fo ordering it, called yAv/-
i!amn, i. e. the field of blood. Afts i. 19.

ACELIUM, or AcETUM,a tov/n of the Venetian terri-
tory, now called A'-oh, or ylfalo, fituate to the well of Trevi<ri,
at the fource of tlie rivulet Mufoue. E. long. 13'^. N. lat. 45".

ACENTETUM, or Acenteta, in Natural Hlflory, a
name given by the ancients to the pureft and fineft kind of
rod CRYSTAL. They uled the ci-yttal in many ways ;
fometimes engraving on it, and fometimes forming it into
vafes and cups, which were held next in value to the Miir-
rh'ma vafa of thofe times. The cryftal they obtained from
the mines of Cyprus was much efteemed, but often faulty
in particular parts, having hairs, cracks, and foulnefles,
which they called falts, in the midfl of the large pieces.
Pliny tells us (N. H. vol. ii. p. 769. Ed. Hard.) that when
it was ufed for engraving, the artift could conceal all thefe
blemilhes among the ftrokes of his work ; but when it was
to be formed into cups and precious vafes, they always
chofe the ncentetum, i. e. the pure ciyftal, which h^d no
flaws nor blemilbes.

ACEPHALI, or AcephaliTj?:, a term that fre-
quently occurs in Ecclcfiajllcal Hiftory, as the denomination
of various fe£ls : prirticularly — i. Of thofe wlio in the af-
fair of the council of Ephcfus, refufed to follow either St.
Cyril, or John of Antioch. 2. Of certain Chriftians of
the fifth century, who at firft followed Peter Mongus, but
afterwards abandoned him, upon his fubfcriblng the coun-
cil of Chalcedon, and were thus deprived of tlieir chief ;
being generally of the opinion of Eutyches, that there was
only one nature in Chrift. This feft war afterwards divided
into three others, who were called Anthropomoi-phite^,
Barfanuphites and Efaianifts ; and thefe again, in the fol-
lowing century'- occafioned new faftions, frequently men-
tioned by the ancient writers. However, thefe numerous
branches of the Eutychian faftion declined gradually in the
next century ; and the influence of the famous Baradaeus
chiefly contributed to their extinftion by the union which
he eitabliihed among the members of that feft. 3. Of the
adherents of Severus of Antioch ; and of all in general who
refufed to admit the council of Chalcedon.

ACEPHALI, in En-^li/b Hifory, a name given to the
levellers in the reign of Henry I. who were reckoned fo
poor, that they had not a tenement by which they might
acknowledge a fuperior lord. In this fenfe the term is ufed
in- our ancient law-books, for perfons who held nothing in
fee, either of king, bilhop, baron, or other feudal lord.

■ ACEPHALUS, or jcephnloiis, compofed of the priva-
tive a, and xs^aXn, head, Something that wants a head.
Pliny rcprefents the Blemmyes as a htadlefs, or acepha-
lous nation. Ctefias and Solinus mention others in India,
near the Ganges, without a head, and with their e^-es in

A C E

tlicir flioulders. Mela, Suidac, Stephanus Byr.antinus, Vo-
pifcns, and otiier writers, fnniilh fimilar relations ; anil
fome modern travellers pretend that they have found people
ct the fame deleription in Amciica. The origin of lliis
fable has been varioully explained. Banliolin underllands
it metaphorically, atlirming that the Aceph.di had lefs brain,
or conducted themfelves with lefs prudence than others. In
tliis opinion Boehart fecms to have concuiTcd. Sec Blem-
myes. Olearius aferibes it to the drefs of fuch pc ifons ;
alleging, that the Samogltians being (hort of llalurc, and
covering their heads with hoods in winter, fecmcd at a
dillance as if they were without lieads. l.afitau fays, tliat
the tenn Accphali was merely a denomination of people
wiiofe heads were deprelfed below their (boulders. IluirMi^,
in his epitome of Raleigh's voyage to Guiana, fpcukr. of a
people difcovcred by that traveller in tlie province of Irvi-
panama, between the lakes of Panama and CalTlya, who
had no head or neck : and Hondius, in his map, marked
the place, and delineates tiie figures of thefe moiiltcrs.
However, De Laet (Defer. Americ. 1. xvii. c. 12.) rejefls
the ilory, and relates, that thofe who dwelt on tlie banks
of Caora, a river that flows out of the lake of Caffipa, had
their heads fo far funk between their flioulders, that many
believed they had their eyes in their flioulders, and their
mouths in their breafts. But though the cxillence of a na-
tion of Acephali be ill-warranted, naturalifls fnmilh feveral
inftances of individuals born without iicads, by fome lufus
or aberration of nature. Wepfcr gives a catalogue of fuch
acephalous births from Schenckius, I.icetus, Parxus, Wol-
fius, Mauriceau, &c. Acephalous worms, or what are
deemed fuch, are frequent. The lumbrinu latus, or joint wi.irm,
was long taken to be acephalous. The firft who afcribed a head
to it was Tulpius, and after him Fehr ; the former even
makes it biceps, or two-headed. Sec T^nia.

AcEPHALUs, ClerL See Clerk.

AcupHALUS is alfo ufed in Poetry, for a verfe which- is
defcftive in tlie beginning. Some alfo give the name aK--
<fc.\ac to all verfes which begin with a fliort inllcad of a long
f)'llablc : as

'ETTsidJi' ir^ac TE xai 'EXX>i'<77ro»'jov ixo/lo. Iliad. I. xxiii. v. 2.
In the beginning of this verfe we have an Iambus inftead of
a Spondee.

Acer, Maple, in Botany, fo called, as fome fay,
from acr'a, denoting the hardnefs of the wood, or accord-
ing to others, from acre ingcnium, becaufe the common
maple was much employed by ingenious artificers in fine
works, a genus of the Monoecia order and polygamia clafs of
plants, and belonging to the natural order of Trili'ilata.
Its generic and eflential charadlers are thefe : it hath herma-
phrodite and male flowers on the fame tree ; the herma-
phrodite calyx is a one-leaved, five-cleft, acute, coloured,
flat, and entire at the bafe, pennanent perianthium ; the
corolla has five petals, ovate, broader outward, obtufc,
fcareely larger than the calyx, and fpreading ; the (lamina
conllft of eight or ten fubulate ftioit filaments: the antherx
are finiple, and the pollen cruciform ; the piftillum has a
comprefTed germ, immerled in a convex, perforated, large
receptacle : the ftyle is filifoiTn and daily progr'.flive ; the
(lignias are two or three, pointed, flender, and reflex ; the
pericarpium is compofed of as many capfuics as lligma.'-,
with one feed in each, coalefcent at the bafe, roundifli,
comprefted, and each terminated by a very large membran-
ous wing ; the feeds are foHtary and roundiUi : the n- ilc
flowers are the fame with the hermaphrodites, except that
they have neither germ nor ftyk, but only a bifid ftigma.
On the unfolding of the flower the ftigma only appeai-s, and
a few days after, the ftyk. The hermaphrodite flowers in

the

ACE

tlie fame umbi-'l are often of tv^o kinds ; th« lower onfs
feminine lienr.jpkrojitvs, of which lie anthers do not V;'irll,
but the pi'lll grows into a fruit ; the upper oties mafcullne
hermjphroditv.-3, of wliich tlie anthers f<,ilter th';ir dull, and
the pilli'.s do not sjrow, but f Jl off. Mr. Martyn in his
much improved edition of Mil'er's Di£liona:y, enumerates
and d^-'fciibcs twenty fpecics. In the lall edition of Lin-
nxus by Gmclin, the j-!cer is a genus of the Odandria Mono-
gynia clafs and order, inchiding twenty fp^'cies. For the pro-
perties and ufcsof the ftveral fpccies, and the method of pro-
pagatinp: and cultivating them. See Maple and Sycamore.

ACER. Sec Banisteiiia and Trioptf.ris.

ACERIS, PiiiiUna, in Nalu~itl Hyiory, a fpeciesof Pha-
L.tNA, found on the Acer, ilifculus, ar.d fuglans.

ACER-ATOS, aKipa'd.r, from a, negative and x^paaa, or
K'.)x\;\jfjn, to mix, unmixed, uncornipted, is apphed fometini.s
to the humours of the body by Hippoc-atcs. PauUis
yEgineta mentions a plafterundcr this name. Sec Aceridf.s.

ACERB, a compound talle, confilling of four, with the
addition of a degree of roughnefs, and allnngency ; fuch as
that of unripe fi-uit.

ACERIDES, ay.r.jii:;, from * neg. and ■■t.r.p:, 'a;i2s, denote
pla.lers made without wax.

ACERINA, in I:hihyo!y};y, a name given by Plinv, and
othei-s of the old naturalirts, to the fiTi now called the
Cirnua and Aurala JluviJlilis, and in England the Rtiff^.
The accrina of Gmelin's Linnaian fyftem is a fpecies of

Perca, whofe dorfal fin has 31 rays and 17 fpines. It
approaches to the Cermia in many refpefts, but differs from
it in the number of rays and fpines of the dorfsl fii, and the
fize of its head, which is longer. It is found in the E'.ixine
fea, and the lake of Mjeotis, and the rivers that run into them.

ACERNO, in Geography, a fmall city of Naples, with a
bifliop's fee, about 12 miles N. E. of Salerno. E. long.
15° 6'. N. lat. 40° 45'.

AcERNO isalfo the name given by the Portugucfe, on the
firft difcovery of it in the 15th centur)-, to the ifland now
called the I/h ofFiAHCE.

ACER(bSE leaf, m B.7!jny. See Leaf.

ACEROSUS, chojfy, is an epithet, denoting the browned
and coarfefl fort of bread, made of flour not feparatcd from
the bran.

Acerosus, in Natur.-il H'ljlory, a name given by Vogel
in his Mineralogy to a fpecies of Talc.

ACERRA, in Antiquity, a kind of altar, eretled among
the Romans near the bed of a pcrfon deceafed ; on which
his friends daily burned incenfe till the time of his burial.
The Chinefe have a fimilar cuftom. They eraiS an altar to
the deceafed in a room hung with mourning ; and upon it
they place an image of the dead perfon, to which every one
that approaches it bows four times, and offers oblations and
perfumes. The original intention of the practice was, with-
out doubt, to overcome ajiy offenfive fmell that might pro-
-ceed from tlie corpfe.

By the laws of the 1 2 tables, the erefting of acerra: was
prohibited.

The Acerra alfo fignified a little pot, wherein the incenfe
and perfumes were put, to be burnt on the altars of the gods,
and before the dead. It appears to have been the fame with
what was otherwife called thurihulum and/yi.v;j.

We find mention of accrrs in the ancient church. The
Jews alfo had their acernr;, in our verficns rendered cenfers ;
and the Romanifts ftill retain them under the name of io-
cenfe-pots. In Roman writers, we frequently meet with
acerra plena, a full acerra ; for underflanding which it is to
be obfePved, that people were obliged to offer incenfe in
proportion to their eflatc and condition ; tke rich in larger

ACE

quantities, the poor only a few grains : the former poured
out acerne full on the altar ; the latter tcok out tv/o or
three bits wilh their fingers. Pitifc. Lex. Aut. Briffon.
de Formul. 1. i.

Acerra, in Geography, a walled town of Naples in the
Terra di I^avora, iiluate on the river Agno, feven miles
N. E. of Naples. It is the reiidence of a bidiop, and ha«
the title of an earldom. E. long. 14° 30'. N. lat. 40° 55'.

ACERRvE, in ylndent Geography, the name of a town on
the Clanius in Campania, now Acerra. It was a Roman
colony, and its inhabitants were reckoned a brave people :
" Acerranis plus animi, quam vlrium erat," fays Livy,
1. xxiii. c. 17. torn. iii. p. 739, Ed. Drakenb. This wasalfo
the name of another town, now called La Giro/a, or Gherra,
which retains fome trace of the original name, in the tcni-
tory a;id to the S. E. of Lodi, where the river .Serio falls
into the Adda, to the W. of Cremona, and N. of Placep.tia.
It was formerly a place of couliderable importance. Its
fiege by the R.omans is partic-alarly defcribed by Polybius,
1. ii. p. 12 1. Ed. Cafaiib.

ACERRI, a town of Spain, belonging to the Lace*
tani; probably Gerri.

ACESjE and .'^.cesamkns, cities of Macedonia.

ACESCENT, a word ufcd to denote any thing v/hich is
turning four or a:id, or which is flightly acid. It is only-
applied properly to denote the firll of thefe two meanings.
The fecoi-.d may be belter expreffed by either of the words
acidulous, or fubricid.

ACESINES, in Ancient Geography, a large and rapid
river of L'dia, v.-hich Alexander paffed in his expedition into
that countiy; and on the bank of which he bifilt a city
under the direttion of Hephxslion. The k'ngdom of
Porus, wliom he vanqiiifhed, and which, according to Strabo,
contained about 300 cities, lay between the Hydafpes and
this r'"';r, which, after receiving the former and other con-
fiderable rivers, emptied itfelf into the Indus. Its fituation
is nut precifely k.iown. Arriin fays, (De Exped. Alex. 1. v.
p. 222. Ed. Gronov.) that, where Alexander paffed it,
its breadth was. 15 ftadia, its courfe very rap'd, and the
channel full of large and fliarp rocks. It was fubjeft to
extraordinary inundations, rifing at the fummec foHticc 40
cubits and overflowing the adjacent plains. Theophraft-is
(Hift. 1. iv. c. 12) fpeaks of the roeds that grew near this
river ; and Pliny (H. N. 1. xxxvii. c. 12. torn. ii. p. 796)
fays, that this and the Ganges furni(hed gems. We read of
trees near this river of fuch magnitude, that 5.'^, fome fay
400 horfemen might lodge under the fp-eading branches of
one of them ; and that they produced long pods of honey,
which proved fatal to thofe who eat it. Strabo, Geog.
vol. ii. 1014 — 1022. Some have fuppofed that the Ace-
fmes of Arrian was the river now called Rauvee ; but major
Rennell, in his Memoir, gives good reafons for concluding
that the modern Jenaub was the Acefines of the ancients.

ACESINUS, a river of Sarmatia, called by Pliny
Pantica?es.

ACESIUS, in Biography, a bifhop of Conftantinople,
in the reign of Conftantine, was a difciple of Novatus, wIhi
founded a fe6l v.-hofe tenet was, that thofe who had f;dlen
from the faith in time of perfecution, or, who after baptifm
had committed any mortal fin, were not to be admitted to
the communion of the church, even on their exhibiting
tokens of fincere repentance. Conftantine was fo much
difpleafed with the feverity of this feft, which difcouragcd
repentance, that, after queitioning Acefnis concerning it,
he faid, " then, Acefius, make a ladder for yourfelf, and
go up to heaven alone." This ftoiy is related by Socrates
(!• i. c. 10.) and Sozomen (1. j. c. zz) ; but difputed by

V'aiefius,

ACE

ACE

Valefms, (Annot. p. 9), and defended by Bafnage, Ann.
325, No. 33. Bayle. Lardncr's Works, vol. iii. p. 224,
&c.

ACESTA, of aK'Oj^M, to cure, fignifies curable diftem-
pers.

AcESTA, in yfncient Geography, a name given by Virgil
(j'En. y. V. 71R) t> a town called Segksta.

A.QUL'^'T'jL, m Entomolo'ry, a fpecies of Papilio, found
in India, with fubdentatcd winjjs, the anterior black, witli a
y,.41ow b-ife and band, the pofterior yellow, with brown
bands under the body.

ACESTIDES, a name given to the chimneys of fur-
naces where brafs was made ; contrived narrow at the top,
for rec'-iving and colleftinj the fumes of the melting mct.d,
that CADMiA might b; produced in greater quantilics.

ACESTIS, a.u-ic, a faclitioiis fort of cusysocolla,
made of Cyprian verdigrile, the urine of children, and nitre.

ACESTRIDES, female phyllcians. Midwives were fo
called among the Greeks.

ACETABUl.UM, in Am'iquhy, a little vafe cr cup,
ufed at table for ferving up things proper for fiucc, or fea-
foning ; much after the manner of our falls and vinegar
cruet;'. Hence, Agricola, in his Treatife of Roman mea-
fures, takes the name to have been formed from accium,
•vinegar, fuppofmg that it was principally dtftined to fervc
vinegar.

Acetabulum alfo denotes a R^oman meafure, ufed both
for liquid and dry thinga, chiefly in medicine. The aceta-
bulum contained a cyathus and a half, as is proved Ly Agri-
cola, from two verfcs cf Fannius ; who, fpeaking of the
cyathus, fays it weighs ten drachms ; and the oxybaphus,
cr acetabulum, fifteen, cr about one eighth of a pint.

" Bis qulnque hunc faciunt drachma;, fi appe.idere tentes;
Oxybaphus fiet, fi quinque addantur ad illas."

Du Pinet, in his Treatife of v^eights and meafures, pre-
fixed to his tranflat'on of Pliny, makes the acetabulum of
cil weigh two ounces and two fcruples ; the acetabulum of
wine, two ounces, two drachms, a grain, and a third of a
grain ; and the acetabulum of honey, three ounces, three
drachms, a fcruple, and two fdiou^.

Acetabulum, in y/natoiiiy, a name given by Latin
writers to that cup-like cavity of bones formed for articu-
lation, which the Greeks called Cotyle or Cotyledon,
from its fuppofed refeinblance to a certain fmall meafure.
When the round head of one bone is lodged in a fpherieal
cavity of another, the joint admits of motion in almoft every
pofiible direftion. This fpecies of articulation is tech-
nically termed Enarthrosis. See Joint. See alfo Co-

TTLEDON.

Acetabulum is alfo ufed hy yinatomyls, in the fame
fenfe with Cotyledon. It fignifies alfo a glandular fub-
ftance, found in the placenta of fome animals.

Acetabulum, in Botany, a fpecies cf Peziza ; fo
called from its refemblance to a cup. It is feflile and ex-
ternally angulated, and has ramofe veins.

Acetabulum is alfo a fpecies of Lichen ; and it is a
name given to the Cotyledon and Crassula ; and with
the epithets maritium minus to the Andros ACEs,yifl Navel-
VCRT, or UMBILICUS iiinrir.iis. See Tubularia.

ACETARIA. See Sallet.

ACY-T AKIVM finrluticum, in the Materia Mediea, a
kind of pickle, in which Dr. Bates advifes fcorbutic patients
to dip their victuals before they eat it. It is thus made.
}^ fol. cocUear. marin. Jiij. Sacch?r. alb. _^vi fal cochlear.
Ji bene contund. fimid et adde fucc. aurant. Jvi. Mo-
therby's Did. by Wallis.

ACETARY is ufed for an inner part in the ftniflure of
certain fruits, thus called from the fournefs of its tafte.
The acetai7 of a pear is a globular part, lying within the
calculary or choak, and furrouuding the core. It is of the
fame fubJlancc with the parcneliyma, or pulp, only that the
bladders of which it conlills arc fmaller, and rounder than
thofe of the parenchyma; from whence, however, it
fecmr, to be derived. On tliis account it is alfo fometimes
called the inner parenchyma. The quince alfo has an ace-
tar/, r.iembUng, though lefs than, that of a pear.

AcETi Spi.iliis, fpirit of vinegar ; made by drenching
copper-filings with dillilled vinegar, then evaporating it till
tile fumes ot the vinegar camot be fnelt ; the faturation
and evaporation to be again repeated, till the mcnftruum be
fatiated ; which being then dilliUed, the fpirit comes over.
Its qualities and ufes are much the fame with thofe of tlie
dillilled vinegar ; excepting tl-.at it is move powerful.

AC ETIAM, in La-M, a claufc devifcd by the officers
cf the King's Bench, and added to the ufual complaint < f
trefpafs, in order to maintain the jurifdii?>ion of this court
over civil injuries without force; of which ftatute, 2. 13
Car. II. c. 2. had nearly deprived it. The bill of Middlefex
having been fiamed only for aftions of trefpafs, a defendant
could not be aiTelled and held to bail upon it for breaches of
civil coiitrafts. To remedy this inconvenience the above
claufe was adopted : the bill of Middlefex commanding the
defendant to be brought in to anf.ver the plaintiff of a plea
of ti'efpafs, ac etiam, and alfo, to a bill of debt ; and thus
the complaint of trefpafs givei cognizance to the court, and
that cf debt authorizes thearieft. In imitation of this Lord
Chief Juftice North direfted, that in the common pleas,
befides tlie ufual complaint of breaking the plaintiff's clofe, ■
a claufe oi ac etiam m.ight be added to the writ of Capias ;
and this was done in order to fave the fuitors of his court
the trouble and cxpence of fuing out fpecial originals.

ACETIC ACID, in Chcimjlry, Radical -vinignr, Acide
Acetiqu;, Vinaigrc radical, Vinaigre dc Venus. If any quan-
tity of cryilallized acctite of copper (dillilled vcrdigrife) be
dillilled in a glafs retort, with a regulated heat, till at length
the bottom ot the veflel is nearly red hot, the equilibrium of
the afHnity between the component parts of the fait will be
dellroyed, and feveral new lubftances in confequence pro- •
duced. The proportion of thefe on 1000 parts of the hilt,
according to an accurate analyiis of Cit. Adet, will be 486
acetic acid, 312 brown oxyd of copper mixed with charcoal,
118 hydrogen and carbonic acid gas, and about 84 of the
acetite of copper, will remain undecompofcd. In order to
be fuily aware of what takes place in thefe changes, it is
necefTaiy to obferve, that the cryilallized acetite of copper
contains hydrogen and oxygen form.ing the water of cr)'f-
talhzation, hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen forming acetous
acid, and copper, with about 25 per cent, of oxygen. By
the prccefs of d.iliilation, the acetous acid appears to be
decompofedby the feparation of part of its hydroi-arbonous
bafe, and at the fame time the oxyd of copper is brought lo a
lower ilate of oxydation : part of the carbon becomes
acidified attheexpence of the copper, and, uniting with the
hydrogen, forms hydrocarbonous gas ; the remainder of
the carbon is found in the retort, mixed with the oxyd of
copper, and poflTefles the properties of a pyrophonis. Thus
it feem.s that acetic acid differs from acetous, in a larger pro-
portion of oxygen to the bafe, which is cffefted not by an
addition of oxygen, but by a diminution of the bafe.
Acetic acid may alfo be procured by diftilling together
acctite of lead, of foda, potafh, or lime, with fulphuric acid ;
the produil is however, in this cafe, contaminated by ful-
phureous acid gas ; but this may be in part prevented, by

.idding

ACE

ACE

adding to the materials fome black onyJ of manganefe.
M. Badoliir propufcs to obtain acetic acid, by dilkilling
eqiul parts of fiilphat of copper, and acetite of lead : the
acid thus produced colls only a fourth of that which is
formed from acetite of copper. In its general propei'ies,
acetic aeid is very finiilar to acetous acid, yet differing from
it in the foUowiiii^ particulars.

The active acid qualities of this fluid bring it to a near
refeniblaiicc with fome of the mineral acids ; it is coiTofive,
and intenfcly acid to the tiiile, exhales a pungent almoft
fuffocating odour, and has nothing of the fpirituous flavour
of dillllled vinegar: its fpeciiic gravity is 1.0626. With
earthy and alknline bafes it unites readily, forming the
genus of neutral and earthy acetats, the properties of which
have been but very little examined. It diflblves copper, and
certain other metals which are not foluble in acetous acid,
and it is capable of partly decompollng and uniting with
' alcoliol, forming acetic Ether.

This acid is of fome ufe in the laboratory', and is em-
ployed occafionalU in medicine, as a ilimulant application
to the noilrils in fainting fits ; for tiiis purj)ofe fome acetite
of potalh is put into a fmelling-bottle, and a little fulphuric
acid is poured upon it. Annales de Chimie. xxvii. 299.
xxviii. 113. Fourcroy, Syft. des Connaifs. Chim. viii.
Gren's Chem. ii.

Acetite of Potash. Kali acetatum, Lond. Pharm.
lAx'iva acetata et Tartar, regenerat. Edin. Phann. Acetite
de PotnJJe. Terra foliata Tartari. Digejlive fak of Silvius.

This fait occurs native in the fap, and certain other vege-
table juices, and alfo in the urine of fome quadrupeds : it is
prepared artificially by adding to pearlalh, or carbonat of
potadi, diftilled vinegar, till the liquor contains a flight excefs
of acid ; if the fait is wanted in a folid (late, evaporation in
a glafs or filver vefTel muli he liad recourfe to ; when a pel-
licle appears on the furface, the procefs fhould go on at a
very gentle temperature, till all the moillure is exhaled ;
there will remain a white micaceous fait, which muft im-
mediately, while warm, be put into a well-clofed vial.
The fait may alfo be obtained cheap and pure, by adding
fulphat of potafh to acetite of hme, evaporating to drynefs
in a water-bath, and diffolving out the acetite of potafti by
hot alcohol.

Acetite of potafh has a lively penetrating^ odour, and a
fharp tafte ; but leaving an alkaHne impreflion on the pa-
late : it cryftallizes in needles and plates, the form of which
lias not been afcertained.

This lalt has a flrong affinity for water, dehquiating
readily in the air: it requires 1.02 1 parts of this fluid at 50°
Fahren. for its folution, and, while diffolving, abforbs ca-
loric : from its hot faturated folution in alcohol, ciyftals
may be obtained by cooling.

Of the alkalies and alkaline earths, barj'tes alone is ca-
pable of decompofing acetite of potalh, fetting at liberty the
alkali, and forming with the acid acetite of barytes.

The fulphuric, nitric, muriatic, fluoric, phofphoric, oxalic,
tartareous, arfcnic, fuccinic and mahc acids, are each capable
of feparating the acetous acid from its alkahne bafe : all the
cafily foluble fulphats, and feveral other neutral falts effed:
the fame by double affinity.

Acetite of potafli, fubjefted to dry diftillation, yields
hydrocarbonous gas, an ammoniacal liquor mixed with em-
pyrcumatic oil, fublimed cryllals of carbonat, or acetite of
i.!nmonia, and there remains in the retort, charcoal, with
potaOi, partly cauftic, and partly carbonated. The appear-
ance of ammonia in this procefs, is a circumflance well
wurthy of accurate invelligation : it was firft obferved by
Jieaumo, and afterwards by iMoneau,. and fcems likely to

tbrow much light on one of two very important queftions,
viz. Is azot a compound ? Is ammonia one of the elements
of potalh ? Ammonia confiils of azot and hydrogen, but
acelite of potalh furnilhes only oxygen, hydrogen, carbon,
and potalh ; hence, it feems reafonable to fuppofe, either
that thefe foiu- fubllances contain the bafes of azot, or that
ammonia is one of the component parts of potalli.

The above fait is applied to no ufe in the laborator)-, or
in the arts : it is an article of the Materia Mcdica, and pof-
felTes confiderable diuretic qualities.

Beaumc, Chim. Experim. Fourcroy, Connaif. Chim.
Encycloped. Method. Art. Acete de Potaffe. Gren's Che-
mift;ry.

Acetite of Soda. Acetite de Sonde. Terra foliata
mineralis vel cryflallixala.

To any quantity of carbonated foda add diftilled vinegar,
leaving the liquor, however, llill alkaline ; evaporate gently
to a pellicle, and by cooling, acetite of foda v/ill be obtained
in long ftriated prifmatic cryftals fimilar to thofe of ful-
phated foda, permanent in the air, foluble at a gentle tem-
perature in their water of cryftaDization, and of a pungent
bitterilli tafte.

Acetite of foda is eafily foluble in water and alcohol, is
decompofable with abftraftion of the acid or alkaline bafe
by potafti, and the fame fubftances as the preceding fait :
when kept long in folution it is converted into carbonat of
foda by decompofition of its acid ; if fubjetled to dry dif-
tillation it yields hydrocarbonous gas, empyreumatic oil
and acid, and there remains in the retort, charcoal and
carbonated foda.

This fait is employed a little in France as a medicine — in
this country is made no ufe of.

Beaumc, Ch. Exp. — Fourcroy, Syft. des Conn. Chim.—
Encyclop. Method, art. Acetite de Sonde — Gren's Chcm.

Acetite of Ammonia. Acetite d' Ammoniaque. — Am-
monia Acetata et Spiritus Mindcreri ; Lond. et Edin. Pharm.

This is prepared in the liquid form by adding carbonated
ammonia to diftilled vinegar till faturation. On account of
its great volatihty, it is not very cafy to obtain it in the cryf-
tallinc foi-m ; the following method was fuccefsfully prac-
tlfcd by M. Delaflbne for this purpofe : equal parts of
chalk and fal-ammoniac were mixed well together, and put
into a retort, upon which was poured half their weight of
concentrated acetous acid ; by a gentle heat a white vapour
arofe, which concreted in beautiful cryftals in the receiver,
and was acetite of ammonia. Another way of preparing
this fait is by diftilling equal parts of acetated lead (fugarof
lead), and muriated ammonia (fal-ammoniac.)

This fubftance is very deliquefccnt — has a hot pungent
flavour — is decompofed by alkalies, by moll; acids, and by
double affinity in various ways ; it is deftroycd by fire, and
fpontaneoufly when in folution.

It is only employed in medicine, and is confidered as a
diaphoretic.

Beaumc, Ch. Exp. — Fourcroy, Syft. des Connaif. Chim. —
Encyclop. Method, art. Acete d'Ammona. — Gren, ut fupra.

Acetite of Lime. Acetite de Chaux. — Salt of Chalk,
— Salt of Coral.

This fait is readily procured, by adding diftilled vinegar
to chalk, marble, coral, oyfter-flielis, or any other fubftance
that confifts chiefly of calcareous carbonat ; the carbonic
acid is difengaged with effervefcence, and by evaporating the
folution to a pelhcle, and allowing it to cool gradually,
cryftals of acetite of lime are depofited.

Calcareous acetite cryftallizes in white flender filky fila-
ments, permanent in the air ; its tafte is bitter, acerb, ra-
ther cauftic ; it is foluble with eafe in water, and in fmall

proportion

ACE

ACE

proportion by alcoliol. ^'}^:jtcr., and tlic fixed alkalies de-
compofe it, by union with its acid ; tlie ilroni^cT ncids do the
fame, by cuinbiuing \%itli its earthy bale : n-.oH of the car-
bouats and fulphals decoinpoi'e it by compcniiui affinity :
when in folution, it is doilr. ved fpontaneouily Ijy deconi-
polition of the acid, and depofts carbonat of lime : in dry
dillillatioii it yields hydrocarbunous gas, empyreimvatic acid
and oil, charcoal and calcareous carbonat.

It is iliU admitted into ihe foreign pharmacopccas as a
fudorilic and diuretic.

Beaumc-, Ch. Exp — Fourcroy, Syft. des Connaif. Cliim.
Encyclop. Method, art. Acete Calcaire. — Grcn, ut fupra.

AcETiTE or Barytjt.s. y^fcUle <k Baryt.

This fait is ufually prepaicd by adding caibonat of ba-
rytes to diililled vinegar, in which cafe the acid is always in
cxccfs : uhen reduced by evaporation, to the coiifi.lence of
a fynip, and allowed to cool gradually, it depofits a white
opaque granular fiilt, and the iides of the veflel are covered
with filky filaments of the fame : a better way of procuring
this fubttance, is by boiling for a few minutes the fulphuret
ofbarytesin a flight excefs of acetous acid, (vide Acktite of
Strontian). filtering the folution, and fetting it to evaporate
fpontaneoufly ; tranfparent crylhils may thus be obtained
in long flcnder prifms. The fall formed by either of thefe
methods is permanent in the air, and decompofable by moft
of the minei-al acids, the carbonated alkahes, and the lul-
phuric falts. Its only ule is as a reagent, for afceilaining
the preience of fuiphuric acid in thofe cafes where the muriat
or nitrat of barytes might affect the refults of the analyfis.

Encyclop. Method, art. Accte Barotique.

AcETiTE or Strontian. Ai- elite tie Strotrfian.

To any quantity of warm diftilled vinegar, add gradually
fulphuret of ftrontian, as long as any efiervefcence is per-
ceived ; then boil the liquor for a few minutes and filter ;
add afterwards, drop by drop, a folution of acetite of lead,
(fugar of lead) as long as any precipitate takes place, then
fuffcr the liquor to Hand for a few hours, and finally feparate
it from the dark fediment by filtration. This fait has not
as yet been the fubjeft of experiment ; its properties are, in
all probability, very fimilar to thofe of the Acet. Baryt.
It is not made any ufe of.

Acetite of Magnesia. Acetite de Magnefie.

This fait is prepared by faturating diftilled vinegar with
carbonated magnefia, then boiling the liquor to feparate the
remains of carbonic acid, and filtering it, if turbid, to get
rid of the excefs of carbonated magnefia.

The taile of acetite of magnefia is fwcet, with a flight
mixture of bitter : by evaporation, it is reduced to a vifeous
fyrupy confiftence, incapable of being ci-yilallized ; but by
further concentration, and fubfequent cooling, becomes
folid, and deliqucfcent in the air : it is totally foluble infpirit
cf wine, and from the eale with which it is decompofcd, the
afiinity between its elements appears to be extremely weak.
The alkalies, and the reft of the alkaline earths, moft of
the mineral, vegetable, and animal acids are capable of de-
compofing this fait bv abllraftion of its acid or earthy bafe.
It is not made any ufe of.

Encyclop. Method, art. Accte Magnefien. Pearfon's Ta-
bles of Afiinity.

Acetite OF Alumine. ylcetite tP illumine. Aluminous
mordant of the calico-printers.

Of all the acetous falts this is the moft important, being
abfolutely eflential to the improved Hate of the arts of
DvEiNG and Calico-printing. It is not eafy to pre-
pare this fait direftly, diftilled vinegar, even when con-
centrated, having no perceptible aftion on clay ; the frefh
precipitated and wafhtd eartk of alum is indeed foluble by
Vol, L

long digeftion in a large excefs of acetous acid ; but the mo!l
economical and eftedual way of producing the fait in qucf-
tion, is by means of the double affinities of common alu-n
and fugar of lead. For this purpofe, to a blood-wann fohi-
tiiin of alum in rain-water, is firftofall to be caulioully added
a folution of pearlafti, or any other fufticiently pure alkali,
till the liquor is juit upon i.he point of becoming turbid, in
order to faturate the excefs of acid in common alum ; a cold
faturated folution of acetite of had (fugar of lead) in rain-
water is then to be ftirred in as long as any precipitation
takes place : by ftanding a few hours, the fulphat of lead
entirely fubfides, and the fupeiuatant clear liquor, coi.laining
acetite of alumine and potafh, may be drawn off with a fy-
phon. Bv wafliing the fediment with cold water a dilute
folution of acetite of alumine is obtained, which may be ufcd
inllead of water in diftblving alum for the next preparation
of aluminous mordant.

Acetite of alumine thus prepared has an acetous ftrongly
flyptic tafte : by gradual evaporation and cooling, it affun.cs
the form of fmall uecdle-diaped ciyftals, which arc exceed-
ingly deliqucfcent : by a heat inferior to that of boiling
water, the acid is almoft wholly driven off. It ij decom-
pofcd by magnefia, and by all the fubftances that decompofc
acetite of magnefia. Its ufe is ahnoft wholly confined
to the dyers and calico-printers.

Encyclop. Method, art. Acete Alumineux.

Acetite of Glycine. Acetite dc Glucine.

This is an uncryftallizable fait, which by evaporation be-
comes of a gummy femiduililc confiftence ; its taile is fweet
and veiy aitringent, with a flavour of vinegar : its other
properties have not been examined into ; it is not applied t»
any ufe. B. la Grange, ii. 452.

For the metallic acetites, fee the refpeftive metals.

ACETIFICATION is ufed by fome Chew'ifis to denote
the aftion or operation, by which vinegar is made. Sec
Acetous Fermentation.

ACETOSA, in Botany. See Rumex and Sorrel.

ACETOSELLA. See Rumex, Oxalis, znd wood
Sorrel.

ACETOUS AClB—Dj/lilled vine^jr—Aclde Aceteux
— Acetum dijlillatum, Lond. et Edin. Pharm. in ChnniJIry, is
produced from faccharine mucilage, gum mucilage, f;-cula and
all vinous liquors, through the medium of the acetous fer-
mentation ; alfo in urine and dunghills during their fpon-
taneous decompofition ; from the dry diftillalion of wood,
mucilage, and tartar, from the aftion of fuiphuric acid on
many vegetable fubftances ; and from the fuperoxygenatioii
of moft of the other vegetable acids. It is prepared for ufe,
however, in the large way, only by the former of thefe me-
thods, and is called alegar, if made from malt liquor ; but if
from any other fermentable liquor, it bears the name of Vi-
negar.

Common vinegar never contains this acid in a ftate of
purity, but always contaminated by mix'.ure with tartar,
mucilage, and carbonaceous matter, which render it very-
liable to fpontaneous decompofition ; thefe lubllances can
only be got rid of by having recourfe to diftillaiion, which
ought to be performed in g'ali or tinned-copper vcffels ; the
firft produft of this operation is an odorous, faintly acid
liquor containing alcohol ; the next is lefs odorous and more
acid ; and what comes over towards the end of the operation
is a ilill ilronger acid, but with an empyreumatic flavour,
and a flight tinge of colour : hence, in diftilling four part*
of vinegar, the fiiil may be rejefted as too much diluted,
and the procefs may be ftopped when three-fourths of the
liquor is come over. If diftilled vinegar is expoftd to froft
in a broad Ihallow yellel, and the ice removed as it fonns, till

T . it

ACE

A C H

It t.iflcs nea'-ly ss four as llie remaining liquor, a very (Irong
and pure acetous acid will be obtained, in the proportion of
about 7 or 8 per cent, to the diiliUcd vineg.ir.

Acetous acid is a tranfparcnt coli)urlefs fluid, of the
fpccil'c gravity of 1.C095, nearly as volatile as water, ex-
haling a pungent fragrant odour, and of a lively agreeable
acid tafte.

When concentrated, it unites eagerly v.ith water, either
in the folid or Iiq\iid ftate ; ablorbing lieat in the fonucr
cafe, fo as to prnduce a conliderable deprcflion of the ther-
mometer, and giving out heat in the latter cafe.

Upon fat oils it has httle or no aftion, but camphor arid
moll of the efiential oils are readily fohible in it, giving their
peculiar odours and increafnig the inflammability of the
liquor. With the empyreumatic oils of wood, tartar, &c.
it forms thi pvrolicneous and pvro-taxtareous acids.

At a temperature above that of lx)iling water it decom-
pofes atmofpherical air, by abftraijling its oxygen, and at
flic fame time giving out flame, and producing carbonic acid
and water; the fame effecl is produced more gradually, by ex-
pofing to the air a folution of the earthy or alkaline acetites ;
thus acetite of lime is converted intocarbonat of lime. Ace-
tous acid is however capable of uniting to ox vgen without
experiencing fuch a total decompofuion. If equal parts of
acetite of lime, black oxyd of mangantfe and fulphuric acid
are dillilled together, apungent volatile acid called Acetic
a.ii! will be produced together with hydroearbonous gas :
the fame refults are obtained from the dlllillation of cryl-
tallized verdigrife, and the copper is found in the retort near-
ly in the metallic ftate.

Acetous acid unites eafily with all the alkalies and alka-
line earths, whether pure or carbonated, fonning the genus
of alkaline acetites, which contains feven Ipecies ; viz.
Acetite oi potajh, foda, ammonia, lime, barytes,Jlront\an, and
magtujta.

It appears to have no aftion on filex, but combines with
the other earths into Acetites oi aluniine znA glydne.

Excepting iron and zinc, the reft of the metals are dif-
ficultly or not at all foluble in acetous acid, their oxyds,
however, efpecially if carbonated, are eafily fo ; hence re-
fults the large and important genus of metallic acetites.

On vegetable and animal colouring matter this acid ap-
pears to have little effeft ; it poflcfres indeed the property
of reddening fyrup of violets, and certain other vegetable
blues, in common with all acids.

The component parts of acetous acid are oxygen, hydro-
jijen, and carbon, but their relative proportions have not yet
been afcertained. If acetous acid in vapour is pafTed
through a red-hot glafs tube, it is decompofed into water,
hydrogen, and carbonic acid.

The affinity of this acid is as follows :
Degree of attraftion Order of Eleftive
. (by Guyton.) Attraftion

(by Pearfon.)
l^arytes - - 28 Bar)t Baryt

Potalh - - 26 _ Potafli ^. Strontia

Soda . - 25 •j'Soda w'Potafti

Jjime - - '9 ^ Strontia ^Soda

Ammonia - zo '~ Ammonia .^Lime

Magnefia - i? g Lime u Magnefia

Alumine - - 15 u Magnefia "5 Metallic oxyds

*-' Alumine >S Ammonia

^ Metalhc oxyds Alumine.
Water
Alcohol.

This acid forms an important article in the Materia
Medlca ; it is alCo much ufed in food both as an agreeable

condiment, and for the prefervation of nnim.al and vegetable
fubllances. I'ourcroy, Syfteme des Connoiffanccs Chimiqucs,
vol. viii. Encyclopedic Methodique, art. Acide Accteux.
Bcaume, Chimie Experiraentale. Gren's Che.miftry, vol. ir.

Acetous sther. See Ether.

Acetous Fermentation. Sen Acetous Fermtstatign.

ACETUM, formed of <2r«v, X.0 be Jharh, the fame with
vinegar ; tlie properties, ufes, and preparations of which-,
fee under the article mnegar. There are fcvera! medi-
cines in the fliopr,, of which this liquor is the balls : as,
Acetum alLiliizatuin, made of dillilled vinegar, with the
addition of fome alkaline, or volatile f;Jt.

Acetum C'Aelncum. See Colchicum.

AcETUM dyiillaium. See. diJliUcd Vinegar, and Ace-
tols Acid..

Acetum cfuriens, diftilled vinegar reftified by means of
verdigrife. It is made by diflblving the common verdigrife
in fine diftilled vinegar, then evaporating the folution, and
recovering the verdigrife again in form of cr)'ftals ; and
from this, by a proper degree of fire, diftilling with a re-
tort an acid fpirit, which is the richeft acid that can by any
art be prepared from vinegar. Boerhaave's Chem. p. 138.

Acktum I.ithargyrites. See Acelitc ©/"Lead.

Acetum Philofophorum, a four kind of hquor, made by
diftblving a little butter of antimony in a great deal of wa-
ter. See Spirit uf Venus.

Acetum Port aide. Sec Vinegar.

AciTV n prophylafllcum is a preparation made in the fol-
lowing manner. K flor. luvend. ct rorifm. fol. rutx, ab-
finth. falvix, menth. a a. m. j. Aceti vini cong. j. infund.
in B. A. per 8 dies. R hujus tinft. ]{)j. camph. ji''- m. f.
This is alfo called the vinegar of the four thiei'es ; for dur-
ing the plague at Marfcilles, four perfons by the ufe of it,
attended many of the fick unhurt : under the colour of their
fervices they robbed the fiek and the dead ; but one of
them being apprehended, faved himfelf from the gallows,
by difcovering this remedy. Motherby's Dltl. by Wallis.

Acetum rofatum, vinegar of rofes, is made of rofe
buds infufed in vinegar forty or fifty days ; the rofes are
then prefted out, and the vinegar preferved. It is chiefly
ufed by way of embrocation on the head and temples in the
head-ach. After the like manner are made acetum famhu-
cinum, vinegar of elder ; acetum anthnfitum, vinegar of rofc-
mary flowers ; acetum fcilliticum, vinegar of fquills. The
German difpenfatories abound with medicated vinegars,
chiefly aimed againft peftilential difeafts ; but they are cot
ufed among us.

ACH, or AcHEN, 'John Van, in Biography, a painter
of hiftory and portrait, was bom at Cologne, in 1556, and
died, aged 65, in 1621. Having ftudied and praftifcd
portrait-painting for fome time in his own country, he tra-
velled to Venice, in order to obtain a more extenfive know-
ledge of colouring ; and with a view of perfefting his tafte,
and improving in correftnefs of defign, he fettled for fome
years at Rome. Here he painted a nativity for the church
of the Jefuits, and a portrait of Madona Venufta, a cele-
brated performer on the Kite, which is accounted one of
his beft performances. The beft judges allow his colouring
to be extremely good, his defign corrcft, and that the airs-
of his heads manifcft much of the tafte of Correggpo. His
talents, and polite accomphftiments, recommended him to-
feveral confiderable princes of Europe ; and under the pa-
tronage of the eleftor of Bavaria, he painted a grand defign
of the invention of the crofs, which is highly commended
for the elegance of the compofition, the correftnefs of the
defign, the graceful airs of the heads, and the attitudes o9
the figures. For this, and bis portraits of the eleiilorai

family,

A C II

fs-mily, he was prefentcd by the elector with a chain and
nieJal of gold, as a peculiar token of his eileeni. Ijy the
emperor Rodolph he was invited to Prague, where lie
executed a |)i(fi:iire of Venu.^ and Adonis, fo much to the
emperor's fatisfattion, tliat he was partieularly diiUngnilhed
by him an long as he lived. His chaiader was that of one
of the bell mailers of his time. Pilkinglon's Dift.

ACHA, or AcA, in Gco^^rnphy, a diftrid of Africa, on
the conhnes of I.ybia ; formcily rich and populous, but now
reduced : the chief produce is dates.

ACHABYTUS, in yjnmnt Geography, a high moun-
tain in Rhodes, on the top of which flood a temple of
Jupiter.

ACHAC, in Orn'i'.hology, the name given by the people
of the Philippine illands to a bird common there. It is of
the ^\Li of a common hen ; its belly, breaft, and neck arc
of a pale brown, and its back of a dully reddifii colour ; its
wings ari extremely beautiful, being principally of a grcenilh
blue colour ; the tail is wliite, ihoit, and contiiuially in mo-
tion ; the eyes are black, and the beak is thick and llrong,
and is of a black colour, and of an obtufe figure ; the legs
ait rcddifh, and the claws black : when it makes any noife,
it feems to utter the word pht, pin, very often repeated.
It lives principally about the c'- >tivated parts of the illands,
and feeds on rice and other vegetables, being properly of
the partridge kind.

ACHiEA, in Andent Geography, a well fortified town
of the illand of Rhodes, in the dillrift of Jalyfus, faid to be
the firil and mod ancient of all, and to have been built by
the Heliadf.s, or children of the Sun. Diod. Sicul. 1. t.
c. 57. torn. I. p. 376. Ed. WefTeling.

AcH^A was alfo a hamlet of Allatic Sarmatia, on the
Eiixine. The inhabitants were a colony of Orchomenians,
and called Achic'i.

AcH.'EANS, Achxi, in Ancient H'ljlory, the inhabitants of
AcHAiA Propria, fo called from Achaeus, the fon of
Xuthus, who having been baniihed from ThefTaly, fettled in
Athens, mamed Creufa, the daughter of Ereclheus, and
had by her two fons, r/z. Achnsus and Ion. Achxus,
puuing himfelf at the head of a fmall number of Athenian
and jEgialean forces, made an expedition into ThefTaly, and
recovered his grandfather's kingdom ; but having com-
mitted the crime of manflaughter, he was foon obhged to
fly to Laconia, where he ditd, and where hi.i pollerity re-
mained, under the denomination of Achxans, till they were
expelled by tlie Dores and licraclidsE. On this occalion
tliey determined to lay claim to Achaia, and to expel the
lonians. They founded their title on their defcent from
the eldeil fon of Xnthus, and enforced it by collecting a
number of troops, and arranging themfelves under tlitir
brave king Tifamenes, the fon of Orefles. The lonians
were overpon'ered, and driven into Attica ; and the Achae-
an? took pofTeirion of the kingdom, winch confilled chiefly
of twelve cities. Thefc cities were divided between the four
fons of Tilamenes ; who, vmiling with their coulin, the fon
of Penthillus, and grandfon ot Orefles, a.'id jointlj re:gnini^
over this new Achaian ilatc for fome time, agreed to form
an alliance with Preagcnes, and liis fon Palrus, the fove-
reigns of thofe Ach^rans, who had been banifhed out of
I/aca;demon, and gave them the fovereignrj- and territories
of a city, which from the la!l of thefe was called Palnr.
The Ach^Eans fortified themfelves fo well in their new fet-
tlement, after having expelled the lonians, tli.* diey were
able to defend themfelves againfl tiie Heraclldfe, snd to
preferve their laws and hbcrty, even after all the refl of
Peloponnefus had been fubdued by them, and under a feries
of k'ngs from Tifamenes to Ogygus ; after which they
formed themfelves into a kind of republic, or dijmocracy.

A C H

As their country- was poor, witliout commerce, and almofl
without indulhy, iti nihabitants enjoyed the l.berty and
equality afforded them by a wife IcgiPature. Strangers tj
the deiirc of conquell, and having liule conntdion with
cornipt nations, they never employed fi-aud and falfehood
even againfl their enemies ; and as all their cities had th^-
fame laws, and the fame offices i.\i magiflracy, they fonr.ed
only one body, and one ftate : and the harmony that pre-
vailed among them pervaded ever\- clafs of citizens. Th:
excellence of their coniHtution, and the probity of their
magillrate'; were fo univerfally allowed, that the Greek
cities of Italy addrefled themfelves to this people to become
their arbitrators, and fome of them even fonntd a iimilar con-
fedei-acy. The Laceda;moniar.s and Tlnbans, wlio refpcc-
lively claimed the vidoiy at Leuftra, referred their difpnie,
in which their honour was fo materially interelled, and
which demanded the mofl impartial decifion, to the deter-
mination of the Achx-ans. Having long retained their li-
berty, they ceafed not to atTemble, when the ncceflity of
public deliberation required it, even when the reft of Greece
was threatened with wars and peflilcnce. Polybius obfci-vcs,
that the Achreans fo far gained the eftcem and confidence
of all the Pelopoanefians, that their name became common
to that whole country. The anns wliich thefe people
chiefly ufed were flings, in the ufe of which they were
tramed from their infancy, and acquired fuch dexterity,
that they flruck any objeft at which they aimed with fur-
prifing exaftnefs. The Achsan government continued in
its democratic form from the expulfion of Ogygus or Gyge.-,
the lall king of Achaia, to tlic time of Alexander the
Great ; after whofe death this little republic v.as involved
in all the calamities that are infeparable from difcord, and
was conftrained to fubmit to the Macedonian yoke. The
Achxans then changed mailers as often as Macedon changed
fovereigns, and were frequently enOaved by tyrants of tlieir
own. Unable to bear this flavifli fubjedion, in the 125th
olympiad, ante Chr. 280, when Pyrriius invaded Italy, they
revived their ancient union. The firfl affertors of hberty
were the inhabitants of Patrx and Dyma, and they v.eic
foon joined by thofe of iEgium, Dura, and others. The
good order that reigned in this little republic, where liberty
and equality, with a iincere zeal for jullice and tlie public
welfare, were the fundamental principles of their govern-
ment, induced feveral neighbouring cities to join them.
The Achxan league thua revived, and extending its influ-
ence, was firfl acceded to by the Sicyonians, under the di-
redion of Aratus ; they were followed by other flatcs not
only of Peloponnefus, but by all Greece, except the Lace-
dx-monians, who firll entered into a war againfl tlie .■\cl!ian«.
By the Achrean league, all the cities fubject to it, v.ere go-
verned by the great council, or general afTembly of the na-
tion. To this afTembly each of them had a right to fend a
certain number of deputies, who were eleded in their rc-
fpedive cities by a plurality of voices. As the fuprcme and
legifl^itive power was lodged in thij afTembly, it was con-
flantly convened, except on extraordlnaiy oecaiions, twice
a-year; on which occafions they enacled laws, difpofed of
vacant employments, declared war, made peace, and con-
cluded alliances ; and the acts of the afTembly w.tc bindin"
on all the confederated cities. The chief mag fli ate of the
league, called by the Greeks flrategos, and by the Latins
pnctor, was chofen by the majority of votes. At firll they
had two oflicei-s of this kind ; but they w>r>- foon rcdtieej
to one, who prclided in the diet, and commanf'eJ the
army. The prxtor, and other magitlrates, conrinucd in
the fame office two years fucccfhvely. The former was rc-
fponfible to the general afTembly. The drmiurgi were
next in power to the prator, and arc therefore denominated

T2 by

A C H

by Polybius ar.d Livj-, the luprcme mi^^illrates of the
Achscans. Their number was ten ; they woe chofen by
the general afTembly, and their ofRce w-as to aflill the prae-
tor, who was not allowed to - propofe any meal'ure to the
ancmbly, which had not been prcvioully approved of by
the majority of th'.fe demiurgi. In fome extraordinary
cafes they were allowed to fummon the general afTenibly.
Such was the fundamental conflitution of the Aehxans ;
and they had alfo ftveiallaws, whicli wore relipiouny obferved
as long as the republic continued in a (louriihing condition.
Their peace and profperity, however, were interrupted by
the jealoufy of neighbouring ftates ; and particularly by the
Lacedaemonians, who, about the year before Chrift 227^
commenced a war againil them, which, from the name of
C'.eomcncs their king, was called the Cleomenic ■tt'.'?.-.
The Achxanj, under the command of Aratus, were fuc-
ceflively defeated, and reduced t<_ fuch a Hate of diftrcfs, as
to be under a neceflity of engaging Antigonus, king of
Macedon, to affiil them. In a variety of fubfequent con-
tefts, the AchTan; behaved with uncommon bravery, and
Philopoemen diftinguilhed himfelf above the reft. Clco-
menes was defeated ; and Anligonus received the thanks of
the deputies of each city comprehended under the Achian
league ; and, by a decree of the council afTembled at Argos,
was declared proteclor of Achaia. The Aehxans after-
wards took part with the Meffenians againft the iEtolians ;
and being overpowered by them, recuiTed to Philip of
Miccdon, who promifed to aflill; them with the whole force
of his kingdom. A confederacy was formed, and war, called
from this icircum.flance the confederate war, was proclaimed
againft the common enemy. This war having terminated
firft in a treaty between Philip and the Achaeans on one fide,
and the ^Etohans, Lacedaemonians, and Eleans, on the
other, and foon after in a peace ; the Aehxans returned to
their ancient manner of hfe, rebuilt their cities, temples, and
altars, reftored their worlhip, and repaired the various
damages which they had fuftained during the progrefs of
the war. Philip, however, foon changed his conduft to-
wards the Achxrins, and diilurbL-d that tranquillity which he
had been the inftrument of eftabliliiing. As they refufed
to concur with him in his purpofe of fubjefting the Mefleni-
ars, who were members of the Achsean body, he afcribed
their rehictance io Aratu'?, whom he contrived to remove
by poifon, whilft he was prxtor of the Achaeans fi;r the
feventeenth time. When Aratus perceived the danger of
his fituition, he faid to an intii'atj fiiend who attended
him, " Behold, my dear Cephalion, the efFcft of fricnd-
" fhip with kings." This diftingui.'hed magiftrate doled
his life at iEgium, in the 57th year of his age, and was in-
terred with extraordinar)' pomp and folemnity at Sicyon,
the place of his nativity ; ar.d the part of the city in which
he was buried, was from that time called Aratium, in
honour of his memory. The Aehxans alfo decreed, that
divine honours Ihould be paid him, and appointed a pricft
for that purpofe. The conduft of Philip incenfed the
Aehxans, and when a favourable opportunity occurred
they teftilied their difpleafure. In the mean while they
concurred with him in carrying on the war with the iEto-
Jians, who had formed an aUiance with the Romans. Phi-
lopoemen gaintd new honours ; and in the year before
Chrift 210, was appointed, for the firft time, commander
in chief of the Achxan forces. After a veiy decifive viftoiy
over the Lacedxmonians, the jEtohans fued for peace, and
obtained it ; and the Romans alfo concluded a treaty of peace
and amity with Philip and his allies. This peace was not
of long duration. The Romans declared war againft Philip,
who was joined by the Aehxans and Lacedxmonians. It was
not long however before the Achaeans formed an allisnce wiUi

A C H

the Romans, to whom they maintained a fteady attachment
during the whole couife of this war. At the conclufion of
it, tliey were put into pofteftion of Corinlli ; the Greeks
were declared free by the Romans ; and the Aehxans
amongll others, were delivered from every kind of ftrvitude,
and allowed to govern thcmfelves by their own laws. Soon
after the departure of the Romans, Nabis, who had been
left in poileinon of Lactdxmon, began to raife infurrec-
tions in the maritime cities, which were garrifoned by the
Aehxans ; and thefe hoftilities obliged them to have re-
courfe to the Romans, and to declare war againft Nabis.
The whole management of this war was committed to
Philopcrmen. After a defeat by fea, and a very fortu-
nate efcape, this illuftrious general obtained a complete vic-
to.y over Nabis by land ; and was thus enabled to unite the
powerful city of Laced.xmon to the Achxan commonwealth
in the year before Chrift 191 : by which means the Aehxans
eclipfed all the other States of Greece. Philopoemen, with
a dilintertftednefs and patriotifm that fei-vtd to eftabhih his
reputation move than all his militai-y exploits, refufed to ac-
cept a prefent of 120 talents, the produce of the palace
and furniture of Nabis, which the Lacedxmonians offered
him as a token of their gratitude. Recommending the ap-
plication of this money to t'v purpofe of conciliating the
difcontented, he faid to thofe who urged his acceptance of it,
" it is much more advilabie to ftop an enemy's mouth than
" a friend's ; as for me, I ihall always be your friend, and
" you iliall reap the benefit of my friendfhip without ex-
" pence." The Achxan republic, by the addition of La-
cedxmon, and the protedion of Rome, was now become
verv formidable. But internal difputes about the place of
holding their affemblies, which were transferred by Philo-
poemen from iEgium to Argos, and the more important
quarrel with the Lacedxmonians, and their attempt to fecede
from the Achxan league, produced an interruption of their
tranquillity, and expofcd them to new dangers. Lacedx-
mon, indeed, was reduced by the Aehxans ; and Philopoe-
men ordered them to demolifti their walls, difband their
mercenaries, drive out all the flaves whom the tyrants had
fet at liberty, receive the exiles, and renounce the laws of
Lvcurgus, and for the future govern themfelves only by-
thofe of Achaia. At this time the Achxan league was in
great repute all over the Eaft, and the friendlhip of a ftate
10 powerful was couited by all the princes ofAfia. The-
ancient alliance with Ptulcmy, king of Egypt, and with Se-i
leucus, king of Syria, was renewed. But the Romars be-
came jealous of their increafing power, and interfered with
their internal government. The city MefTene withdrew
from tiie Achxan league ; and philopccmen, in his endea-
vour to reclaim the rebels, was defeated, taken prifoner,
and put to death. When he held the cup of poifon in his
haiid, he enquired whether Lycoitas and the Megalopolitari
youth, who had accompr.nied him as volunteers, had got
into a place of fafety ; and being informed, that they had
all made their efcape ; he rephed, " That is enough ; I
" die content." Upon his death the glory of Achaia be-
gan to decline ; fo that Philopcemen was not improperly
called the laft of the Greeks, as Brutus was aftervv.irds
ftyled the laft of the Romans. MefTene was afterwards re-
ftored to the Achxan league ; and the Rom.ms imperioufly
urging the rcadmiflion of the Lacedxm.onians, the Aehxans
were obliged to fubmit. In the year before Chrift 169,
when a war broke out between the Romans, and Perfcus king
of Macedon, the Aehxans declared for the Romans, and
Polvbius was fent to the Roman general with the refolutioa
of the Achxan diet. However, feveral of the Aehxans
favoured Perfeus ; and a thoufand of them were fummoned
to appear before the Roman fenate. Thefe perfons were

kept

A C H

A C H

Iccpt clofe pnfuncrs at Rome ; and, notwitliflanding re-
peated remonftrances, their trial was delayed. After a con-
finement of 1 7 years, 300 of them, who had furvived the
hardfliips which they experienced, were fent home. This
treatment alienated the minds of the Achaeans from the
Romans ; and, by degrees, brought on an open war, which
ended in the rcduttion of Achaia, and the difTolution of the
Achrsan league. Cominiirioners were fent from Rome, in
the year before Chrllt 147, who announced the orders of
the Roman fenate and people, that all the cities which were
not fonnerly of the Achxan league, viz. Corinth, I^ace-
dcemon, Argos, Heraclea, and Orchomenos, Ihoiild be ftpa-
rated from the general alliance, and governed by their own
laws, independeiuly of the confederacy. The Achaean de-
puties, afrcmbled at Corinth, as foon as they heard thcfe
words, left the affenibly before Aurelius had finifl.jd his
fpeech, and when they informed the people of the Roman
decree, the whole city was in an uproar j and both the
commiffioners and Liceda:monians were treated with the
moil outrageous infult and violence. The fcnate was in-
cenfed, but fent out new commiffioncro with propofals of
accommodation. But thcfe ambaffadors having been treated
with difrefpect, returned with their complaints to the fenate.
Four other Romans were deputed by Metellus to negociate
with the Aclueans ; but their endeavours v.-ere ineffeiSlual.
The confequence of tliefe unfuccefsful efforts was an open
rupture, and the declaration of war with Lacedaemon and
the Romans. Metellus, without waiting for the orders of
the fenate, marched towards Achaia ; and the Achaeans,
joined by the cities of Tiicbes and Chalcis, prepared to re-
ceive him. The greater number of them were llriick with
terror, and fent new deputies to Metellus to treat of peace.
But the Achaeans, now governed by magiilrates, who had
no other rule of conduft but their paflions, and no other ta-
lent for war befides a favage iieicenefs, and a blind defire
of revenge, feemed to be devoted to deftruftion. On this
occafion, after Metellus had in vain endeavoured to fettle
the affairs of Achaia, Mummius arrived in Greece, and de-
feated the Achxans ; and in the year before Chrift 146,
plundered Corinth of its rich fpoils, and then reduced it
to afhes ; and under the ruins of this city the Achxan
league feemed to be buried. Ten commiffioners were fent
from Rome, to regulate the affairs of Greece in general,
and of Achaia in partioilar, in eonjunftion with the conful.
Thefe abolifned popular government in all the cities, and
cftabliihed magiftrates, who were to govern each city ac-
cording to their refpeclive laws, tinder the fuperlntendcncy
of a Roman prxtor. Thus the Achaean league was dif-
folved, and Greece reduced to a Roman province, called
the province of Achaia ; becaufe, at the taking of Corinth,
the Achff ans were the moll powerful people of Greece. The
whole nation p-iid an annual tribute to Rome ; and the praetor
who was fent thither eveiy year, was charged with the care
of collefting it. From this time Achaia was governed like
the other Roman provinces till the reign of Nero, who rellored
the whole of Greece to the enjoyment of its ancient liberties ;
but it was afterwards reduced by Vefpafian to its former
ftate of fubjeftion. Under Nerva, fome fhadow of liberty
was rellored ; but it was ftlll governed by a Roman pnetor.
In this condition the Achaeans remained till the time of
Cordantine the Great, wlio, in his new partition of the
Roman provinces, fi'Iijedlcil Achaia to the p-'tefeft of lllyri-
cum. Upon the di'.ifion of tiie empire, Achaia, with the
reft of Greece, fell to the rrnperors of the Eaft. Under
ArcadiuB and Hononns, all :hefe provinces fufiered greatly
by the incurfioijs of the Goths, who, under their k^ng
Alaric, laid wafte ihe whole country, and reduced the mag-

nificent ftrufturcs that were then remaining to heaps of
ruins. In the reign of tlie emperor Emanuel, in the 12th
century, Peloponnefut was divided into feveii principalities,
and he bellowed thein on his fcven fons. In tlie 13th ccn-
tiu-y, when Conftantinople was taken by the wellerii princes,
the maritime cities of Peloponiiefus, with mod of the
idands, were allotted to the Venetians. In the 15th ccn-
tui-y, Conllantine Diacofes, defpot of Morea, being raifed
to the imperial throne, divided that province between his
two fons, beftowing .Sparta on one of them, and Corinth on
the other. Mahomet II. taking advantage of their divifions,
llripped them both of their dominion. Tiie Mahomitans
having gain..d poffeffion of Morea, drove the Venetians
from the cities which they potTcired on the coall, and made
themfelvcs mailers of that fruitful province, till they were
expelled by the Venetians in 1687. By the treaty of Carl-
witz, in 1699, the barbarians yielded it to the republic of
Venice ; but retook it in 1715 ; and in their hands it llili
continues, being govemed by a Sangiac, under the begler-
beg of Greece, Vilio refides at Modon. On the fubjedt of
this article, fee Polybius Hift. and Excei-pt. leg. Index, verb.
Achxi, Ed. Cafaub. Paufanias Grxc. Defer, p. 521, &c.
558, See. Ed. Kuhnii. Strabo Geog. tom. ii. Index verb.
Achaeorum, Aclicei and Achaia, Ed. Cafaub. Plut. in
Arat. Cleom. et Philop. Livy, tom. iv. and v. ubi Index,
Sec. verb. Acluei. Ed. Drakenb. JulUn. 1. xxxiv. c. I.
Sueton. in Neron. ct Vcfpaf. tom. ii. Ed. Pitifc. Plin. 1. viii.
Ep. 24. Herodot. p. 71. Ed. WefTel. Anc. Un. H.
vol. vi. p. 44 — 155. Anacharfis's Travels, &c. vol. iii. p.
401 — 406. Sec alto an elaborate difcourfe on the origin, na-
ture, and objetl, &c. of the Achaean league, compared with
the Belgic and Helvetic confederacies, intitled, Dlfcours
qui a remporte le Prix de 1' Academic Royale dcs Infcrip-
tions et Belles Lettres, de Paris, in 1782, &c. by M. J. de
Meerman, 4to. Hague, 1784. — and an abflraft of it in the
Monthly Review, vol. Ixxi. p. 531, &c.

ACHiEMENES, in yJ»cU-rU Bl/Iory, was grandfather
of Cambyfes, and great grandfather of Cyrus the Firlt,
king of Periia. According to Herodotus, p. 51 J : — and
according to the fame hiilorian, p. 199. 548. there was a
fon of Darius I. king of Perfia, and brother of Xerxes,
who was of the fame name. This Achimenes govemed
Egypt, after Xerxes had reftored them to their allegiance,
and he commanded the Egyptian fleet in the celebrated ex-
pedition which proved fo fatal to all Greece. Having been
fent into Egypt to fupprefs a rebellion, which occurred af-
ter the death of Xerxes, he was vanquilhed and flaiii by
Inarus, chief of the rebels. The term yich^tncniiu is a very
common Perfian epithet : Stephanus Byzantius fays, that
Achxmenia is a part of Perfia, fo called from Aehxmencs,
fon of YEgeur.. According to Herodotus, p. 63, the
Aehxm.enida; were certain tribes from which the Perfian
kings fprung : and Strabo (vol. ii. p. 1059.) reckons the
Achaerrenidae as one of the three principal nations of Perfia.
Horace (1. 2. od. 12.) mentions an Acha-mcnes who was
very rich ; and who is fuppofed, by his commentators, to
have been one of the Perfian monarchs.

ACHjEMENIA, in JncienI Gcosraphy, a part of Perfia,
according to Stephanus By/.antius and Strabo, lo called
from its firll king Ac H/T-MKNEs. It is fomctimes iifcd to
fignify Ptrfia in general, particularly by Herodotus, who
reprefents Cambyfes, in nn oration, calling his people
Achaemen'ds.

ACH.fEMENIS, in Bntany, a fpecies of the Teu-

CRIUM.

ACHjEORUM porliis, in ytndenl Geography, a harbour
of the Cherfonefus Taurica, on the Euxine ; and another

mentioned

A C II

.Bieniloncd by Strabo (Gcog. vol. ii. p. ^90.) ; and alio by
Pliny, (Hill. Nat. vol. i. p. 2S2.) near Sigxum, into
\vh:-h tlic river Xanthu";, after having been joined by the
Simois, falls.

ACH^Uv'i, the fon of Andromachus, whofe fiftcr
vcas the wite of Se)eiicus Ceraunus, was oflcred the crown
of Syria, as fuccefTor to Sclcucii?, but declined in favour
of Antiochiis, the brother of the deceafcd king, who was
aftenvard'; furnamcd the Great. All the provinces of Afia
Minor were committed to the chaigc of Achxus. In this
ftation he wrefted from Attain,;, king of I'ergamns, all the
countries in Afia which that princt. had feizcd, and annexed
them to the crown of Syria ; when deligns were formed
sgainft him, he feized the crown which he had before re-
futed, and was crowned at I-aodlcen, in Phiygia, aduming
ever aftenvards the regal title in all letters to the cities of
Afia, and obliging them to give it him in all their addreffes.
Antiochus having fuecetded in feveral enterprifcs, direfted
hi,; attention towards carrj'ing on the war in Alia Minor
againil Achaeus ; who being (hut up in the caftle of Sardis,
was delivered to Antiochus, after he had taken the city. This
prince was moved with compafiion towards a perfon to whom
he had once owed his crown ; but motives of ftate prevailing
over his natural tendeniefs, he ordered him to be pirt to
death in the manner related by Poivbius, 1. viii. p. ;^28. Ed.
Cafaub. For an account of Achnus the fon of Xuthus ; fee
Acn«AM.<;.

ACHAIA, in Ancient Geogrnphf, was ufed in three
different fenfes. In the earlier ages it comprehended all the
provinces of that great continent, which the geographers,
ftric^ly fpeaking, call Greeck. It was afterwards confined
to that naiTow diftrici of Peloponnefu,?, which was pof-
feffed by the Ach^eans in the more limited fenfe of the
appellation, and which extended weihvard along the bay
of Corinth, that lay to the north, and was bounded on the
weft by the Ionian fea, on the fouth by Elis and Arcadia,
and on the caft by Sicyonia. This was called Acha'ia pro-
pria, and it is now denominated Romania alia, and forms a
part of CJ.Hfirenga or Clarengam the More A. Its metro-
polis, according to fome, was Paine, and according to
others JEctvM. In the Roman times the name of Acha'ui
comprifed not only all Peloponnelus, but fuch other cities
beyond the ifthmus as had entered into the Achxan league ;
•upon the dilfolution of which Greece was, by a decree of the
Roman fenate, divided into two provinces, vi/,. that of Ma-
cedonia, containing alfo Theffaly, and that of Acha'ia which
included all the other ftatcs of Greece.

ACHAI7E Pnjliyleri, Pn^/iylcrs of Aclnua, in Ecd-fajli.
tal H'lftory, thofe who were prefent at the martyrdom of
St. Andrew the apoftle, A. D. 59 ; and who aie faid to
have written an epiiHe relating to it. Bellannine, and other
Romilh writers allow it to be genuine; but Dupin, (Hilh
of Eccl. Writers, vol. i. p. I7)''and many otli/rs rtjeft it.

ACHAIirS, in Br'itijh Hijlory, the fon of Etlnvin, who
was raifed to the crouii of Seotlaad, A. D. 788. At the
defire of the emperor Charlemagne, an alliance with him
againft the Englidi, whofe pirates iufefted the foas and in-
terrupted commerce, was concluded in France upon con-
ditions fo advantageous to the Scots, that Acbaius, to per-
petuate the memory of it, added to the arms of Scotland a
double field fowed with lilies. lie died in 819.

ACHALACTLI, or, as Buffon has contrafted the
name, Alatli, in Ornilholrgy, the Alcedo torquata of
Linnxus and Gmtlin, the cinereous King-Fisher of La-
tham, and the Collared-hird of Nierembei-g, in one of the
largcft king-filhers, being near i6 inches long. Its fpecific
characters are, that it ii Ihort-tailed, half-crefced, hoary-

A C II

bhiiHi, with a white collar, and its wings and tail fpoltcd
with white. The upper part of the bctiy is bluiih-grcy,
and this colour is va'-iegated on the wing., wiih white fringcj
in ftlloons at the points of the quills, the largetl of which
are blackifli, and interfeeied within by broad white indent-
ingo ; ihofc of the tail are marked with broad llripes of
white ; the undcr-pait of the body is chefnut-rufous, di-
luted towards the breaft, and there fcaled or mailed with
grey ; the throat is white, which colour forms an entire
circuit on the neck ; the whole head and nape of the neck
are of the fame bluidi grey colour with the back. The
beak is (harp, and about three fingers breadth long ; it is
red, with a ir.ixture of blnekifh brown at the bale ; and the
feet are red. This bird is niigntory ; and at a certain time
of the year vlfits the northern provinces of M^.xico ; and is
alfo found in Martinico and the Antilles. It feeds on fi!h,
whence its name Achalafui, i. e. devourer of fifh.

ACHAM, in Geography, a counti-y in Afia, bounded on
the N. by Bout;in, on tlie E. by Chi.ia, on the S. by Bur-
mah, and on the W. by Hindollan. It is verj- little known
to the Europeans.

ACHAMjE, in Ancient Geography, the name of a people
who inhabited that part of Lybia interior, which is near the
mountain Arvaltes, and on tlie confines of the equinodiafc
line.

ACHAMELLA, in B.yiany. See Acmella.
ACHiVN, in Scripture Hijlory, the fon of Carmi, of the
tribe of Judah : who, when Jericho vv.:s taken, concealed
200 Ihekcls of filver, a Babylonilh garm.ent, and a wedge of
gold, in dlredl violation of a divine pi-ohibition. After the
ifraelites had been repulfed at Ai, they caft lots in order to
dilcover the offender, who had been acceffoiy to this cala-
mity ; and when Achan was found to be the guilty perfon,
he and his children were ftoned to death, and afterwards
burned. Jofliua, chap. vii. Some have fuppofed, that
Achan alone was put to death, and underftand the words,
" and they ftoned them,'' (v. 25) as it is in the Hebrew, and
not him, as in our tranwation, of Achan and his cattle.
Grotius in I.oc. Others fuppofe, that Achan's children
were accomplices in his crime. St. Aullin vindicates the
jufticc of this aft, on the ground of God's having a right to
relume the life he has given, when and how he pleafes.
Some have alleged, that the fcverity of this punifliment wa»
necedaiy to keep the people in awe, and to oblige them to
a perfeft fubminion to the divine commands.

ACHANDES, in Lhlbyohgy, a name given by fome to
the Re MORA.

ACHANE, A;^;a>>i, an ancient Pcrfian com-meafurc, con-
taining 45 Attic medimni.
ACHANI. SeeAcHEM.

ACHANIA, in Botany, from 'x-x^-y-rr.:, non hient, becaiife
the corolla does not open ; a genus of the mir.adclphia pn'ly^
anilria clafs, and the natural Older of coiun.r.ijerx. Ths
c'laracters are, that the calyx has a double periar.thium, the
outer having many leaves, and the leaflets being linear, per-
manent, and (lightly coakfcing at the bafe ; the corolla i»
fubclavate and convoluted ; and the petals are five, obovate-
oblong, ereft, with a lobe at the bafe on one fide, involving
the column of ttamens : the ftamens are numerous filaments,
coalefcing into a writhed tube longer than the corolla, free
at top, and eapillaiy ; the anthers are ob'ong ; the piilillum
has a fubglobular germen ; the ftyle is filifo:m, of the fame
length with the tube of tlie flamen,", ttn-clefc at top, thj
fegments fpreading, the ftigmas capitate ; the periearpinm ii
a lubglobular, tlefhy, five-celled beriy ; the feeds are h hlaiy, ■
on one fide convex, and angular on the other. There are
three fpecies, viz. the A. mahavij'cus, icarlet achauia,

' or

A C II

A C II

•rbaflard hibifcus, which is a native of Mexicft and Jamaica, Bochart. (Gtog. Sacr. 1. i. c. 29. Open torn. i. 549, T.A.
cultivat'.d here in 1714 by the dutchcfs of Beaufort, and Villcm.) fiippofts, that the name of llic llonc and nvtr ig
flowering through tlie greatcft part of the year ; the Mollis, derived from the Punic "Ipy, varied or /potted, referring to
or woolly achania, a native of South America and the Weft the varied colours of the ftone.

India Iflands, found in Jamaica by Houftoun, in 1730, and Achatf.s, in Knlunil Jiifinry, the ftonc called Acatf.
introduced in 1780, by B. Bewick, Efq. and flowering in ACHATINA, in A'rt/;//W //y/'^rj, a fpccics of Bi-lla,
Augiui and September ; — and \.\\c fdnfa, or hairy achania, in the cl;ifs of ttftaceous worms; with an ovatcd (liell, fan-
a n:itive of Jamaica, introduced in 1780 by Mr. G. Alex- guineous, obovated, aperture, and apex, and a truncated
ander, and flowering in November. Achania is generally columella. It has varieties ; fucli a* the while with yellow
propagated by cuttii:gs, which are planted in pots of light apex ; the yellow or white witli fanguineous columella ; and
earth, plunged into a gentle liot-hed, and kept from the air the white with clofc bands, and a pale columella. It is
till they take root, when they fliould be gradually inured found in the American ocean. Thi'i is alfo the name of the

CyfrjEA aniethv/lea in the Linnian fyllem, which is found
in Madagafcar.

ACH BOBBA, in Ornithology, a bird mentioned by
Dr. Shaw (Travels, v. ii. p. 449), of which numerous flocks
appear near the city of Cairo in Egypt, and feed upon the
carrion and filth that are thrown out of the city. The
the name of an herb much celebrated in many diftempers ; name, in the Turkilh language, fignifies -while father, and
whicn fome have fuppofcd to be what is called in Egypt is given to this bird partly from the reverence they have for
Uchove, an herb nearly refembling chamomile, but lower, it, and partly from tlie colour of its plumage. It is about
and with broader leaves, approaching to thofe of feverfew, the fize of a large capon. This bird is called by Belon the
and of a faint, but not difagreeable fmell. Avicenna feems, Egyptian Sacre, and it is a variety of the y/i^/m- Vu lture,
however, to have meant a diff"erent plant by this name, and or Fiihur percnoplerus of Linnxus. It is of a red tawny
probably the herb which we call Marvm. Profpcr. Alpin. a(h-colour, with dudiy fpots, and its feet are naked. Belon
ACHARACA, in Ancient Gergraphy, a town of Lydia, conceives that it is the Hierax, or Egyptian hawk of Hero-
fituate between Tralles and Nyfa ; in which were the dolus, which, like the Ibis, was held in veneration by the
temple of Pluto and Juno, and the cave Charonium, where ancient Egyptians, becaufe both of them eat and di.flroy the
patients flept in order to obtain a cure, either by the fug- ferpents and other noxious reptiles, which infeil Egypt.
geftions of their own minds, or by thofe of others, who, Buffon fuggefts that it may be the fame with the Carrion

to the open air. They muft be preferved ui wmter m a
moderate ftove ; and kept warm in fumnier, they will
flower, and fometimes ripen fruit. The achania, in the
Linnscan fyftem by Gmelin, is made a fpecies of Malva-
Tiscus. Maityn's Mill. Dift.

ACHAOVA, in the Materia MeJica of the ancients,

in

during their fleep, were diretled what effeftual remedies to
prefcrlbe. Strabo Geog. vol. ii. p. 960 — I.

ACHARISTON, from a, luilhont, and xapi,-, value, a
denomination under which Galen defcribes fome compofi-
tioas of fmgular efficacy, which cured fo quickly, that they
Were undervalued.

ACHARNA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Attica,
pear Cecropia ; the largeft of thofe towns, according to
Thucydidcs, (1. ii. c. 19- p. III. Ed. Dukeri) which were

Vidture.

ACHE, or AcH, a painful ailment in any part of the
body. Aches may be either fcorbutic, or rheumatic, owing
to violent pains, or the like. See Headach.

Ache, in old authors, a name given to the plant called
Apittm palujlre, or paludapium, in Englirti, Smallagf.

ACHEEN, Ache, or Achen, in Geography, a kingdom
of Sumatra, lying on the N. W. part of the ifland. Its
capital, of the fame name, is fituated on a river which

called Jn/noi, or villages. Pindar (Nem. Od. ii. v. 25, p. 333, empties ilfelf near the N. W. point, or y^f/wn-head, about

Ed. Weft and Wclfted) fays, it had been famous for brave two miles from the mouth. N. lat. 5° 22'. E.long. 95° 40'.

men ; and it was particularly celebrated as the birth-place The town lies in a valley, formed like an amphitheatre by

of Themiftocles. Corn. Nep. c. i. two lofty ranges of hills. The river difcharges itfelf into

ACHARON, in Entomology, a fpecies of sphinx, of an the fca by feveral channels, and is veiy fhallow at the bar.

azure colour, with brown wings, and red anus ; found in The houfes, of which there are about 800, are built of

New Holland. b.imboo and rough timber, and they are raifed by means of

ACH ASA, in Ancient Geography, a country of Scythia pillars to fome height above the ground, in order to pre-

beyond the mountain Imaus. ierve them from inundation and damps in the rainy fealon.

ACHAT, in our Lsiiu French, fignifies a contraft, or In the centre of the town, which has neither wall nor moat,

bargain; efpccially in the v;ay of purcliafe. Purveyors were is the king's palace, v.'hich is a large though rude edifice,

by aft of parliiment 34 Edw. III. ordained to be thence- and encompafled by a deep moat and ftrong walls. Though

forth called Achnton. this place is no longer the mart of eaftern commodities, it

ACHATES, in Biography, the companion and faithful carries on a confiderable trade with the nations of that part

friend of jEneas, who is celebrated by Virgil, and fo called, of the coaft of Hindoftan called Telinga ; by whom they

fays Servius, either in reference to fome properties of the are fupplied with the cotton goods of the country, and who

achates or agate mentioned by Pliny, or from ax"-., the receive in return gold-duft, Japan wood, betel-nut, pepper,

concern he felt on account of iEneas. Virgil, by Mafvic. fulphur, camphor, and benzoin. The European traders

T. i. p. 336, n. 178. fupply the country with Bengal opium, iron, and other

ACHATES, in ^n/omo/ooj;, a fpecies of Pa pi lid, with articles of merchandize. The inhabitants manufaAure a

black wings, red at their bafe, and the hinder marked with confiderable quantity of a thick kind of cotton-cloth, and of

a white fpot ; found in China. lUitf for the (liort drawers woni by the Malays and Achenefe.

Achates, m Ancient Geography, a river of Sicily, now They alfo weave pieces of filk, of a particular form, for the

the Drillo, which runs from N. to S. near, and almoft pa-
rallel to, the Gela. Silius records it, (1. xiv. v. 229) " Et
perlucentem fplendenti gurgitc Achaten," and Phny,

Malayan drefs. Acheen is deemed, comparatively, healthy,
being lefs fubjctl to complaints arifiiig from woods and
fwamps than other parts of the ifland ; and the foil is light

(H. N. 1. xxxvii. c. 10. p. 786, Ed. Hard. J fays, that the and fertile, producing rice and cotton, and a variety of i x-
achatcs or agate was firfl found on the banks of this river. ccUent fruits. The raw Clk of the country is of inferior

quality.

A C H

A C H

qviality. The mountains near Acheen pvoduce s fiiuill quan-.
tity ot" gold-dull ; but the greatcil pan is broiii^ht from the
fouthcni ports of Nalabviu and Soofoo. The fiilphur is
eoUeded from a volcano in the ncisjhbonrhood, and, befidcs
fupplying their own maniifadnre of gun-powder, admits of a
large exportation. The inhabitants are, with rcfpecl to
their pcrlons, taller, ilouter, and of a darker complexion
than the other LSuniatrans ; and they are fnppofed to be a
mixture of Battas, Malays, and Moors from the coail of
India. In their dii'poritions and habits, they are more pe-
netratnig and lagacious, more aClive and indullrious, and
paiTtfs a greater llock of knowledge than their neighbours.
With regard to reUgion, they are Maliometans ; and their
mofques and priefts are nimierous ; and the forms and cere-
monies of then- worfnip are llrirtly obfened. They are ex-
pert and bold navigators, and employ a conilderable number
ot vefTels for different purpofes. Being deftitute of conve-
nient coins, they commonly make their payments in gold-
duil, which they carry with them in pieces of bladder ; and
they ulc grain or feeds for weights. The government is
an hereditary monarchy, and the king has ufually a gmrd
ot lOO fcapovs about his palace. The grand council of the
nation conlills of the king, four other officers, eight of a
lower degree, who lit on his right hand, and fixtcen who fit
en his left. The king's plcalure is communicated by means
•of a woman, who Iks at his feet, to an eunuch near her,
and by him to an officer, -who proclaims it to the whole
affembly. Merchants and other ilrangei-s introduce thtm-
felves by prefents to the king and his officers. Whenever
an European enters the royal palace, he is obliged to take off
his {hoes. The royal throne was formerly made of ivory,
and tortoife-fhell ; and, when queens governed, a curtain of
gauze was hung before it. After the ftranger has been
introduced, he is entertained in a feparatc building with
the delicacies of the countr)-, and returns in the evening,
attended by a prodigious number of lights. On high days
the king goes in great ftate, mounted on an elephant richly
caparifoned, to the great mofque ; and he is preceded by
officers armed very much after the European manner.

The countiy under the immediate jurifdic^ion of Acheen
is divided into three diilrifts ; each of which is governed
by a Pangleemo, and fubordinate officers. Crimes are
feverely puniflied, and \vithout any commutation by the
Achenefe laws. Petty theft incurs the fufpenfion of the
criminal from a tree, Avith a heavy weight tied to his feet,
or the cutting off a finger, hand, or leg, according to the
nature of the offence. Highway robbery, and houfe -breaking
are punifhed by drowning, and expofmg the body on
a flake for fome days. If an imaum or pried be robbed,
the criminal is burned alive. The adulterer is delivered up
to the friends and relations of the injured hufband, who form
a circle roimd him ; and, if he be not fo fortunate as to
make his efcape, he is prefently cut to pieces, and buried
without being admitted into any houfe, or the performance
of any funeral rites. Notwithftanding thefe difcouran-e-
ments to iniquity, the Acheneje are reprefented by travellers
as one of the moll difhonell and flagitious nations of the
call.

For other particulars, we muft refer to Mr. Marfden's
account of Sumatra. Acheen was vifited by the Portu-
guefe in rjog, but thsy could form no eftablifhment in the
country. C plain Lancailer was very d'fferently received
in t6o2. He made a treaty in behalf of the Englifti Eaft
India company, with the king of Acheen, and obtained for
the company pccaliar privileges. They had for many years
a faftory at Acheen. See Sumatra.

ACHEIROPOIETA, formed of o^prlv. x»h band, and

ir-)!'!', to naif, and denoting m/rJe whhout hands, an epithtt
given to an image of Chrift in the Lateran church at Rome,
which is faid to have been defigncd and iketched by Luke,
and linifhcd by angels.

ACHELOUS, in Lniomoh^y, a fpccics of PhaLvTka,
with .ferruginous wings, and the anterior marked with a
white point and fafcia : it is large, and found m America.

Acf, F.LOUS, in Mythology, is faid to have wreilled with
Hercules for Deianira, the daughter of king Ocneus, and,
affuming the Ihape of a bull, Hercules is faid to have
broken oft' one of his horns, which was reflored on condition
of his givip.g the vi>ilorthe honi of Amnlthea, the fame with
the Cornucopia, or horn of plenty, which Hercules filled
with various fruits, and coufLcrated to Jupiter. For the
meaning of the fable, fee the next article.

Ach: LOUS, in Hydrogniply, a river of Acarnania, which
rifes in niount Pindus, and, dividing iEtolia from Acarnania,
flows from N. to S. into the Sinus Corinthiacus. It was
formerly called Thoas on account of its irnpetuofity, and by
Homer, (Iliad, 1. xxi. v. 1 94.) the hmg of r'fuers. The
epithet AchAohis is ufed by Virgil, (1. i. v. 9.) ior aqueus,
the reafon of which, according to Senius (in loc.) is, that
Achelons, on account of the u.itiquity oi this river, was ufed
by the ancients as a denomination of water in general.
Tiie ancient poets called rivers Taurifor:nes, either from the
bellowing of their waters, or from their ploughing the earth
in their courfe. The fable in the preceding article is ex-
plained by fome in this manner. Achelous being a rapid
and winding river, roared like a bull, and often overflowed
its banks ; but Hercules, by dividing it into two channels,
and rellraining its in'.mdations by mounds and ditches,
broke off one of the bull's horns, and reflored plenty to the
country. See Strabo (Geog. 1. x. vol. 2. p. 703 — 4. Ed.
Amft.). There are other rivers of this name in Achaia
Propria, Theffaly, and Afia Minor.

ACHEM, in Geography, a country of Africa, in that
part denominated the 'iti.h'^i.-coajl. The extent of this
countr)' is unknown : the negroes affert that it reaches to
the coaft of Barbary. It is divided into great and little
Achem, which were formerly united under one monarchy,
but are now two feparate republics : little Achem is denomi-
nated Achan'i, or Akann'i. There is a town of the fame name,
fometimes called Acmeny. N. lat. 8. 30. E. long. o. 30..
Moll of the gold exported from this country is brought
to the European forts at Acra. The negroes of both
thefe dillriils are of an infolent and haughty charafter, va-
1 ling themfelves on the fuperiority they once maintained
in refpeft of their neighbours ; but civil diffenfions have of
late ri-ndered them lefs formidable.

ACHEMENIS, in Botany, an herb mentioned by Pliny
(H. N. I. xxi. c. 4. torn. ii. p. 392.) fuppofed by the an-
cients to have the property of exciting terror in their armies,
and putting them to flight. The fable may probably de-
note, that foldiers could not profper in war with plants in
their hands.

ACHEMON, in Entomology, a fpecies of Sphinx, yel-
low, with glafs-coloured wings, black at their apex, and
the fore wings yellow at their bafe ; found in Jamaica.

ACHERIjLuKE d', in Biography, s. learned Benedi£line
of the congregation of St. Maur, was bom at St. Quintin
in Picardy, in 1609, and made himfelf famous by printing
feveral works, that exifted in MS. with prefaces and notes ;
fuch as Barnabas's Epifl;le, the works of Archbifltop Lan-
franc, the Life and Writings of Guibert Abbot of Nogent,
and a coUeftion of curious pieces, begun in 165 J, and con-
cluded in 1677, under the title of Spicilegium, /'. if. Glean-
ings, in <3 volumes 4to. In 1723, it was reprinted by

M.dc

A C H

M. (Ic la Barrif, in tliree volumes folio. With regard to fub-
jedls of ecclefiaftical liillory this may be an ufcful book of
reference. The title of the Afts of the Saints, of the
order of vSt. liennet, alfo exprefles, that they were coUefted
and publilhed by him and Mrsblllon. He died at Pans
April 291)1, 1685, in the abbey of St. Germain, where he
had been librarian. Gen. Ditt.

ACHERNER, or Acharni-r, \n /IJlmnomy, a ftar of
the lirll ma:rnitiide in the fontiiern extremity of the con-
llellation Ep.idanus, but invllible in our latitude. It is
marked a by Bayer. Its longitude for 1761 was X i I ° 5 1 ' 1 " ;
and latitude 59° 22' 4" S.

ACHERON, in Mythology, a river of Epirus, which
the pocta feigned to be the fon of Ceres, whom flie hid in
hell for fear of the Titans, and converted into a river, over
which fouls departed were ferried in their way to Elyfiuni.
The Acheron of the lower regions is derived by Servius
and others from ay='j x^-P^f' ivuhout joy.

Acheron, in /Ir.cienl Geography, a river of Thcoprotia in
Epirus, now Delichi ; which, rifing in the country of the
Mulofll and forming the lake of Acherufia, falls into the fca
near the promontory of Chimerium, to the weft of the Sinus
Ambracius, in a courfe from N. to S. Such is the account
of Ptolemy, Slrabo, and Thucydides. PHny fays, that it
fprings in the above-mentioned lake, and empties itfelf into
the Anibracian gulph.

Acheron, or Acheros, is a river of the Brutii in Italy,
now Sa'juto, running from E. to W. In this river Alex-
ander king of Epirus was (lain by the Lucani, being de-
ceived by the oracle of Dodona, which bade him beware of
Acheron, and of the city of Pandofia. Alexander, not
knowing that in this country there were a river and city of
the fame names with thofo of Epirus, purfued his military
operations without fear of danger. But, being driven by
the enemy to the border of a river, which v%'as overflown with
rains, he plunged into it on horfeback ; when one of his at-
tendants, feeing him in danger of Ijeing drowned, exclaimed,
" curfed Acheron ! thou art juftly called by a fatal name !"
At thtfe words Alexander recollected the admonition of
the oracle : and, whilil he r/as hefitating whether he fhould
proceed or net, lie was tralteroudy put to death by one of
the Lucani, who were appointed to be his guards. Livy,
1. viii. c. 24. vol. ii. p. 760. Ed. Drak.

ACIIERONTA,in^,-;.'(;CT5/oo-y,afpeciesofpAPiLio,with
deutated wings, the anterior being red at their bafe, and black
at the apex, fpottcd v>itli white. It is found in Brafil.

ACHERONTIA, a fmall city of Apulia, now ylcerenza,
fituate on a hill, and thence called by Horace (Od. 3, 4.)
a bird's neft.

iVCHERSET, in Engiyii Jiniiquity, a mcafure of corn
conjeCLUred to be the fame with our quarter or eight buihels.
Tiie monks of Peterboroiigh had a weekly allowance of
1 2 ncherfcies tie frumcnto, and 8 achcrfotes di brqfio, and
6 degradl, and 1 1 r.chsrfotes defabh, &c. Spelman.

ACHERUSIA palus, in ylndr.t Geography, a lake be-
tween Cumas and the promontory Mifenurn, now // largn
dtila CoUaria, or del Fufaro. Some confound it with the
lacus Lucrhtiis, and others with the L;cus jl-vernl ; but
Strabo (vol. i. p. 374) and Pliny (H.N. 1. iii. c. 5. vol. i.
p. 1 54) diilli'.guirn them. The former fupppfes it to be
an '■iTufion of the fea ; and therefore called by Lycophrsn,
■(v. 6y5) A;)^;p>io-t» yji^'-^- There if a lake of Epirus of this
name, through which the Acheron nnis. There is alfo an
Aclierufia, which is a peninfula of Bithynia on the Euxine,
n^ar lieraclea ; and a cave of the fame name, through which
Hercides is fabled to have defcended into hell,, to drag forth
Cerberus.

Vol. I,

A C II

ACIIATA, in r.iiiomoi^v, a name by whicli Linnxu.\
has dilUnguilhed the tliird taniily of tlie Grylli's; the
charaiSlers of which arc, that they h.ive two briillcs lituated
above the extremity of the abdomen, and three lien. mala ;
and that the tarli are compofed of three articulation-^
.Twenty-eight fpccies are enumerated in the new edition of
tlie Syllema Naturi. The infeds of this family feed upon
tlie roots of plants. See Cricket.

ACHIA, a kind of cane which grows in the Eall In-
dies, and is picklrd there while green, with llrong vinegar
and pcppjr, together with fome other fpice and ingredic!il-.

ACHIACHICA, in Gecgmphy, a town of the province
of Angelos or Tlascala in Mexico.

ACHIjENUS, ot Acii;einus, in Natural Hijlory, a
word ufed by the ancients to exprefs a flag' or deer, in the
fccond year's age. In the full it was called nebrus, in the
third diciotus, and always after that ceralles.

ACIIIAR, is a Malayan word, fignifying all forts of
fruits and roots pickled with vinegar and fpice. The
Dutch import from Batavia all forts of Achiar. The name
is applied to whatever the Achiar is made of, as- bamboo
achiar, &c.

ACHICOLUM, is ufed to exprefs the fornix, thohis,
or fudatorium of the ancient baths ; which was a hot room
where they ufed to fweat. It was alfo called architiiolus.

ACHILLEA, Mdfoil, in Botany, fo called from Achilles,
who is fuppofed to have acquired fome knowledge of
botany from his mailer Chiron ; and to have ufed this plant
for the cure of wounds and ulcers ; a genus of t.\\c fyngeiirfa
polygamiaj'upcrf.v.a clafs of plants, and of the natural order of
compofttx difcoidcir : the characters are, that the common
calyx is ovated, and imbricated, with ovate, acute, converging
fcales ; the compound corolla is radiate, the hermapln'odltc
coroUcts are tubular in the dl(lc ; and the females ligulate,
being from five to ten in the ray ; the proper corolla of the
hermaphrodites is funnel-fhaped, five-cleft, and fpreading ;
the female obcordate, fpreading and trifid, the middle clclt
being lefs than the others : the {lamina in the hermaphnv
dites confift of five capillary, veiy fi'.ort filaments, and the
anther is cylindrical and tubular ; the piilillum in the her-
maphrodites has a fmall germ, a filiform ftyle of the length
of the ilamens, and an obtufe, cmarginate lligma ; in the
females, a fmall germ,- i'lliform llyle, of the fame length as in
the others, and two obtule, reflex lligmas ; there is no peri-
carpium ; the calyx is fcarcely changed ; the receptacle i^s
filiform, elongate as the di(k of tlie feeds, ovate, and twice the
length of the calyx : the feeds are folitary, ovate, fu'iiilheil .
with flocksjbut without down ; and tlie reccptaculum k chad y
and elevated ; the chaffs being lanceolate, of the ler.gth of
the florets. There are 27 fpecies, vi/.. i. the Sautolina or
lavender cotton leaved Milfoil, with large yellow flowers
Handing fingly on long peduncles, v.hofe leaves v.hen rubbed
emit a Ilrong oily odour, an inhabitant of the Levant, cul-
tivated by rjiller in 1759, and flowering in June and July :
— 2. the Agkratum, fvveet M. or maudlin: — 3. tiic
falcnta, or fickie-lcaved M. a native of the eaft, where it is
ufed in medrcine : — 4. the tomtr.tofa, or woolly M. which
grosvs naturally in Spain, the South of France, and Italy,
bears the open air in England, was cultivated in the O^:ford^
garden in 1658, and bears flowers that retain their beauty
for a confidcruble time : — 5. the puhejccns, or downy M.
witlioat clialTs to the receptacle, a native of the Levant, and
cultivated in theCJicIfea garden in 1 739 : — 6. ^Malrotcn'Solin,
or fouthern-wcod leaved M. a native of the Levant, whicWa s
cultivatvd by Mr. Miller in 1739, and flowers in J'.ne a»(l
July :— 7. the I'p'mr.ata, a native of the Levant :— 8. the
jEgyJitlajj, v.;th iuie filveiy leaves, which make a good ap-
U pcai-ancc

A C II

prararce through the year, a native of the Levant, and
cultivated at Chelfea in 17 12. All the preceding fin'cics
have ycUow corollas : tlie corollas of the follmvinjr arc white
in the rr.y : — 9. the macrophylla, or feverfew-leaved M. whofe
leaves refemble tliofe of the eoninion fneezewort, and are of
the fize cf thofe of the tanfv, the fcsles of the calys cdrjeil
v.'ith black, the plant, and especially the flowers, fnielling like
fneezewort ; a native of the Alps, hardy, and thriving m
a-.iy foil, ai;d deferving a pljce in gardens ; flowering in July
and Aiiguil, and cultivated by Mr. MiUcr in 1759: — 10. the
i,npr,r:trts, with a ftein red at bottom, and ter^ninating in a
handfome umbel of white flowers, and the florets in the ray
elegantly cut, frequent in Sibci-ia : — 1 1. cla-venc^, or filven--
kaved M. the Abfynthium album of Gerard and Ray, a
rative of the Alps of Switzerland, Auftria, Pannonia, and
Carinthia, culti\-ated in 1683 by Mr. J. Sutherland: — 12.
ptarim:a, or fneezewort M. growing wild in all the tem-
perate parts of Europe, found in Britain not uncommonly
in meadows, by the fides of ditches, on the balks of corn-
fields, in moiit woods, and (hady places ; the (hoots are put
into fallets, and the roots, being hot and biting, are ufed for
tlie toothach, whence the plant has been called baftard
pellitor)- ; and, on account of the form of the leaf, goofe-
tongue : the powder of the dried leaves ufed as fnuft pro-
vokes fneezing, whence the name ; in Siberia a decoft:on of
the whole herb is fp.id to be fiiccefsfuUy ufed in internal
hcsmorrhages : oT this plant there is a variety with double
flowers called batckchr's luttons ; it flowers in July anel
Angufl, and makes a tolerable appearance : — 13. j'llfnm, or
Alpine M. refembling the laft, and by fome fuppofed to
be a variety of it ; a native of Switzerland, Savoy, and Siberia,
vciy hardy, cultivated here by Mr. Miller in 1731 : — 14.
fsrrntc, or nctch-leaved M. appearing like ptarmica, flow-
ering in Anguft and September, and introduced, with the
next fpccies, in 1784, by Mr. J. GrsefFer : — 15. cnjlc.ia, or
flender-branchcd M. a native of the Eaft, flowering here
in July and Auguit : — 16. atrata, or camomile-leaved or
black M. found on the mountains of Switzerland, theValais,
and Anftria, and introduced here in 1774 by Drs. Pitcaim
and FothergiO : — 17. mofchata, muflc M. or Swifs genipi,
an excellent fudorific, but injurious in the pleurify attended
vvith high fever, promifuig to be ferviceable in diforders
arifmg from a dcbihty of tlie folids, and yielding a grateful
food to cattle ; it grows wild on the high Alps, in Savoy,
Piedmont, and Auflria, and was introduced in 1775 by
Drs. Pitcairn and Fothergill :.. — 18. nana, or dwarf M.
found ai the high Alps of Switzerland, the Valais, ar.d Sa-
voy, vciy hardy, thrives in any foil, loves an open expofure,
and deferves a place in gardens: — 19. magna, great M.
or Yarrow, found in Italy, and cultivated here in 1683
by Mr. J. Sutherland : — 20. mllefol'tjm, comm.on M. or
Yarrow, abundant in paftures and by the fides of roads,
flov/ering from June to September ; mixed inftead of hops,
by the inhabitants of Dalekarlia, in their ale, in order to
give it an inebriating quality; recommend, d by Anderfon
in his Eflays on Agriculture, for cultivation, though
thought to be a m x'rus weed ;n paftures : the bruifc-d herb
frefh is recommended by Linnitus as an excellent vulnerary
and ftyptic, and by foreign phyf;cians in haemorrhages, and
tho-ight by Dr. Hill to be exe.iKnt in dyfenteries, when
admmiilercd in the form of a ftror.g decoftio;-. ; an ointment
is made of it for the piles, ivA for the fcab in Iheep ; and an
efTert.al oil is extraited from the flowers ; but it is not ufed
in the prefent pr^ftice : — 21. nob'ilh, a rative of Italy,
Ccruiany, Sw'tzerl.md, Narbonie, and Tartary, and cul-
tivated in 1640 by Mr. J. Park^nfon : — zi, oJoraUi, or
fcentcjl M. thought by Gerard and Haiier to be a variety of

A C H

the former, and a native of the fame place r — 23. Cretlcc, or

Cretan M. a native of Crete : — 24. fquarrofa, rough-
headed ?> I. introduced in 1775 by M. Thonin : — 2^. Hcr-
barota, eftecmed among the peafant:^ of the Alps as a fudo-
rific againil worms, flatulencies, and intermittent fevers :
— 26. llgUiTica, marjoram-fcented M. having a ilrong fmcll,
as well as the lait, like maudlin : — 27. tanarcllf'Jia, taniy.
leaved M. a native of the Grilons, and not uncommon irt
t!ie paftures and valleys of the Alps. In the latl edition of
I^inncus, Gmelin enumerates 32 fpecies, omitting the
bipi.'innle, and adding the lobata, capiL:la, coronop'ifol'ia, Hal-
Uii, ni'craiilha, TmApUofa.

All the fpecies of the ^IchUha may he propagated by part-
ing the roots either in fpringor autumn. The feeds of many
of them may be I'own in March or April, and they may be
tranfplanted at Michaelmas. They will flower the follow-
ing ftuumer. As they ai-e raoftly hardy, they will require
little care in the cultivation. Miller's l)ict. by Martyn..

Achillea hioilora. See Athanasia.

Achillea montana. See Senecio.

Achillea ianacetifoUa of Miller. Sec Chrvsanthe-

MUM.

Achillea, in the Materia Medica of the ancients, a name
given to the gum, which we at this time know by that of the
Sanguis draconis, or Dragon.'s blood. The ancient
Greeks called this cinnabari ; aud the ufe of the word for
the m.incral which we now call cinnabar, was only becaufe it
had -lie lame red colour with this gum. Avictnna, treat-
ing of the Achillea fays, it is othervvife called Sanguis,
draconis, and defcribes it as a real gmu, univeriaily knowa
in his time.

Achillea, in jUncicnl Geography. See Leuce.

ACHILLEIS, or AcHiLLEiD, in L.i.erary HiJlor\', a
celebrated poem of Statins, of the epic kind, in whicK he
propofed to deliver the whole hfe and attions of Achilles.
It only comprehends hii infancy ; the poet being prevented
from proceeding by death. It is a point controverted among,
critics, whether the whole life of a hero, e. g. of Achilles, be
a proper fubjeft of an epic poem ?

ACHILLEON, in Ancient Geography, a town and pro-
montory of the Cimmerian Bofphoriis, where anciently was
the temple of Achilles ; now Capo d'l Croce,

ACHILLES, in yfncienl H'ljlnry, the fon of Peleus and
Thetis, was one of the moft celebrated heroes of Greece.
He was born at Phthia in Theifaly. His rrother, it is
faid, dipped him in the river Styx, by which his v^hole
body became invulnerable, except the heel by which flie held
him. This relation, however, is not univerfally received ;
for it appears by Homer's account, (II. 1. xxi. v. 161, &•,■.)
that he v/as aftually wounded in the light arm by the li'.nce
of AfteropKUS, in a battle near the river Scamander. He
was entrulled alfo by Thetis to the care of the centaur
Chnon, who fed him with honey and the marrow of lions
and wild boars, in order to fit him for enduring martial toil,
and taught him horfemanlhip and the life of anus. When
file attempted, by conceahng him among young women at
the court of Lycomedes, to prevent his going to the fiege
of Troy, where, as ilie had been warned by an oracle, he
would be flain ; Ulyffes, being admonifhed by an old pre-
diftion that, without Achilles, the enterprife apainft Troy
would be unfuecefsiul, difcovered hint, and pei fuaded him
to follow the Greeks : his mother having procured for him
an armour made by Vulcan, which wss impenetrable.
During his concealment he is faid to have debauched one of
the king's daughters, of whom was born Pyrrhus, king of
Epirus. Paufanias obferves, that Homer has omitted this
circumftance as diflionourable to his hero, though it has

been

A C II

been recorded by all the otl.er poet.. Av, th. ru'-e of
t'ov Achilles diftinguUhed hhnfclf by a vancty of hcro.c
Sns ; bi.t h,h^ difgulled ^vilh Agamemnon for the lo s
of Dnfcls, he retired from the camp. When he afte,-wards
returned to avenge the death of his friend Patroclus, he Hew
Uc&or, faftencd his eo>Tfe to his chanot and dragged h,m
thrice '-ovrnd the walls of Troy. The body was alterwards
r deled by the father with a large nm. At aft bemg
vounded in\he heel with an an-ow by Pans, the brother of
Heaor, whiUl he was in the temple treatn,g about h.s
,varra!'e with Philoxena, daughter to ku>g Pr.am, the
vound%roved fatal to bin. ; and he was interred on t hepro-
rontorj- of Siga:um. When Troy was taken, the Greeks
f c °c.^ PhilSxena on his tomb, in confornuty to Ins re-
ined that he miirht enjoy her company m the Elylian lields
11 fa that A'lexa.cL! when he'faw_ this tomb honoured
it by £ing a crown upon it ; exclaimmg at the fajne tnne,
hat' " Achfues .-as hajpy in having ^unng Ins hfe^ ud. a
friend as Patroclus, and after h.s death, a poet hke Home .
Ach lies is luppofed to have died 118+ years be ore the
Ch ftian L. ^ Isomer has been blamed for makmg his hero
Ac of too brutal a,>d unamiable a charaaer. Th,s

li Dr. Blair apprehends, is unjnft to Ach.Ues, and ,t ,.
founded on an exaggerated reprefentat.on of Ins charade, bj
Horace, de Arte Poet. p. 55. Ed. Wakefield.

" Impigcr, iraeundus, niexorabihs, acer, _ ^^
Tn4 neget hbi nata, nihil non an-ogtt armis.
The following brief account will fervc to vrndicate Homer,
as weU s his h'ero. " Achilles, fays Dr. Bla.r, (Led on
Rlet S:c. vol. iii. 240.) is paflionate, mdeed, to a great de-
ir • but he is far from being a contemner of laws and
full c'e. In the conteft with Agamemnon, though he car-
Sit on with too much heat, yet he has reafon oa h.s fide.
H va notorioufly wronged, but he fubm.ts • and refign
Brifeis peaceably when the heralds came to demand her ,
S y? - v> 1 %l^t no longer under the command of a leader
So had affronted him. °Befides h>s wonderful b.yery and
Tontempt of death, he has feveral other quahues of a he.o.
He is o^pen and fin^ere. He loves his fubjefts, and reve.-e
the JL He is diftinguifted by ftrong fnendHups and
^^iS^ts; he is, tlu-oughout, f^-^^^^f^^^^
honour^He; and, allowmg for a degree of feiocuy whKh
tZg d to'the times, and^nters into the cWafters of moft
of Homer's heroes, he is, upon the whole, abundantly fatted
to raife high admiration, though not pure efteem.
ArwiT I Fs T^Tius. See Tatius. ,, ,

i". .^E , h^ PMlop^phy, a name which the fcho<, s g.ve
to ^'pHSal-gu-ii alleged by each feA of phUo|o-
to tn^P'' ^ i^ of their fvften^. In this fenfc we fay, this
fhL'l^.S h^ tJ,ts mafter-proof, alluding to the
ftrenPth and mportance of Achilles among the Greeks.
Zeno's ar<.ument againft MOT.o«, is pecuharly termed
Ach lies That phdofopher made a companfon between
^ fi tnefs of AehiUes'andthe ""--f-f V^'lchillt
' nc., that if the tortoife were one ^f^.^'f^^-'^l^^^^l'^^
fnd 'the motion of Achilles ico t.mes fwifter tnan that ot
the torto^e yet he would never overtake tt ; and thence
'%::c?ud;d that there was no f-^l /'-'| ^ ^Xg
V,nt thi- is a mere fophifm ; and is eafily folved by LxprcUing
ttwiiok relative 'dillance ran by the tortoife before
AchiUes overtook him by the fc,llovvmg fenes, -r^ +

ACH

winrs black on the upper part, r blue band, «nd brown be
neath. and three or five ocelli ; found m America.

large tendon, formed b/the union of the foleus and gaftroc-
ncmius cxtenfor mufeles, which are •"'-■<;-'l ":'° ^^e os aU
cis See Ten DO /IchiKs, It is fo called becaufc the latal
wound, by which AchiUes is faid to have been ilain, wa.

^'TcmLL H..n, in G.o,raphy,p^^ W. point of the

idands of Achil on the W. coafi of Ireland. N. lat. 53
r , " W Ion 10°. 45'. The coall bet<s-een tins head and
Slmel;d is mnch'i^idented by bays and -eks. Arc e.
riflcer or Acharifton point is eight leagues S. of this head.
ZaIZ Sience to ^ine head, S. by E. -gj; "' - -^ "
Vv'ithin land there is between thefe a high hill, called bt.
P, i^k' h 11, which may be feen at fea to a great d.flance
Ach n head i a very high point, and appears at a diftancc
^th a loUow in the middle. Within this are two high
mountains ; and thefe three appear at fea like tl- ifl nds

ACHILLINI, Alcxanda; m 5;o^r/j//y', a natl^c ot
BoWa, and dil ingnifiied both as a ph.lofopher and a
KciJn. He flouriihed in the 15th and .^tn ccntunes
S was cidled, by way of eminence, the grea pnlo^-h^^^^^
His m-OErefs in his lludies was fo rapid, that he was pio
mote'dm early life to the honour of being a p^.ffor in h
univerfity. In the year 1506 he removed to 1 .-.dua, ul le
r fill 1 the firft chair of philofophy, and drew to his lee -
urSag^^t number of iludents.' ^Vhen the war, m which
e reiE of Venice was engaged agamft the league of
Cambr> o"ft>--^ him to leave Padua, he .-cturned .0
Stat^; country, and ^^^^^t^^^

SSJo":^^^. S^arSii-i-^yfaingui^ed

for li^ acutenefs in the conduft of private and public d.f-
niaittns To him fome have aferibed the dilcove,-y oUhc

S;:r:;d mcus, two ^^^x^^^^^-

friars. The following epitaph, compofed b) Janus nan.,
xvas infci-ibed on his tomb : viz. ^

" Hofpes, AchiUinum tumulo qn, q.wris, in ifto

Fallei-is ; ille fuo junaus Anftoteh

El fium coht ; et quas rertim hic difcere caufas

Vix ootuit, plenis nunc videt ocuhs.

Tu mod6,'per campos dum nobihs nmbra beato,

T,Tnt die lonffuin perpetnumque Vale.

H; wroJe vera^MCces on philofophical ubjeds. wh.cK

he pubU 1 and dcdlatcd to John Bentivogh His work.

nre . In Mundini Anatomen, Annotat.ones. Ven t. 5".

72 \ De Humani Cor^ioris Ariatomia W . 5.6.

\S' S":a a 3eaio; o?;il his works. phUo-
lln^ medical, was pu^i'^ed at Vemce ". J; o

■vhieh

; !■-_ of a mile

and the

I I $^c the fum ot wd*.^.. .- y,^ -

the tortoife. c^Tr.irr

Achilles, ^Wo/; in G.o,.rfl;%. SeeLEUCK.

XcH.LLEs; in Entomology, a fpeci« ot Paf.l.o, with

^^ai and mediea, --{>;;;--;;; ^Vother of the fnnner.
AcH.LL.Ni, John 1 "'^"J" 11 Vh-idario, in which arc

atin

A C H

ACIMLLISI, Cl.1

.Avnius, was rrand ncpl:ew of Alex-
ander. He was eminent as a phiiofopher, divine, lawyer,
orator, mathematician and poet. He read leftures at Fanna,
Ferrara and Bologna, the place of his nativity. His hopes
of preferment v.-erc repeatedly difappointed. At Isft, how-
ever, the duke of Parma appointed liim profefior of law,
with a good fnlar^'. He piiMllhcd a voliune of Latin letters,
and another of Italian poems at IJoloijna in 1632, which
giined him great rep'.itation. He was bom in 1574, and
died in 1640. Gen. Dic"l.

ACHILLIS D:-no; Ax'^^iio; A;o,uor, in yli7rinil C'fljr.-r-
^'|\', a pcninfula not far from Levce, or the ifland of Achilles,
and near the moufii of the Bon-IHiener-, in the Euxine fea ; fo
called from its being t!ic place whicl> the Grecian hero appro-
priated to his own ufe a^id that of his companions fur various
kinds of excrcife, a-id particularly tliat of running ; whence
Sfiyi f'-om i>f'f.'.v, to run. It is now called Fidonisi.

ACHli'.lBASSf, t!ie name of an officer, who prefidcs
over the practic; of medicine at Cairo. His bufinefs is to
examine porfons offering to praftife phyfic in that city, and
to licenfe b.ily fuch as are found to be duly qualified.
This -.ras, without doubt, the inteiition of the appointment :
but as the Achirnbafli purchafes his office of the Bafia, the
pr!-.'ilc2;e of praftiiing ph)^ic there is granted to tlie perfons
otTering th; largeil fee, and not to thofe moll dillinguilhed
by knov.-led^e in their profeffion.

ACHINOU Paji, in Giography, lies betwixt the iHand of
Negropont a:id the main in tiie Archipelago feti. N. lat.
39-- 4o\ E. long, if S5'-

ACHIOTTE, a red drug from America, ufcd in dying,
and in the preparation of chocolate. The word is Brafi-
lian, and properly Cgnifies the tree from which this matter is
procured. Ray writes it Achiote. Achiotte is the fame
with what the Fr;nch frequently call roucoii, and the Dutch
orkane. It was formerly, and even by Mr. Ray himfelf,
deemed a kind of a;-gilla, or earth ; but later obfervers find
it to be a flower, or feed of a tree, which grows chiefly in
hot countries, as Yucatan crCampeclie, and Guatimala. It is
about th J fize of a plum-tree, only more tufted ; its branches
being longer than the trunk. The fruit is iiicloied in a
rind like a chefnut, except that it is of an oval figure. It
begins to open crofsways from the middle to the top, and
fiibdivides into four parts ; having ip the middle a beautiful
carnation-coloured flower. The tree has no leaves ; but
inftead of thefe fiwots out filaments like tliofe of fafFron,
only bigger and longer. Between thefe grovz little foft
verrr.iiion-coloured grains, about the fize of pepper-corns ;
which the Indians, feparating from the filament, bake
in cakes of about half a pound each ; in which form
the drug is brought into Europe. For the ufes to which
it if applied, and the method of preparing it ; fee Ann otto
and Roucou. See alfo BixA Orrlhna.

ACHIROPOETOS. See Acheiropoieta.

ACHIVI, in Anc'tent Hijtory, a name given by the Ro-
inan poets to the people of Greece, oi- Achaia. See
AcH/EAXs. Homer (II. 1. iii. v. 8.) ufes the term to cx-
prefs aU the enemies of the Trojans.

ACHLEITTEN, in Geography, a town of Germany,
in the -circle of AuHria, on the Danube, four leagues
E. S. E. of Ens..

ACHLET, a town of Great Annenia, fituate on the
north fide of the lake Van, or Acramar, This toivn,
though fmall, is important to the Turks, becaufe it lies
on the frontier of their empire, and is well fortified. N.
lat. 39°. E. long. 7S° 20'.

ACHLIS, in Z::ology, a name given by Pliny to the
Cervus Alecs, or Ei.K.

A C H

ACHLYS, ax'-"-'» literally fignifying a kind of cloud,
in Surgery, a darknefs or dimnefs of fight. It alfo denotes
a fmall fear or mark over the pupil, of a light blue colour,
and is fynonymouj with caligo corncx, or blindnefs from
opacity of the cornea. It is the leucoma nephclium of Sau-
vagcs, and is defcribtd to be a fpcck of the cornea, iomc-
wliat pellucid, which occafions objcdts to appear as if fcen
through fmoke, or a cloud, and therefore obfcured. By
oWique infpeftion it is difcovtred to be different from the
opacity of the aqueous humour, accompanying fome dif-
eafcs of the eye. This fpecies often arifes from a variolous
ophthalmy, or moill one, or whatever can render the cor-
nea opake. In infants, as they grow up, it often vanithes
fpontancoufly. The juice of pimpernel, cither the blue or
purple, drO])ped into the eye twice aday for a week, and
the juice of the common ilar-thiftle and blue-bottle, are
ufcful. Sugar-candy powdered is often fufficient. Emetic
wine, which is the leail hurtful, may be dropped into the
eye with advantage. The vapours of annileed, or fennel-
feed water, are of fervicc. See Wallii's Nofologia JNIetho-
dica oculorum.

In a metapliorical fenfe, achlys alfo denotes a diforder of
the womb, aiifuering to what Latin authors cvMj'uff'ufo uteri.

AcHLYS, in Mythology, is applied by fome Greek authors
to the firil Being, who exiiled before the creation of the
world, of chaos, and of the gods.

ACHMET, in Biography, ai; Ardbian author, fuppofed
to have hved about the fourth centun-, wrote a book " On
the Interpretation of Dreanis, according to the doSrine of
the Indians, PeiTians, and Egj'ptians. The original is loll,
but it has been preferved by curiofily, or fuperilitious cre-
duhty in Greek and Latin. It was publiihed, together
with Artemidorus on Dreams and Chiromancy," by M»
Rigaud, at Paris, in 1 603, 410. Gen. Diet, and Gen..
Biog.

AcHMET I. empeixjr of the Turks, was third fon and.
fucceffor of Mahomet III. and afcended the throne before
he had attained the age of fifteen. His reign was attended
with various clrcumftanccs, both profperous and adverfe to
the Turkifh empire. The Afiatic rebeLi, who took refuge
in Perfia, involved the two empires in a war, during the
progrefs of which Bagdad was taken from the Turks, and
which lafted, with intemiiffions, for feveral years. In this
reign Tranfylvania and Hungary were the fcenes of warfare
between the Turks and Gemians ; and the fonner were af-
fifted by Bethlem Gabor and Potlkay. The tranquillity of
Achmet was difturbed by various difafters and calamities,
which occurred both by fea and land, by a pretender to his
throne, and by attempts on his life. His time, however,
was chiefly devoted to the gratifications of the haram, in
which he had 3000 women, and to the fports of the field,
for which purpofe he kept 40,000 falcontis, and nearly as
many huntfmen, in different parts of his dominions. He
expended large fums in building, and particularly on a
mofque which he erefted in tlie Hippodrome. Achmet
was lefs cruel than his prtdecefTors ; but he was haughty and
ambitious. His conftitution was ftronq;, and his life was
aftive ; neverthclefs he died at the age of 29, in 1617. His.
three fons fucceffively afceaded the throne after him. .Mod.
Un. Hifl. and Gen. Biog.

Achmet II. emperor of the Turks, fon of Sultan Ibra-
him, fucceeded his brother Solyman, in 1691. This prince,
though devout and inoffenfive, chearful and condefcending,
ju'l and amiable in private life, was deftitute of tlie talents
necefTaiy for the exercife of fovereign power. He was
fond of poetr)' and mufic, in both of which he made fome
proficiency. He died in 1695, at the age of 50, requeftJDg

his

A C H

A C II

liis fucceiTov M\iflaplin, to fpare the life of his fon. Mod.
Un. Hill, arid Gen. Biog.

AcKMET III. emperor of the Turks, fon of M;il;omct
IV. was raifed to the throne on the dcpcfition of his bro-
ther Muibipha II. in 1703. His firit objcft after remov-
ing the mnlecontents, was to nmiifs wcahh ; a:id with this
v'ew he debafed the coin, and hid new taxes. Wlien
Charles XII. of Sweden, in 1709, after the battle of Pul-
tnwa, took refuge in the Ti;rk.ifli dominions, he was re-
ceived with great hofpitvlity ; and under the influence of
the fuhana ir.other, war was declared againft Czar Peter,
which terminated by the peace of Priith. The king, how-
ever, was at length (ibligtd to quit the Turkiih dominions.
Aehmet recovered the Ivlorea fro.m the Venetians ; hut in
his expedition into Hungaiy, in I'iS, his army was de-
feated by Prince Eugene, at the battle of Petervraradin,
Achir.et was led by his minifters and favourites, and their
influence frequently occafioned political revolutions. He is
faid, however, to have reforted in difguife to public places,
in order to difcover the fentiments of his fubicfts. At
length a fedition amongil the foldicrs caufed hi? dethrone-
ment in 1730, and the elevation of his nephew Mahomet V.
He was confined in the apartment whence his fucceflor had
been taken, and continued unmolefted till he was removed
by an apoplexy in 1736, at the age of 74 years. Aehmet
was a prince of moderate abihties, and good intentions ; but
confidence in his vizier obfcured the lulire of his reign, and
brought it to a fpeedy termination. Mod. Un. Hill. Gen.
Biog.

ACHMETSHET, in Geo^r^ph, a town in the penin-
f da of the Crimea, the reiidence of the Sultan Galga, the
cldeil fon of the Khan of Tartai-y. It ftands on the largeft
river in the country. E. long. 52° 20'. N. lat.45'' 35'.

ACHMIM, a large town of Upper Egypt, fituatcd on
the eaftern bank of the Nile : the Chemmis of Herodotus,
and Panopolis of Strabo. On a triumphal arch, fituate a
few loO yards fouthof the convent, and built of marble by
the emperor Nero, there is a Greek infcrlption, fays Mr.
Bruce, CTaii Sei;. The temple of this place, fays Abiilfeda,
is one of the nioft celebrated monuments of antiquity ; being
conftrufted of ilones of a prodigious fize, on which are
fculpturcd innumerable figures. There may ftill be traced
four concentric circles in a fquare ; the innermoll of which
contains the fun ; the two next are divided into twelve parts,
one containing twelve birds, and the other twelve animals al-
moft effaced, which appear to be the figns of the zodiac ;
the fourth prefents twelve human figures, which Savaiy
fuppofes to be the twelve gods reprefenting the twelve
months of the year, as the Egyptians, according to plero-
dotus, (1. ii.) firll divided the year into twelve months, and
the angles of the fquare, oa the lides of which maybe diftin-
guiflied a globe with v^'^ngs, are occupied by the four feafons.
This temple was probably dedicated to the fun ; and thefe
various hieroglyphics mark his pailage into the figns of the
zodiac ; whence Savary inters, that the Egyptians polfcffed
the knowledge of allronomy from the remotefl. antiquity.
The ferpent Haridi is the wonder of the neighbouring coun-
ti-y. Sehcilk Haridi, above a centuiy ago, died m this
pkicc ; and as he was deemed a faint among the Mahonii.- ■
tans, they raifed a monument in honour of him, and one of
their pritfts perfuaded the people, that the foul of Haridi
paifed into the body of a ferpent. This artful prleif had
contrived to make a ferpent obedient to his voice, and he
pretended to perform a variety of tricks, and to cure many
diforders by means of this ferpent, which he confined to the
temb, and made the inftrument of great gain to himfelf.
The virtues of this ferpent are acknowledged by the Chrif-

tians of the country as well as by the Tui!;?; ar.d t}:ey
maintain, that it is the dxmon Afmodeus, who flew the
fcven hulbands of Toblt's wife, and tliat he was brouglit
by the angel Raphael to this place, after mctamorphofing
him, and that God makes ufe of him to deceive the infidels.
Though Aehmim has loll miicli of its ancient fplendour, it
is ftill one of tlie moll beautiful towns of I'ppcr Eg^pt. It
is fubjeft to a well regulated police. The ilixets are wide
and clean, and commerce and agriculture llourilh in its vici-
nity. It has a manufafture of cotton, ihiirs, and potter^-,
which are conveyed over the wliolc of Egypt. Brute
(Travels, &o. vol. i. p. 98.) fays, that the air is bad, and
the afpeft of the inliabitants, of whom he fpeaks in very de-
grading terms, yellow and unhealthy. See Savar)-'s Let-
ters on Egypt, vol. i. p. 562, &c. There is in this town
a convent of religious Francifcans eilabhflicd for the pur-
pofe of entertaining the pcrfetuted CInilHans in Nubia.
They are chiefly Catholics, intermixed with Cophts and
Moors. The poultiy bred here, and fent down to Cairo, h
efteemed the bell in Egypt. But the great export from
Aehmim is wheat, the country about it being fowii with
that grain, and the crops being fuperior to any in Egypt.
They have alfo abundance of tl(h, particularly the Binny.
The women feldom many after fixteen ; and feveral were
feen with child who were under eleven years of age.

ACHMOUNAIN, a village in Upper Egypt, about
four miles to the north of Melaoui, which is remarkable
for the ruins it contains, and particularly for a fupcrb portico
in good prefervation. On the frieze there arc carved feveral
hieroglyphics, which probably exhibit the hiilorv of the time,
the place, and the deity in whofe honour this monument,
was raifed. It is particularly dcfcribed by Savary. Letters,
vol. i. p. 546, &c.

ACHNE, A;i;v)!, has various fignifications : fometimes
it denotes lint, at other times chaft', or froth of the fca.
Hippocrates ufes it to denote a white mucilage, obftr able
in the eyes of patients who have fevers, and alfo a white
mucus in the fauces, throvi'U up from the lungs.

AcHNE, in Gcogmjihy, an ancient name given to one of
the illands of Rhodes, afterwards calhxl Cafes.

Achne\ in Mcilicine. See Acrimonv.

ACHOLLA, in ^Inc'unt Geography, z free city of Africa
propria, mentioned by Strabo and Stephanus ; called by
others Ac'iUa. Ptolemy has fixed its fituation between
Thapfns and Rufpx ; and Dr. Shaw (Trav. p. lit.) fuppofes
it to be the prefent Elalia, lying upon the boi-ders of a
fertil; plain, which extends from SaleCto to tlie vicinity cf
Sbeah.

ACHOMBONE, in Geography, the capital of the can-
ton of AxiM, on the gold coall of Africa. It is defended
by a Dutch fort ; and the houfes are feparatcd by avenues
planted with fruit-trees, which fonri elegant viltas. The
river Axim runs through the town.

ACHONRY, a fmall town of Ireland, in the province
of Connauglit, and county of Sligo, fituate on the river
Shannon.

ACHOR, in Scripture Geography, a valley of Jericho,
Ivlng along the river Jordan, not far from Gi'gal ; fo
called from Achan, who was there Honed to death.

AcHOR, in Mythology, the god of flies; to whom, ac-
cording to Pliny, the inhabitants of Cyrcne facrificed, in
order to obtain deliverance from thcfe infec\s, and the dif-
orders occafioned by them.

AcHOR, in Surgeiy, a fpecies of hei-pcs, the cniftea laftca
of fome authors, and in England the feald-head. It is a
fort of fmall running ulcer on the face and head, chiefly of
children while they fuck, by which the (kin is broke into ■

a niuubcr

A C II

a numSer of little holes, out of wliicli ifTues a vifcid hum'otir,
llki ichor, whence its name. When the dilcafe fpreads,
this ftriim dries, and forms a fcab. Achor differs from the
FAVUS and tinea only in the degree of virulence. When
the perforations are large, it is called favus, and tinea, when
tliey are like tliofc which arc made hy moths in cloth. By
tinea is generally iinderllood a dr\' fc.ib oa the haiiy Icalp ot
children, w th thick fcales, and an oficnfivc fmell ; and
when the diforder affcds the face, it h called crusta
/rtJf;!. Mr. Bell, in his trcalifc of ulcers, fays, that both
thefe may be reduced to the fame fpccies of herpes, iv'r.
the herpes puftulofus, as they differ only in fitiiation. Dr.
CuUcn confideis this difeafe as a fynonym of ulcus, where
he alfo places the crulla laclea, in llie clafs locale;, and or-
der d'lakfis. Wlien it happens to children, otherwfe
healthy,' it will be commonly fufficient to keep the belly
moderately lax, to prefcrvc cleanlinefs, and to relhici them
to a moderate diet. The hair (hould be kept fhort, and the
heed walhed with foap-fuds ; and an iffue may be of Icrvice.
"When the diforder is more violent, attended with much
itching, palenefs of countenance, and other unpleaiant
fymptoms, the fame method of treatment will generally fuc-
ceed. Small dofcs of calomel may be adniiniilered as an al-
terative, and the antmionial wine, at proper intervals, as
the ilomach will bear. The unguentum c pice may be ufed
externally two or three times a week ; or cream mixed with
chalk in tine powder. WHien the h.umoiir is repelled, warm
fudorifics fhould be ufed ; and thoiigh the cold-bath fliould
be avoided, the warm-bath will be beneficial. W'iien the
hair is Ihort, the part may be waflied with a lotion made of
aq. pur. J|>i. and gr. X. of hydrargyrus murlatus. Motherb.
Dift. by Wallis. See Acrimony and Tinea Capi-
tis.

ACHRADINA, or as Cicero has it, Acrarina, in
Ancunt Geography, one of the cities, or divifions of Syra-
cufe, and the largefi:, moft beautiful, raoft fertile, and
beft fortified of the five. The others were the ifland
Nafos, or Ortygia, Tyche, and Neapolis ; to which was
afterwards added the hill called Epipole. It was
adorned, according to Cicero, (1. iv. c. 53, de Syracufis,)
with a very Ipacious forum, beautiful porticos, a vei-y
tlegant pr,-taneum, a capacious fenate-houfe, and a fu-
perb temple of Jupiter Olympius. The rocks of this
quarter of Syracufe, which are formed by marine depoli-
tions, poflefs the fingular property of diffipating or ab-
forbing the moifture of dead bodies fo fpeedily, that they
are preferved in vaults excavated for the purpofe, in
their proper form and habiliments.

ACHRAS,orSAPOTA-PLUM, in Botany, a genus of the
Hexar.dna Monogyma clafs, and of the natural order of
Jiutiiof^. The characters are ; the calyx is a ptrianthium,
conr;it;ing of fix ovate, concave, erecl leaflets, the outer
broader and ihorter, and the inner coloured : the corolla is
one-pctalled, ovate, of the fame height with the calyx, with
the border cut into fix fubovate flat diviJlons, and fcales at
the jaws of the corolla, equal in length to the divifions,
narrower, fpreading, and eniarginate ; the flamina have fix
flioit awl-fhapcd filaments at the jaws of the corolla, alter-
nate with the divifions, bent inwards, and the anthers are
fliarp : the piftillnm has a roUndiih, flatted germen ; the
ftyle is awl-lhaped, and longer than the corolla-; and the
ftigma is obtufe : the pericarpium is a globofe, very fuccu-
leiit pomum, with twelve cells : the feeds are folitaiy, ovate,
fhining, fcarred on one fide, and pointed at the bafe. There
are four fpecies, -vi-z. i. The viammoj'a, or mammee fapota,
othcrwife called nippled S. or American marmelade, grov.--
ing in America to the height of thirty or forty feet, with

A C H

leaves a foot long, and three inches broad in the middli,
cream-cloured flowers, and large oval fruit, eontainmg a thick
lufcious pulp, called natural marmelade ; this tree is planted
for the fruit in Jamaica, Barbadoes, Cuba, and moil of the
Wcfl; India ifia ids, and was cultivated here by Mr. Miller
in 1739: of this there is a variety, called the bully or nif-
berry buUy-trce, becaufe it is the tallefl of all the trees in
the woods : it is efleemed one of the befl timber-trees in
Jamaica. 2- The fapota, which grows to the height of
fixty or fcventy feet, without knots or branches, and bears
a round, yellow fruit, bigger than a quince, which finelU
well, and is of an agreeable tafle ; it is common at Panama,
and foine oth.er places in the Spanilh V\'ell Indies, but not
to be found in many of the Englifli fettlemcnts ; it was cul-
tivated here by Mr. .AliHer, in 1739. 3- Tlie dijfe&a, or
cloven-flowered S. cultivated in Malabar for the fruit, which
is of the form and fi/.e of an olive, having a pulp of a
fweetifh acid flavour ; its leaves are ufed for cataplafms to
tumors, bruifed and boiled with the root of curcuma and
the leaves of ginger, fuppL/fed to he a native of tlie I'hili])-
pine iflands, and probably growing in China, and found by
Fortler, flowering in September, in the ifland ol Tong.i-
tabu. 4. The falicifol'ia, or willow-leaved S. called in Ja-
maica white-bidly tree, or galimrta wood, which fupplie.s
good' timber; cultivated here by Mr. Miller, in 1758. The
bark of the fapota and mammofa is very a!*:ringent, and is
called CORTEX jfamaicenfs. This was once fuppofed to be
the true Jefuit's bark, but its eftcct on the negroes has been
pernicious. Thefe trees being natives of veiy warm cli-
mates, cannot be preferved in England, unlefs they are
placed in the waiTuefl; lloves, and managed with great care.
Miller's Dia. by Martyn.

Gmelin has added the balafa, with ovatcd oblong leaves,
hoaiy underneath, and an oblong ovated pomum^

ACHRIDA. See Ochrida.

ACHROCORDES of Java, in Natural Hijlory, one
of the genera of ferpcnts, in the fecond volume of Count de
la Ccpede'o natural hiilor)'. This genus is defcribed by M.
Hornfladt, a Swedifii naturaliil. Its body and tuil are co-
vered with little warts or tubercles ; its back is black ; itj
belly and tides are whitifli ; the latter are iTi:irked with Black
fpots ; the head is flat, and covered v.-ith fmall icales ; each
jaw of the mouth, which has a fmaU opening, is armed with a
double row of teeth, but it has no poitonous fangs : the
largefi part of the body is near the anus, and the tail is re-
markably (lender. The fpecimen from which this dcfcrip-
tion was taken meafured eight feet and three inches in
length ; its tail was eleven inches long ; and the greater
diameter of the body was above tlirte inches. It was a
female, and in it were found five young ones, completely
formed, and nine inches long.

ACHROMATIC, compofed of x priv. and xfl^t co-
lour, and denoting icilhout colour, a term, fays M. de laf
Lande, fiinl introduced into his afl:ronomy, to denote tek-
fcopes of a new invention, contrived to remedy aben-ation
and colours. See Aberration and Telescope.

ACHRONICAL, m yljlronomy. See AcRONVCHAL.

xlCHSTEDE, in Geographx, a fmall town of the circle
of Ijower Saxony, in the duchy ot Bremen, two leagues
north of Bremen.

ACHSTETTEN, a town of Gennany, in the circle of
Swabia, two leagues N. AV. of Augfburg.

ACHTELING, a meafure for liquids ufed in Germany.
Thirty-two aclitehngs make a heemer ; four Iciltems or
fciltlns make ?.n achteling.

ACHTIAR, in Geography, a fmall commodious haven
near Inkcrman in the Black. Sea.

ACH-

A C I

A C I

ACHTIRKA, a town of RufTia, in tlie government of
Chirkov> ten Germnn miles W. S. W. of Charkov.

ACHTUBA, a river of RiilTu, w'nich rifes from the
Volga, a little above the town of T<; iiitzin, and runs pa-
rallel with that liver to Krafnoijar, near which place it joins
it, and Hows with it into the Cafpian Sea.

ACHY, a fpecies of Cassia, that grows in Arabia.

ACFIYR, in Gogrnphy, a ftron;^ town and caille of the
T^krain, fubjccl to the Rnflians fince 1667. It Hands on
the river UorfKolo, near the frontiers of RufHa, 127 miles
weft of Kiow. E. \on%. 36^ o'. N. lat. 4.9° 7,2'.

ACHYRACANTHA, in Botany, a name given by
Dillenius to the Ach vrantmks of Linnsus.

ACHYR ANTHA, a fpecies of Illeckbrum.

ACHYRANTHES, formed of c^yj^.p,, chnff, and a/Vo,-,
a floiaer, in Botany, a genus of the pentantlria m-mogyriia
Cull's of plants, belonging to the natural order of mi/cc'lctm-ie
Ijinn. and of (imara::tl.n Jufl". The characters are theie :
The calyx confifts of an outer perianlhium, that is tnree-
Icaved, lanceolate, acute, permanent ; and of an inner one,
that is five-leaved and permanent : it has no corolla ; the
neft.irium has five valves, furrounding the germ, bearded at
the tip, concave and caducous : the itamina are filiform fila-
ments, of the length of the corolla, and the anthers are
ovate and incumbent : the piliilhim has a fuperior turbinate
germ ; the ilyle is filiform, of the length of the ftamens, and
the ftigma is bifid and villous : the pericarpium is a capfule,
roundirti, one-celled, not gaping ; and the feed is fingle and
oblong. There are eleven fpecies, I'lz. I. afjicra, or
rough, of which there are two varieties ; the Sicilian plant
with oblong pointed leaves, growing near three feet high,
and the Indian, found in Malabar, Ceylon, Jamaica, and
almo'.l every where within the tropics, with broader leaves,
and on both fides fmooth and green, cultivated here in
1713: 2. hippacea, or burry, a lofty plant, a native of
Malabar and Ceylon, cultivated by Mr. Miller in 17J9:
3. mur'icata or prickly, a native of India, introduced in
'777' '^y ^^- Thouin : /^. patida or fprcading : 5. altcrni-
folia or alternate-leavcd ; both natives of the Eaft Indies : 6.
corymhoja, formerly belonging to the Ctl-.Jia of I^inna:us, a
native of Ceylon : 7. dichrAoma, a native of Virginia : 8.
praflra'.a, a native of India: 9. n'lvea or white, a native of
the Canary iflands, introduced liere in 1780, by Mr. Maflon,
and flowering from May to July: 10. ahlffima or tall,
climbing up trees to the height of twenty feet, common
about Kpanifh-town and Kingilon, in Jamaica, and in the
woods of Domingo, and called by Browne bnftard lioop-
v/iihe.: li.polyganoides, found in Arabia andMakbar. Gmelin
enumerates fixtcen fpecies ; adding the pappofa, v'lil'ifa, or
Illecebrum lanatum,pnn'icnlatj,capitaia, and decumleiis^iiowi
Forfl<. ji. (tg. Aral. The fcveral fpecies have little beauty,
and arc only preferved in botanic gardens.

ACHYRONIA, in Botany, a name given by Van
Royen to a genus of plants called by Linn;eus Aspa-

tATHUS.

ACHYROPHORUS, the name given by Vaillant to
the HvpocHOERis of Linnscus.

ACirZIB, or Achazib, in Scripture Geography, a town
of Galilee, in the tribe of Aflier, nine miles from Ptolcmais;
probably the fame with that called by the Greeks Ecd'ippa;
alfo, a town in the more fouthern parts of the tribe of
Judah.

A CIA, formed of the vernacular name Aaova in Guiana,
in h'ltany, a genus of the Mmadelph'ut dodecandr'ia clafs,
and natural order di pomdcat. Its charafters arc : the calyx

is a one-leafed, turbinate, curved perianthlum, with a five-
parted border, the parts roundifh and fpreading, the upper-
mod and two lowell larger, the two middle ones fm;dler :
the corolla has five, oblong, rounded petals ; tlic three upper
lo'ig*!") afccndiiig ; the two lower fliorter : the ilamina con-
fill of twelve uneq.'.al (ilvments, uniting at bottom in a
linear flediy membra. ic, inferted into tlie calyx b' t^vecn the
two fmaller petals ; the anthers are roundifh and fniall : the
piillUum has an ov.ite geniien, above the bafe adlitring by
the membrane of the tlaniina to a rib intennlly promnient
from the bottom of the calyx ; the ilyle filiform and curved ;
the iligm.i acute : the pericarpium is an ovate, fibroiis,
chinked, large drupe : the feed is an ovate nut, with a
brittle (hell. There is one fpecies, wliich is a tree, whofc
trunk is fixty feet high, and three or four feet in diameter,
covered with a fmooth grey bark ; the fruit is of the fize of
a walnut, inclofing a large kernel, of an agreeable tafle, and
eaten by the Creoles wlien brought to market in Augu!l at
Cayenne ; they alfo extnift an oil from it, as fweet as thit
of almonds ; the wood is hard and heavy, and of a yellowifh
white colour.

AciA, a term in the Roman Surgery, concerning the
meaning of which phyficinns and commentators are mucli
divided. Celfus, fpeaking of the healing of wounds, cither
by future, or by the fibula, fays, each is bell elfecfted by
means of a foft acia, not too much twilled, tiiat it may
fit the eafier on the body. Boxhornius will hare the acia to
be the acus of the fibula, or that part which is pinched : in
which view, acia mollis only imported, that it was not fet
fo as to pinch too much.

ACICOCA, in Botany, an herb that grows in Peru, and
is fometimes ufed indead of the herb Paraguay, of which
it is faid to have all the properties.

ACICULA, in NiUund Htjhry, a fpecies of BiTCl-
NUM, with a fmooth, fubulated, very thin (hell, tranf-
verfely ilriated with contiguous fpiral windings. It is found
in frei'h waters. Acicula is alfo a fpecies of Helix, with
an oblong acuminated fliell, longitudinally ribbed and tranf-
verfely ftriated, and an oval aperture ; found in Coromandel.

ACICULA denote finall fpikes, or prickles, in form
of needles, with which nature has armed feveral animals and
plants.

ACID, in Chcmlfli-y, is ufed in common language
as a generic name for all thofe fubflances which impiefs
the organs of talle with a fharp lour fenfation. Since,
however, there are certain bodies dellitute of \\\\i pro-
perty, which neverthelefs are clalfed by all chemical writers
as acids, this popular characleriitic muft be abandoned
as eflential, for one which is more comprehenfive.

Newton's well known definition of an acid, " that which
" flrongiy attrads, and is ftrongly attracled," would have
required notice only in the hiilory of chemical opinions, if it
had not been implicitly adopted by one of the ablell chemiils
of the prefent age, Cit. Guyton Morvcau. (Diet. Method,
art. aci.h) " Now if any one lliould aflc me," fays he " what
" is an acid, I reply, it is that which of all p.ilpable fub-
" ftances is the moll pov.crful folvent ; that which aifls on
" the greated number of other bodies; that, as Newton has
" fo well cxpreffed it, which ftrongly attracts, and is
" ftrongly attracled." It is a greater fault for a definition
to be too comprehenfive than too circumfcribcd, and that
wh ch has been jud quoted not only includes alkalies as
well as acids, as indeed Morvcau allows, but all the a.flivc
chemical agents, J\ich as water, alcohol, hydrogen, oxvgen,
&:q. for they are all powerful folvents, acl ou a great num-
2 bcr

A C I

>)^i' oj ollitr biiJicj, flion^ly attnict, and are ftioiigly at-
tiactt'il. Li fad, till re is no one property peculiar lo the
ffcmis acid, and wliicli belongs to cacli ipecics, fo that it ii
not jiofTiblc to girc a dcdiution of ihc term : neverthelcfs, by
combining togetiicr the general dilHnguilliing qualities ol
acid.-, and nv)ting at tlie lame time the exccpuons to thefc,
a defcriptlon may be produced more illuilrativc than the
r.ioil laboured definition.

PreviouHy to the confideration of the general properties
of acid<, it will be an advantage to give a flictch of the
opinions held by the old cheniilh concerning their origin
and mode of action, and to exa'ninc more at large the theory
of Lavoifur upon the fiinie fubjed.

Wiien the meJianieal fyllem was in vogue, according to
which the chemical action of bodies was explained by the
i'uppoted fipjnrc and fizc of their refped^ive moleculx, acids
wcr; fnppofed to be a geniio of falts, compofed of extremely
fmall and iharp fpieul.u, whieh readily penetrated into the
.minnte!l pores of the fubllances fubjeded to their adion,
and thus feparated from each other their component parts ;
while, at the fame time, the acid became neutrahzed by its
points being !heathed in the pores of the body with which
it wa;. mixed. This explanation was, however, ably con-
troverted by Boyle, and by Stalil in hi.; work on falts ; and,
at lengtli, t(!gether with other chemical phenomena, the
folvent power of acids was arranged by Macquer and his
contcmporaWe.'', under the general laws of eledive attradion.

After a few of the acids were difeovered, it was fuppofed
by Paracelfus, and feveral chemills of his age, that there
exiiled an univerfal faline element, or principle of acidity
fommon to all acids, which therefore differed from each other
n-hi.r in mode than elfence. Beccher, though he allowed
the unity of the caufe of acidity, yet affirmed it to be com-
fiofed of water and vitrifiable earth, and therefore not en-
titled to rank as an element. LStahl, in his valuable re-
fearchcs into the exigence of phlogifton, and the eompofi-
tion of fdlts, was indu;:ed to believe that the fulphuric acid,
or as it was then called the vitriolic, was the original acid,
of which all the rcil were only modifications. A fimilar
.opinion was h;ld by Sage and Landriani, except that the
former fuppofed the phofphoric acid, and the latter the car-
■bonic acid, to be the primaiy one. The difcovery of de-
phlogifticated air, (oxygen gas) having been made by Prleft-
Jey in 1774, a multitude of experiments were foon after in-.
jlituted by the chemifts of Europe on this interelling fub-
ilanee ; and, in 1778, a memoir was prefentcd to the royal
•academy of feiences at Paris, by Lavoifier, on the compo-
fition of the acid of fi.:gar. In this, after having defcribed
the method of p:-eparing tUe acid of fugar by means of ni-
trous acid, he concludes, that the converfion of nitrous acid
into nitrous gas, is owing to the abftradion of part of its
oxygen l)y the fuperior afTialty of fugar for this fubftance, -
and that the fugar in confeqiience of its union with oxygen
acquires the properties of an acid. Proceeding afterwards
to generalize this inference, he maintains that oxygen is the
univerfal acidifying element, and that by combining in cer

tain proportions with combultiblc bafes without decompof-

ing them, it thereby converts them into peculiar acids, .comes oxy-murwlir aaa

This dodrine, fimp'.e and elegant, and piaufible as it was, ~

did not _however at firll meet with general concurrence ;
but, i:i the courfc ofth: controverfy, it gradually ac<iuired,
•.ayd merited new advocates from the accumulated teftimonies

A C I

tlicfubjed; in this wo k he demonftrates tha' phofphoms
and charcoal, and fulpliur, being feparately iiillamed in
oxygen gas, combine with its bale, acquire an additional
weight equivalent to that of the air confumed, and are
converted into the phofphoric, carbonic, and fulphuric acids.

Befides the fynthetical arguments above alluded to, the
Lavoiferian theory is fupported by an equal number of
analytical experiments, in which moll of the known acids
are decomjjofed into oxygen, and one or moi-e combullible
bafes. Tlie moll elegant fpe<-imen of both kinds of proof
is furniflied by the nitrous acid : if purified nitre, (nitrat of
potaPn) previoully deprived of its water of ciyllallization,
be expofed in a lilver retort to a low red heat, a large quar -
tityofgaa, confilling of oxygen and azot, in the propc r-
tion of about 80 of the former to 20 of the latter, v,-ill he
given out, and pure potafh will remain in tiie retort, whole
weight together with that of the gafies will be equivalent to
that of the original nitre ; the mixed gaffes are wholly delli-
tute of acid properties, but by being forced into union by
means of the eledric fpark, their volume is gradually dimi-
nilhed, and at length the whole is reduced to an acid liquor,
poffeffing all the qualities of nitrous acid ; if this and the
potafli remaining in the fird procefs be mixed together,
chemical union immediately eniujs, and nitre is repro-
duced.

Three of the known acids arc incapable .'yf being decom-
pofed by any method that we arc at prefent acquainted
with ; it is therefore only from analogy that they are fup-
pofed to contain oxygen for their acidifying principle ; this
circumftance, however, is no peculiar objedion to tlie theory
of Lavoifier, for fince all the decompofiible acids may be
refolved into oxygen and a fimple or compound combuiiiible
bafe, it fcems confiftent with the principles of chemical phl-
lofophy to ellabliili that as a general h.v, to which in the
pre!ent fcatc of our knowledge, there is not a fingle excep-
tion.

Subllances, whofe mutual affinity is confiderable, may
combine with each other in various proportions, and the re-
fultlng compound.s will vary in their properties accordingly :
this is the cafe with all the known acidifiable bafes vvhlcli
in their lowell ftate of oxydation exhibit no acid properties
vi'liatever : nor is the devclopement of an acid an evidence of
the compleat faturation of its bafe with oxygen, there being
feveral acids capable of combining with additional quantities
of oxygen, and thus acquiring new and more decided acid
charaders. — It is even fu-ppofcd that fome bafes may be
oxygenated in three different degrees, preferving in each the
elfc.uial qualllies of acids : hence rcfults an important ar-
rangen-.ent of acids according as they are oxygenated in the
iirft, fecond or third degree. The reformed chcmlcid no-
menclature on the principles of Lavoifier and Morveau, has
ingeniouOy diflinguifhed tlwfe flates by the terminations oas
and ic, and the prefix oxy (for oxygcnnted) ; thus lulphur, at
the lowell flate of oxygenat'on in wliicii it acquires acid
proijerties, is called J'ulphtireoiis acid ; when ftill further
oxygenated it becomes fu/p/jurir tidil ; thus alio, muriatic
acid, when raifed to the third degree of oxygenation, be-

.tif experiment in its confirmation. — The publication of La-
,vo Tier's Elements of Cli'.miflry, in i 789, contributed more
J^han any thing elfe to fettle the opinion of ^che;niil3 upon

riie old cliemlflo divided acids into mineral, vegetable,
and animai, according to their fuppofed origin ; this, how-
e-er, is not only an incor.venie.it, but an incorred me-
thod 'of arrangement, as many of thefe bodies are found
in all die three natural kingdoms. Upon the whole,
pej-haps, the bcil way of arranging th;;;ii is the foUov/-
i.ig :

States

A C I

AC T

With fim-
p]e ra-
dicals.

With dou-
ble ra-
dicals.

Bafis.
^'u/jt/jiir -

Azof
Phofpho-

rus
Cnrlrm
Arj'imc -
Molybdciia
Chrome -

Carlon
and Hy-
drogen
in dif-
ferent
propor-
tions.

States of Oxygenation.

2d.
Sulphuric

111.
Sulphu-
reous -
Nitrous -
Phofpho.
reous -

Arfeiiious

.V'-

Nitric
Phofpho-

ric
Carbonic
Arfenic
Molybdic
Chromic

' Acetous - Acetic
Tartaric
Citric
Oxalic
Malic
Gallic
Benzoic
Succinic
Saccho-
laaic
Formic
Sebacic ?

' Carlon,
Hyilro-
gi'ti, and
A%ut.

Prufllc
Lithic

M\iriatic -

Fluoric

Boracic

Oxymu-
- riatic

With tri-
ple ra ■ •
dicals.

With un-
known ■
radicals.

The chemifts of the laft century feem to have been
acquainted only with the three mineral acids, as they are
called, viz. the fulphurlc, nitric, and muriatic, and with the
ncetous acid or vinegar : the accuracy and induftry of the
inoderns have increafcd the number of fpecies to twenty-nine ;
how many more may be hereafter added to the liil it is
impoflible to afcertain. Without adverting to the poffi-
liility of difcovering new acidifiable bafts, it is by no means
improbable, hov.-ever, that many of the fimple corabuftible
bodies as the metals, or the compound ones as pholphoratcd
hydrogen, fulphurated hydrogen, the metallic phofphurets,
&c. may be fo far faturated with oxygen, as to become pe-
cvdiar acids.

The charaAeriilic properties of acids, /. e. the peculiar
laws and effedls of their action on other chemical fub-
ftances, yet remain to be mentioned.

1. When taken into the mouth they occafion a four tafte.
The oxymuriatic acid alone is deilitute of this property ;

the reft poliefs it in a greater or lefs degree according to
their liquid or folid form, and the energy with which they
aft on the animal fibre, from the coiTofive and intcnfcly four
fulphuric acid, to the boracic, wliofc talte can fcarcely be
perceived,

2. They change native vegetable blues to red.

Indigo is not turned red by any acid, nor does turncfol
paper yield to fome of the weakeft ones, but both, ihefe pig-
ments are artificial ; the fulphureoua and oxymuriatic acid
difcharge entirely the native vegetable bluts, not ho\vever
before having changed them to red.

3. They liave a llronger affinity for alkalies than thefe
have for any othec fnbitance. Therefore, all the foluble
combinations of alkalies with, metallic oxyds, with earths,
%vith fuiphur, S:c. ars decompofed by any acid.

4. They combine with earths, with alkalies, nnd with
metallic oxyds, forming the numerous and very ijnportaiit

Vot. 1.

clalTes of earthy, n:utral, and metallic falls, moll of whick
are fufceptlble of cryllallization.

5. The property of incombiiftibility has been generally
attributed to :,cids as a charactcriitic, hut certainly vciy
fiToneoudy. 'J'lie moil incombuUiblc of the acids arc m>
more fo than the fixed alkalies, tlie earths, and the perfett
metallic oxyds ; and all the acids with two or three radi-
cals, and thofe with fimple radicals in the firll ftate of
oxygenation, are, ftrldly fpeaking, combuftible, that is, they
unite at a certain temperature v.ith oxygen gas, duiing
which combination heat, and in fome calcs light alfo arc
extricated.

The medical efTeds t)f acids are confidcrable, and vaiy
according to their degree of concentration ; the moll ai.Hive,
wlien p\uc, or nearly lo, are ufed externally as cauilies and
efcharotics, and as powerful llimulants in fome cafes of
palfy : if largely diluted with water, they may be fafely
employed internally in fevers, inflammations, and hemorr-
hages, as refrigerants and ailringcnts.

For the particular acids, fee them under their fpecific
names.

Encycloped. Method, art. Acide. — Lavoifier's Elements
of Chcmillry. — Priefllcy on Air. vol. ii. — Fourcroy, Syf-

teme des Connoif. Chimiq. voL ii Macquer's Chem. Dic\.

art. Acid. Cullen Mat. Med. vol. ii.

ACID ALIUS, Va LENS, in Biography, M-. cmiHent gram-
marian and critic, was born at Witftoch, in Brandeuburgli,and
after vifiting feveral academies on the continent, fixed his rcfi-
dence at Bredaw. Being difappointed of employment, he
became a Roman catholic, and was chofen rettor of a
fchool at Nieffa. Thuanus infonns us, that he was a very
clofe Ihident, and that his nofturnal ftudies, which were un-
feafonably prolonged, whilft he was compofing his conjec-
tures on Plautus, occalioned a dillemper that terminated \n.
his death, on the 25th of May 1595, when he was juft.
turned ot 28. He wrote a Commentaiy on Qiiintus Cur-
tius ; Notes on Tacitus ; on the twelve Panegyrics ; bi.-
fides fpeechcs, letters, and poems. A fmall piece, printed
in 1595, and intitled, MiiHercs non ejfe homines, or that
" women were not of the human fpecies," was falfely
afcribed to him. He only accidentally found the MS. a:.d
printed it. It is faid, that in order to appeafe the wratl- of
fome ladies, who reproached him as the author, he dccland
his opinion, that the author was a judicious perfon, tho
ladies being certainly more of the fpecies of angels than ot
men. M. Bailltt, who admits him among his Enfans ce'e-
bres, fays, that his conunent on Plautus was written when
he was not mere than fcventeen or eighteen years of age, and
that he compofed feveral Latin poems about the fame period,

ACIDALUS, the name of a fountain in Orch imenos,
a city of Bceolia, in which the Graces, who are facred to
Venus, bathed : lience the epithet ^cldalia, given to Venus.
See Virgil yEn. 1. i. v. 724k

AC ID A V A, in Ancient Geography, a town of Dacia,
towards the countiy of the Ja/ygii.

ACIDIFIABLE bafe, AciuiFiCATiON, in. Chemijlry,
The general theoiy of tlic formation of Acips has already
been explained under that term. An acidifiable bafe or
Radical is any fuhftance, whether fimple or compound,
that is capable of uniting without decouipofition, witii fuch
a quantity of oxygen as thereby to become pofTeded of
acid properties. All acids agree with each other in Cf)n«
taining ox.ygen, but diner from each other in their radicals ;
hence it is the atiditlable bafe that dcterminea the fpettea
of acid. This term was unknown in chcmiftiy prcvioully lo
the difeoverics of Lnvoifier on the compofiti-jii of acids, hc«
caufs thofv bodicti that are now proved to be convtrtitiLs

A C I

into acids by combination with oxygen, were fiippofcd by
Stahl and bis followers to be already acids united to phlo-
giston : thus fulphur, which accordinpf to the picfent the-
ory is a chemical element, and capable, by combination with
oxygen, of being converted into sulphuric acid, was, by
the Stahlians, confidcred as a compound of fulphuric atid
and phlo^iilon.

The objed of the reformed ehemical nomenclature is
to denote, as much as poffible, the compofition of bodies
in the names appropriated to them ; thus fulphuric, carbo-
nic, and phofphoric acids exprefs the pcrfeft faturation of
their refpedive bafes, fulphur, carbon and phofphorus, with
oxygen. This rule, however, has by no means been uii-
formly adhered to, and the young ftudent in chemilliy,
reading of the benzoic, succinic or sebacic acids would
on tliis account be led into an error if he fuppof.d tliat
benzoe, amber, or fat were the acidifiable bafes of the acds
that bear their names. Almoft all fubllances are capable
of combining with oxygen, but it does not therefore follow
that they arc acidifiable bafes ; that the procefs of acidifi-
cation may take place a large proportion of oxygen feems
effentially necefTar/, otherwife the refult is only an oxyd.
Hence oxydable fubllances may be divided into thofe whicli
arc capable only of a low ftate of oxydation, or proper oxy-
dable bafes ; and into thofe capable of a further combination
with oxygen by which they acquire acid properties, or aci-
liifiabh bafes. Acidification may be performed in various
■ways according to the temperature and the affinity of the
bafe for oxygen. The two great refei-voirs from which na-
ture procures her oxygen for the compofition of acids are
■WATER ^nd at mofpheric air, the former confiding of oxy-
gen and hydrogen, and the other of oxygen and azot. The
chemill employs principally oxygen gas and atmofpheric air
at a high temperature, as in the formation of carbonic and
phofphoric acids by combuftion of charcoal and phofpho-
rus, or the nitric acid as in die formation of the sulphuric
and OXALIC aciJs. The acidifying procefTes of art are
generally more rapid than thofe of nature.

ACIDITY, the quality which conftitutes or d-jnomi-
nates a body acid, or that fenfation of fharpnefs and four-
nefs which acids excite upon the organ of taile.

ACIDON, a river of Peloponnefus, called alfo Jlcidas,
■which united with Jardanus, near Anigrus.

ACIDOTON, in Botany, a genus of the vionoeda poly-
endria clafs and order ; the characters of which are, that it
has male and female flowers on the fame, or a different tree ;
the calyx of the male is a five -leaved perianthium, and the
leaflets are ovate -lanceolate, and reflex; it has no corolla:
the flamina are numerous filaments from 35 to 40, placed
on a globular receptacle, the outer fhorter, the innei- longer
and upright : the anthers are cordate-o\'ate, wpright and
finall : the calyx of the female is a fix-leaved perianthium ;
the leaflets linear-lanceolate and Ipreading ; no corolla : the
piftiUum is a three-cornered germen ; the &.j\t fhort, acute,
thick and trifid at the tup ; the lligmas are toir.entofe and
reflex : the pericai^pium is a three-grained, hirfute, three-
celled capfule ; and the feeds arc folitary and ovale. Tliere
is one fpecies, i)/s. A. ureas, ?. native of Jamaica, defcribed
Lv Sloane, though he never iavt' the flower and fruit, which
grows to the height of eight or nine feet. Miller's Did. by
Martyn. This, in Gmelin's edition of LimicEus, is a genus
of the poJyandria monogyriia clafs and order.

ACIDOTON is alfo a fpecies of Adelia.

ACIDULA, in jiticient Geography, a fountain of Italy,
Ticar Linternum, to the waters of which, probably impreg-
nated with fixed air, or carbonic acid, Pliny afcribes a falu-
tary effcd, as an antidote to ftone and gravel.

A C I

ACIDULjE, Eaux acidtdes, Fr. a fpecies of m'merat
waters, dillinguifhed by their fparkling appearance w'cn
poured from one velfel into another, and by their brifl< ci-
dulous talle ; they contain a confidcrable quantity of free
carbonic acid to which thefc prip^rties are owing.

ACIDULATED, a term denoting a ly thing blended
with acid juic^.s ii order to givj it a coohi'ls and briilinefs.

ACIDULOUS denotes a thing that is ll.ghtly acid : it is
fynonymous with the vrordful-acid.

ACIDULUM, Aci.iuL; Fr. a term ufed in the new
che-.nic:il nomenclature, to exprefs a genus of native com-
pound falts, in which the alkaline bafe r. fupcrfat-.irated with
acid, and which tlicrefore are employed in various chemical
procefTes, and for economical purpoles as acids. We are at
prefent acquainted with two jpccies, the tratareous acldiN
lum, or aridulins tartrite of po.'a/L, and iKj oxalic acidu-
lum, or acidulous oxalat oi polajh.

ACIDUM ¥mG\JE,—CauJlicum—Jeidcgras. Fr. Fett^
fuvre GeiTii.

In the year 1 764, when the abilities of Macquer, Bergman,
Black, and Scheele, had already dlfcovered many important
chemical fads, which were kvith difficulty explicable on the
Stahlian theory, and when the rigorous method of demonftni-
tion fo honourable to the prefent age had not as yet been uni-
verfally atfented to, there appeared in German a volume of
EiTays on the fubjed of Lime, by Fred. Meyer an apothe.»
caiy of Oinaburg, announcing the difcovery of a new
chemical agent, the acidum pingue, with an extenfive theory
dependent upon it, and, in many refpeds, effentially con-
trary to the conclufions of Dr. Black, from his admirable
experiments on the fame fubjed. Several of Meyer's
countrymen becaine the zealous advocates of his fyflem,
and it was foon taught publicly in many of the German
fchools. At length, in 1769, Jacquin publifhed an able
vindication of Black, intitled Exanun chemicum doctririjs
Meyerian/s de acido piiigui, et B'achiarns de acre Jixo refpedn .
calcis. Vindohonx. This work brought out in the courfe
of the following year a reply by Crantz, and another by
Fourchy, both of them ftrenuoufly defending the dodrineof
Meyer. It does not appear that any thing more was ex-
prefsly wTitten on either fide, but by the accumulation of
the fplendid difcoveries of Lavolfier, PrielUey, &c. the
theory of Meyer was fllently ovenvhelmed, and the con-
clufions of Black unequivocally eftabliihed. Nearly the
fame hypothefis was afterwards revived by Sage in the ef-
feds attributed by him to an imaginary principle, the igneous
acid, (acide igne) but wliich has not been fince rccognifed
by any chemical writer.

The fads upon which Meyer's dodrnie is founded are the
following. Mild calcareous eartli being kept at afulli-ed heat
for a certain length of time is converted into quicklime ; this
change, whic'i at prefent is accounted for by the volatiliza-
tion of its water and carbonic acid, was by Meyer fup-
pofed to be owing to the combination of the acidum pingue
with the calcareous bafe, and the confequcnt difengagement
of its wnter ; hence originated a cauflic earthy fait foluble
in water ; if to this lime water, a mild alkali, be a.dded, a
decompofition takes place, the acidum pingue unites by
pieference with the alkali, making it cauflic, while the cal-
careous earth combines with a portion of water, becomes
infoluble, and is precipitated in the ftate of mild calx. So
for the theor)' of Meyer was fupported by fads which,
however equivocal and imperfed, had at leafl forae plaufi .
bility. But, in his attempt to raife thi? caujlitum to the
rank of hn acid, and of a prime agent In chemical pheno-
mena, he deviates into the wildefl conjedures without the
fnadow of a fad in their fuppoit. I'he following are the

chief

A C I

tliief of die prop? rtic- uliicli he afcribcs to it. It is a com-
pound elallic fublle fubllaiicc, analogous to fulphur, nearly
approaching to the purell matter of lire or light, undeconi-
poi'able, conlifting of a faline acid principle and fire, com-
preiiible, capable of penetrating all vellels when red-hot,
Tind fenfibly heavy. It has an ailringent force, and com-
bines by means of lire with calcareous earth and the alkalies,
Hnd with metals when in the ilate of calx ; from its unit-
ing with fulphur, oils, and calcareous earth, he infers, that
the acid is united with fomething fnt or oi!v, (hence its
name acidiim p'wgue) and this oil fo tar flicaths its properties
as to prevent the acidity of its talle, S:c. Hence it is
evident, that the properties of this imaginaiy fubllance are
in part purely fitlitious, and for the rell a mixture of dif-
cordant qualities felected from thofe of the pure alkalies,
oxygen, and carbonic acid.

Effais de Cliymie fur la ChaTTX, par M. Drcux, (trandated
from the original German of Meyer,) Encycloped. Method.
-art. Acidum pingue. — Macqucr's Chemical Ditt. — Lavoi-
lier's Effays, vol. i.

AciDUM "vitrio/i iKiiofiim. See Sulphuric Ether,

ACILA, in j^nchnt Geography, a ilaple or mart town in
Arabia Felix, on the Perfian gulph, from which, accord-
ing to Pliny, (H. N. V. i. p. 338.) the Scenits Saba:i fet
fail for India. This is a different place from Ocelis, orOciLA.

ACII.ISENE, a diilriifl of Armenia, fituate between
Mount Taurus and the Euphrates, where it bends its courfe
fouthft-ard towards Mefopotamia. Strabo, vol. ii. p. 799.

ACILIUS, Glabrio Marcus, in yfncient Hi/lory, a
conful of Rome, who d'lHr.guifhed himfelf by his military
(kill and bravery on fevc al occalions, and particularly in the
vicloiy which he gained over Antiochus the Great, king
of Syria, at the ftraits of Thermopyls. He built the
temple of Piety at Rome, in confeq\iencc of a vow which
he made before this battle.

ACINA, in ylnctent Geography, a town of Africa, men-
tioned by Pliny H. N. vol. i. p. 345.

ACINACyE, the name of a people inhabiting Baftria.

ACINACES, in yinliqiiily, a kind of cutlafs or fci-
metar, in ufe among tlie Periians.

ACINACIFORM leaf. See Leaf.

ACINARIA, in Botany, a name given by fome to the
marfli whortle-berries, or vaccinia paluftria.

ACINASIS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Afia, at
the fouthern extremity of Colchis, which difcharges itfelf
into the Euxine fea, between the Bathys and the lijs.

ACINCUM, a city of Pannonia, the Ctuation of which
is not prccifely known. Some fuppofe it to have been at or
r.ear Piuda.

ACINI, in Botany, fmall grains or berries, growing in
bunches, after the manner of grapes. The berries of the
elder, privet, ivy, &c. are of this kind, and fo called. Ana-
tomifts have called fome glands of a fnnilar formation, acini
^landulofi.

ACINIFORMIR Tunica, the fame with tunica uvea
of the eye. It is alfo called acinofa tunica.

ACINIPPO, in Ancient Geography, a town of Boetica,
nf which the uiins called Rrjnda la Viega are to be feen near
Arunda, in the kingdom of Granada.

ACINODENDRON, in Botany, the name given by
JBumian, in his Thefaurus, to a genus of plants, afterwards
called Melastoma. It is alfo the trivial name of a fpecies
of this genus.

ACfNOS, ftone or wild Basil. S?e Thymus.

ACINTH, in Ornithology. See Quachilto.

ACINUS, m Botany, properly fignifies the grape. It is
aifo the jiamt of the Staphvloma.

A C I

ACIOJA. SccAciA.

ACIPENSER, in Jchthyohgy, a genus of filh of the or-
der of Chondvoptcrygii ; the cliaradU-rs of which are, tli»t
the head io obtufe, that the mouth is Mndcr the iicad, rc-
traAile, and without teeth ; that the four cirri arc below the
fnout, and before ihe moirth j that the aperture of the gills
is at tlie fide ; and that the body is elongated, and angulalcd
with many feriefes of fcuta or fcaly ])roti:biiances. There
are five fpecies, viz. A. Sliirio, or Stukgeon : A. Ru-
theniit, or Stfri.et; A. Huso; A. Schvpa; and A.
SlellalNs, or Koster.

ACIPHAS, in Ancient Geography, one of the four cilict
of Phocis, on the river Pindus.

ACIPHYLLA, in Botany, a fpecies of LASERriTiuM.

ACIRIS, in Ancient Geography, a navigable river of
Italy, not far from tl\e chy of Heraclea, mentioned by
Strabo, vol. i. p. 405. now a rapid, irregular torrent,
called Agri.

ACIS, in Entomology, a fpecies of papilio, with bieau-
dated wings, the lower part of the fore-wings being green,
fprinkled with gold ; the hinder golden, fpotted with
green and black; found in Surinam.

Acis, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of I'Aube, on the river Aube. N. lat. 48^ 25'. E.
long. 4*^ 10'.

Ac 1 5, in Mythology, a beautiful fliepherd of Sicily, the
fon of Faunus and the oynipli Simaethis ; who, being be-
loved by Galatea, incurred the rage of Polyphemus, and had
his brains dafhed out flgaiuft a rock by tliis giant. He was
afterwards changed by Galatea into a river of the fame
name. The Sicilian authors fay, that Acis was the name
of a king, that reigned in this part of the ifland in a very
ancient period ; and, to this purpofe, they allege an iufcrip-
tion found near the river Acis, Aci Caftello. He is faid to
have been flain in a fit of jealoufy by Polyphemus, one of the
giants ot TEtna ; and thus they trace the origin of the fable.

Acis, a river of Sicily, celebrated by the poets, viz.
Theocritus, (Idyll, i. v. 69) Ovid, (Faili, 1. 6. v. 468)
and Silius (1. xiv. v. 222), which flows from a cold fpring
at the foot of mount iFtna, and runs into the fea at the
diftance of about a mile from its fource. From the rapi-
dity of an arrow, with which it purfucs its courfe between
verdant banks, its name is derived. Bochart, (Geog. Sac.
1. i. c. 28. apud op. tom. i. p. 529. Ed. Villem.) deduces it
from the Syrian Jy^^^' <":^>'f"i to hajlen, or to he fivifl.
Its water is clear, and fo cold as to be dangerous to thofc
who drink it ; and never freezes, though it poireffes a degree
of cold greater than that of ice. It is faid to acquire a
poifonous quality from the vitriol with which it is impreg-
nated ; though It was formerly celebrated for the fwectnefs
and falubrity of its waters ; which, according to Theocritus,
were always held facred b)s the Sicilian (hepherds.

•' Qjjique per jEtnseos Acis petit cequora fines,
Et dulci gratam Nereida perhiit unda."

Silius Ital. 1. 14. p. 706. Ed. Drakenb.

This river is now called // Finme FreiUo, and Aci, Jaci
or Chiaci, according to the different Sicilian diale£ls. An-
tonine calls it Accius. Acis is alfo the name of a hamlet :;t
the mouth of the river. There are fcveral places in this
diftrift that take their names from the unfortunate (hepherd
Acis ; fuel) are, Aci Aquileia, Ac: Cajldlo, Aci Terra, &c.
Brvdone's Tour, vol. i. p. 118.

ACISANTHERA.in Botany, a fpecies of Rhp.iia-

ACITANI, in Ancient Geography, a people of .Spain,
fuppofed to be the fame with the Lacetani of Pliny.

ACITH ANIS, or Acithiuc of Ptolemy, a fmall riTcr
of Sicily, BOW Btr^i.

X 2 ACITLI,

A C M

ACITLI, in Orn'iiioUiy, the common Mexican name for
the CoLYMTtis rrj/?<;.'/.-x, or <Trv,it ,vy/?<v/ G R F. Ii E , common
to Europe and America, and calkil by authors the Lkpus
aqueits, or water hnre.

ACKEN, in Geo\irnt>hy, a bailiwick of Magdeburg, in
Gvrrmany, to which belongs a town of the fame name,
fituate on the Elbe. It formerly belonged to the dukes of
Saxony, and was hence called Aqiix Saxoniat. The reve-
ru'js ot" the fix vicarages of this town are at prefent levied by
the dean of the catliedral of Magdeburg ; but the church
was given in 171 1, to the Calvinilh. Bufching.

ACKER Sound, lies north-eall from the Naze of Nor-
way, and north-well by well from the ifland of South "W" ix-
holm. Siller's Kland is alfo well by north from Acker four
leagues ; and behind it is th.e fmall port of Grafwick.

AClvHMETCHID Gulph, is on the weft fide of the
Crimea, arid the fea through which fliips pafs to Precop,
and the north-well part of the Black Sea. Its weft cape is
N. lat. .-i.^" 35'. and E. long. 52" 20'.

ACKElN's Key lies about 50 miles fouth-eaft fromLong

■ifland, or Yuma, one of the Bahama idands, having Long

Key twelve miles to the north-weft ; and on the fouth-

caft fide a chain of rocks. N. lat. 22°. 10'. W. long. 73°

30'-

ACKNOWLEDGMENT Money, a fum paid in feme

parts of England by tenants on the death of their landlords,

as an acknowledgment of their new lords.

ACKWORTH, a fmall village near Pontefrad, in the
. county of York, which deferves mention on account of the
benevolent inftitution fupported in it for the education of the
children of the Q_uakers. The original projector of this in-
ftitution was Dr. fothergill, who promoted a fubfcription for
purchafing, improving, and furnilhing an appropriate build-
ing, and an eftate of eighty aa-es of land ; and who, by his
will, endowed it with a liberal bequeft. This inftitution
accommodates more than 300 children of both fexes under
the fame roof, who are furniftied with all the neceflai-y con-
veniences and comforts of life, properly cloathed, and edu-
cated in every branch of knowledge, adapted to the ftations
in which they may be placed. It is conducted by a number
of chofen guardians of ability, and of exemplaiy chara£ler,
v/ith a degree of order and deconim, which affords pleafure
to perfons of eveiy dcfcription who occafionally vifit it. The
children are taught habits of regularity, of decency, and of
refpeclful fubordination to their fuperiors, of forbearance
and aifedHon to one another, and of reverence to their maker ;
.■>.ndtheyare accuftomedto that kindof filenceandrecolleftion,
which was praclifed in fome of the ancient fchools of philo-
fophy, and which give a pecuHar and diftinguiftiing charader
to the members of this fociety in the maturity of life.

ACLIDES, in the Roman mUilary art, a kind of mif-
five weapon, having a thong fixed to it, by which, after
cafting it out of the hand, it might be drawn back again
.Scr.-ius defcribes the achda; as full of fpiculx, or eminences.
As it was fonned with fpikes, it would injure both where it
ftruck, and when it was withdrawn. Each warrior feems
to have been furniftied with two. Vofs. Etym. Aquin. lex.
Mil. t. i. p. 14. Pitifc. Lex. Ant. t. i. p. 17.

ACLOWA, in Botany, the name of a plant common in
Guinea, and ufed by the natives to cure the itch. They
rub it on the body, as we do our unguents. Petivier ac-
counts it a fpeoies of colutea, and has named it the Guinea
feorpioide colutea, with leaves like the gum tragacanth
ftrub. Phil. Tranf. No. 268. abr. v. iv. p. 2. p. 322.

ACME", the height or top of any thing. The word is
Greek, Cgnifies point, and is more fpccifically ufed to de-
note the height, or ucmcft. vehemence of a diftemper.

A C O

Accordingly fome inftitution-writers have divided difeafs*
iTito four ftates or periods: 1. ai-che, the beginning or firft
attack : 2. anabafis, the growth : 3. acme, the height ; and
4. paracme, which is the declenfion of the diftemper.

ACMELLA, or Achamella, in Botany, a plant which
grows in tlie ifland of Ceylon and Ternatc, of which there
are three fpecies noted by botanifts ; two of which were
formerly referred to the genus Verbesina, in the Linnxan
fvllcm. It is commended in nephritic diforders, but very
rarely ufed. It is the Spilanthl'S Acnuila wilii ovated,
feiTated leaves, a ftrait ftem, and radiated flowers. It be-
came known in Europe by the letters of Hoiton, addr>.fti.d
to tlie Royal Society in 170 1. Phil. Tranf. vol. xxii. p. 760.

^VCMODili, in Ancient Ge'igraphy, feven iilind:; in the
Lritiih fca, fuppofed by feme to be the Scilly iflands, but
by others, with greater {>rol)ability, thofe of Hetland and
Shetland near the Orkneys, on the coall of Scotland.
Pliny, H. N. V. i. p. 223.

ACMON, in Ancient Hljtory, the name of one of the
Dactyli Id^ei according to Strabo, vol. ii. p. 726. Bry-
ant fays, (Mythology, vol. i. p. 513) that Acmon was a
Cyclopia!! deity, under which title he was worfliipped in
Phn.-gia, whence the name of Acmonia. He was alfo re-
verenced by the Amazonians, and there was a facrcd grove
upon the Thei'modon called acmonium, and held in great
repute. He is repi-efeiited by Callimachus (Hymn, in Dian.
V. 146.) as the tutelary god of Tii-yns, an ancient city of
Greece, whofe towers are faid to have been built by th-c
Cyclopians.

ACMONIA, or in Peutinger's map Agmonia, ia
Ancient Geography, a town of Phiygia major, now in ruins.
Cicero, pi'O Flacco, cap. 15. calls the inhabitants v^i:/no;/fnto,
and the city Clvltas Acmonenjis. There are many medals of
this city in gold, bi'onze and filver. There was alfo a city
of the fame name, according to Ptolemy, in Dacia upon tlie
Danube, near the capital Sarmitz, which was the pofitioii
of the Roman colony, called Ulpla Trajana.

ACNIDA, formed of a prro. and xno>i, a nettle, Virginian
hemp, in Botany, a genus of the dlcccla order, and pentandriei
clafs of plants, of the natural order oifeabrldtz and atrlpllces e>f
Juifisu, the chai-afters of which are as follow : the calyx of the
male is a five-leaved periantliium, and the leaflets ai-e ovate,
concave, acute, and membi-anaceous on the edge ; it has no
corolla ; and the ftamina are five, capillary, very ftiort fila-
ments ; and the anthers are verfatile, bUocular,, and foi-ked
each way : the calyx of the female is a many-leaved, linear,
deciduous involucre ; the perianthium is two-leaved, linear,
very fmall and permanent ; it has no corolla ; thepiilillum has
a fuperior, ovate germen ; the ftyles are five, long, reflex
and pubefcent ; the ftigmas are fimple : the pericarpium is
an ovate, compix'fled, many-angled fiuit, furrov.ed, and
covered with the fucculent calyx : the feed is folitary, round
and coinprefled. Thei'e is one fpecies, viz. A. cannablna,
which is a native of Vii'ginia, and fome other parts of Ame-
rica, but fcldom cultivated in Europe. It has little beauty,
and is apphed to no ufe. Martyn's Miller. In the Lin-
nccan fyftcm by Gmelin, it is a genus of the pentandrla pen-
tagytila clafs and order.

ACNUA, in Rowan Antiquity, a meafure of land about
the quaiter of an Enghfli acre.

ACO, in Geography, a town of Peru in S. America, in
the jurifdittion of Guanuco. It is alfo a river of Afi-ica,
that rifts in the mountains of Abyflinia, runs in a fouth-eafk
direftion, and difcharges itfelf into the Indian ocean.

A CO, in Ichthyology, a name given to a fifh found in the
Mediten-anean, called alfo aquo,J'arachus and farachlnus.

ACOEMETjE, or Acoemeti, formed of » pri-v. and

A C O

AGO

;^«iua!i;, to fie dnvn, or Jli-f/i in Icif, a nnme jjiven to eci-
tr.in monks in tlie ancient duncli, who flourilhcd pai iicularly
in tlie eail about the fifth century : and who were thus
caKed, becaufe tliey had diviiie ferviec performed, without
interruption in their churches. They divided thtinftlves
into three bodies, each of which ofRciated in their turn, and
rcheved the others ; fo that their churches were never filent,
cither night or day. The Stylites were alfo fometimes
called acoemetx. Wetftein (Proleg. N. T. vol. i. p. lo)
adopts the conjefture of Cafimir Oudin, that the Alex-
andrian MS. was written by an Acoemet, becaufe it con-
tains a catalogue of the pfalras that were to be fung at every
hour, not only of the day but of the night. Thefe monks
are particularly defcribed by Helyot in vol. i. c. 29. of his
" Hiftoire des Ordres Monaftiques," &c. in 8 tomes 410.
Paris, 1720.

There is a kind of acoemctae ftill fubfifting in the Romifh
church ; the religious of the holy facramcnt may be properly
included under this denomination, becaufe they maintain a
perpetual worfhip ; fome or other of them praying before
the facrameut, day and night.

AC OLA, in Ancient Geography, a town placed by Pto-
lemy in Media, on the borders of the H)-rcanian fea.

AcoLA, Cala Bini,'m Geography, the moil fouthern cape or
point of land of the ifland of Minorca, S.W. of fort St. Philip,
or the entrance of Mahon harbour, feven or eight miles.

ACOLASTRE, in Geography, a river of France, which
runs into the Loire, two leagues above Nevers.

ACOLCHICHL >" Ornithology, the Mexican name of a
bird defcribed by Nieremberg under the name of the Pte-
ROPHOENicus /«^/;7r«H;. It is the Ori o Lus ^Zi<r/;/<:»j- of
Linnaeus. The acohiLi of Seba is the Oriolus No-oie Hijpamte
of Gmelin,the Ideriu Jllcxicanusoi Brifl'on, and the Alexican
Oriole of Latham. Its fpecific charafters are, that it is yel-
low : the head, throat, wing-quills, and tail are black ; the
greater quills of the wings are yellow at the tip, and the
lefTer are wholly black. This bird has a long yellow bill ;
and the tail and wings are ornamented with fmall feathers of
a golden colour, which have a fine effeS on the dark ground.
Seba reckons it an American bird ; and Gmelin refers it to
Kew Spain.

ACOLHUACAN, in Geography, one of the three im-
perial cities of the ancient kingdom of Mexico.

ACOLIN, a river of France, which runs into the Loire
two leagues below Dccize.

AcoLiN, in Ornithology, the name of a bird of the par-
tridge kind, common in the Spanilli Weft Indies. It is no
larger than a ftarling ; its legs and feet are of a pale greenidi
colour, and its toes very long ; its beak is yellow, and fome-
what long; its head fmall; its breaft and belly are white;
its fides are fpotted with brown, and its back and tail of a
duflvy yellow brown ; its tail is very Oiort, and both that
and the back have fome black fpots, and fome narrow fti-eaks
of white. It frequents the fides of lakes, and is fuppofed
to feed on flics, worms, and other infefts, which are found
about watery places. It is a tolerably well-tafted bird.

ACOLLITHI, orAcOLYTHi, m Antiquity, a term ap-
plied to fuch perfons as were fteady and immoveable, in their
relolutions.

The word Axo\a&o<; is compounded of the privative a, ; and
x£^!l/9of, -via, -way ; and implies their ftill perfifting in their
way or courfe.

For this reafon, the Stoics were called acolythi; becaufe
nothing could induce them to abandon their principles or
alter their pui'pofes.

Among the Ecclefuijlical Writers, the term acolylhus, or
acolythifii is- peculiarly appli^id to thofe young people, who

in the primitive times sfpired to the n.iniflry ; and for that
purpofe, continually attended the bilhops : wliich alFiduiiy
oecafioned their being dillinguiflied iiy this appellation.

In the Romiih church, m'/Zv/A; were of longer continu-
ance ; but their funAions were differci-.t from thofe of liicir
firft inftitution. They -vert' fuch as had onlv received the
fu It of the four lellcr orders, whofe hullncfs was lo li;fht the
tapers, carry the candleilicks, the incenfc-pot, and prepare
the wine and water.

At Rome there were three kinds of acolvthi ; v'u.. palatini,
who waited on the pope ; Jlalionarii, who lerved in churches;
and regionarii, who, togetlier with the deacouj, officiated in
other parts of the city.

AcoLUTHi, or acolylhus, was alfo a title in the Grecian
empire given to the captain or commander of the varanci,
a body of guards appointed for the fecurity of the emperor's
palace.

ACOLUTHUS, Andrew, in Biograpfiy, was an arch-
deacon, and profeffor of the Oriental languages at Hrellaw,
his native city, and member of the academy of Berlin. He
publidied, in 1682, a Treatife De Aquis Amaris, in 4to.
At Leipfic he publilhed, in 1680, a Latin tranllation of the
Armenian veriion of the Prophecy of Obadiali. He died
at Breflaw in 1704.

ACOLYTHIA, in the Greek church, denotes the
office, or order of divine fervice.

The iame name is alio given to the prayers, ceremonies,
hymns, and the like, whereof the Greek fervice is compofed.
ACOMA, and AcoMACH, in Gc^jraphy. See Ac-
coma and 7\ccoMACH.

ACOMAS, in Botany. See Homalium.
ACOMINATLTS, Nicetas, Ir Biography, fecretary to
Alexius Comnenus, and to Ifaacus Angelus, who wrote a
hiftory from the death of the former in 1 1 1 8, where Zonaras
ended his, to the year 1203, which is much approved.

ACON, an inilrument ufed in the ancient exercifes, like
the dijcus.

Ac ON gave name to an ancient order of knighthood,
who were afterwards united to the knights Hojpitalers.

ACON7E, in Ancient Geography, a fmall town of Bi-
thynia, near Heraclea.

ACONCAGUA, in Geography, a village or town of
Chih, in S. America, which gives denomination to a fertile
province at the foot of the Cordellieres, fituatcd on a river
of the fame name, that difcharges itfelf into the pacific
ocean. N. lat. 33°. W. long. 75^^ 36'.

ACONCROBA, in Botany, a name given by the na-
tives of Guinea to a plant, growing wild with them, and in
great efteem for its virtues in the fmall -pox. They give an
infufion of it in wine. The leaves of this plant are opake,
and as ftiff as thofe of the phillerey ; tkey grow in pairs,
and ftand on (liort foot-ftalks ; they are fmall at each end
and broad in the middle ; and the largell of them are about
three inches in length, and an inch and a quartcT in breadth
in the middle. They fomewhat refemblc thofe of our bay.
They are of a dud'Cy colour on the upper fide, and of a pale
green underneath.

ACONE, in the Natural Hijlory of the ancients, the
name of a ftone iifed as a whetllone, and for feveral other
purpofes ; but more ufually known among the Romans by
the name coticula. It fignifies alfo a mortar for the
purpofe of Icvigation.

ACONITE, in Botany. See Aconitum
Aconite, Winter. See Helleborus.
ACONITES, in Ancient Geography, a people placed by
Strabo, (torn. i. p. 344) in the mouutains of the ifla 1 ! of
bardiitia.

ACONITI,

ACQ

AGO

ACONITI, ax9y*Ti, 13 an appe'lation given to fome of
the ancient ATHLKTiiE, but diirerently interpreted. Mcrcii-
rialis undcHlar.Js it of thofe who only anointed their bodies
with oil, but did not fmear themfelves over witli diiH, as was
the ufual pradice. Mr. lUirette will have it to fignify thofe
who conquered eafily without dull, q. d. ktoiuti, o;;xa,-^;i,
•with link trouble.

ACONITON fignifies not plaiftercd, and is a name
given to veflTcls not hned within.

^.<ZO'&\T\]^'\.,Acom!e,Wolfs.bane, ox Monh's-hood;\\\ Bo-
tany, a genus of plants of the tr[^yn'ui order and fo/yiiutfrta clafs,
and pertaining to the natural order of miiltifiUqine. Some
have derived its name from Acono;, a city of fiithynia, where
it grew in great abundance. Pliny afcribes its etyniolo£;y to
Axon!, a whetllone. But the moil probable origin of the
appellation is axon's,-, ivithout dujl; becaufe this plant grows
on rocks deftitute of foil, agri.«ably to tlio dcfcrlption of

Ovid ;

Oux quia nafcuntur dura vivacia caute,
Ajrrell

elles Acor.tla vocant."
The charafters of this genus are, that it has no calyx :
the corolla conlills of live unequal petals, oppofite in pairs ;
the higheft being helmet -tubed, inverted and obtufe ; the
two lateral broad, roundilh, oppofite and converging ; ai'.d
the two loweft oblong, and bending downwards : the nec-
taries are two, concealed under the firll petal, fillulous,
nodding, with mouth oblique, and tail recurved, fitting on
long fubulate peduncles ; in the fame circle with the nec-
taries there are fr. little, very fliort, coloured fcales : the
ftamina are fubulate filaments, very fmall, broader at the bafe,
inclining towards the firll petal ; the anth^ra: are ereft and
fmall ; the pillillum liM three (five) oblong germs, ending
in ftyles the length of the ftamina ; the ft'igmas are fimple
and reflex : the pericarpium has as many capfules as the
ftyles, ovate-fubulate, flraight, one-valved, gaping inward :
the feeds are many, angular and wrinkled. The fpecies,
enumerated and described by Prof. Martyn in his edition of
Miller's Diclfonar)', areas follow: l. A. lycofJcniim, great
yellow monk's-hood, or wolf's-bane, of wliich there are
two varieties, viz. that of Linnsus with abluifli afti-coloured
flower, and the acomlum ahijjimum of Miller. The common
fort grows upwards of three feet high, but this, in gardens,
is above four feet ; its leaves are alio broader and Ymoqth,
and the fpikes of the flowers are longer. They both flower
about, the middle of June, and in a moderate feafon con-
tinue to blow till Auguft. In Sweden it is reckoned
among the earheft fpring flowers. The mountains of Sweden,
Lapland, Switzerland, Gennany, Auftria, Carniola, Italy
and Siberia produce it in a wild ftate ; and it was cultivated
in this country by Gerard in 1596. A decoaion, or
powder of the rgpt is ufed for deftroying flies and other in-
fecls ; but it is eaten in a province of Sweden without in-
jur)-. It is milder chan fome of the other fpecies, and eaten
by goats and horfcs. The ancients believed that it was
fatal to thofe who flept under it ; and they dipped their
•venomous arrows in the juice of it. See Smith's Lin-
niei. Flor. Lappon. p. 187. 2. A.japonlcum, or Ja-
panefe monk's-hood, is a native of Japan, where it is
called Soo Hufo. 3. A. nnhsUus, common monk's-hood or
volf's-bane, is found v^'ild in Sweden, Switzerland, France,
Germany, Auftria, Carniola, Italy, Siberia, and Virginia ;
and was cultivated here in 1596 by Gerard. It blows in
Auguft, and would merit a place in ever-y garden, if it were
not for its noxious quality, which renders it dangerous to
children and ignorant perfons. There are two°or three
varieties with white, rofe-colourcd, and variegated corollas.
The forts which have blue flowers are more powerful than

3

thofe with yellow or white flowers. The variety called bjr
Miller p\Tam'uhk is the inort coinmon in Englilh gardens,
being prefencd on account of the appearance of its long
fpikes of blue flowers, which are above tv.o feet long. The
plant riles to the height of near four feet, is hardy, and
will grow in any foil or utuation, and as it multiplies greatly
by its roots, it has been admitted into moft gardens and
plantations of fhrubs. It flowers in May and June ; and
the feeds ripen in September. 4. A. pyrenalciim, Pyrenneaii
or fennel-leaved monk's-hood, grows wild on the Pyrennees,
and alfo in TartaiT and Siberia, and was cultivated with us
in 1739 ^y ^^■'' M'lls''- It grows to the height of about
four feet, and the fpike nods before the time of flowering,
which in our gardens is July. This fpecies may be admitted
among Ihrubs, to v/hich children have no accefs. The four
j)receding fpecies of aconl'.e have three capfules, the follow-
ing have live. J. A. anihora, falutary monk's-hood, as it
h.as been erroneoully called, has a root confifting of from
two to four angular, flelhy, bulb:;, and a ftem which rifes
from a foot to 18 inches in height. The flowers, which
continue in beauty from tlie middle of Auguft to the middle
of September, though not fo large as fome of the other forts,
are of a fulphur colour, and make an agreeable appearance
in the borders of the flower garden. This fpecies grows
naturally in the Pyrennees, the Alps, Auftria, Siberia, &c.
and was cultivated here in 1 596 by Gerard. There
is a variety of this with a white flower. 6. A. i<arie-
gatum, variegated or fmall blue monk's-hood, is a native of
Italy and Bohemia, and was cultivated here in 1752 by
Mr. Miller. It flowers at the end of June, and feldom
grows to a greater height tlnn two feet, with fpikes of
flowers much ftiorter than thofe of the firft fort : the co-
rollas change from variegated to plain. 7. A. album, white
wolf's-bane, was found by Tounicfort in the Levant, and
firft raifed in the royal garden of Paris. Mr. Miller cul-
tivated it here in 1739, and fays, that he has feen it up-
wards of fix feet high ; and he charafterifes it by its tall
ftem, palmate leaves, and large white flower. 8. A. cam-
maruni, purple monk's-hood, has flowers of a paler blue, a
much longer helmet, and a fliorter raceme than the A. na-
pelliis. Its ftem is alfo higher, rlfing even to fix feet. This
fpecies is found wild in Switzerland, Auftria, Stiria, Pied-
mont, &c. and was cultivated in 1748 by Mr. Miller.
Hallcr found it with a white flower, and others have ob-
ferved it in Switzerland with flowers of a pale blue, varie-
gated with white. The variety named by Mr. Miller
A. alpinum, will grow in good ground to the height of five
feet, with large flowers of a deep blue colour. 9. A. un-
analum, American monk's-hood, is a native of Penfylvania,
with leaves approaching to thofe of the third fort, and blue
flowers refembling thofe of the laft. It was cultivated in
1770, by Mr. James Gordon. In the laft edition of Lin-
misus by Gmelin, this genus comprehends 14 fpecies ; the
five following being added to thofe above recited, viz. volu-
lile, feptentnonale, taur'icum, neoinor.tmuim, and cernuum.

Calture. All the forts of monk's-hood are hardy peren-
nials, require little attention, and as they bear handfome
fpikes of flowers, are defirable plants for fhrubberies and
wildernefs quarters, where they are guarded from the ac-
cefs of tliofe v.'ho are unappriled of their pernicious qua-
lities. They are propagated by feeds, fown in autumn, in a
fhady utuation. The ground flioulJ be kept clean from
w-eeds, and the plants fhould be watered in diy v.-eather, till
they are St for being tranfplanted into (hady borders, at the
diftance of 14 inches. If they are watered till they have
taken root, they will require no other care, befides being
kept free from weeds till the following autumn, when they

may

AGO

AGO

may be rerroTed to the places where they are to remain.

The ftulks (liould be cut down in autumn, after tlitv have
done flowering. The common monk's-hood will grow un-
der the (liade of trees, and increafe by means of its creeping
roots. The other forts may be propagated in the fame
vmy ; but they will not thrive under the drip of trees, tliough
they di light in fliade.

^in/ifies. Molt of the fpecies of aconite have been
deemed poifonous. The autients were fo furprifcd at their
pernicious cfTefts, that they were afraid to touch the plants ;
and hence fprung many fuperllitious precautious about the
manner of gathering them. Thcophriftus relates that there
was a mode of preparing the aconite in his d lys, fo that it
fhould only dedroy at the end of one or two years. But
fome have qutftioned whether the aconite of Theophraftus,
Diofcorides, Pliny, and other antient writers be the fame
with ours, ov (hould be referred to the genus of Ranunculus.
Vid. Reinhold, DiflT. §. !. It is confidently affirmed, that
the huntfmen on the Alps, who hunt the wolves and other
wild animals, dip their :utows into the juice of thefe plants,
which renders the wounds occafioned by them mortal. A
decoftion ct the roots has been ufed to kill bugs ; and the
powder difguifed in bread or fome other palatable vehicle
has been employed to deftroy rats and mice. The A.
napellus, or common monk's-hood has been long known as
one of the moft virulent of all vegetable poifons. Lin-
naeus fays, that it is fatal to fvvine and goats, but does no
injury to horfes who eat it dry. He alfo informs us from
the Stockholm afts, that an ignorant furgeon died in con-
fequence of taking the frcfh leaves, wliich he prefcribed to a
patient. The effluvia of the herb in full flower have pro-
duced fwooning fits and a temporary lofs of fight." The
leaves and flioots of this plant, ufed as falad inftead of ce-
lery, have proved fatal in icveral inftances. But the moft
powerful part of the plant is the root. Matthiolus relates
that it was given by way of experiment to four condemned
criminals, two at Rome in 1524, and two at Prague in
1 56 1, two of whom foon died, and the other two, with
great difficidty, were recovered. The juice applied to the
wound of a finger, not only produced pain in the arm and
hand, but cardialgia, anxiety, fenfe of fuffocation, fyn-
cope, &c. and the wounded part fphacelated before it
came to fuppuration. Dodonxus fays, that five perfons at
Antwerp died in confequence of eating it by millake. The
effefts of this plant are convullions, giddinefs, infanity,
violent evacuations, both upwards and downwards, faint-
jngs, cold fweat, and even death itfelf. Neverthelefs it has
been ufed for medicinal purpefes. The Indians are faid to
afe acomts, correifled in cow's urine, with good fucccfs
againll fevers. There is one fpecies of it which has been
deemed an antidote, tothofe that ?.re poifonous, called antliorn,
and thofe that are poifonous are called thora. The talle
of the root of the fpecies denominated anthora, is fweet,
with a mixture of bitternefs and acrimony, and the fmell is
pleafant. It purges violently when frefh, but lofes its qua-
lities when dried. This is poifonous as well as the others,
though in a flighter dc»:;ree, and is difufed in the prefcnt
practice. The firft perfon wha ventured to introduce the
common monk's-hood into medicine was Dr. Stoerck ;
though it has been fuppoftd by Haller and Bergius from
the tafte and figure of the plant which he ufed, that it was
■not the nnpellus but the A. fi7n2;«ffr«?n, which much refembles
it. But others have fince maintained, that Stotrck's plant
was the A. napdlusi. He found that the extrad't given to
the quantity of 10, 20, and even 30 grains, excited a
fweat without inconvenience, and by periilling in the ufe of
it, great relief v/as obtained in fixed rheuin;itic and arthritic

pains, fcirrhons glandular tumors, vcntrcal nodes, an.
ehylofcs, amaurofis, and other fimilar complaints. Other
practitioners, after the publication of Stoerck's Extrafts in
1 762, have experienced the fame good cffcrts in fome de-
gree, and the Edinburgh college has received the extraft as
an officinal. In this, as in all the other medicines of fufpi-
cious and dangerous properties, it is mod expedient to be-
gin with very fmall dofes, and increafe them as they can be
borne'. Stoerck recommends two grains of the txtraft to
be rubbed into a powder, with two drams of fugar, and to
begin with lograinsof this powder two or three times a diy.
The extraft is often given from one grain to ten for a dufc ;
and fome have confiderably increafed the quantity. Inilead of
the extraft a tinflure has been made of the dried leaves,
macerated in fix times their weight of fpirits of wine, and
40 drops given for a dofe. Martyn's, Miller's Did. Lewis's
Mat. Med. 1784. Woodville's Med. Dot. vol. i. p. 19.
Murray's Appar. Med. vol. iii. p. 6. &c.

ACONTiA, in Anl'ient Geography, a town of Spain,
which Strabo (Tom. 2. p. 228.) places near the Durius, and
calls a city of the Vaccxi.

ACONTI AS, a name ufed, by fome authors, for a fort
of COMET, or METEOR, wliofe head appears round or ob-
long, and its tail very long and llender, rcfembhng a ja-
velin.

It takes its dcnoniiiiatlon from a ferpent thus called, fre-
quent in Calabria and Sicily ; where it is alfo named y?;f//c7!«
({10m fiigitta, tin arrow) by reafon of its flying at palVen-
gers like an arrow ; in order to which, it winds itfelf up a
tree, to fpring thence with the greater rioleiicc. For the
like reafon the Greeks call it acoiilias, of uKoy'ho/, a Jurl, or
arro'iu.

It differs from the xiphias, in that it is longer, and
more like a dart ; and the other is (horter and broader in the
middle.

AcoNTiAS, in Zoology, the name of the Anguis ya-
cu/t/s, a fpecies of ferpent, called alfo Jaculum, or the
dart-fnake, from its manner of vibrating its body in the
manner of a dart. Bellonius found one of thefe in the
ifland of Rhodes, which he defcribcd in this manner : it is
about three hands-breadth long, and the thieknefs of one's
httle finger ; its colour is a milky grey on the back, variegat-
ed with fmall black fpots, like io many eyes ; and on the
belly it is perfectly white ; the neck is wholly black, and
from that two milk-white ftr;ams run all the way along the
back to the tail ; the black fpots alfo are each furrounded
with a fmall circle of white. It is found in Egypt and
Lybia, and in the iflands of the Mediterranean. It is alfo
called cetichreas and cinchriles. Ray.

ACONTISMA, in Antunt Geography, a city of Mace-
donia, between the StiTmon and Neflus.

ACONTIUM, in Ancient IFrhers, a kind of Grecian
dart, or javelin, fomewhat refembling the Reman piLUM.

ACONTIUS, or AcoN7.io, James, in Biography, a ce-
lebrated philofopher, cirilian and divine, born at Trent in
the 1 6th century. He embraced the protcllant religion,
and was favourably received in England by queen Eliza-
beth, who granted him a penfion as an engineer, which he
refpeftfully acknowledges in the dedication of his well-known
work, " The Stratagems of Satan." This trcatii'e was
firft printed at Bafil in 1565 ; and the author died in
England. Another edition of it was piibliflud in the fame
city by James Graflenis in 1610; at Ainllerdam in 1674,
and a French tranflation was publilhcd in 1610, and reprint-
ed at Delft in 1624; in the above edition is inferted Acon-
liiis's letter to Wolfius, " De ratione edendorum librorum,"
containing excellent advice to authors. He wrote alfo a

ireatifc

A C O

treatife on method, inlklcd " De Melhodo, five de ReiSa
iiivclHgaudi\nmi tradL-iidarumque allium et fcieiitianim la-
tione," which was piihlKhcd at Bafil in 1558, and inl'eited
ill a collection of dilVcrtations, " Dc Studiis bene inlli-
tuendis," printed at I'tieclit in 1658; an Italian work, on
fortifying cities, tranflatcd by himfclf into Latin, but never
piibliihed ; and a treatile of Logic, whicli lie did not hve to
tinilli. His religious pnnciples differed from tliofe of Cal-
vin ; and he was an avowed friend to toleration. He has
been charged with fcepticifni in theology, and rcfeired by
Ifaac Junius, minillcr of Delft, to the fame clafs with So-
cinuB aiid the llemonllrants, who reprefents him as a per-
t)n defirous of reducing all feds into one, and including
them in the fame ark, as Noali prcferved all animals in his,
though they lived on different food. Arminius fays of him,
*' Acmt'ius eft divinum prudentia:, ac moderationis lumen :"
and Amefuis gives him this character. " Idem Aconthts eft
onalrlz'o; sv Txif yfapxi;, qui fementem ecclefiae anghcanas
calore et rore coelelli fovit fedulo." Gen. Dift. Biog. Didl.

AcoNTiUM, in AutienI Geography, a city of Pelopon-
nefus in Arcadia, which derived its name according to Pau-
fanias, from Acontius, the fon of Lycaon. There was
another town of the fame name in the ifland of Euboea.

ACONTIUS Moiu, a mountain of Bceotia in Greece,
in which was built the town of Orchomenes. Strabo.

T. I. p. 6.S7.

ACOOTAN TJland, in Geography, lies north-eaft from
the point of Onemak, or the fouth-weft point of the con-
tinent of America ; and between thcfe is a channel.

ACOPA, in Botany, a name given by Diofcorides, and
fbme other authorsj to the Menvanthes /;-i/o.Wfl, or buck-
bean.

AcOPA, derived from a privative, and xoot,-, t-jearlnefs,
\n Medicine, is alfo ufcd to denote remedies againft the
ill confequences proceeding from laffitude, occafioned by
too violent labour, exercife, or the like ; fuch as tenfions,
tumors psins in the bones, &c. fome being of a wann, and
ethers of a mollifying nature. But the title is improperly
applied to medicines, as none are adapted to this purpoie,
fxcept by a general quality. Cullen's, Mat. Med. vol. i.
p. 162.

ACOPIS, or Acopos, a fubflance clafTed by Pliny among
the gems of which he gives the following account. Acopos
refembles Natron, is porous, and llarred with golden drops.
Oil that has been boiled upon this, is ufed as an ointment
to prevent the etfedl of fatigue. PUny, Nat. Hift. xxxvii. 54.

ACOPOS, a plant mentioned by Pliny, faid to be the
fame with the anagyris of Diofcorides, which Gerard
fays is the bean-trefoil ; it fignities alfo Laburnum.

ACOR fignilies fourncfs or acrimony.

ACORACA, in Antient Geography, a town of Chaly-
BOViTis, a prefecUire of S^nia.

ACORDINA denotes Indian tutty.

ACORIS, a fmall town of Egypt in the nome of Cy-
nopoUs, in the province of Hcptanomis,

ACORN, in Ndljiral Hijldfy and Agriculture, denotes
the fruit of trees of the oak kind.

The acorn, according to Dr. Grew, is the nut of an oak,
with this only difference, that befides the cup it ftands in,
it has only a leathern or parchment cover, inftcad of a
ftiell. And hence it is, that whereas the kernel of a nut is
fwect, tliat of an acorn is of a verj' rough and bitter tafte ;
the auftere parts of the fap, vvhicji in a nut are drained off
ijito the ftcU, being here imbibed by the ke.'-nel itfelf.
Writers on hufbandry give diredlions concerning feminaries
or nurferies of acorns, and the method of propagating, by
/owing or planting them. For tiir.ber, thoft acojiis are to

AGO

be chofen as seec, which are moft folid and heavy, and not
tluife which are the largeih See Oak.

In the Phil. Tranf. vol. Iviii. p. 75. we have a curioui
and important memoir by John Ellis, P"fq. containing a
method of preferviiig acorns in bees-wax for a whole year,
in a ilate fit for vegetation, by which other feeds may alfo
be preferred ; and fuch as are valuable may be brought from
the Eaft Indies, for the pui-pofe of planting them in other
countries. See Seed.

Acorns were the food of the firft ages ; but when corn
was cultivated, acorns were neglected. They are of little
ufe with us, except for fattening hogs and other cattle, and
poultry. The hogs that are fattened by them will be lub-
jecl to conftipation, and the difeafe called the garget, uiilefs
they are given fpanngly, and mixed with fome laxative fub-'
ftances : and, during the ufe of them, the hogs fliould be
allowed to run at large ; for if they are confined to the ilye,
they will not grow fat with this kind of food. Among the
Spaniards, the acorn, or glans ibcrica, is faid to have long
remained a delicacy, and to have been ferved up in the form
of a defert. In dearths, acorns have been fometimes dried,
ground into meal, and baked as bread. Bartholin relates,
that they are ufed in Norway for this purpofe. The inha-
bitants of Chio held out a long liege, without any other
food ; and in a time of fcarcity in France, A. D. 1709, they
recurred to this food. But they are faid to be hard of di-
geftion, and to occafion head-achs, ventoiities and colics.
In Smoland, however, many inftances occur, in which they
have fupphed a falutaiy and nutritious food. With this
view they are previoufly boiled in water and feparated from
their hufks, and then dried and ground ; and the powder is
mixed with about one half or one third part of corn-flour.
A decoiSlion of acorns is reputed good againft dyfenteries
and colics : and a peffary of them is faid to be ufeful in
immoderate fluxes of the menfes. Some have recommended
the powder of acorns in intermittent fevers ; and in Brunf-
wick they mix it with warm ale, and adminifter it for pro-
ducing a fweat in cafes of the eiyfipelas. Acorns roafled and
bruifed have reftrained a virulent diarrhsea. For other me-
dical ufes to which they have been applied, fee Murray's
Appar. Medic, vol. i. p. 100.

From fome late reports of the Academy of Sciences at
Peterfturgh, we learn that acorns are the beft fubftitute to
coffee that has been hitherto known. To communicate to
them the oily properties of coffee, the following piocefs i*
recommended. Wlieu the acorns have been toafted brown,
add frefh butter in fmall pieces to them, while hot in the
ladle, and ftir them with care, or cover the ladle and Ihake
it that the whole may be well mixed; The acorns of the
holm oak are formed at Venice into cups, about i \ inch in
diameter, and fomewhat lefs in depth. They are ufed for
dreffing leather, and, inftcad of galls, for dying woollen
cloth black.

Acorn, in Sea-language, denotes a little ornamental piece
of wopd in the (hape of a cone, fixed on the top of the
fpindle on tlie maft-head, above the vane, to keep it from
coming off the fpindle in a whirlwind, or when the (hip leans
much upon one fide under fail.

AcoRti-fhell. See Lepas.

ACORUS, derived from xcpn, the />«///, becaufe it was
eHeemed good for diforders of the eye, Calamus Aroma-
ticuj, SiL'eet Flag or S'-VMt RuJJj, in Botany, a genus of
the monogynia order, and hexandria clafs of plants, and
belonging to the natural order of piperit<f. T'le charaftera
are, that the caiy>; is a cylindric, fimple fpadix, covered
with flofcules, without fpatha or perianthlum ; the corolla is
compofcd of fix petals, cbtufe, concave, loufc, thicker at tha.

top.

AGO

fop, and in a manner tnincate : the ftamina are tliickiflT
filaments, fomewhat lonjrer than tlie corolla, and the antlu-rs
are thickifli, twin, terminal and adnate ; the plftilhmi is a
gfibbons germ, ratlicr oblong, and of the length of the
ftamens ; without ftyle ; the lligma is a prominent point;
the pericarpium is a (hort triangular capfvile, attenuated to
both ends, obtufe and three-celled : the feeds are many and
ovate-oblong. There are two fpecies, vit. i. A. ccildinus,
or common fwcet rulh, of which there are two varieties ;
the viihwis, European fweet rulh, fwcet fmelling flag, or
calamus aromaticus, and the venis feu ylfuitkiii, Indian
fweet vudi, or calamus aromaticus. The common calannis
aromatic\i;i is fuiHcicnlly dlitinguinied by its long fword-
fliaped leaves, refembling thofe of the flag, but naiTOVi-er,
of a brighter green, and yielding, when broken, a ftrong
aromatic Icent ; and alfo, by its oblong cylindric fpike of
flowers, proceeding from the fide of the ilem at the edge of
the leaf, which fpike is generally fmgle, fomctimes double,
and more rarely tri])le and quadruple. It grows naturally
on the banks of rivers, and in (hallow ftanding waters ; and
is f<nmd in many parts of England, on Hounflow-heath,
near Norwich and Lynn iii Norfolk, near Cambridge, in
the Avon, near Perfliore, and in many parts of Chefliire,
&c. ; but it is more plentiful in the llanding waters of
Holland, and is common in many other parts of Europe.
The Indian calamus, which grows not only in marfli ditches
but in more elevated and dry places in IVIalabar, Ccvlon,
Amboyna, and other parts of the Eaft Indies, differs little
fi\)r.i the European, except that it is more tender and nar-
row, and of a more hot and pungent talle. 2. A. grumi-
Tifi/s, grafs leaved fweet rufli, or Chinefe fweet grafs, has
the roots in tufts, with a few thready libres. The whole
herb has an aromatic fmell when bruifed, much refembling
our Englifh fweet flag, from which the prefent fpecies is
<Jillinguiflied by the fhortnefs of that portion of its ilalk,
which is above the fpadix, as well as by all its parts, except
the florets, being five times fmaller than in that plant. It
is probably a native of China, and cultivated for the fake of
its fmell, in pots near the habitations of the Chinefe, whence
Mr. Alton obtained it in 1786. It flowers in the fpring.

Culture. The fweet flag will fucceed very well in a gar-
den, if the ground be moill, but never produces its fpikes
unlefs it grows in the water. It loves an open fituation,
and will not thrive well under trees. The flowers appear
towards the end of June, and continue till Auguft. In a
proper fituation it will increafe by its creeping roots. The
Chinefe fweet grafs muil be kept in a dry Itovc, without
»ny great degree of heat.

Medk'wal Properties. The dried roots of the calamus
aromaticus are commonly imported from the Levant, though
thofe of our own growth are equally good. The bell are
thofe which are greenifli v.ithout, and reddilh within ; the
pulp whito, and talle bitter. They have a fl:rong aromatic
fmell, and a warm pungent bittcrilh tafte ; and their flavour
is much improTed by drjing. The powdered r(X)t might
fupply the place of foreign fpices, and indeed it is the only
native aromatic plant of northern climates. It is caimina-
tive and iloniachic, and often ufed as an ingredient in bitter
infufions. But it communicates a naufeous flavour to thefe
infufions ; and Neumann obferves, that its agreeable flavour,
as well as ditlingulfliing talle, are owing to an cffential oil ; the
rcliduum after diflillation having a naufeous flavour unlike
that of the calamus. It appears that water is the moil per-
feifl men'lruum of the bitter matter, as retlified fpirit is of
the aromatic, and the fmell of the calamus is covered or
fupprefled by fpirit. The tinftures in both menftrua are of
a yellow or isrown'Oclour, bs thty are lefs or more faturated.

'Vol. I.

AGO

The root is an ingredient in the mithridate and thfriaca of th«
London pharmacopoeia, and in the aromatic and (lomarhic
tin6turfs, and couipound avutn powder, of that of Edin-
burgh. The Turks candy it, and regard it as a prcfervative
againft contagion. It is alfo faid that it hai cured ague?,
when the Peruvian bark has failed ; and it \\m been re-
commended in Vertigo, proceeding from a vitiated ftomach.
Rome have pretended that it is ellicacious in fcorbutic and
hemorrhagic complaints, to vliich little credit will be given,
and much lefs to its alexipharmic power. The prepanition^
of it, enumirated by Murray, are a dry confecHou of the
roots, a dillilled water and oil, a fpirit nous and aqucou?
extratl, and the elixir vitx Matthioli, and elixir vitrioli Mvn-
fichli. The leaves have a fweet fragrant fmell, refembling
that of the roots, but weaker. No cattle whatever will
cat any part of the plant. Martvn's Miller. Lcwis'»
Mat. Med. — Woodviile's Med. Bot. \ol. iii. p. 473.
Murray's App. Med. vol. v. p. 31;.

ACORU.S, or Bi.UF. COR.M,, in Natural Hiflory. Tli^
true acorus of this kind is very fcarce : fonicof it, liowcvir,
is found on the coafls of jXfrica, partienlaily from Rio del
Re to the river of the Caniarones. This coral is part of
the merchandize v.-hici; the Dutch trade for with the Cania-
rones ; that of the kingdom of Benin is alfo veiT nuu h
eflecmed. It grows in form of a tree on a rocky bottom.
Acorus is alfo a name for the greater galasoal root.

AcoRUS Aduher'inus, in tlie Malrna Mcil'ua, the name
of the root of the iris hitea pctlujlrls, or common yellow
water-flag-flower.

ACOvSTA, Gabriel, in Biogriiphy, a canon and pro-
feflor ot theology at Coimbi-a, who died in 1616, and
whofe large Latin commentary on part of the old teflament
was printed in fol. in 1 641. I>ugd. Bat.

AcosTA, Joseph, a celebrated Spanilh author, born at
Medina del Campo, about the year 1540. He was a mif-
fionary and provincial of the Jeluits in Peni, and died at
Salamanca in 1 600. Belides his " Natural and moral hillorj- of
theWell Indies," full printed in Spanifli in 8vo. A.D. 1591 ;
and printed in French in 1600: he alfo wrote a treatife
" De Procuianda Indoium Salute," 8vo. Salam. 15S8,
" De Chrifto Revelato," 410. Rom. 1 590, and " De vera
Scripturas interpretandi ratione," in the commentaries of
Menochius, &c. The decretals of the council of Lima
are alfo afcribed by fome perfons to this author. Aen/ln,
fays Dr. Robcrtfon, (Hid. Amer. vol. ii. p. 459.) is the
firll philofopher who endeavoured to account for the different
degrees of heat in the old and new Continents, by the
agency of the winds which blow in each. Tiiis theory
was adopted and improved by M. Buffon.

AcosTA, Uriel, was born at Oporto near the clofe of
the 16th centur)-. Having been educated in the Roniifh
religion, though defcended from one of thofe Jewifli fa-
milies which had fubmittcd, as it were by conllraint, to
Chrillian baptifm ; he continued in the profiflTion of it till
the age of 25 years. His mind, however, had been per-
plexed bv doubts previcufly to this period, in which he be-
came treafurer in a collegiate church. At this time he di-
refted his attention to the books of Mofcs and tile Prophets,
and the refnlt was a conviclion, that Judaidn was the true
religion. Fearing openly to profefs it during his continu-
ance in Portugal, he detenuined to rcfign his place, and
embarked for Amllerdam with his motlier and brothers,
whom he had in(lru<?ted in the principles 'of the Jewilh faith.
In this new fituation they became members of the fyna-
gogue, and were circumcifed according to the Jewifli cnf-
toin ; and he changed his name ot Gabriel for tliat of UricL
■He foon perceived that the Jews did not conform, either in
y their

ACQ

tTicir rites or morals, to the law of Mofes ; and difapprov-
inj^ of ih-jlr condtict, lie avowed hh fentimeuLs, a;id incurred
the refcntmtnt of the chiefs of the fyiiago^ue. Dy them
ho was excommunicated and forbidden to hold any inter-
CJurfe even with his own brothers. In thefe circumilances
he wrote a book in his own jullilication ; in which he endea-
vours to (hew that the rites and traditions of the Pharilees
are contrary to the writings of Mofes : and he was foon led
to adopt the opinion of the .Saddueecs, from a perfuafion
that the fanClions of the Jewidi law related n^erely to the
prcfent life. Aeolla was rtputcd an atlieill, ar,d became an
objcd of general odium and perfecution. With the concur-
rence of tiie (nagillrates of Amllerdam he w;is thjown into
prifon ; aii the copies of his work were feizcd, and he was
fined 3CO jTuilJers. His fcepticifm increafed, and hf pro-
ceeded to think that the Mofaic law was a political invention.
With thefe ideas he bafely detenr.ined to facrilice his confci-
cnce to his interelt, and returned to the Jewilh churcli after
having been ly years excommunicaled, recanted what he had
written, and fubfcribcd what was enjoined. Accuiedby his
nephew of not confomiing to the laws of Mofes in his private
condud, he foon found that the pnfjllanimoas deferlion of
principle was of little avail ; he was fummoncd before thcgraiid
council of the fynagogue, and again expelled from their com-
munion. After living in wretchedncfs forfeven years, he de-
clared liis purpofe of fubmitting to the fentence of the fy-
nagogue ; and contrai-)' to the expetlations which he had
been encouraged to entertain, he undenvent a very fevere
penance. After making a public recantation, and a very
humiliating acknowledgment of liis offence, he was llripped
to the waiil and received 39 lafnes with a whip. He was
then abfolved from the excommunication, and laying him-
felf down at the door of the fynagogue, all who came out
■ivalked over him. This account is extrafted from his trea-
tife, intitled, " Exemplar humans vita:," publiilied and
refuted by Limborch, in his " Arnica CoUatio cum erudito
Judjeo de veritate rcligionis chriilianae." This treatife he
is fuppofed to have eompofed a few days before his death.
Having failed in his attempt to kill his principal enemy, he
put an end to his own life with a piitol in 1647, accordnig to
fome, but as others fay in 1640. Such was tlie teiTnination
of a life difgraced, not by the change of fentiments, in
eonfequence of inquiry and conviftion, but by a want of inte-
grity, and by a mean and dailardly avowal, for purpofes of
cafe and intereil, of principles which he did not beheve.
Gen. Diet.

- ACOSTAN, in Geography, a movmtainous ifland in the
North Sea, between Aiia and America, obfer\'ed by Cap-
tain Cook.

ACOTYLEDONES, in Botany, denote feeds without
l<jbss, and of courfe when they vegetate, they produce no
feminal leaves.

ACOUEZ, in Geography, the name of an Indian nation
in Canada.

ACOUS, the principal, though fraall, town in the vaUey
of Afpe and country of Beam in France. Near this place
are fevetal cold fprings, particularly thofe of Efcot. N.
lat. 43° 5'JIE. long, o'' 50'.

ACOUSMATICI, from axuai, to hear, an appellation
given to fuch anwng the difciples of Pythagoras, as were
kill under the probation of five years. They are alfo called
by Latin writers acoufticl. The acoiifniatici Hood oppofed to
the mathemalic'i, who were initiated into the fecrcts of
Icience ; and the acoufmatk phliofophy to the mathematic.
Thcfc diftinclions correfponded to the exoteric and eso-
teric. To perfons of this clafs, it was fufHcient to appeal to
ihc authority of Pythagoras, " Ai/ii, i?«, ipfe dixit," which

I

A C Q^

decided every difpute. Some have denied the appellation of
Pythagoreans to be due to the acoulinntlci ; becaufe many
ol thefe had their learning, not immediately from Pytha-
goras, but from tilppafus, who, according to fume, was of
Crotona, but according to others, of Metapontium.

ACOUSTIC, formed trom ».r.-tx, to hear, denotes in
general any thing that relates to the ear, the lenfe of hear-
ing, or llie dociiine or founds.

Acoustic Dad, in Jhiolomy, is applied to the external
pafTage of the ear ; called alio meatus aud'itorhis.

Acoustic InJJrumcnts, or Auricular tubes, are fuch as are
adapted to fupply the defect of htaring. See alfo Deaf-
ness and Trumpet.

ACOUSTIC Ner-ves. Sec Auditory Kervet, and
Nkkves.

ACOUSTIC Vejfih, \\\ the anc'unt theatres, were a kind
of vefiels made of brals, fiiaped, as fome have faid, like a
bell, which being of all tones within the pitch of the voice,
or even of inftruments, rendered the founds more audible,
fo that the aclors could be heard through all parts of the
theatres, which were even 400 feet in diameter. Vitruvius.
The acouitic vafes, mentioned by Vitruvius as harmonically
tuned, and placed in different parts of the antient theatres,
have been tried in the Opera-houfe at Turin, and other
parts of Italy ; but without the effetl; expedted from them
of augmenting the tone of the human voice, or of the in-
ftruments to which they were tuned.

ACOUSTICS, or Acoustic Medicines, are remedies
againll; the impcrfeftlons and diforders of the ear, or of
the fenfe of hearing. Such general terms as acouftics,
fays Dr. CuUen (Miit. Med. vol. i. p. 163.) ferve to mif-
lead rather than inltrucl, and fhould, therefore, never be
employed.

Acoustics is that branch- of general fcience which il-
luftrates the origin, propagation and perception of found.
Some writers have divided acoullics into ^Mt-o//^/Vj, which
explains the properties of thofe founds that proceed direct-
ly from the fonorous body to the ear, and catacoiiftics, which
treats of rcflefted founds. Sound originates in the percuf-
fion and vibration ot the parts of an elaiUc fubllance ; and
it is tranfmitted by means of the clafticity of the air, or of
fome other more fubtile medium of a iimilar kind. How
it is produced and propagated, and with what velocity it
moves, are fubjefts of dilcuffion which will be particularly
inveftigated and explained in their proper place, under the
article Sound. The reverberation of founds will be illuf-
trated under the articles Echo, Trumpet and Whisper-
ing places. For the manner by which they imprefs the or-
gans of hearing ; See Ear and Hearing. See alfo
Chord, Phonics, String, Vibration, and Voice.
Acouji'ics is properly the theoretical part of Music : it is
that which gives, or ought to give, reafons for the pleafure
which we receive from harmony and melody, which deter-
mines the relation of harmonical intervals, and which_
difcovers the affections or properties of vibrating chords,
&c. Rouffeau. For an account of the amuiing contri-
vances, connected with this branch of fcience, fee Bolus's
Harp, Armonica, Commiimcati've Busts, Automatous
Harpsichord, Solar Sonata, Converfi-ve Statue, and
/'cn/o/a/ Symphony. See alfo Hooper's Recreations, vol. ii.
p. 202, &c.

ACQS, in Geography, a fmaU town at the foot of tlic
Pyrenees, in the department of Arriege, and late province
ot Foix in France, and fo called from its hot waters. N.
lat. 43*^. 42'. E. long. 1°. 3'.

AcQj, or Dax, Aqute TarbelUca and Aqu£ Aiigvjla:, is
alfo th;; name of a city of Fraace, in the vifcouuty of the

fame

A C (^

fame name, and in the diftrift of AurJbat, on the i-ivor
Adour. It is a birtiop's fee. In this phicc are fix convents,
one college and an hofpital. In the neigliboiirhocid are
warm baths. N. lat. 4^° 47'. E. long. 1° o'.

ACQi^A, a fmall place in Tiifcany, noted for its hot
baths. N. lat. 43° 45'. E. lonp^. 12° 10'.

AcQUA ilMt Fico, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of
Naples and province of Calabria Ultra, 15 miles Welt of
Squillace.

AcQUA Nei^ra, a town of Italy in Mantua, 2 miles N.
N. E. of Caneto. There is another town of the fame name
near the conflux of the Adda and Po, 3 miles Well of
Cremona.

ACQLT AC KNACK, or .Acoj-'akinank, a town of
America, on the W. fide of PalTaic river, in tlie county of
Eflex in New Jerfey ; 10 miles N. of Newark, and 17 N.
W. from New York.

ACQUAPENDENTE, a large town, now almofl de-
folate, though a bifliop's fee, and containing 16 churches
and convents, fituate on a rocky em.inence in the territory of
Orvieto in Italy. N. lat. 42° 43'. E. long. 11" 53'.

ACQITARA, a town of Italy in the kingdom of Naples,
13 miles S. W. of Cangiano.

ACQJLTARIA, a fmall -..own of Italy in Frignano, a
diftrift of Modena, famous for its medicinal waters. N.
lat. 44^ 24'. E. long. Ii" 17'.

AcQUA Sparta, a town of Italy in Umbria, 10 miles W.
of Spokto.

ACQUAVIVA, an inconfiderable town in the county
of Bari, a diftrift of Apuha in Italy. N. lat. 41^ 10'. E.
long. 16° 20'. Another town of this name lies 8 miles N.
N. W. of Rome, and another in the kingdom of Naples,
19 miles W. of Molife ; and again another in the Marquifate
of Ancona, 10 miles N. E. of Afcoli.

ACQI-IEST, or AcclUist, formed of Fr. acquerir,
from acquirerc, to acquire ox ^et, is undcrllood in a legal {zwie,
of goods or eiTefts, acquired either by purchafe or donation.
The French laws make a great difference between acqucfts
and hereditary effefts. The civil law allows none. See
Heir.

Acquest is alfo popularly iifed for coNCiUEST, or a
place acquired by the fword.

ACQLTETTA, m Geography. See Acvy ETTA.

ACQXJI, a fortified town and bifliop's fee in the duchy
of MontTerrat in Italy. It is fituated at a fmall diftance
from the Apennines, about 25 miles N. W. from Genoa,
and has its name from its warm baths. N. lat. 44° 40'. E.
long. 8° 30'.

■ ACQITIDA, a fmall Dutch fort to the E. of Ancobar
river in the gold coaft of Africa. N. lat. 4' 32'. long,
nearly the fame with that of Greenwich.

ACQLIIETANDLS Plegm, in laiv, a writ of juftices
lying for a furety agaiuft the creditor that rcfuics to acquit
him after the debt is paid.

ACQUIETARE, in ancient la'iu-looh, fignifies to dif-
charge or pay the debts of a perfon deceafed ; as the
heir thofe of his father. Sec.

ACQUISITION, the a£l of procuring a right or title
to the enjoyment or property of a thing, jlcquijilion is alio
ibmetimes ufcd for an .icquest,

ACQl^ITTAL, a difcharge, deliverauce, or fetting
free of a perfon from the guilt or fufpicion of an offence.
Acquittal is of two kinds ; in /«w, and mfad. When two
perfons are appealed or indifted for felony, one as principal,
the other as accefibry ; the principal being difcharged, The
acceflbr)' is, by confcqucnce, alfo freed : in which cafe, as
the acceffory is acquitted ly laiu, fo is the principal in faU.

A C R

When a perfon I5 acquitted of a felony, and is quertioned
aojain for the fame crime, he may plead aiilrefoits aequi! ; as
his hfe cannot be twice cxpofed to danger for llie fume ofi-
fence. But in murder, acquittal doei not prevent an ap-
peal; and the principal or acccfTcry, may be either remit-
ted to prifon or bailed by the court, till the year and day
of appeal be palfcd. If a perfon is lawfully'acquittcd o!i
a malicious profecution, he may bring his adtion for d.v
inages, afterhe hath had a copy of tlie indidment.

AcQ^iTTA I., is alfo ufed where there is a lord mesme and
tenant, and the tenant holds lands of the incfne, and the
mefne holds over the lord paramour : here, the ncfnc
ought to acquit the tenant of all ferviccs claimed by any
other for the fame lands ; the tenant being to do fer\icc to
the mefne only, and not to divers lords for one parcel of
land. ^

ACQUITTANCE, or Q^uittance, a rclcafc or dif-
pharge ui writing, for a fum of money" or other duty,
which ought to be paid or done. No perfon is obliged to
pay without an acquittance, and the acquittance of a fer-
vant accuftomed to receive money for his maflcr, is a good
difcharge. The verb acquit, the participle acquitted, and
the noun acquittal, do all fignify a difcharge from an offence
objeftcd. In which cafe we meet with acquitted by pro-
clamation.

ACRA,or AcARA,in(j^<;fr<3/i/ij,adcpcndent and tributary
diftridl of the kingdom of AQUAMnoE,on the coaft of Gui-
nea, in Africa ; where the Englilh, Dutch and Danes have
llrong forts, which arc confidered as the bell on the whole
coafl;. That of the Englifli is Fort James, fituate on a
rock, and capable of mounting 20 cannons. Near it is
a falt-pit, which fupplies a great part of the coaft with this
commodity, and yields a confiderable revenue. The Dutch
fort is Creveceur, ftanding on a rock and gtiarding the beach.
TheDanilh fort is Chriftianburgh, which is the only place the
Danes pofTcfs on this coaft. Each fort hath its adjacent
village ; though the general one is Acra, the name of the
ancient kingdom, before it was fubdued by the Aquainboans,
and its inhabitants removed to httle Popo. N. lat. 5". 40'.
E. long. i". 29'.

AcRA, in Ancient Geography, one of the hills of Jeioifa-
lem, on which flood the old or lower city ; as the new or
high city, called alfo the city of David, was fituate on
mount Zion, to the fouth of Acra. This is fuppofed by
fome to be the fame with Mount Moriah, on a part of which
Solomon built his temple ; and they allcdge, that Moriah
in Hebrew, and Acra in Greek, have the fame meaning,
and fignify an eminence. Wells's Sacr. Geog. vol. Hi. p. 76.

As there was a citadel or fortrefs built on this hill by An-
tiochus, in order to annoy the temple, which was after-
wards taken and razed by Sirnon Maccabrus, it is not im-
probable that the name was derived from this rircumftance.
Anc. U. H. vol. ii. p. 488. The Afmonean kings, not fa-
tisfied with having razed the citadel built by the Syrians,
lowered the top of the mountain, and filled up the valley
towards the eaft, by which means the ground on which the
temple Hood, or Mount Moriah, became higher than Acra,
and thus the communication between them was rendered
more eafy.

Acra, in Syria. See .'\crf.

Acra Point, See H ads hilar.

ACRABA, a town of Mefopotamia in Alia, fituate
near the river Chaboras, about 36' :o'. N. lat.

ACRABATA, a town of Afia, towards the limiu of
Samaria,

ACRABATENE, the name of two diftrifts of Judiea ;

one extending itfelf between Scheclion;, a&w Naplol'a, and

V J jcrieUo,

A C R

JcricKo, about !2 miles In Itnjrth ; anj another on the
frontier of Idiimxa, towards the louthcrn extremity of the
Dead Sea.

ACRACANUS, a river of Afui in Abydene, fuppofed
by Eufebius to be the fame witli Maarfarcs.
ACRADINA. See AcHKADiNA.

ACRTK, an ancient town of Sicily, founded according
to Thucydides (hb. 6. p. 381. Ed. Diikeri) 70 years after
Syracufe, built uj)i)n an eminence, as Sihus Itahcus (hb. 14.
*. 207.)defcribei it, and inhabited by a people wliom Pliny
(II. N. vol. i. p. 163.) denominates Acrenfes. It wasfitu-
ated about 24 miles to the fouth of Syracufc, not far from
the fea, and near the monailer)- which the Sicilians call Sania
Maura (fylrcia, between the cities of Nolo and Avula.
There arc medals of this city in bronze, gold and filver.

AcRyi: Stjiianjr, a dillrict of Spain, S. E. of tiie pro-
montory of Arlabrum.

AcR«, wasalfo an epithet of Diana, who was generally
worfliipped in higli places.

ACR.iEA, a furname of Juno of Corinth, who had a
temple in the citadel of the Sicilian Acrr ; and alfo a furname
of Fortune for the fame rcalon.

ACR/EPHIA, AcR/r.PHiuM, or as Paufanias (lib. 9.
c. 23. p. 755. Ed. Kuhnli) calls it, /Icrttphnium, was a city
of ficcotia, fituate on Mount Ptoos, where was a temple of
Apollo. This place, according to Paufanias, afforded re-
fuge to the Thebans, when Alexander demolilhed their city.
ACRjEUS, was a furname of Jupiter, who was honoured
by the inhabitants of Smyrna in a temple on an eminence
neai the fea.

ACRAGAS, a town of Sicily, built upon a mountain,
at the confluence of the rivers A^ragas and Hypfa, and
within two miles of the fea, by the people of Gela in the
year before Chrift 584. It took its name from the river
Acragas, now called Fiume di Gergenti ; whence other cities,
enumerated by Stephanus (de Urb. voL i. p. 53.) were de-
pominated Acra^antes. Acragas was very Itrongly fortified.
The inhabitants were luxurious in their diet, and magnifi-
cent in their dwellings ; and they are reprefem^ed by Empe-
docles, fays Diogenes Laertius (torn. I. p. 532.) to be per-
fons, who lived to-day as if they were to die to-morrow,
and who built, as if they were to live for ever. The adja-
cent country abounded with vines and olives, the produce
of which afforded a lucrative commerce with Carthage.
Acragas has been more generally diftinguifhed by its Roman
appellation ^(tgi'igcntum. The medals of this city were gold,
filver and bronze.

ACRA Japygia, a promontory in the kingdom of Na-
ples, to the S. E. of Otranto, where was formerly a town,
now in ruins, on the Ionian Sea, oppofite to the Monies
acroceraun'i't of Epirus. Ptolemy called it Sa/entia, and it is
BOW denominated Capo dt San Maria di Leuce.

Agra of Scylax, an ifland on the coafl of Numidia, that
forms the modern part of Har(hgoone, imder which veffels
of the greateft burden may lie in fafety. Stephanus (de
Urb. vol. i. p. 53.) enumerates 10 cities under the appella-
tion of Acra.

ACRAMAR, or Van, in Geography, a town and lake
ef the Greater Armenia in Afia. N. lat. 36° 30'. E. long.
44° 14'. Thetown, which is the capital of the government
of Van, is fituated at the foot of the mountains of Diar-
bekir, and is faid to have been built by Semiramis. It is
large, populous and commercial. In the adjoining lake,
which abounds with fifh, there are two finaU iflands, inhabit-
ed by religious Armenians.

ACRASIA, formed of « priv. and x(fav»vf»i, to mix,
'}i ufed by fome writer? in Phyjic, for the cxcefs or predominan-

A C R

cy of one quafity above another, either in artificial mixture,
or in the conilitution oi the human body. The word is ufed
by Hippocrates, and olher Gitek medicinal writei-s, to ex-
prefs excefi of any kind, intemperance and imbecility.

ACRASUS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia
Minor in Lydia. There are fome imperii'! Greek medals of
this city, which were (truck under t!ie prxtors, in honour of
Severus, PlautUIa, Gcta, Julia Paula, Alex. Sevcrus and
Canicalla.

AC RATH, a town In Mauritania Tingitana, fuppofed
to be the prefent Vrle':. de Gomara.

ACRATISMA, in AiUirjuily, a breakfaft among the
old Greeks, confilling of a morfel of bread foaked in piue
unmixed wine.

ACRATOMELI. Sec Mvlsum.

ACRATOPHORUS, a furname of Bacchus, under
which he was honoured at Pliigalia, a city of Arcadia.

ACRATOS, from a, priv. and v.!,«nt//a, to mix, de-
notes fimple or unmixed. This term is very often ufed by
Hippocrates, and applied to excretions of different lorls, and
is always of very bad prefage. Thus, in his Pm-jiotiones, he
obfcrves, that in all painful diforders ot the pleura and lungs,
the fplttle (liould appear mixed and yellow j and that it is 3
dangerous iymptoiu, if it be altogctlier yellow, without
any mixture : and he adds, that if the ipittlc be fo unmixed,
as to appear black, it is a very bad prefage.

ACRE, or AcRA, in Geography, 3 fea-port town on the
Phoenician coaft in Syria. Its ancient Hebrew name was
Acco or Accho, under which appellation it is mentioned as a
place of confiderable ftrength in the book of Judges, ch. i.
V. 3 1 . and it is Hill called by tlie Arabs Akha. It was after-
wards denominated Pro LE MAIS, from one of the Ptcdemysin
Egypt, and Acra, on account of its fortifications and im-
portance : whence the knights of St. John of Jerufalem
called it St. John d'Acre. The fituation of Acre poffeffes
every poffible advantage both of fea and land : as it is en-
compaffed on the N. and E. by a fpacious and fertile plain,
on the W. by the Mediterranean, and on the S. by a large
bay, extending from the city to Mount Carmel» This
city fucceffively under the dominion of the Romans and af^
terwards of the Moors, was for a long time the theatre of
contention between the Chriftians and the Infidels in the pro-
grefs of the crufades. It was taken by the victorious Saladin
in 1187 ; and furrendered to the united arms of Philip Auguf-
tus of France, and Richard I. of England in 1191, after a
fiege of two years, which confumed a great multitude offerees,
both of Europe and Afia. Although the Europeans thus
acquired a ftrong town and convenient harbour, the advantage
was very dearly purchafed. It is faid (fee Gibbon's Hift.
vol. xi. p. 144. 8vo.) that on this oceafion more than 100,000
Chriftians were (lain ; that a far greater number was loil by
difeafe or fhipwreck ; and that a fmall portion of an army,
confifting of five or fix hundred thoufand pcrfons, returned in
fafety to their native countric,;. After the lofs of Jerufaleiii
in unfuccefsful attempts for recovering the Holy Land from
the poffeffionof the Saracens, renewed by St. Louis with the
co-operation of our Edward I. and other powers. Acre be-
came the metropolis of the Latin Chriftians, and was adorn-
ed with ftrong and ilately buildings, with aquedufts, aa
artificial port and a double wall. Its population was in»
creafed by an influx of pilgrims and fugitives ; and the trade
of the Eaft and Weft was attraifted to this convenient fta-
tion. At this time, however, the inhabitants v/ere ex-
tremely corrupt } and the government, though exercifed by
many lovereigns, feeble and ineffectual to any purpofe of
falutary reftraint. Adventurers iffued from this city, under
the banner of the crofs, to plunder the Mahometan villages ;
3 and

A C R

A C R

and tl»oug1\ nineteen Syrian merchants were robbed and ignomi-
nioufly put to death, fatisfadlioii waj witlihtlJ. The Suk.m
Khahl refented this condurt, and marched again'.l Acre, at
the head of a large army, furniflied with a tremendous train
of artillery. After a liege of 73 days the double wall was
forced, by the Modems, the pruu-ipal tower yielded to their
engines, the city wa lloniied, and death or flavcry was the
lot of fixty thouUnd Chrilliaus, The foitrcfs of the Tem-
plars was dcihoyed, the grand malKr killed, and of 500
knights, 10 only fui-vived : who probably ftificred on a
fcaffold /fays Oibboii) in the unjult and cruel proferiplion
of the wnole order. Few of the fugitives, among whom
were the king of Jcrufalcm, the patriarch, and the great
mailer of the holpital, cfcapcd the dangers of the fca, and
fafcly arrived in the illand of Cyprus. This difaibouf; event
happened (lays Maimdrtl in his journey, ^\c. p. 55.) on
May 19, J2()\. He adds, that-the abbefi of the nunner)-,
in oitler to avoid that violation which wns apprehended from
the liccntioufnefs of the Saracen victors, ordered the young
nuns under her care to mangic their faces, letting an exam-
pie io her own perfon, that they might thus become the ob-
jecls of averfion inllead of brutal defue. The .Saracens,
difappoirrted and inflamed with refentment, put them all to
the fwoixl.

After the expulfion of the crufaders. Acre exhibited a
fcene of magnificent ruin, and remained in a grat degree
defolated and dti^rtcd lul jbcvjt theyear 1750, when it was
fortified by Daher, an Aribian fcheik, who obtained the
appellation of Prince of St. John of Acre, and maintained
his independence againft the whole force of the Ottoman
empire, till the year 1 775, when he was bafely aflaflinated by
order of the Ottoman Porte, at the advanced age of 86
years. He was ailpred by his people (fays Savar)-, Letters,
vol. ii. p. 200.) whom he had through life defended againll
the tyranny of the Pacha, and yet by this tyrant he was be-
trayed and murdered.

At a later period Acre has been rendered, by the works
of Djezzar, one of the principal towns upon the coaft.
The mofque of this Pacha is much admired. The bazar,
or covered market, is not inferior to the bazars of Aleppo,
and its public fountain is fuperior in elegance to thofc of
Damafcus. Thefe improvements were deiigned and execut-
ed by the Pacha himfelf. The place, however, t!iou^;h its for-
tifications had been often repaired, was very weakly de-
fended ; and in the fpring of 1799, it was found necelTa-
ry to ftrengthen its fortifications, in order to guard againft
the apprehended alfault of the French army under Bonaparte.
The P^cha Djezzar, who had aftually evacuated Caiifa,
a town at the foot of Mount Carmel, furrovmded with a good
wall, and flanked with towers, and who had difarmed the
caftle which defended the fort and road, had reafon to dif-
trufl his fecurity at Acre. He was therefore preparing to
make good his retreat» and to convey away his women and
treafure, when Sir Sidney Smith anchored in the road of
Caiffa with an F.nglifh fquadron, and deputed a French en-
gineer (Col. Philipeaux) to aid him in fortifying the town.
This engineer caufed the fortrefs to be repaired, which was
fortified after the mode of thj 12th century, with courtines
flanked with fq,uare towers. The Pacha, thus affifted and
animated, determined to co-operate with the Englifh fqua-
dron in the defence of the town. Kleber, however, with
the French advanced guard, had taken pofTeffion of Caiffa';
and Bonaparte had completed the inveftment of Acre, when
his battenng-pieces and llores fell into the hands of the
Englifh. This lofs decided the fate of the town ; and
though the French renewed and varied their attacks, they
were repeatedly repuKed by the garrifon in concurrence with

the marines of the li^nglidi fquadron, under the conjnand
ot the Commodore, Sir Sidney Smitli. After multl|)lied and
ineparable lodes, it was found alnuill impofiibic to reduce a
place, defended with fo much intrepiditv, and polfefling a
variety of advitntages which it is belides our puipoft mi-
nutely to detail. Bonaparte at lergth determined to raifc
the ficge, and announced his refohitior. to the army, which
began its march on the 20th of May, the 6lft day after
breaking gi-ound. Djezzar did not perceive for two days
that the trendies were evacuated, fo that the French army
had an opportunity of continuing its march without molel-
tation, ravaging tiie couiitrv', burning llie iiarvilti, and de-
llroying the defences of the poits, the magazines, and all
the refources which the Turks might have uled in approach-
ing the frontiers of F.gypt. Kkhei (onncd the rcnr-guaid
with his divifion, which, after ha\iiig crolTed the defart,
embarked at Tineh for Damietta. Bonaparte left a rtrong
garrifon at Cattich, and entered Cairo with the rell of the
army, 26 days after the raifing of the fiege.

The afpeft of the field of carnage on this occafioti wag
horrible. The ditches and the revcrfesof the parapet* were
filled with coi-pfes, and the air itfelf was infeCied for v.anL
of an opportiMiity to remove the wounded whom the Turks
'eft unmallaered, and to bury the dead. Notwithllaiidnig
the fingularfpinJ and very extraorduiar)' exertions m?nifelttd
:n this fiege, both by the ad'ailants and the befieged ; huma-
nity on botli fides mud lament the aggnvvattd circumllanu.'s
of cruelty and diilrefs that attended it.

The principal articles of commerce at Acre, are corn a«d
cotton : but the trade is monopolized by the Pacha in his
own hands. The French have ufually had a confnl in this
place, and RufTia a refident. Aae is fitnatcd 27 miles S.
of Tyre, and about 70 miles N. of Jerufalem, N. lat. 32°
40'. E. long. 39° 25'.

Acre, is ufed in the dominions of the Mogul, with re-
gard to his revenues, in the fame fenfe with Tack, for the.
fum of 100,000 rupees ; eight rupees being equal to about
one pound llerling.

Acre denotes a quantity of land, containing fotu-fquare
ROODS, or 160 fquare folks or pkrchi s. The word>
perhaps, is formed from the. Saxon a<:ere, or German acker ^
field, or the Latin ager. Salraafuis derives it from acra,
ufed for acana, a land-meafure among the Ancients, con-
taining 10 feet. The term acre formerly meant any open
ground or field, as Gallle-acre, Well-acre, and not a de-
terminate quantity of land.

By the culVom of countries, the perch differs in quati-
tity, and confequently the acre of land :. it is commonly
iCi feet ;. but in Staffordlhire it is 24 feet ; in other
counties 28 feet ; and in foine parts of England 18, 21 feet.
According to the ilatute 34 Hen. VIII. concerning the
fowing of flax, it is declared, that i6q perches, i. e. 16 ia
length> and 10 in breadth, or in that proportion, make ait
acre; and the ordinance for meafvulng land, 35 Edw. 1.
agrees with thii account. And therefore, as tlie.llatutc length
of a pole is 54 yards, or i6i feet, the acre will contain 484Q
fquare yards, or 43,560 fquare feet. Moreover, as the
chain, ufed in meafuring land, is four poles or 22 yards in
length, the fquare chain will be 484 yards, and the acre
will be 10 fquare chains. And a mile being 1760 yards, or
80 chains in length ; the fquare mile will be J760X 1760
= 3,097,60c fquare yards, and contain 80 X 80 := 64CO
fquare chains, or 640 acres. Some old farmers dillinguiflx
between feed -acres and ftatute acres ; the foi-mer being a
vague meafure, determined by the proportion of feed uled
in fowing it, and therefore depending on the fertility or bar.
rennefs of the foil.

The.

A C R

A C R

Tl If Scots acre co-nains 4 Scots roods, and bears pro-
poi-tiwi to that of t'.u- Englifh by tlLitute, as 100,000 to
7!*, 69.1, rcg^-d being hud to the diflerciice betwixt the Scots
and Ei)!jli(h f')i)t. One ftiiiave rood is 40 fquare falls ; one
f'<jti;ire lull, 36 f(|\iare ells ; one Iquarc ell, 9 fc;uare teet, and
7'? Ajuare inclK-- ; and a fqnare foot, 144 fquare inches. The
Scots acre !'! alfo divided into ten fquare chains; the mea-
fiirinpr chaiii beinST 24 ells in lenirtli, and confillin^ of 100
links, each link S.928 inches; and each fquare chain will
contain lo.cco fquare links. The Iviglifli ftatute acre is
abo*!t y rood' and 6 falls, (landard meafure of Scotland.

The F'-cnch acre, arpcnt, is different in various pro-
viiices ; the acre of Paris contains 100 fquare perches, the
perch Titir.ij iR feet, or ^ toifes ; but in fome places the
perch is Jo. feet, and in others 22. Allowin;:^ the propor-
tion oT the' IvntjlifH' fquare foot to be to that of the French,
* TOOO to I l/Jj, the acre of 1 00 fquare perches, at 18 feet
each, will be ;?2, 400 French fquare feet, orabout 36,774 Eng-
mh fquare feet, and the perch being 22 feet, the acre will
Rt 48,400 French fquai'e feet, or about 54.934 Englilh fquare
feet ; and the F.nglifli acre being 43,560 fquare feet, it
v.-ill bd verj' eafy to eftimate the proportion of the one to
the other. The Strafburg acre is about half an EngUfh
sere. The Welfli acre contains commonly two Englifh
oiirts. The Lilli acre is equal to i acre, 2 roods, 19 perches
-,'-',-, Englini.

Houghton gives a table of the number of acres to a houfe
in each county of South Britain, which is found to vai^ ia
rl)it Englifh counties from 3-^ acres, the proportion in Mid-
dlefex, 'and 17I in Surry, to 49 acres in Southampton ; in
the Wclfli counties, from 51 acres, as it is found in FHnt-
Ihire, to 1 93, a; in Merionethiliire.

Dr. Grew attempts to afcertain tbe number of acres in
England ; which, according to him, amounts to 46 mil-
lions and 80,000. Phil. Tranf. N° 330, or Abr. vol. iv.
p. 450. Sir William Petty reckons but 28 millions ; others
29 millions. And by an account of the number of acres in
each county, fuppofed to be taken from fome old regiflers,
tlie number of acres in England amounted only to 39 J
millions. • Others eftimate the number of acres in England
and \Y ales at about 46,916,000 ; and in Scotland 2 6,000,000;
whiltt others again affert, that England and Wales contain
no more than 38,500,000 acres ; and that Scotland with its
adjacent iflands, contains about 21 millions of acres. Allow-
ing v.'ith Zimmermann, (Political Survey, p. 192.) that
England and Wales contain 54,112 fquare miles, and Scot-
land 25,600 fqi'.are jiiiles ; the number of acres in the
former will be 34,631,680, and in the latter 16,384,000.
Ireland, comprehending 21,216 fquare miles, will contain
13,578,240 acres.

The United Provinces are faid to contain 4,382,000
acres, "but reckoning witii Zimmermann (Political Survey,
p. 164.) the area 10,000 fquare miles, the number of
acres %vill be 6,400,000; and the province of Holland is
eflimated at one million of acres, cr according to the fame
writer, 1,280,000 acres : and they were thought fomierly to
contain 2,400,000 perfons, but according to a public accoimt
given in 1785, 2,758,632 perfons. If England were as
well peopled in proportion, it is faid that it would contain
46 millions of inhabitants, /. e. about feven or eight times
as many as it now contains.

The area of France, according to the ftatement of Necker,
is 157^924 fquare miles; and if this eflimate be juft, it
contains 101,07 1,360 acres. Spain, according to Lopez's
map, contains 148,448 fquare miles ; and confequently
95,006,720 Englifh acres. Portugal comprehends 27,376
fquare miles, or 17,579,640 acres. The vrhole of Turkey

in Europe, Afia, and Africa, eftimated at 800,000 fquare
miles, contains 51 2,coo,ooo acres. The European part of
Rufria is laid to contain 1,194,976 fquare miles, and confe-
quently 764,784,640 acres ; and Afiatic RuHia fujipofcd to
be 3,695,024 fquare miles, includes 2364,815,360 acres.
If Sweden contains 216,000 fquare miles, as Bufching ilates
it, its extent in Englifh acres will be 138,240,000. Den-
mark, coiAprehending 182,400 fquare miles, will contain
116,736,000 acre",. Poland and Lithuania, eftimated at
160,800 fquare miles, will contain 102,9 j 2,000 acres. The
kingdom of PrufTia, including the countnes that arc inde-
pendent of the German empire, fuppofed to contain 57,600
fquare miles, comprehends 36,864,000 ; and Pruflia alone
containing 22,144 fquare "^liles, includes 14,172,160 acres.
Germany, eftimated at 191,571 fquare miles, contains
122,605,440 acres. Switzerland, containing 15,396 fquare
miles, has 9,789,440 acres. Italy, containing 90,000 fquare
miles, has 57,600,000 acres. Hungai-y and Tranfylvania,
having 92,1 12 fquare miles, include 58,951,680 acres. The
number of fquare miles in Europe is eftimated at 2,627,574,
and confequently it contains 1681,647,360 acres. The ter-
ritoiT of the United States of America, according to the
meafurement and computation of Mr. Hutcliins, geographer
to the States, contains 589 millions of acres, exclufivcly of
water, which is computed at 51 millions more. Morfe's
Geog. p. 35. See Political Anthmctic.

By a ftatute of 31 Eliz. it was ordained, that if any man
erefted a new cottage, he fhould add four acres of land to
it ; but this ftatute was repealed by 15 Geo. III. c. 32.

AcRE-F,(j-/v, is an old fort of duel, fought by fuiglc
combatants, Englifli and Scotch, between the frontiers of
their kingdoms, with fword and lance ; and this duelling
was alfo called camp-fight, and the combatants, champions,
from the open field that was the ftage of trial.

AcRE-TVf.v, a tax laid on land at fo much per acre. In
fome places this is alfo called acre-ftiot. Impglitions on
lands in the Great Level are to be raifed by a proportion-
able acre-tax. 20 Car. II. cap. 8. An acre-tax of 2s. 6d.
per acre, for draining Hadenhain level. 13 Geo. I.
•cap. 18.

ACREjE, in Anc'ient Geography, a town placed by Pto-
lemyinSicily. N.lat. 36°. 40'. E. long. 39° 15'. See AcR^.

ACREDULLA, in Zoology, a fpecies of the Mus, in
the Linnxan fyftcm ; the migratory moufe of Pallas, with
pouches to the cheeks, finuated fmall ears, a grey body,
with the lower part white. It is four inches lung ; with
an annulated tail, the upper part of which is brown :
found in the Orenbourg diftrift of Siberia, near the river
Urgal.

ACREL, OLOT,in Biography, W3.s born the 26th of No-
vember 1717, in a parifh in the neighbourhood of Stock-
holm, where his anceftors had been miniftei-s ever fince the
year 1580. He commenced his ftudies at Upf<il ; and in
the year 1738, tranfiated into the Swedifh language fome of
the works of Boerhaave. He then went to Gottingen,
where he continued his ftudies, and aftenvards to Straf-
bourg, and thence to Paris. In the year 1744, he fei-ved
•one campaign i;. the French army in Germany, whence re-
turning to Stockholm, he was admitted a member of the
furgeons' company there. In 1 746, he was elected into the
academy of fciences ; in 1 751, he was made one of the
foreign aftbciates of the academy of furgery at Paris. In
1 764, he was advanced to the degree of doftor of the faculty
of medicine at Upfal, and admitted to the royal college of
phyfic at Stockholm. He was in great reputation, and had
a confiderable ftiare of praftice, pnncipally in furgery, and
has left feveral works, all written in his own language,

which

A C R

which are in ji-eat vequtft among his countn'mcn. The
titles trnndated into Engllfli are, l. A Trtatifeon Wounds.
Z. A Dixourfe on the b-.fl method of conilruCling an
HofpitaL He read this difcoiii fe at a meeting of the royal
academy at Stoekliolm wlien he was cleclcd tlitir pre-
iident. 3. A Differtation on llie Metliod of depreflint;
the Cataniil, $vo. 1759, 1775, Stockholm. In this dil-
fertation lie defends his praclicc againil profelTor Walborn,
who had oppofcd him. A Difcourfe on feme alterations
and improvements in performing certain operations in Sur-
gei-}', and the initruments uled in performing thorn, was read
by liim to the royal academy on his being elefted prefident a
feconu time.

ACREME, a term fometimes ufcd in ancient law-books
for ten acres.

ACllEON, in E/itomology, a fpecies of papii.io, with
brown wings, the under part black and ocellated ; the hin-
der wings having a wliite margin, marked with a red band
and ridge of gold-coloured points. It is found in the
fouthern part of Ruifia.

ACRI, in G^ogr.iphy, a town of Naples, in Calabria
Citra, five miles eail of Scalea.

ACRIA, mylnch'iit Gi-ogi\ip!>y, a f;a-port town of Laconia,
fituate near the mouth of the Earot.is, oppofite to TrinalTus,
and not far from Gythium.

ACRIBEIA, a Greek term aKfi,?=iv., literally denoting
an exquiiite or delicate accuracy ; it is fometimes ufed in
our language for want of a word of equal fignificancy.

ACRID, in Natural H'ljtory, denotes any thing Iharp or
pungent to the tafle. Ancient NaturaliiU diftinguifli two
kinds of acrid talles ; the full proceeding from hot and diy,
as that of pepper ; the fecond from that of hot and moill,
as that of garlic. Acrid, according to Dr. Grew, pro-
perly belongs to the clafs of compound talles. It is not
limply four or pungent, as there are bodies not acrid, which
neverthelefs arc pungent, e. g. arum ; nor is it fnnply hot ;
for there are many hot bodies which are not acrid, as the
roots of zedoary, yarrow, and contrayerva. The characle-
riiUc, therefore, ot acritude confills in pungency joined
with heat. Acrid bodies applied to the (l<in inflame and
exulcerate it ; when chewed, they produce faliva, and when
fiiuffed, fneezing. Acrids may be divided into clafTes, ac-
cording to the manner in which they yield their acrimony.
I. By diftillatibn, as horfe-radilh, muflard, &c. 2. By

infufion, as the greater Celandine, &c

Neither by in-

fuiion nor dillillation, as arum, &c. jlcrid iin-tlicine.t, as to
their general effeft, ferve to ftimulate the vefTels, and dif-
folve tenacious and vifcid juices. In leucophlegmatic ha-
bits they are powerful expectorants, deobilruents, diuretics,
and emmenagogues : and if the patient be kept warm, fu-
dorifics. In hot bilious temperaments, plethoric habits, in-
flammatory diftempers, and in cafes where the juices are too
thin and acrimonious, or the vifcera unlound, acrids are in-
jurious. See Stimulants.

Some vegetables, which are either inodorous, or emit a
weak fmell, excite a local inflammation when applied frelh
to the ikin, but lofe their faculty in drying. When recently
gathered, and inwardly taken, they produce poifonous
effefts. Of this kind are the frcfh roots of fquills, the
leaves of fox-glove, of wild anemone, of virgin's bower, of
wolf s-bane, or monk's-hood ; the roots of blue orris, of
afphodel, or king's fpenr, of meadow fafFron, of white bry-
ony, or wild vine, and of wake-robin ; and the fruits of
•wild cucumber. As thefe fubfl;ances lofe their acrimony by
being well dried, the acrid matter which produces their
irritating eSeSt appears to be volatile ; aud this is farther

A C R

confirmed, by its Ijclng comnuinicattd to water and fj.ir.'t ^^
wme, abilraited from thcni by didillation. Ilence it may
be infened, that this volatile matter is a parlicular, jiroxi-
mate, conllituent jiart, belonging to the vegetable kingdom;
and in order to dillinguidi it from other principles of a fimi-
lar kind, it has been denominated the acrh/ iiuilUr of f<lr,nls.
Its adlion is not dellioycd by acids nor by alkalies, and it is
not ammoniac in any form. In the antifcoibutic plants,
fucli as fcurvy-grais, water-creflls, ga'lic, onions, horfc-
radifli, common radifii, and mu Hard-feed, this acrid prin-
ciple is combined with oleaginous particles of an ethereal
nature, and its effeels feem to be weakened by this unior.
Tiieie are other plants which are not deprived by exiiccatiou
of the power of producing local inflammation, when out-
wardly applied to a living body ; and in thefe plants it feinis
to originate from their refmous parts; fwch, arc cuphor-
bium, or wart-wort, various parts of feveral fpecies of the
daphne, of the capfieum annunm, or Guinea-pepper, of the
pellitory of Spain, &c. Tiie acrid matter of Spanidi (lies
is cffentiallv dillincl from the acrid matter of vegetabks, as
it is not diilipated by drying, and cannot be extracted by
water ; though it may be obtained by fpirit of wine and
ether. It refembles the latter kind of acrid matter, and
fecms to be of a refinons nature. See Gren's Principles of
INIodern Chcmillr)-, vol. i. p. 420. vol. ii. p. 4J.

Acrid fubllances conftitnte one clafs of Conuimf.-nts in'
the Materia Medica of Dr. Cullen, vol. i. p. 427. He dif-
tributes them into two kinds, v'i%. aromatic, imbued with
peculiar and pretty flrong odours, and the more fiMiple
acrids poffefling little pecuhar odour. Bcfides the Aroma-
tics, the acrid fubllances employed as condiments, are
efpecially taken from the clafs of tetradynamia plants ; and
they are chiefly the mullard and horfe-ra'dilh. Thefe ftimu-
late the ilomach and affift dlgellion ; and as they prom.ote
perfpiration and urine, they correft the putrefccnt tendency
of the fyilem, and hence vegetables of this clafs have been
denominated Antiscorbutic. Becanfe they pofl'efs this
quality, they are proper to be ufed witli our animal food,
as the aromatics are the fuitable condiments of our vegetable
aliments. ^ The plants of the gariic tribe are endued with a
fimilar acrimony. Thofe of the milder kind, as the onion
and leek, more efpecially when deprived of their acrimony,'
afford a confiderable quantity of nutritious matter; and'
thefe, together with the efchalot, and others, are very pro-
per condiments. Garlic, ufcd for the fame purpofc, ftrong-
ly ftimulates the ftomach, and promotes digellion. All the
plants of this order, as they ferve to promote perfpiration
and urine, are veiy properly joined with our animal food,
and may be referred to the clafs of antifcorbutics. Affa-
foetida may be alfo recommended as a condiment, that is
ufeful in promoting digellion. Of the more fimplc acrids,
the CAPSICUM, or pepper, is the moft commonly iifed. The
eating of acrid food, with a view to the en"e£ls above enume-
rated, was particukriy called by the Greeks dnmyphagia.,
formed of opif/Df, acri(l, and ifsf) i', to eat.

ACRIDtE, in Etito7)ir/!ogy, the name by which Lin-
nneus has dift;ingui(hed the firfl: family of the Gryllus, the
Truxariiks of Fabricius, or the cricket, properly fo
called : the chaiafters of which are, that the head is conical
and longer than the thorax, and the antenna; cnfifoiTn or
fword-fliaped. Of tiiis family there are eight fpecies, none
of which are found in Britain. The infedis of this family-
feed on other infeils.

ACRIDOPHAGI, compounded of mi^v, hciijl, and
<p«yw, to eat., in Ancient Geography, a nation or people of
Ethiopia, inhabiting near the deferts, &c. who are faid to

have

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h.ive fed on locufts. Thcfc people, as Diodovvn Siciuus
{lib. iii. c. Zi). torn. i. p. ly,. VA. AVclVcling.) delcribcs
tliein, were of a low (laturi.-, and n meaj^re black afpeft. In
the fpring they provided themfelves with a fiipply of large
loculU, by fetting fire to wood and other eomhullible nia-
ttrials, which they dcpofitcd in a large and deep valley, fo
that when fwarms of locnrts were driven by the fouth-wtil
■winds over this valley, they were fuffocatcd by the fmoke.
Thefe locufts, which covered the ground to a confiderable
extent, were coUeAed and faked, and in this Hate furnidied
a fiipply of food for the whole year : and, indeed, it was the
onlv food upon wliich they fubfifted, as they had neither
herds nor flocks ; and being far from the fea, they had no
fupply of fifh. I'licy were an aclive people, and ran with
great fwiftnefs ; but th.e duration of their lives wa? (liort,
not exceeding forty yearj ; and they generally fell facrifices
to a malady of a very peculiar kind. They were devoured
by winged infefts of different fpecies, and of very hideous
forms, which were generated in their bodies, and which
ilTued forth in various parts, occafioning exquillte torture,
and at length a very painful death. Whether this dreadful
inalady was owing to the food of the people, or to the pclH-
lential air of the climate in which they livtd, it is not eafy
to determine. See Strabo, (Geog. 1. xvi. torn. ii. p. IllS.)
and St. Jerome againft Jovinian, lib. ii. and on St. Jolui,
cap. iv. Pliny (H. N. torn. i. p. 609. Ed. Hard.) alfo
fpeaks of Acridopliagi, in Parthia, and St. Jerome, in
Lybia. Although the circumftances of thefe people may in
fome vefpefts be fabulous ; yet may the Acridophagia be
true ; and to this day they are faid to eat locufts in fome
parts o? the eaft. This is confirmed by the accounts of the
Danilh million, in Niebuhr's defcription de 1' Arabic, p. i JO,
&c. In Abyfiinia loculls are eaten, both freHi and faked.
Some of them are dried in the fun, and thus prepared for
ufe. In Arabia alfo, as Niebuhr informs us, they preferve
them in the fame manner. Dr. Shaw (Travels, &c. p. 188.)
obferves, that the Jews were allowed to cat them ; and that
when they are fprinkled with fait and fried, their tafte re-
fembles that of our frelh water cray-fifli : and RulTel ( Hill.
Aleppo, p. 62.) fays, that the Arabs fait them, and eat
t'hem as a delicacy. From Haflelquift, who travelled in
Syria and Egypt fo lately as the year 1752, we learn, that
when corn is fcarce, the Arabians grind the loculls in hand-
mills, or (lone-mortars, and bake them in the form of cakes,
which they ufe as bread ; and that he has frequently feen
tkcm boiled and Hewed with butter, and made into a kind
of fricalTee. Amongft the Hottentots, as Dr. Sparrman
informs us, (Voyage to the Cape, vol. i. p. 36.) they are
made into a brown coffee-coloured foup, which acquires
from the eggs of the females, that are chiefly ufed for this
pui-pofc, a fat and greaTy appearance. Thefe people com-
penfate themfelves for the damage done by the flights of
loculls, by converting large quantities of them into a nutri-
tious food. Thefe fafts remove every difficulty in deter-
mining the food of John tlie Baptift, who is fajd to have
lived on locufts, axpto;?, and wild honey. Matt. chap. iii.
V. 4. Yet the rendering of ay.fiJs; by locufts, as the Englifh
Iranflators have done, has been much controverted. Ifidore
of Pelufium, in his 123d epiftle, fpeaking of this food of
St. John, fays, it was not animals, but the tops of .herbs ;
and even charges thofe who underftand the word otherwifc
with ignorance : but St. Auguftine, Beda, Ludolphus, and
others, are of a different opinion. Accordingly the Jefuits
df Antwerp rejeft, with contempt, the opinion of the
Ebionites, who, for axpij;?, put lyxt'^'^i 3 delicious diet
prepared of honey and oil ; that of fome other innovator, who

A C R

read «x«r''^-'> °'' X'^-f'5:> ff'-^raLf ; and that of Beza, who
reads a;i^ap.3s,-, •:'■'/•/ peari. The term axpiJr,-, fays Dr.
Shaw, [ubi fiipra) docs not denote the tops of plants, a«
fome have contended, but it is applied to the locurt on ac-
count of its appulte for fuch food. The word is ufed by
Arillotle (Hill. Anim. lib. vi. c. 28.) and other hiftorians
in the fame fenfe. The Scptuagint interpret H^'l.S'. ttriiih,
by the fame word ; and therefore the writers of tlie New
Teftament may be fuppofed to have taken it in the fame
fignificatiou. He adds, if loculh appeared in the Holy
Land, during the fpring, as they did in Barbaiy, it may be
prefumed that St. John entered upon his miffion, zniJLfU'fd
liwifclf lo j^;-i7/7(Luke i. 20.) at that ftafon.

AClllI'OLIUM, in Bolany, fignifics any prickly leaved
plant.

ACRII Montct, in Ancient Geography, mountains of Si-
cily, called alfo Henri.

ACRILI.^'L, a city of Sicily, between Acrx and Agri-
gentum, not far from Syracufe. This is probably the fame
with Accila, mentioned by Plutarch in Marcello. See
Livy, 1. xxiv. c. 35. torn. iii. p. 899. Ed. Drakenb.

ACRIMONY, that quality of fubllancea which renders
them acrid to the tafte. The acrimony of the bile is fnp-
pufed to be the caul'e of divers diforders ; and a catarrh is
reprefeiited to be a defluxion of acrimonious humour. The
Brillol water is recommended by Dr. Randc-lph for temper-
inor the bad eflefts of acrimonious blood. This he mentions
as its lirll and principal virtue in his inquir)' into the medi.
cinal virtues of Briftol water, Svo. 1750.

Acrimony, in Maliclne, means a Hate of the fluids of
the body, which may become the caufe or effect of feveral
difeafes. This ftate of the fluids or humours has been af-
fumed by the humoural pathologifts, of which feft Boer-
haave may be confidered as the lall and moft refpedlable
teacher, in order to explain ertiptions on the lurface of the
body, Sea-Scuny, Rhcumatifm, Gout, Heftic Ft;ver, &c. —
At prefent the exiftence of fuch a caufe is confidered aa
hypothetical.

ACRIOTERI, in Ancient Geo^rap/yy, a marlh of Afia
Minor, in the greater Phr)'gia, upon the frontiers of Pifidia.

ACRIS, cixfi;, fignifies a locuft, the top of a mountain,
and the extremities of fraftured bones.

ACRISIUS, m Fabulous HiJIory, a king of Argos, who,
being warned by the oracle that he Ihould be killed by his
grandchild, lliut up his only daughter Danac in a brazen
tower : but Jupiter defeending to her in a golden (hower,
fhe was delivered of Perfeus ; who, having flain the Gor-
gons, carried Medufa's head to Argos, and transformed
Acrifius into a ftatue of rtone. This golden fljower was
probably a bribe to thofe who guarded the tower. Some
fuppofe that her uncle Praetus foimd means to corrupt
them, and to get admittance to Danac. Acrifius is faid to
have been buried in the Acropolis at Argos. The name,
(fays Mr. Bryant,) is a metathefis of Acrifius, or Arcafius,
by which is meant the great Arkite, the perfon there wor-
fhipped.

ACRISTIA, in Geography, a town of Sicily, t\venty-
three miles W. N. W. of Mazara, built upon the ruins of
the ancient town of Schritea.

AC RITAS, in Ancient Geography, a promontory of
Melfenia, now Capo di Gallo, between Methone to the
weft, and Corone to the eaft, where the Sinus Coronxus
begins. It is alfo the name of a cape of Bithynia, north of
the gulf of Aftacus.

ACRIVIOLA, in Bstany.. See Nasturthjm In-
dicum-

ACROAMA,

A C R

A C R

ACROAMA, formed from ax(.!i«of<«i, to heni; in jliit'i-
iju'tty, a name given by the Romans to amuling talis, wtiicli
they recited at their repalls. The appellation was alio given
to thofe who played on mufical inflruments, in contradiiUiic-
tion to thoie who Inng.

ACROAMATIC, in a general fenfe, denotes a thing
fublime, profound, or abllrnfe ; and in this fenfe it is op-
pofcd to exoteric. There are few fcfts oi' profelFlons, that
have not two modes of teaehing, if not two forts of doc-
trine ; an acroamatic for adepts and proficients, and an exo-
teric for novices. We find traces of Lais diilindtion among
the heathens, as well as among clinician divines, philofo-
phers, and chemifti. Hence proceeded the ceremonies of
initiations and ablutions, and the difcipline of fecrccy ; and
hence alfo the origin of fables, senigmas, parables, lym-
bols, &;c.

Acroamatic is femetimes alfo ufed for any thin^ kept
fecret, or remote from popular life : in which fenfe Reim-
inan gives the title Bibliotheca Acioamatica, to a defcr'ption
of the MSS. in the library of Vienna, abridged from the
vaft commentaries of Lair.bccius and Neflelius.

ACROAMATICI, in Philofiphy, a denomination given
to the diicipks or followers of Arilloile, &c. who were ad-
mitted into the fecrets of the inner or acroamatic phi-
lolophy.

ACROATHON, in ^Indent Geography, a town fituate
on the top of Mount Athos, where, according to Mela,
cited by CcUarius, the age of the inhabitants was half as
long again as that of thofe who lived in other countries. It
is called by the modern Greeks, A^iov o^g;, and by the Ita-
lians, J. a Cir,ia ch Monte Santlo.

ACROATICS, a name given to Ariftolle's leAures in
the more difficult and curious parts of jjhilofophy, to which
none but his dilciples and tntimate friends were admitted ;
vhercas the exoteric were public or open to all : but there
are other differences. The acioatic were fet apart for the
higher and more abftrufe lubjefts ; the exoteric were em-
ployed in rhetorical and civil fpeculations. Again, the
acroatics were more fimple and exacl:, as they aimed at evi-
dence and demonlhation ; the exoterics chiefly aimed at the
probable and plauilble. The foiTner were the fubjeft of the
morning excrciles in the LyceflJi, the latter of tlioie in the
evening. Befides, the exoterics were pubhflied, whereas
the acroatics were kept fecret, being either entirely eon-
ceaUd, or if they were publiflied, it was in fuch obfcure
terms, that few but his own ditciples would be the wiier for
them. Hence, when Alexander complained of his preceptor
for prblifhing his acroatics, and thus revealing what Ihould
have been refei-ved to his difciples ; Ariitotle anfwered, that
they were made public and not public, becaufe none who had
not heard them explained by the author, v'vvn voce, would
underftand them. Pint, in Alex. Stanley's Hid. Philof.

It has been i'uppofed, fays Dr. Gillies, in his trannation
of Ariftotle's Ethics and Politics, that, in thtfe two kinds
of lectures, the Stagyrite maintained contradictoiy doftrines
on the fubjefts of religion and morality. But the faft is far
otherwife : his pradtieal tenets were uniformly the fame in
botli ; but his exoteric, or popular treatiies, nearly reieni-
bhd the philol'ophic dialogues of Plato, or Cicero; wliereas
his acmatic writings Contained, in a concife energetic ilyle,
peculiar to himfeli, thofe deep and broad principles on which
all folid fcience is built,

ACROBATES, in j1r.tim,ity, a name given to rope.

tlmic.-rs ; of thefe there were four forts : the firil vaulted or

tumbled on a rope, fometimes fufpending themfelves by the

ncc'-i or foot, Sic. i the Iccond ilid from a liigh ftation along

Vot. I.

a rope, upon wliich their breall reded, and with their armt
and legs extended, as if tliev flew : othiTS run along a rope,
which was obliquely extended fmm a low to a high ftation :
and thofe of the lalt fort, danced, leaped, and performed
oilier kinds of feats on a rope Ihetched horizontally many
feet above the rround.

ACROBATICA, or Acrobaticum, fonned ofaxfo,-,
kixl>, and /salii;, or /Sciw, / i;o, an ancient engine, by whicli
people were raifed aloft, that ihey might fee more conveni-
ently about them. This was the fame among the Greeks,
with what they call feanforium among the Latins.

Authors are noi agreed as to the ufe of this engine. Tur-
nebus and Barbarus fuppofe, tliat it was of the militai-y
kind, raifed by befiegers high enough to overlook the walls,
and difcover the (late of things on the other fide, lialduj
rather fuppofes it to be a kind of moveable fcafTold, or cradle,
contrived for railing painters, plaifterers, and other work-
men to the tops of houfes, trees, &:c. Some fufpeft that
it migiit have been ufed for both pui-pofes. Vitruvius and
Aquinas.

ACROCERAUNIA, in Jucicnt Gec^rnphy, fo called
from UKio;, high, and x'fxovof, thunder, becaufe they were
lofty, and often thunder-ltrnek ; mountains of Epirus, run-
ning out into tiie fea, under N. lat. 40° 2J'. extending from
W. to E. as far as Pindns, and feparating the Ionian fca
from the Adriatic, now called J\Ionfi ile!hi Chimera. \'irgil
(Georg. i. 332. and jTln. iii. 506.) calls them Cernunia.
They derived their name from the town of Acroceraunia,
now called Chimera, which is at the foot of the mountain,
in the gulf of Chimera. The inhabitants, called Chimeriots,
are favage robbers ; they give their name to a promontor)' of
the Adriatic fea.

ACROCHIRISMITS, axpexEif.ir/x^, among the yJn-
ciciits, a kind of gymnaftic exercife, wherein the two parties
contended only with their hands and fingers, without clof-
ing, or engaging the other parts of the body.

The word is alfo written acrochirejts, and acrochiria : it is
originally Greek, foniied from axfox^'f, the part employed
in this combat, which fomc would ncedlefsly rertrain to
the tips of the fingers ; though the etymon does not make
this neceflaiy.

Some make this a diftinft exercife from wredling, and
fuppofe it to liave given the denomination arrochirijl t to a
peculiar fet o{ ntlAetit who profefled it. Otliers with more
probability confider it only as a ipecies of wreftling : fome^
will have it to have been properly only a prelude to a wreft-
ling match, wherewith the atbletx began to try each otlier's
ilreiigth, and bring their arms into play. This exercife
made part oi the peiiicmtium. Paufanias fpeaks of a famous
Jmncrcitinjl, named Sollrates, who got the furname of ylero-
chiifites, or Acrochiriftes, from his having overcome all hi»
antagonifls at the acrochirifm. — It appears to have been in
ufe in the age of Hippocrates, who afcribes to it a virtue
of extenuating the reft of the body, and making the aim*
fleihv.

ACROCHORDON, a painful fpecies of wart, reiy
prominent and pendulous, having a large head with a fmuU
ijcdicle, or bafe.

Thefe are alfi) called j^enfius •vrrrucf, or hanging rf/irf.r,
and Hand diilinguiihcl from J'ejjiles vernict, or myrnieciii.
Others defcribe llic acrw/jor/!o>i, as a harder, rougher fort
of wart, growing under the cutis, ver)' callous and ufually
of the fame eohnu- with the ikin ; fmall at bottom, and bigger
upwards, but rarely exceeding the fize of a bean.'

ACROCOLIA, aKfoxi'.ia froHi «)Ij;i;, cvOrmCj and RvXar,
u Unit, Thtln iiic the extreinilieii of animals, which are

Z tifetl

A C R

A C R

fed in food, as tlie feet of calves, fwine, fliffp, oxen, or ^Vlicn he required, fome ytara after, as a reward for his

lambs ; and of the broths of which jclhes are made. They
are recommended by Hippocrates as a proper food, uheic
there is a tendency to a dropfy. They are in general recom-
xnendcd as ilrenj^hencrs for weak people.

ACROCOMES, in ylniiqui:y, a people of Thrace, ^o
called, from a«;o,-, htaJ, and xi-in, hair, beeaufe they had
long hair before like females, in contradiftlnftion to the
Abantes, who wore their hair long behind.

ACRO-CORINTHUS, in ^tncknt Gnt-mphy, a hiffh
liill hanrjing over the city of Corinth, on which was credled
a citadel, called alfo by the fame name. This mountain
feparatcd the two continents of Greece ajul Peloponnifus,
fo that the fortrefs cut off all communication by land from
the inner pail of the illhmus of Corinth, and wlitn well i^ar-
rifoned, kept all Greece in awe ; on which account Philip
of Macedon ufed to call it the fetters of Greece. Anti

fervices, that a piece of ground (hould be allotted him in the
city for liis tomb, Empedocles, with whoin he had dif-
puted, prevented his obtaining it. He lived about the
middle of the fifth centurj' before Chrift. iSiiidas mentions
two trafts written by him, in the Doric dialeCt, the one a
general treatife of phyfic, the other on abftinence or diet.

AcRON was alio the name of an ancient fcholiaft on
Horace, in the feventh centui-y, whofe work is iHU extant
in an old edition of Horace, printed at Bafil, in 8vo. in
1527.

AcRON, in Botany, among the yfncien/s, was ufed to
fignify the capUulum, top, or flower of plants of the thillle
kind.

AcRON, in Geography, a diftrift on the Gold coaft of
Guinea, extending along the fca eaftward froin Fantin to
the mount called Monte del Diabolo, or the Devil's Mount.

Konus took thi. fortrcfsby furpriic, with a defign to cnHavc It is divided into Great and Little Acron ; the former,

Vcloponnefus ; but Aratiis recovered it by an adlion equal, which is the interior countr)-, is a kind of republic ; the

in the opinion of Plutarch, to any of the mod celibratfd latter, bounded on the fouth by the fca, is a pure monarchy,

entei-prifes of the ancient heroes of Greece. Having fccuved They are independent on each other, and yet ilridly united

the citadel, he went into the city, and affembling the people under the protection of the Fantyns, who derive from the

in the theatre, acquainted them with the particulars of the fertile Acrons a principal part of their maintenance. The

Achxan league, and exhorted them to accede to it. They o'dy European fettlement in this kingdom is a Dutch fort,

unanimoufly agreed to join in the alhance ; upon which built at Aicam, in 1697, cAltA Palience, from the difFicuU

Aratus rcllored to them the keys of the city, which had ties they encountered whillt they were building it. Apa;n

not been in their power fince the time of Philip, the father is a fmall village, and inhabited only by fifhermcn. The iia-

of Alexander. On the top of this mountain flood a temple tives of Acron live in peace, cultivate their lands, and pur-

of \"enus, and from a lower part ilTued the fountain Pyrene. fue their employments in fecurity. Eveiy year affords a

ACROE, in Botany, the name given by the natives of plentiful harveft, which enables them to fupply their pro-
Guinea to a kind of ihrub, which they ufc in wine, as a teftors and adjacent countries with corn. The country
reftoralive and analeptic. It is of the trifoliate kind, and has abounds with game, with which the Dutch fort is plentifully
fomewhat of the appearance of the corallodcndrons, but it fupplied. The people, however, are poor, notwithiland-
is not prickly ; the middle end or leaf Hands on a pedicle of ing their induftiy and the fertility of the foil, and extremely
an inch long, the two other leaves have no pedicles at all. ignorant.
Phil. Tranf. N° 232. AcRov, in Scripture Geographv. See Accaron.

ACROI.IRSUS, in Ancient Geography, a fortrefs of ACRONIUS Lacus, in Geography, a fmall lake formed

Illvria, in Dalmatia, fituated on a mountain to the north of by the Rhine foon after its rife out of the Alps, and after

Liifus, of which it was the citadel. Polybius fays, it was pafTing the greater lake, called P'eiidus, and now Bodnifce,

impregnable by Philip king of Macedon. or the lake of Conftance.

ACROLITHOS, in Antiquity, a coloflal ftatue placed ACRONYCAL, Achromycal, or Acronical, in

by Maufolus, on an eminence, in the temple of Mars, in the yljironomy, is applied to the rising of a ftar or other point,

city of Halicarnafliis. above the horizon, when the fun fets ; or its sktting when

ACROEOCHIAS, in vl/nf/V«/ Ci-o^-rn/Zij', a promontory the fun rifes. This is one of the three poetical rifings and

of Egypt ; which, according to Strabo, was jicar the ifle
of Pharos.

ACROMION, AcROMiUM, in Anatomy, the upper pro-
«efs of the scapula, or (houlder-blade.

The word is derived from a.y.:n:, highejl, and icjio:, Jhoulder,
n. d. the extremity of the flioiildcr.

Some have thought the acromion of a nature different
from other bones ; becaufe, during infancy, it appears no

fettings of the ftars ; and flands diftinguiihed from cosmi-

CAL and HELIACAL.

Among ancient writers, a ftar was properly faid to be
acronichal, or to rife acronichally, which rofe in the evening
when the fun was fet. Greek writers, it is true, ufe the
term axfovKjjia,- indifferently, in fpeaking either of evening
or morning, by reafon both are confidered as a.-^^ ri,: vvxls,-,.
the extremities of the night. And hence, among them we

more than a cartilage, which offifies by little and little, and find acronichal applied to the rifnig and letting of the flars,

about the age of twenty years becomes hard and firm, like a either in the morning or evening. But the ancients were more

common bone. diftinfl, and by the axfoiuxlio.- rather meant the firil begin-

ACROMONOGRAMMATICUM, from axpoj-povo; and ning or approach of night, than the end or period of it;

yfa/xi/.a, letter, in Poetry, denotes a kind of poem, or com- and accordingly among them, the Ifars which rofe in the

pofition, wherein each fubfcquent verfe commences with the evening, not thofe in the morning, were faid to rife acro-

letter with which the verfe preceding terminates. nichally.

AC ROMPH ALTON, from axpo,-, extreme, and o/^(f a^o.;, This word is fometimes ignorantly {-pelt achronical, from

tl:e nnt'clj the tip of the navel. a miflaken notion of its being derived from a, and xfio;, /;W.

ACRON, in Biography, a celebrated phyfician of
Agrigentum, in Sicily, where he praftifed phyiic in the
time of Empedocles, is faid to have reftrained the plague
at Athens, by purifying the air with large fires, and by
biirjiing perfumes in the manner pradifed by the Egyptians.

ACRONYCHIA, in Botany, a fpecies of Lawsonia.

ACRONYCTiE, flars rifing in the twilight about fun
fetting.

ACROPOLIS,_ in Ancient Geography, the citadel of
Athens, which d«?jived its name from the eminence on

which

A C R

A C R

which it was ere^ed, and which is accclTihlc only at the
entrance. The fuinmit is fortified by a wall, built on its
extreme edge, and encompafling the whole upper furface,
■which is nearly level. The natural tlrength of its fituation
is laid to have induced the firit inhabitants to fettle there ;
and as their number increafed, they began to build on the
adjacent gTonnd, till the Acrnpolis, being fuiToiuidcd on
every fide, became the fortiefs of a large and pdpulous city.
It was richly adonied by the Athenians, in the days of tl\eir
profpcrity, with temples, ilatues, paintings, and votive
gifts to their divinities, but is now in a moll ruinous condi-
tion : though the remains of the famous Propylxa, the
little temple of vicloiy without wings, the Doric temple of
Minerva, caUed Parthenon and Hecatompedon, eret\td in
the time of Pericles, under the direction of Phidias, and the
Ionic temples of Erettheus and Minerva Pohas, with the
cell of Pandrofus, are ftill to be feen. Its walls have, at
different times, been rudely repaired, or rather rebuilt, as
little of the ancient mafonry remains ; but numerous frag-
ments of columns, cornices, and fculptures, are feen in feve-
ral parts, which exhibit a ruinous appearance. The Turks
keep a fmaU ganifon here ; and it is the refidence of the
Difdar Aga, or governor of the fortrefs, and alfo of the
Afap Aga, and other infei-ior officers. The Acropolis
formed one of the three divifions of Athens, the other two
being the town and the port.

Acropolis was alfo the name of a city of Libya, and
alfo of .ffitolia, mentioned by Stephanas de Urbibus, vol. i.
p. 54. There was a city of the fame name in Albania,
mentioned by Dion Caffius. Hift. Rom. lib. xxxvii. torn. i.
p. 112. Ed. Reimar.

ACROPOLITA, George, in Biography, one of the
writers in the Byzantine billon,-, was born at Conflantinople
in the year 1220, and educated at the court of the emperor
John Ducas, at Nice. Having made a veiy diilinguiflicd
proficiency in mathematics, logic, rhetoric, and poetry, he
was employed in the moil important affairs of the empire.
Ducas deputed him to negociate peace with Michael of
Epirus, at Lariffa : and he was appointed judge to ti-y
Michael Comnenus, on a fufpicion of being engaged in a
confpiracy. Having been advanced to the government of
the weftern provinces of the empire by Theodore I.afcaris,
the fon of John Ducas, he engaged in a war with Michael
Angelus, in 1255, and was taken prifoner by him. In
1260, he was liberated by the intervention of the emperor
Palxologus, who appointed him ambaffador to Conllantine,
prince of Bulgaria. Upon his return, he devoted himfelf
wholly to the education of youth, in which employment ho
acquitted himfclf very honourably for many yeai-s. In 1272
he was one of the judges in the caufe of John Vecchus, pa-
triarch of Conflantinople ; and, in the following year, he
concluded a reconciliation between the two churches \<\\X\
pope Gregory, and fwore to it in the name of the emperor,
at the fccond council of Lyons, in 1274. ^^ '2^2, he was
fent ambaffador to John, prince of Bulgaria, and died foon
after his return. His works are, " a Continuation of the
Greek hiftory from the taking of Condantinople by the
Latins, in 1 202, to its recovery by Michael Palirologus, in
1261," which forms a part of the Byzantine hillory : " a
treatife concerning faith, virtue, and the foul ;" and " an ex-
pofition of the fen^ions of Gregory Nazianzen ;" together
with fome other pieces. Gregorius Cyprius, the patriarch
of Conflantinople, fays of Acropohta, in the extravagance
of praiie, that he was equal to Ariflotle in philofophy, and
to Plato in divine things and attic eloquence. His fon,
Conftantine, flouriflied under Michael Palaeologus, and An-
dronicus his ion, by whom he was niadi; Logotheta-, er

chancellor, in 1294. He defended the caufe of the Greeks ;
and wrote fcveral books. Bayle. Fabr. Bibl. Graec. 1. v.
c. 5. (J 10. toni. vi. p. 448.

ACROPORA, in Natural HiJInry, a name given by
fome writers to two fpecies of the Madrepora, r;=. the
ctrfpilofn and oculntn of I-i«nxu9.

ACROPOSTHIA, ay.j)0'3«r9iii, or «xfowo<r9ia, from axp:,
exlremf, and ot70>i, the prepuce, or fl<in, which covers the
glans of the penis, denotes the extremity of the prepuce,
which is cut off in circumcifion.

ACRORIA, in ylnciatt Gtogrnphy, a country of Eli?,
in Greece, where Xenophon places the city Thraufluni.

ACROSPELOS, a name given to the wild-oat grafs, or

BROMUS.

ACROSPERMUM, in Botany, a genus of the crypto-
gamici fungi elafs ; the charaders of which are, that the fun-
gus is very fimple, fub-erecl, and difcharging feeds at the
apex. There are (w fpecies.

AcROSPFRMUM, is alfo a fpecies of the Sph^ria.

ACROSPIRE, in Nalund ilijlory, Sic. the fame witfc

PLUMULE.

ACROSPIRED, or Acrcspired, is ufed in refpc^ of
barley; which, in the operation of making malt, is apt,
after coming, or fprouting, at the lower or root-end,
to become acrofpircd, i. c. to fprout alfo at the upper or
blade-end.

By 6 Geo. I. cap. 21. Molt-mahen are forbid to wet or
water their malt when on the floor, or couch ; or to permit
it to ncrcj'p'ire.

ACROSTIC, in Poetry, a kind of poetical compofition,
the vevfes whereof are difpofcd in fuch a manner, as that
the initial letters make up fome perfon's name, title, motto,
or the like. The word is derived from the Greek 'j-K^a;, fum"
r,nu, that which is at one of the extremes ; and r'X'?) I'erf.u.
There are alfo acrollics, where the name or title is made
up by the initial letters of the middle words, or the lafl of
the final ones : and others which go b;iekwards ; begin-
ning with the firil letter of the lafl verfe, and proceeding
upwards. Some refiners in this trifling way, and in tlic
exercife of this fpecies of falfe wit, have even gone to
PENTACROSTics ; wheic the name is to be repeated five
times. The Sibylline oracles were written, according to
Cicero, in a kind of Acroftics. See Sibyls.

Acrostics is alfo an appellation given by fome autiion
to two ancient epigrams in the firfl book of the Anthology j
the one in honour of Bacchus, the other of Apollo. Each
confifls of 25 verfes, the firil whereof is the propofition, or
argument of the whole, and the other 24 compofed of four
epithets, beginning each with the fame letter, and thus fol-
lowing in the order of the 24 letters of the Greek alphabet ;
fo that the firfl of the 24 comprehends four epithets begin-
ning with a ; the fecond as many, with $ ; and fo ol the
rell to ii; which makes 96 epithets foreacli god.

Among Erdefwjln-al IVriters, acroflics denote the ends of
verfes of pfalms, which the people fang by way of chorus,
or refpoufe, to t\\t priecnlor, or leader of the plalm. _ This
was called finglng acroflics, acrojlirlna, which was a Ipecici
of pfalmody ufual in the ancient church.

Acrollic, in this fenfe, amounts to the fame with hypO'
pfalma, dhipfahna, acrotfhition, and ephymnwn, which are all
tei-ms of tile fame fignification.

Though an acroflic property flgnifies the beginning of a
verfe, yet it is fometimes alfo ufed for the end and clofe of it ;
as by the author of the conflitutioiis, when he orders one to
finn- the hymns ©f David, and the people to fing after hira
the acroflics, or ends of the verfes.

It does not, however, denote precifely the end of the
i a tcrfe,

A C R

A C R

verfr, hut fomething added at the end of a pfalm, or fome-
thinjj frequently repeated in the courfc of apfaliii,'anf\veriiig
to our }^!oria fiitri.

Some pretend to find acroftics in the pfalms, particularly
in thole called abecedarian pfalms.

ACROSTICHUM, formed of axfo; rix'''i fninmus onto,
ruflyback, luall-rut, ox forhed fern, in Botany, a genus" of the
tryptogamla fJ'iui clafs and order ; the character of \\ hich is,
that the fructifications cover the whole inferior furface of the
frond or leaf. Profeflbr Martyn, in his edition of Miller's
Dictionary, enumerates 44, and Gmclin 4; fpecies, which are
dillributcd into different claflc;:, comprehending thofc with a
fimple frond, undivided and divided ; and tliofe with a com-
pound fiond, pinnate, f\ib-bipinnate, bipinnate, and fupra-
deconipound. Under the full dillribution with a frond
fimple, undivided, are included, A. ItinwiLilum, dtrifoliiim, ht-
Mrophyllum, crinl'um,pun{latum,fpiciilitin, lingua, and hajlalum :
and thofe with a frond fimple, divided, are \. ftptentnitiak,
aujlrah, pedinaium, dichotomum, ili<;itjiiim, ferrug'uieum, and
polypod'w'uUs. Under the fecond diftrihution, are compre-
hended the pinnate, I'/s. A. aurcvin, rufuin, pur.3alum, for-
iiifoliiim^ areolatuin, vmrginatum, J'anctum, plalyneitron, and
trifaliatam ; the fub-bipinnate, via. A. filiijiiofum, ihaliclroi-
des, marants, ihenji, elencum, M\A ftircaiiim : the bipinnate,
viz. A. aculealum, cruciatum, barbaium, calomchnos, vivipa-
rum, Villeum, Jimplex, petiolattim, lalifolium, inll-jfum, nuil'co-
Jiim,fcrnilatum,graminoides, and ftdphureum. Gmelin omits
the viviparum, introduces the longifolium and Jilare, makes
fome difference in the arrangement of the fpecies, and refers
the acuhatum to a clafs with a fupra-decompound frond.
Of thefe fpecies, two only are natives of Great Britain, -y/a.
A., fiptentrionale, forked or horned fern, with fronds, naked,
linear, and laciniate, or jagged ; the fruftifications, in an
immature ftate, are in fliort indiftinft lines or dots, refem-
bling an afphnium, but in an adult ftate, the lower furface
of the leaf^ is totally covered with brown dufly capfules ;
from two to five inches high ; found in clefts of rocks, and
old walls in YorkPiure, Weftmoreland, W.\les, and Scot-
land : and A. ilvenfe, or hairy fern, the polypodium
ilvenfe of Withering, witli fronds fub-bipinnate, the pinnas or
wings oppofitely coadunate or united, obtufe or blunt, hir-
fute or hairy underneath, and quite e:itire at the bafe ; the
ftipe or ftem is greenifh, and not blackifh pui-ple, fearcely
more than a finger's length ; called A. alpinum by Bolton ;
perennial, and flowering from July to Sctember, found on
rocks in Wales. The A. marants, with fronds fub-bipinnate,
the pinnas oppofitely coadunate, ver)' hirfute underneath, and
a little toothed at the bafe, is a native of the fouthern coun-
tries of Europe ; but all the reft belong to hotter climates,
as the Eaft or Weft Indies, Africa, and the fouthern pro-
vinces of North America. The A. punclatum, with fronds
heart-tongued, acuminate, quite entire, dotted above, re-
fembles hart's-ton^ue, and is probably rather a fpecies of
polypody. It is ufed medicinally in China, where it was
firft remarked by J. Fothergill. Few of the fpecies have
been introduced into ga;Jens. Thofe of Europe may be
pr.fcfved in pots, filled with gravel and lime-rubbifh, or
planted on walls and artificial rocks: but moft of th,m, be-
ing natives of very hot chmates, maft be planted in pots,
and plunged into the bark-pit. Maityn's Miller.

AcROsTicHUM is alfo a fpecies of P0LYP0DIu^f,
called Thelyphrii, and a fpecies of C-€nopteris, called
vii iparn.

ACROSTOLIUM, in Ancient Naval JrchitiRure, an
emament of the prc.v, or forecaftle of a Hiip, chiefly of
war; fometimes '^.iped hke a buckler, a helmet, or an ani-
Bial, but move frequently circular or fpiral. The ancients

had divers decorations or additional parts to their fhips,
called by a general name xofuji/Sa ; thofe on the prow were
more particularly called roAo:, of which the extreme part
alone was denominated acroftolium.

To the ttcrnjlolia may be referred the anfernilus, men-
tioned by Bayfius ; and alfo tliofe polifhed fteel pieces rc-
fembling a duck's neck, uled by the Venetians at the heads
of their gondolas.

The acrojtnlta ivere tom from vanquiflied lliips, and faft.
ened to the conqueror's, as a fignal of victory. ^Ve fre-
quently find tliem reprefented on the rcvcrfes of ancient me-
dals. An acroftolium is alfo feen in the famous fculpture of
tlic apnthenfis of Homer. The acroftolium was an ornament
on the medals of maritime towns, fuch as Sidon and Aradus,
and defigned to exprefs naval viclories.

ACROTADUS, in Jncimt Geography, an ifland of the
Perfian gulf, mentioned by Pliny ; fuppofed by others to
be Athothadrus, or a delert ifland, mentioned by Nearchus,
according to Arrian, and called Caicandrus.

ACROTELEUTIC, from axfo; and Ts^o.:, end, among
JLccJeJiaJlical U'riters, denotes the end of a verfe or pfalm : or
fomething added thereto to be fung by the people.

In which ienfe acrotcleulic amounts to the fame with acro-
Jlic, hypopfalma, dinpfalma, epode, Sec.

The gloria patri is by fome writers called the acroteleutic
to the pfalms ; becaufe always ufcd to be repeated by the
people at the end of each.

Hence the word acroteleutic is fometimes alfo ufed as fy-
nonymous with doxology.

ACROTERI, in Geography, a fmall town in the ifland
of Santorin, N. lat. 36''. 25'. E. long. 26". i'.

ACROTERIA, or Acroters, formed of (/./.foj, in
Architecture, fmall pedeftals, ufually without bafes, anciently
placed at the middle, and the tvio extremities, of pedi-
ments ; and lerving alfo to fupport il:atues.

Thofe at tlie extremes ought to be hall t'ne height of the
TYMPANUM ; and that in the middle, according to Vitru-
vius, fhould be one eighth part more.

AcROTERiA, fometimes alfo fignify figure^!, whether of
ftone, or metal, placed as ornaments, or crownings, on the
tops of temples, or other buildings.

Sometimes they alfo denote thofe fharp pinnacles, or
fpiry battlements, which ftand in ranges about flat build-
ings, with rails and balluilers.

AcROTERiA, among ancient Ph-jftcians, were ufed to de-
note the great extremities of the body, as the head, hands,
and feet. '

Ariftotle alfo ufes acroten'a, for the tips or extreme parts
of the fingers, covered by the nails ; fometimes alfo for the
eminences of the bones.

ACROTERIASM was anciently ufed for the amputa-
tion of any extrem'ty.

ACROTHYMIA, in Surgery, the name of a large tu-
mor in the fleih, rifing in the fhapc of a wart, though fome-
times depreffed and flat, called thymus. Heifter. See

N/EVUS.

ACROTYNI, in Ancient Geography, a town placed by
Stcphanua Byzaiit. on the top of Mount Athos. See
Acroathon.

ACRYDIUM, in Entomology, a name given by Degeep
to the Gryllus Ircvicornisfand the G. terrains ofth.' Lin-
nxan lyftem. The former, is fou.id in South America;
and the latter, at the Cape of Good Hope.

ACSAC, a meafure of capacity in ufe both in Afia and
Egypt. See Log.

ACSOR, in Geography, a town on the river Nile ia
Egypt, famed for its earthen ware.

ACSTED»

ACT

ACSTED, a town in the Dutehy of Bremen, in Ger-
many, 24 r'.iles N. of Breincii.

ACtSU is the name of a fmall town of Afiatic Tiirkiy, in
Natolia, 5 leagues well of Ifiiick.

ACT, Actus, in genera', denotes an effeftive exercife,
or apphcation of fomt power or f icnlty. In this fenfe afl
ftands oppoied to power, polentri, which is orly the capa-
city of ii^lirr, but not the ex';rtion of t lat capacity.

Though the word aft, properly and primarily, he only
applicable where the power nii^rht exift without being
drawn forth into aft ; yet the fchoolmen extend it farther;
defming it by the prefen i. of any power or perfcftion, even
though it could not be ablent. In which fenfe, God him-
feif is faid to be p moil pure ad ; becaufe his perfe'ttions
ar' always and neceffarily prefent. And thus, form is called
an till : inafmuch as the prefence hereof completes the
puwer and perf^ftion of matter. — Even exillcnce is termed
an «i7 ; beca'de, when this is given to a being, nothing far-
ther is wanted. The Greeks lometimes call nd evIe^.;;^;!?., a
term denoting an aftu^il poflciriou of perfection, by the La-
tins uiually ivndered [■.i-j.cfihiil'ia.

y/f'/ and power are dillinguilhed by w -iters on Ontology
thrs.: wivs ; viz. as aftual being is difiinguifhcd from a
power to be ; aftuai doing or aftion, from a po.-er to do ;
or aSl'.vil fuffcnng or pafllon, from a power to fufftr. See
Watts's Ontology in \Vuiks, vol. v. p. 64.7.

Metaphyficians give various divifions of e& ; viz. into in-
Jimte, as the ad of ercatini^ ; ^wAjhiitc, as the ad of moving.
— Tranjunt, or thole exerciled in other beii.gs, as heating ;
and imh:ancnt, which remain in their own iubjeft, as think-
ir.g. See Action.

Act, in Lo^k, is particul.irly underftood of an op'^ration
of the human mind. Thus to dilcern, examine, and judge,
arc aCt!.« f the imderflandlng ; to affirm and chufe, are afts
of the will. There are voluntary and fpontaneous afts ; the
fonner are p-oduced by the operation of the foul, the latter
■without its privity or participation.

Akt, in a legal fenfe, is an uiflrument, or other matter
in writing ; of ufe to declare, or juftify the truth of a
thing. In which fenfe. records, decrees, fentences, reports,
certificates, &c. are called ads, authentic ads, iolemn ads,
&c. See Deed.

Act, in the Un'merftties, a thefis maintained in public by
a candidate for a degree ; or, to drew the capacity and pro-
ficiency of a ihidtnt in the university.

The cindidatcs for a degree of batchtlor and mafter of
arts are to hold philoiophy afts ; thole for bachelor of di-
vinity are to keep divinity acts, &c.

At Oxford, the time when the mailers ordoftors complete
their degrees is alfo called the ad\ which is held with great
folemnity : at Cambridge they call it the commencement. —
Ad is alfo a collegiate appellation for the perfon who pro-
pofesqueftions that are the fubjedls of difputation in the ex-
crcifes of the univerfity fchools. The perfons with whom
he contends in thefe que'^ions are called opponents : and
the difcuffion is prcpofed under the direction of the mo-
derator at Cambridge. The difiinguifhcd men of the year
appear eight times in this manner in the fchools ; twice
as ads, and fix times as oppone.its. One ad and three
opponencies are kept before the fummer ; and one ad and
three opponencies in the tenn following the fummer vaca-
tion.

Act of faith. Auto da fe, in the Romilli church, is
a folemn day held by the inquisition, tor the punifh-
ment of heretics, and the abfolution of the innocent ac-
cufed.

They ufually contrive the auto to fall on fome great fef-
I

ACT

tival ! that the execution may pafs with the more awe and
rega-d : at le.ul it is alw lys on a Su:.day.

T'le auto da ft- may be culkd the lail aift of the inquilito-
rial tragedy ; it is a kind of g -.ol- Jeliveiy. appointed as oft
as a competent nun.ber of pnfoncrs in the inquifi'ion are
convieled of herefy ; either by their own v oiuncary or
extorted coufeflion ; or on the evidence of certain witiieffes.
Tlu- p-ocels is thus : in tlie morning, they are b'-ought i: to
a great hall, where they have d rtiin li.il its put on, which
they are to wear in the proeelTion. The procelfion is kd
up by Dominican friars, after which come the penitents,
fome with fan benitoes, and iome without, according to the
nature of their crimes ; being all in black coats without
(leeves, and baiv-footcd, with a wax candle in tiuir hands.
Thefe are followed by the penitents who have narrowly
efcaped being burnt, who over their black coats liavc flames
painted, with their points turned downwards, fur^o rcvdto.
Next come the negative, and relapfed, who are to be bunit,
having flames on tlicir habits pointing upwards ; after thelo
come fuch as piofefs doftrines contraiy to the faith of
Rome, who befides flames pointing upwanis, have their
pifture painted on their hreafls, with dogs, ferpents and
devils, all open-mouthed about it. Each prifoner is at-
tended with a familiar of the inquifition, and thofe to be
burn: have alio a Jefuit on each hand who are continually
preaching to them to abjure. After the prifoncrs, comes
a troop of familiars on liorfe-back, and after them the in-
quifitors, and other ofliccrs of the court, on mules ; laft of
all, the inquifitor general on a while horfe, led by two men
with black iiats and green hat-bands.

A featlold is erected in the Terreiro de Paco, big enough
for two or three thouland people ; at one end of which arc
the priloners, at the other tlit inqullUors. After a fermoil
made up of encomiums of the iiiquifition, and invectives
againil heretics, a priell afcends a delk near the middle of
tilt i^eafFold, and having taken the abjuration of the peni-
tents, recites the final fcntei^ce of thofe who arc to be put to
death ; and delivers them to the fecular arm, earnetlly be-
feeching at the fame time the fccular power not to touch
their blood, or put their lives in danger.

The prifoners being thus in the hands of the civil magif-
trate, are prefently loaded wnth ctiains, and carri(;d firll to
the fecular gaol, and from thence in an hour or two
brought before the civil judge, who, after alking in wh.it
religion they intend to die, pronounces ientence ; on fuch
as declare they die in the commu.'iou of the church of
Rome, that they fhall be firfl llrangled, and then burnt to
allies ; on fuch as die in any other faith, that they be burnt
alive.

Both are immediately carried to the place of execution,
which iland ■ on the Ribera at Lifl)on, where there are a.i many
flakes *et up as there are prifoners to be burnt, with a quant. ty
of diy fui^e about them. The flakes of the profL-ffed, that
is, fuch as pel fill in their herefy, are about four yards high,
having a Imall ixiard towards the top for the prifo.ier to be
feated on. The negative and relapfed, being firll llrangled
and burni, the profeifed inount their flakes by a ladder ; and
tlie Jefuits, after feveral repeated exhortations to be n-con-
ciled to the chuixh, part with them, telling them they leave
them to the devil, who is Handing at their elbow to receive
their fouls, and cany tliem with him into the flames of hell.
On this a great fhout is raifed, and the cry is, let the dogs
beards he made, wnieh is done by tiiruiliiig flaming furze,
fall;'ned to long poles, agalnll their faces, till their faces-
are burnt to a coa'l, which is accompanied with the loudefl
acclamations of joy. At lall, fire is let fo the furze at the
bottom of the ilake, over which the profeiTcd a:e chained

fo

ACT

ACT

fo liij!;li, llist die top of the flame fcldom readies higher
than tiie feat they fit on, fo that they rather fccm roafled
than bvimt. There cannot be a more lamcntahle fpetlacle ;
the fufferers continually crying out, while they are able,
mipncord'ta por amor de D'los : yet it is bchtlil by all fcxes,
and ages, with tranfports of joy and fatisfartion : this joy
is not the effert of natural cruelty, but of the fpirit of
their religion ; for the deaths of other malcfaftors are ten-
derly commiferated and lamented. Geddes's Mile. Trads,
torn. i. p. 442. Limb. Hill. Inq. lib. iv.

Act of Grace. See Grace.

Acts alfo denote the deliberations and refolutions of an
alTembly, fenate, council, or convocation ; taken down by
clerks, notaries, aduarifs, or the like, and entered in a regi-
ftcr. Ads arc alfo matters of fad tranfmitted to poflerity
in certain authentic books, or memoirs, as the acts of the
Apollles, of the Martyrs, S:c. to this general clafs belong
ads of parliament, which are called statutes ; ads of
the Royal Society called transactions ; thofe of the late
royal academy of feiences at Paris, called memoirs ; thofe of
the focieties of Leipfic, &c. called fimply ads, ada erudito-
rum, &c.

Acts of the Conjipory, ana conjijlnrn, the edids and de-
clarations of the council of ilate of the Roman emperors.
The fenate and foldiers often fwore, either through abjed
flattery or by compullion, upon the edicls of the emperor,
as we do upon the Bible ; and the name of Apidius Me-
rula was erafed by Nero from the regifter of fenators, be-
caufe he refufed to iVear upon the edids of Auguftus.

Acvs. of Coimcil, differed from canons, in that the latter
contained only the i-efults, or the laws and regulations agreed
on, and drawn up in foi-m ; whereas the adls included the
preceding debates, motions, &c.

In the firit coUedions of councils, only the bare canons
m-ere delivered. Afterwards they began to give the ads as
well as the canons.

Hence we have two kinds of fynodical colledions : one
containing all the ads, or tranfadions, relating to matters
of faith and dodtrine ; the other, containing only the canons
relating to difciplinc, is called the book of canons.

Acts of the people, ada popnli, among the Romans, w-ere
journals or regiilers of the daily occurrences, as afiemblies,
trials, executions, buildings, births, marriages, deaths, &c.
of illuftrious perl'ons, and the like.

Theie M'cre otherwife called ada piMca, and ada diurna,
or fimply inla.

The ada only differed from annals, in that only the
greater and more important matters were in the latter, and
thofe of lefs note in the former. Tacitus Annal. xiii. ;^i.

Their origin is attributed to Julius Csefar, who firl't or-
dered the keeping and making public the ads of the people ;
fome trace them higher, to Servius Tullius, who, to dif-
coyer the number of perfons born dead, and alive, ordered
that the next of kin, upon u birth, fliould put a certain piece
of money into the treafury of Jimo l.uc'ma ; upon a death,
into that of Veiuis Libumn : the like was alfo to be done
Aipon aduming the Ic^^a i-'irilis, SiC. Under Marcus Anto-
Junus, this was carried farther; perfons were obliged to
notify tiie birth of their children, with their names and fur-
names, the day, conful, and whether legitimate or fpurious,
to the pr;efects of the peranum Saturni, to be entered in the
pubhc ads : though before this time the births of perfons
flf quality appear to have been thus regiftered. Saetonius.
Pitifc. Lex.

Acts, PuMic. The knowledge of public ads has been
ereded into a peculiar fcience, called the diplomatic, of great
Mnporunce to m liifto.-ian, ftatefman, chronologer, and evea

critic. The prefervation of them was the Cril occafion of
eivding libraries.

The llyie of ads is generally barbarous Latin. Authors
are divided as to the rules of judging ot their genuincnefs,
and even whether there be any certain rules at all ? F. Ger-
mon will have the greater part of the ads of former ages to
be fpurious. Fontanini afferts, that the number of forged
ads now extant is veiy fmall. It is certain there were
fevere punifliments inflided on the forgers and falfiliers of
ads.

The chief of the Englifh ads, or public records, are pub-
liflied by Rymer, tinder the title of Fccdera, and continued
by Sanderfon : an extrad whereof has been given in French
by Rapin, and tranffated into Englilh, under the title of
Ai-hi Re^ia. Great contmendations have been given to this
work, and fome exceptions made to it : as that there are
many fpurious ads, as well as errors iu it ; fome have even
charged it with falfilications.

The public ads of France fell into the hands of the
Engliffi after the battle of Poitiers, and are commonly faid
to have been carried by them out of the country. But tlie
tradition is not fupported by any fufticient teflimony, and
has even been fhewn by M. Bruflel to be falfe.

Acts of the Senate, ada fenatus, among the Romans,
were minutes of what paffed, and was debated in the feuate-
houfe.

Thefe were alfo called commentarii, and by a Greek name
l-ui<y\j.m^i.!>.Ta,. They had their origin in the confulffrip of
Julius Ciefar, who ordered them both to be kept and
publilhed : and there was an ofScer, who was himfelf a
fenator, ^vhofe province it was to compofe thefe aBs. The
keeping them was continued under Auguftus, but the pub-
lication was abrogated. Afterwards all writings, relatiifg
to the decrees or fentenc^:s of the judges, or wh u paffed
and was done before them, or by their authority, in any
caufe, were called by the name acta. 'In which fenfe
we read of civil atls, criminal ads, intcrvenient ads, ada
civilia, criminalia, iritervenicinra, S:c.

Acts, Cleri of the, is an officer of the navy. See
Clerk.

Acts of the Apojiles, a canonical book of the New Tefi:a-
ment, which contains great part of the lives of St. Peter
and St. Paul, and of the hiftory of the Chriftian church ;
commencing at the afcenfion of our Saviour, and con-
tinued down to St. Paul's arrival at Rome, after his appeal
to C.efar, comprehending in all about thirty years. St.
Luke has been allowed by all antiquity to be the author of
this book, and his principal defign in writing it was to fur-
nifft an authentic hiftory of the firft plantation of Chrifti-
anity ; and it thus ferves to obviate the i.ilfe acts, and
falfe hiftories, which were afterwards difperfed through the
world. The exad time of his writing it has been afcer.
tained with a very confiderable degree of accuracy ; for it
muft have been at leaft two years after St. Paul's arrival at
Rome, becaufe it infoi-ms us that St. Paul dwelt two whole
years in his own hired houfe ; perhaps he wrote it while
he remained with St. Paul, during the time of his imprifon-
ment.

It was written, according to Mill, in his Prolegomena, in
the year 64. And Dr. Lardner (works, vol. vi. p. 145,)
oblei-ves, that it could not have been written till after St.
Paul's cojihnement at Rome was come to a period, which
he fuppofcs to have ended in the former part of the year
of Chrift 63 ; and he thinks it probable, that St. Luke
finilhed this book the fame, or the next year, either at Rome
or in Greece. That St. Luke was the author of it appears
Irom the general confent of the ancient Chriftian writers :
5 *-^.

ACT

ACT

e. ^. of Irenxu3, Tertullian, Clement, Orifjen, Eufebius,
and St. Jerome. Befides, feveral ancient Grtck MSS. of
the Nfvv Teftament, cited by F. Simon in his criticnl Hif-
tory of the New Teftament, (pt. i. c. I4.)havc the name of
St. Lvike prelixed to this hillory ; and in the S) liac verfion
it is alfo exprefs'.y afcribed to St. Luke. Moreover, the
hiftory of the adls of the apoftles is found in thirteen cata-
logues of the books of the New Teftament, which arc the
principal catalogues of thofe books in the writings of the
fathers, for the tour iirft centuries. See an enumeration of
thefe catalojrues in Benlbn's Hiilor)' of the firft Planting
of the Chriftian Religion, p. 302. and Jones's Canon, vol. i.
p. 73. That tlie hillory of the afts is a true hiftory, niay
be unqueftionably inferred from the citations and alhiiions
to it that occur in the writings of the prlmllive ClirilUans ;
M in the epiille afcribed to St. Barnabas about the year of
Chrift 71, the epiftle of St. Clement about the year 96,
the Paftor of Hernias about the year 100, the epiftles of
St. Ignatius about the year 107, and the epiftle of Polycarp
about the year icS. Thefe five were apollolic fatliers, who
had convcrfed wilh the apolHes, and probably with St.
Luke himfelt ; and therefore their teftimony is of great im-
portance in aicertaining the truth of this hiftory. We
might alfo refer to the teftimonies of Papias, A. D. 116;
jukin Martyr, A. D. 140 ; Iren-jeus, A. D. 178, ,St. Cle-
ment the preftjytcr of Alexandria, A. D. 194; Tertullian,
A. D. 200.'' Some have fuppofcd, that St. Luke wrote
both his GOSPEL and the y/rfj in one book, and divided it
into two parts. The tranlition (Afts i. i.) agrees with
this account ; for the afts are the fecond part of the book,
or hiftory, of which Luke has called his gofpel the firft
part ; the latter is infcribed to Theophilus, as well as the
former, and the author's name is not prefixed to the Acts as
it is to St. Luke's Gofpel, and yet the author is not dif-
putcd. When the gofpel and ti\e afts were one continued
book, with St. Luke's name prefixed to the former, it was
nc(?dlefs to repeat it before the fecond part of his work.
See Jones's Canon, vol. iii. p. 1 i 3. and Benfon't; Planting of
Chrilliaiiity, p. 299. See alfo Bifcoe's Difcourfes at
Boyle's l^eft. c. 14, 15, The ftyle of this hiftory, origi-
nalt)' written in Greek, is deemed to be purer than that of
{he other canonical writers; and it has been allcdged by
iome Biblical critics, that St. Luke, who was better ac-
quainted with the Greek than with the Hebrew language,
makes ufe of the Septuagint verfion in his citations from the
(jld Teitament.

The truth and divine original of Chriftianity may be de-
duced from the hiftor)- of the Atts of the apoilles. The
general and particular doctrines contained in this book are
fo reafonable, and the evidences which the apoftles gave af
their doctrine, in their appeals to prophecies and miracles,
and the various gifts of tlie fpirit, were fo numerous and
fo ftrong, and lo wifely adapted to all forts of perfons, that
the truth of the religion, which they atteft, cannot be rea-
loaably difputed. The hiftory itfelf is credible. It was
written by a perion who was acquainted with the various
circumftances wliich he rtcites, and who was both able and
inclined to give a laitlifnl relation of eveiy particular tliat
occurred. St. I^uke was a companion of the apoftles ; he
vvashimfelfan eye and ear witncfs of the facts, and per-
fonally concerned in many of the incidents which he re-
eords. In the hiftory itfelf there are no inconfiftencies or
contradiftions. The miraculous facts related in it are nei-
ther inipoffible, when we confider the divine power, to
which tliey are afcribed, nor improbable, if we attend to the
grand defign and occallon of them. The writer appears to
have been toneft and impartial ; for he has recorded the

objcftions made to Chriftianity, both by Jews and Heathens,
and the refleftlons which enemies caft upon the religion it-
felf and the firil preachers of it. He h.is not concealed the
weakneftes, faults, and preindices either of the apoftles or of
their converts. The occafional hints that are difperftd
through the epiftlcB of St. Paul, harmonize with the faif\s
recited in the hiftory ; infomuch that the hiftory is the bell
guide to tlie ftiiidy of the epiftles. The o'licr parts of the
New Teftament agree with tlie hiftory, ajid confirm it.
The Gofpcls clofe with references to the facls recorded in
the Afts ; and the epiftles fuppofe that thofe faifts had adlu-
ally occurred which the hillory relates. The iricidental
circumftances mentioned by St. Luke correfpond fo exattlv^
and williout any previous view to fiiell a correfpondence,
and in caies where it could n(;t pL^liiblv have been preme-
ditated and prccontrived, with the accounts that occur in
the epiftles, and witli thofe of the bell ancient lullorians
both Jews and Heathens; that no ptrfon who !iad forged
fnch an hiftory, in later ages, could have had the fame ex-
ternal confirmation ; but mull have betraved hinifelf, by
alluding to fonie culloms or opinions fince fpvung up ; or
by mifreprefcnting fome circumftances, or ufing fonie phrafe
or expreffion, not then in ufc. The plea of forgery, there-
fore, in later ages, cannot be allowed : and if St. Luke had
publiftied fnch a hillory at fo early a period, when fome of
the apoftles, or many other perfons concerned in the tran-
faftions which he has recorded, were alive, and his account
had not been true, he would only have expofcd himfelf to
an eafy confutation, and to certain infamy. If anv hiftory
of former times defervcs credit, the A fh of the ApifiliS ougjit
to be received and credited. And if the hiftory of the
Ads of the Apoflles be true, Chriftianity cannot be falfe. For
a doftrine fo good in itfelf, and attended with fii many mira-
culous and divine teftimonies, has all the poffible marks of a-
true revelation. Sec Benfon, ubi fupra, p. 310 — 318: and aa
excellent work, dlllinguifhcd by acute and original leafuii-
ing, and amplifying the argument above fuggclled, by Arch-
deacon Paley, entitled Hone Pauliiire, 8vo. 1 790.

There are alfo feveral fpurious acts of ihc Ap-"ihs: fuch
as, I. The niVj- &/" Aiidias, or the Hillory of the Twelve
Apoftles, faid to be conipofed by him in Hebrew, Uanllatcd
into Greek by his difciple Eutropius, and thence into Latin
by Julius Africanus. 2. The nd> of St. Amlj-ew, received
by the Encratites, Manichees, Apollolics, and Orl'renians.
3. The atls, received by the Ebionites, and mentioned bj"
Epiphanius as a grofs forgery. 4. The n^s of St. John,
forged by Leucius. 5. The n3s of the Api/lle , under the
names of Leucius, Lenticius, Leontius, Leonides, and
I^euthon, names of the finne perfon who lived in the
fourth centur)', and who was a Manichee, and probably
the father of thofe heretics, called by St. Auftin, Seleuciani
from the name Seleucus, which Mr. Jones thinks to be the
fame with Leucius. This book contained the arls of John,
Aiidrev/, Thomas, Peter, Paul, James and others. 5. The
nils of St. Matthias were probably written by Leucius
Charinus under this apoftle's name, to which clafs we may
refer the nets ufcd by the Manichees.. j. Tlie aas of Paul,
which Mill in his Prolegomena, feCt. 130. fuppofes to
have been compiled by fome faithtul Chrillians, about the
year of Chrift 69, to fupply the imperfeft accounts in the
ails of the apoftles, written by St. Luke, and which Whif-
ton regards as in fome fenfe a facred book ; but wiiich.
Eufebius reckons to be fpurious, and Phii'illrius condemn*.
as a filly book, abounding with llninge ftories. 8. The^T^'Ji-
of Paul and Thecla, wliieli was tile work of fome weak
preftiytcr of Aiia, and never had any authority in the Chrif-
ii^i church. It is not certain v.'hen thefe aCii were com-

fefod ;

A C T

pofcd ; \iM Dr. LarJiier (vol. ii. p. 31 1.) conjectures, tliat
thty were written in the latter part of the firil, or the be-
ginning ot'tlie Lcond century. Dr. Grabc has publifhed a
book under this title from MSS. in the Bodleian librar)-.
If this be the fame with the work mentioned by TertulLan,
Jerome, &c. as Dr. Grabe fuppofes, it l)as undergone many
interiiolations ; and Lardner conceives the number in both
the Latin and Greek copies to be greater than Grabe al-
lows. 9. The aSj of St. Peter, the travels of Peter, or
the recognitions of Clemens, which are rejedcd by Eule-
biu?, Atlianafiuis, Jerome, Epiphanius, &c. as apocr)-phal.
10. The ,i'!s of St. Philip, which were probably the work of
l.eucius Charinus, or an appendage to his work. Tabncius
(Codex Apocr. Nov. Teft. torn. iii. 656.) mentions a MS. of
iomenfls under the name of Philip, in the Vatican. 1 1. The
ads of Seleuc'.is, the fame with thofe of Leucius, already
mentioned. 1 2. The tu'h of Thomas, mentioned by Epipha-
nius, Athanafius, and Gelalius, are fuppofed by Fabricius,
Mill, and others to be the fame with the uds of Leucius ; but
Mr. Jones fuppt'fes, that as it was ufed by fome fcfts of the
Gnoilics, who fprung up at an earlier period, it was inter-
polated and altered by Leucius. But tiie work is unquef-
tionably apociyphal. See on this fubjetl Jones's Canon.
vol. i. paffini ; and Lardner's Works : — Index under
Acts.

Aqt% of Pilnte, denote certain memoirs or reports con--
cerning the trial and death, the refurreclion and afcenlion
of Jefus Chrift, which were tranfmitted by Pilate to the
emperor Tiberius, and communicated by him to the fenate.
[\iiHn Martvr, in his Apology (Num. 36. p. 65. and Num.
48. p. 72. Bened.) prefented to Antoninus Pius, and the
fenate of Rome, about the year 140, after having men-
tioned on one occafion fome of our Lord's miracles, and on
another his crucifixion, and fome of the attendant circum-
rtances, adds ; " and that thefe things were fo done, you may
know from the m?j made in the time of Pontiua Pilate."
Tertullian alfo, in his Apology, (c. 21. p. 22.) about the
year 200, having fpoken of our Saviour's crucifixion and
refurreclion, his appearance to the difciples, and his afcen-
fion to heaven in their fight, fubjoins this remark; " of all
thefe things relating to Chrift, Pilate, in his confcience a
Cliriftian, fent an account to Tiberius, then emperor." In
another place he fnys, that by an ancient decree, no perfon
fiiould be acknowledged as a deity, unlcfs he were firft ap-
proved by the fenate. Tiberius having received from Pa-
leftine an account of fuch things as manifefted our Savioiu-'s
divinity, propofed to the fenate, recommending the propofal
by his own vote, that he fliould be placed among the gods.
The fenate refufcd, becaufe hr had himfclf declined that
honour. Neverthelefs the emperor perfifted in his own opi-
nion, and ordered that if any accufed the Chriftians they
Hiouid be puniflied. Eufcbius, in his Ecelefiaftica! Hiftory,
(lib. ii. cap. 2.) relates the faft, and cites ihe authority of
"Tertullian. Many learned moderns have objefted to the
original tcftimonies of JulUn Martyr and Tertullian. Dr.
Lirdner has inveftigated the fubjeft with his ufuai acciinicy
and impartiality. He firft alledges that Juilin Martyr and
Tertullian were writers of good repute. He then (hews
that it was the cuftom of the governors of provinces to
compofe acls, memoirs, and commentaries of the remarkable
occurrences that happened in the places where they pre-
fided : and thefe ads or regifters vvfere confidered as public
atithorities, and therefore more decifive and fritisfaftory than
fome other acemmts. Of this circumflance the ancient
fathers were well apprifed ; and Eufcbius admits the truth
of what they report. In the time of the pcrfeeuting empe-
ror Maximin, about A. D. 307, the heathen people forged

ACT

aBs of Pilate, derogatory to the honour of our Saviour,
which were very dihgently circulated to uufettle Chri fti-
ans, or difcourage them in the profeflion of their faith.
The edict to this purpofe was fo negligently or ignoranlly
written, that our Savio'Oi-'s death was referred by i' to the
fourth confulate cf Tiberius, i. e. to the fevenih of his em-
pire, which is eleven years before our Saviour's paffion, and
five before Pilate was made goverr.or of Judea. See Eu-
feb. H. E. 1. i. c. 9. 1. ix. c. 4, 5, 6. Ruffinus, lib. i. c. y,
&c. It was alfo ciiftomary for governors of p'ovinces to
fend to the emperor an account of remarkable iranfadt ons
that occurred in the places whtii they prefidcd. ^^'e .nay
therefore conclude, though the acs of Pontius Pilate and
his letter to Tiberius, which we )iow have (fee Fabric. C 'd.
Apocr. Nov. Tell. p. 29c — 972.) are manifefliy fpurious,
that Pontius Pilate did compofe fome U'emoirs co-icerning
our Saviour and fend theia to the emperor, wiiether Juftin
Martyr and Tertullian have given a juft aceoani of them
or not. Dr. Lardner, after replying to other objefitions
that have been urged again ft the relation of thefe ancient
fathers, concludes with obferving that they deferve fome re-
gard. See Lardner's W^orks, vol. vii. c. 2. p. 231. &c.

Acts, in Poetry, are certain divifions, or principal parts,
in a dramatic poem, contrived to give fo:iie refpite both to
the actors and fpeftalors. In the interval between the acls
the ftage remains empty, and witiiout any aclion vifible
to the fpeftators ; though it is fuppofed all tlij while that
there is one proceeding out of fight. It is not, hov.-ever,
merely for the lake of the idpite that thefe acls are ob-
ferved, but to give tranfaclions a greater d -gree of proba-
bility, and render the intrigue moi'e affetling. For the
fpeftator, who fees the aclion prepared that is to pafs in
the interval, cannot forbear afting, in his imagination, the
part of the abfent actors ; by whi h means he is the more
agreeably furprifed, when a new aft coming upon the ftage,
he fees the eflefts of that aftion, which before he could
only guefs at. To this it may be added, that authors con-
trive to have the moft dry and difficult part of the drama
tranfafted between the afts, that the fpeclators may have
no notion of them, excepting what their fancy prefents
them with at a diftance ; and that nothing may appear
upon the ftage but what is natural, probable, and entertain-
ing. In this refpeft, fays an ;:pproved writer, a dramatic
or epic poem ought to refemble a lentence or period in lan-
guage divided into members, that are diftinguilhed from
each other by proper paufes ; or it ought to refemble a
piece of mufic, having a full clofe at the end, preceded by
imperfeft clofes that contribute to the melody. See Elem.
of Critieifm, c. 22.

The ancient Greek poets were unacquainted with this
divifion of a play into acls, though their epifodes, or cho-
rufles, ferved almoft the fame purpofe. The word itcl never
occurs in Ariftotle's Poetics, though he defines exadlly
every part of the drama. It is true the Greeks confi-
diied their pieces as confifting of certain parts or divifions,
which they called protafis, epitnfis, catiiftafs, and catjlr^jfihc:
but there were no real interruptions or divifio.is anfweri: g
to them ill the reprefeutation. With them the ftage was
never empty, nor were the performers idle ; fo that when
the chorufles were incorporated in the piece, as in fome of
the tragedies of Sophocles, it may be faid ftricily to confill
of only one aft.

The Romans firft introduced afts into the drama, and
filled up the intermediate fpace of time between thefe divi-
fions with a chorus, a dance, or a fong : and in Horace's
time, the five afts were eilaWifhed as a law. This appears
from the following verfes in his De Art. Poet.

•' Xeve

A C T

" Neve minor, neu fit quinto produclior h^m
Fahula, quE poici viut, ct fpccbita rep t.:."

" If you would have your play defcrve luccefs,
Give it five afti complete, nor more Mor Icfs.

I'RANCIS."

This number was conftant in tlie comedies of Terence,
and tragedies ot Seneca; and the law (lands unrepealed to
this day ; though it feenis to derive its force from the au-
thority of Horace, rather than that of rcafon or nature.
All plays are deemed in-egular, that have cither more or
fewer than five acts. Some, indeed, have afiertcd, that
eveiT juft action coniilLs of five dillinft parts ; and have un-
dertaken to mark out the pi-ecife (hare of the aCtion, v4i!eh
each of the five acts ought to bear. The firll, they fay, is
to propofe the matter or argument of the fable, and to
(hew the principal charafters. This fhould be fo managed as
to awaken the curiofity of the fpeClators, and alfo furnifh
them with materials lor underllanding the fequel. It iliould
make them acquainted with tiie perfonages who are to ap-
pear, with their feveral views and interefts, and with the
Situation of affairs at the commencement of the play. In
former times, the expofition of the fubjcdl was made by a
prologue, or by a fingle aflor, who appeared to give full
and diredl infoiTnation to the fpeftators. Some of iEfchy-
lus's and Euripides's plays are opened in this inartificial
manner, which is now totally abolilhcd. The fecond aA is
to bring the affair or bufinels upon the carpet. The third,
to furnifh obftaeles and difficulties. The fourth, either
points out a remedy for thefe difficulties, or finds new ones
in the attempt. During thefe adls, the plot fliould gradu-
ally thicken ; the aftion of the play ought to be advanc-
ing, and as it advances, the fufpence and concern of the
fpeftator fhould be raifed more and more. It is the great
excellence of Shakefpear, that his fcenes are full of fenti-
ment and adlion ; and not of mere difcourfe ; whereas it is
frequently a fault of the bell French tragedians, that they
allow the action to languifh for the fake of a long and art-
ful dialogue. The fifth aft puts an end to all by a difco-
very. This is the feat of the catallrophe, or the unravel-
ling of the plot, in which the art and genius of the poet
fhould be mofl fully difplayed. See Catastrophe.
However, it is certain that, on the principles of the great
mafter of the drama, Arillotle, we may have a juft and re-
gular play, though it be only divided into three adls ; and
the number may be varied according to the tafte of the au-
thor, or the nature of the fubjeft ; fince the divifion is
purely arbitral^. Neverthelefs, every aft ought to clofe
with fome incident that makes a paufe in the aftion ; with-
out which there can be no pretext for interrupting the re-
prefentation. Milton has deviated from this rule at the
clofe of the firft, feventh, and eleventh books of his Para-
dife Lofl : in the firft of which inftances he feems to have
copied the jEncid, the two firft books of which are divided
in a fimilar manner. Homer, in the Iliad, has paid no
great attention to this rule. The afts of a drama are di-
vided into SCENES. Metaftafio, in conformity to the pre-
cept of Ariftotle, with regard to the conftrudtion of a fable
(See ACTION and tragedy) divided his melodramas, or
operas, into three afts ; in order to conftitute the begin-
ning, middle, and end, which the ftagirite required. But
at prefent this wife and rational defign is violated at our
lyric theatre, by comprefling all the incidents of a drama,
written in three afts, into two ; by which means the bufinefs
of the piece is fo precipitated or mangled, that the events lofe
all appearance of probabihty, and the fpeftator all chance
of illufion. On this occafion, however, the trouble and ex-
pence of a third dance are fpun out to fuch a length as to
Vol. I.

ACT

preclude all dcfirc in the moll diffipated part of the public
to he kept longer from home.

ACTA, in ylniiqiiily, denoted among the Romans a plca-
fant garden formed near the bank of a river, in which thi"y
devoted ihemfelves to pleafure, and even to debauchery. Ci-
cero fays of Vcnes (v. 25.) " Tametfi in Afta cum mu-
lierculis jacebat ebrins." From aihi the ancients deduced
ax'x^sB, acfaii, to devote tliemftlves to pleafure. JlfJo was
fometimes ufed more generally to denote folitary rivers and
fliady coverts. Virgil ^n. v. ver. 613. Prudent, in Sym-
mach. I. 135.

Acta, in jlnc'ur.t Geography, a town of Acarnania, men-
tioned by Stcphan. Byzaiit. and called a port in the I'eri-
plus of Scylax. A3a is alfo a town of Mapnofia.

ACT^A, in Antiqmty, one of the fifty Nertids.

Act/t;a, or Actkrius, was alfo one of the fix envious
and malicious genii, called by t'nc Greeks Telchines.

Act.'ea, in Botany, the Chiillophoriona of Tourncforti
and in the Linnsan fyftem, a genus of the pofyawirta mono-
gyriia clafs and order, belonging to the natural order of mul-
ttjdiqu.^. and ranunculaccs of Juffieu. Its charafters are, that
the calyx is a perianthium of four leaves, with roundifh,
obtufe, concave, and caducous leaflets ; the corolla has
four petals, acuminate at both ends, longer than the calyx
and caducous ; the ftamina confifl of numerous, ufually
about thirty, capillary filaments, broader at top ; the
anthers are roundifh, twin and ereft ; the iiitlillum has a
fuperior ovate germen, no ilyle, and a tliickifh, obliquely
depreffed ftigma; the pericarpiura is an oval-globole, fmooth,
one-furrowed and one-celled berr)', and the feeds are many,
femi-orbicular, and lying over each other in two rcnvs. There
are four fpecies : I. A. J'picata, or common herb chriftopher,
which grows naturally in the northernconntiesof England, and
rifes two feet and an half in height, with the foot-ft Jks of
the leaves fpringing from the root, and dividing into three
fmallcr foot-flalks, each of which divides again into three,
with three lobes each ; the flowers grow in raniofc fpikes, and
are of a pure white : they appear in May and June, and arc
fucceeded by black fliining benicr, about the fize of peas,
which ripen in autumn. This plant is a powerful rc))elknti
and the root has been adininiflercd intenially in fome ner-
vous cafes, but fhould be ufed with caution. Da'iir, fays
Pliny, (H. N. V. ii. p. 425. Ed. Hard.) acetabul'j phno in-
tcrioril/iis fj-mmuntm morbis. The berries are poifonous, and
to the indifcreet ufe of them fome have referred the expla-
nation of the fable of Actjeon, and to this they have alfo
apphed the Latin adage ;

— Hie /tiger ejl, hitne tu Rotnane caveto.

Hor. Sermon. 1. i. fat. 4. v. 85.
The juice of thefe berries, with alum, yields a blnek dye.
Toads are faid to refort to this plant, being allured by its fcctid
fnicll, which, as Dr. Withering obferves, may be owing to the
damp fhady fituaticn in which it is found. This herb is poifon-
ous to cattle, but it is happily fcarce in England, and found
only in the woods. Of this fpecies there are three varie-
ties, viz. the nigra, or common black-berried herb chrifto-
pher, or bane-beiry ; the alba or American herb chriftopher,
with white berries, whole leaves are lefs deeply indented at
the edges, flowers in a more compaft fplke, and roots com-
pofed of thick knobs ; and the rubra, with red benies, dif-
fering only in the colour of its fruit. 2. A. ractmifa, or
American black or wild fnake-root, with large compound
leaves, rifing immediately from the root, and branched like
the firft, flower-ftems afcending to the height of four or five
feet, and white flowers in a long fpike, reflex at the top,
which appear in June or July, but not peifefting feeds in
England. It del^rves, on account of its (lowers, a place in
fhady borders among fhrubs, and will require no other at-
A » tentioB

ACT

ACT

tention tlian the (lirubs thcmfclvcs. This fpccics is a na-
live of North America ; and the root is much ufcd in that
countr)', and laid to be an antidote to poilon, or tlu- bite
of the rattle-fnake. 3. A. j(i['oii'icci, or Japancfe herb
chriftophcr, differs from tlie fecond in having fmiple, not
pinnate leaves ; it has heart-lhaped leaflets, petioles loiigar
than the leaflets, and felillc flowers. 4. A. ,;J\Tt!, or rongh-
leaved chrillophcr, has a Ih.iibby climbing llcm, fubierrate
leaves, white flowers, and linear fpilics, quadrilid corolla and
calyx, more than fifty Uamina, and a gibbous bcriy, with-
out juice. This fpecies is a native of China near Canton,
and the Chinefe ufe the rough leaves in polilhing, particu-
larly their tin ware. Thefe plants may be propagated by
feeds, fown on a ihady border fuon after they are ripe, and
tranfplanted in the foilowiug autumn into a lli?.dy border,
where ihey are to be left to flower. Martyn's Miller's Did.
In the Linnxan fyllcm, by Gmelin, there are fix fpecies.

Act.?;a, ii Entomology, is a fpecies of Papilio, with
expanded wings, brown above, the anterior marked with
two ocelli and two white points, and the hinder mai'bled
beneath. It is found in the iouthern part of Rulha.

AcTiCA Cimkifiiga. See Cimicifuga.

Acta;a, in Ancient GeograJ'hy, a name formerly given to
Attica. Pliny (1. 4. c. 7.) fays it was alfo called Ade.
Paufan. Attic, cap. xi.

ACTION, in Fabulous Hiflory, the fovi of AnftEus and
Autonce, and gi-andfoR of Cadmus. Whilll he was purfu-
ing his favourite exercife of hunting, he is faid to have
looked on Diana, when (lie was bathing, to have been tranf-
formcd by her into a ilag, and devoured by his own dogs.
The moral of the fable is applied to thofe who ruin them-
fclves by keeping packs of dogs, or by too curious refcaiches
info nature-

AcTJEON is alfo the name of one of the horfes that drew
the chariot of the fun, in the fall of Phaeton. Adlseon
formed of axriv, a ray of the fun, fignifies luminous, and
takes its name from the (plcndour of the fun.

AcT^EON, in Natural Hiflory, a fpecies of Scarab.'eus,
or BEETLE, called by Svvamincrdam rhinoceros ; the enema
of Marcgrave ; with a fmooth body, bicorn thorax, the horn
of the head unidentated, with a bifid apex, and fmooth
elytra ; the horns of the thorax are turned forward, and
are conic. It is found in America, and is the largeft. of all
known infefts, except the cancer and monoculus.

Act;eon is alfo a fpecies of papilio, with tricaudated
bluiih wings, black at the apex, and gold-coloured beneath,
with very Imall black fpots.

ACTANIA,iny^ni:;£V!/(?f/55'r(7/^^j;, an ifland mentioned by
Pliny (H. N. torn. i. p. 221.) in the North Sea. Itisfituatcd
to the weft of Holftein and Ditmarfch, not far from the
mouth of the Eyder and Elbe ; and is now called HeyTig-
fand.

ACTE, a<7n, denoted a peninfula. It was alfo a name
given to the fea-coalls about Mount Athos, in which were fix
towns mentioned by Thucydides, lib. iv. p. 302. Ed. Dukeri.

AcTE, in Botany, the ELDi:R-/r«.

ACTIAN Games, Ludi Acllac'i, in Antiquity, folemn
games inftituted, or, according to fome, only reilored by
Auguftus in memory of his vidoiy over Mark Anthony at
AcTiuM. Stephanus (tom. i. p. 56.) and fome others
maintain, that they were held evei-y third year : but the
more common opinion is that of Strabo, who fays (Geog.
tom. i. p. 501.) that they only returned every fifth year,
and were celebrated in honour of Apollo, fince furnaraed
AS'ius, By the way it is a great miftake in fome authors
to imagine, that Virgil infinuates their having been inSi-
tuted by vEneas, from that paffage, jEn. iii. 280.
" Adliaque Iliacis cclcbraraus Lltora ludis."

It is true the poet alludes to the Aftian games; but he
only docs it by way of compliment to Auguftus, to attri-
bute that to tlie hero from whom he defceiidcd, which was
d.;ne by the emperor himfelf, as Servius has obfei-vcd
in loc.

Hence AB'tan years were a feries of years, commenc-
ing from the sera of the battle of Aftium; called the acra
ofAuffuftus. See Epocha.

ACTIAR, in Geography, a town near Bacfizaria, lying
on the weftern fide of the peninfula of Cherfouefus Taurica,
which, in confequence of the convention of 1783 between
the late Emprefs Catharine of Rufiia, and the Grand Sig-
nior, and the cefiion of terrilories by the Turks, was de-
clared a free port, and denominated Sebastopolis.

ACTINE, in Bo!r.r,y, a name of the herb Bunias, or
Napus.

Actine, in Ancient Geography, a town of the Thracian
Bofphorns.

ACTINIA, in Zoology, a genus of the rr.ollufca order
of worms, the charafters of which are, that the body is
rough or wrinkled, furnifticd with eccentric cirri, and with
a fingle terminal aperture, and that it attaciies itfcif by its
bafe to rocks and other fubll;',nces among which it is found.
Of this genus Gmelin, in his edition of tlie Linnrean fyf-
tem, enumerates twenty-three fpecies, which are as follow,
viz. I. A. rufa, of a reddifti colour, with a rofaceous for-
amen and whitifti cim. This is the urlica marina libera of
Ariftotle, the urtiea parva of other authors, the iirlt fpe-i
cies of Hill's Medufa, and of Dicqueman-c's anemone.
It is found in various parts of the ocean and of the Medi-
terranean Sea, adhering to rocks ; of a variable form, iome-
times cylindric; or globular, or conical, and in fome rare
inftaiiccs of a changeable colour : its cirri are whitilh, ^
fltnder, flexible and veiy moveable, fliorter than the diame- ■
ter of the body and truncated at the apex. 2. A. crajft- "^
cornis, of a red colour, with conically extended cin-i, found
in the Atlantic, Mediterranean, Northern, and Icy Seas.
This is the fecond fpecies of Dicquemarre's anemone, the
priapus ruber, and the urtiea rubra of other authors.

3. A. plumoft, with fmall tentacula and a cirrated m.argin.
This is Dicquemaire's fourth fpecies of anemone,, and
called ietti/perai by the Greenlanders. It is found in the
European Ocean, and exhibits a variety of beautiful colours.

4. A.judaica, cylindric, fmooth and truncated; found in
the Mediterranean Sea, and called by the inhabitants o£
Languedoc po/lerol. 5. A. effocta, fub-cylindric and angu-
larly ftriated ; found in the ocean. 6. A. coccinea, varied
with white and red, with cylindric annulated cirri ; found
rarely in the bays of Norway. 7. A. undala, conic and '
whitifli, with duplicate wrinkled yellow ftrix ; found ad-
hering to fuci and milleporx, in the bay of Chriftianfand in
Norway. 8. A. luduala, of a grey colour, with longitudinal
ridges, and white cirri ; the urtiea cincrea of Rondeletius,
fometimes found in the fucus faccharinus in the Norwegian

Sea. 9. A. truncata of a reddifh yellow colour, conical,
fmooth, and pellucid ; the third fpecies of Dicquemarre's
anemone. 10. A. nodofa, wrinkled and furrowed, enlarged
at tlie ends, -with fhort comprefTed crlmfon-colom-ed cirri ;
found on the rocks of the Greenland Sea. 1 1 . A. fpella-
bilis, fmooth and fliy-coloured, with thick cirri fpotted with
white and a radiated foramen ; frequent in the caverns of
rocks on the fliores of Greenland. 12. A. digitata, yellow,
with white points and reddifti cirri, lodged in the fiflTures
of rocks on the ftiores of the Northern Ocean. 13. A.
gigantca, cinereous and greenifli, with a folded fringe much
wider than the body, and grecnifti papilliform tentacula ;
found on the ftiores of the Red Sea, hiding itfelf in the
fandy clay. 14. A. allfa, gelatinous, white and greeniftt,

with

ACT

with fmall papilliform oblong tentacula ; found adhering to
ftones oil tiie Ihorei of the Red Sea. 15. A. viridis,
green and brown, with tentacula of the length of its own
diameter ; found attached to fiibmarine Hones at Alexan-
dria in Egypt, and called by the Arabs knrnjh. 1 6. A
jtr'i.ipus, with a cylindric body, dilated at the bafc, and
fpotted tentacula ; found adhering to teilaceous fifli in the
Red Sea, near the city Ghomfoda.' 17. A. Candida,
fmooth with a wrinkled foramen, and flexuous briftly tenta-
cula ; ranged on the ujiper margui. iH. A..hiconns, imooth,
of an hemifphcric oval iigure. 19. A. volva, with a cylin-
d;ic body plane above, and fix appendices to the orilice ;
found, as well as tlie tv.'o lormer Jpecies, in the Northern
Ocean. 20. A., rnryophylhis, red and brown, with fmall
pcnciliform tentacula; found in the Britilh Sea. 21. A.
iris, with body and tentacula obtufe and cylindric, the ex-
terior red, the interior bluidi, and the centre red. 2i. A.
fifcelhi, with longitudinal ridges tranfverfely llr'atcd, and
cylindric obtufe annulated tentacula ; found, as well as the
former fpecics, in the Norwegian Sea. 23. A. pufilla,
elliptic and fmooth, with a double order of rays, the exterior
of which are black at the apex, about the fize of a large
pea ; found in the ocean about the 57th degree of lati-
tude.

The ait'ima fulcata of Pennant, and ccreus of Solander and
Ellis, which fome fuppofe to be a variety of the A. undala,
is the HYDRA cc7-eus in the Linna;aii fyftem by Gmelin.
Pennant defcribcs it as having a body marked with trifur-
cntcd fulci, and fummit furrounded with long (lender
tentacula, from 120 to 200 in number; the colour of
the body is pale chefnut, and of the tentacula a
fea-green varied with pui-ple ; it is found on the rocks
of the Cornifli and Anglefea feas. The A. peduncu-
liita of Pennant, or A. bellis of Solander and EUis, is the
HYDRA bellis of the Linnrcan fyftem. According to the
defcription of Pennant, it has a long cylindric llalk, ex-
panding at top and tuberculated : the tentacula are difpofed
in feveral ranges, (hort, and when open form a radiated an-
gular circumference, like a beautiful flower, with a fmooth
polygonal dilc ; the colour of the llalk is a fine red, and
that of the tentacula varied with feveral colours. This
fpecies, he fays, is retractile, and inhabits Cornwall. The
A. verrucofa of this author, or A. gemmacea of Solander and
Ellis, is the hydvH). gemmacea of Gmelin's I^inman fyftem.
According to Pennant, it has a long cylindric ftalk, and is
marked with elegant fmall tubercles, difpofed in ftraight lines
from top to bottom ; the circumference of the mouth is
ftriated, furrounded with Ihort petals, like thofe of the fun
flower, and thofe again with white tentacula, barred with
brown. When drawn in, it affumes the form of a bell ; and
the lines of the tubercles converge to the centre of the fum-
mit. Its body is a pale red : it inhabits Cornwall. The
A. pentapetala, or cinquefoil of Pennant, is the A. diatithin
of Ellis, with a circular contraftcd mouth ; the difc divided
into five lobes, covered with feveral feries of ftiort fubu'ated
tentacula, the ftalk fhort and thick ; when contracted it
affumes the torm of a long white fig ; it inhabits the rocks
near Haftings, Suflex. The A. hcmifpherica, or button of
Pennant, is the A. mefy mbryani hemum of Solander and Ellis,
and the hydra mefymbryctrtthemum of the Linnxan lyftem.
It has a fmooth (hort thick ftalk ; the edge of the difc
furrounded with a fingle row of tubercles, the tentacula
numerous and flender ; the colour a dull crimfon ; the body
retraftile, and flinging it-felf into the form of a conoid but-
ton. It inhabits moft of our rocky fliores. Pennant's
Zoology, vol. iv. p. 49, &c. The aftinia have only one
aperture both for the mouth and anus ; they feed on fhell

ACT

and other fmall fidt and marine animalcules, and arc tliem-
ftlves eatable : as they fometimes retiaft and fometimcs ex-
tend their tentacula, in different degrees, tlicir fonn is very-
variable ; the parts that are cut off are renewed ; th'-y arc
acutely fenfible of light, and moft of them are viviparous.
For a farther account of thefe animals, fee anemone, ani-
mal Elowf.r, and Urtica marina. See alfo Holo-
TiiuRiA and Hydra.

ACTINOLITE, in Alincralogy. See Straiilstuin.

ACTION, in a general fenf:, denotes the operation or
exertion of an Arm i; poiver, and \i fynonvmous with act.
Gramn'.arians, however, introduce fome fubtle diiUnftions
between thefe two ter.'.is ; reflricllng the former to ordinary
tranfaciion^, and the latter to thofe which are more fignal,
The former, fay others, relates chiefly to the perfon that
afts, and the latter to the cifciSla produced ; and is therefore
confidered as the attribute of the other : e. g. " PrefoiTC
prefence of mind in nil your ac'ions ; and take care that
they be all n:"s of equity." Some fchoolmen attempt to
exprcfs tlie nature of a.'^ion by a manifeftation of the power
or energy of a fubftar.ce, made either within or witiiout it.
— Accordingly it is controverted among tiieni, whctlier or
not a£Hoii, thus taken, be a thing diftinft both from the
agent, and the term or efTeft. The mod'rJIs ftand for the
affirmative, and the nominalijli aft'ert the negative. Thefe
latter obfcrve, that the aftion may be confidered two wayst
entitati'oely and connolalively. In the former fenfc it is what
we call a causk, or what mav act : and in the latter, it is
the fame caufe, only confidered as acting, or connoting the
eftect it produces.

Actions are divided with refpeft to their principle, into
UNI vocal, where the effect is of the fame kind with the
caufe ; as the production of man by man ; and fquivocal,
where it is different, as the fuppofed produCtion of frogs by
the fun : — and again into vital ; as nutrition, rcfpiration,
the aCtion of the heart, &c. and not-vital, as heating.

With refpeCt to their fubjeCt, aCtions are divided into in-
MANENT ; which are received within the agent that pro«-
duced them ; as are vital aCtions, cogitation, &:c. and tran-
sient, which pafs into another, as a father loves his foil,
and feeds and clothes him, &c. ACtions are alfo naliiral, as
fire hardens clay ; fiipernatural, as railing the dead ; volun-
tary, as the potter's moulding his clay ; and accidental, as a
perfon's heedlefsly dropping a glafs and breaking it ; ncccf-
fary, as the fun warms the earth ; and free, whai a perfon
chufes what food he likes, and eats it when he pleafes.
See liberty and necessity.

In refpeCt of duration, aCtions are again divided into in-
stantaneous, where the whole cffett is produced in the
fame moment, as the creation of light; and successive,
whore the effeCt is produced by degrees ; as coiTuption, fer-
mentation, putrefaClion, diflolution, &c.

Action, in Phyfwlogy, is apphed to the aCtions or func-
tions of the body, which are divided into the vital, na/nral,
and animal. The vitcd are fnch as are eflential to the fub-
fiftence of the individual ; fuch are the motions of the heart
and lungs, the fecretion of fpirits in the cerebellum, on
which the motions of the heart and lungs depend ; and the
circulation of the blood and fluids in tiieir proper veflels.
Pulfalion and rcfpiration are the external figns of life.

The natural aCtions are fuch as arc neceffarj' to the con-
tinuance of the animal, but not fo immediately, but that it
may fubull fome time under a fufpenfion ot them ; as the
digellion of the aliment, and its convtrfion into blood.

Under animal aCtions are comprehended thofe which

conftitute the fenfes of touch, tafte, fmell, vifion, hearing,

perception, imaginRtion, memory, judgment, ratiocination,

A a 2 affections

ACT

affctflions of the mind, auj voluntary motion ; which arc not
abfoluttly luccflar)- to the life of the animal, but conducive
to its comfortable exillei.ce.

In the year 1752, Dr. ^Vhite publifhcd an ingenious
performance, under the title of an Efiay on the vital and
other voluntary Motions of Animals, 8vo. ; and in the fame
year Dr. Simpfon alfo publilhtd a book on X'ital and Ani-
mal Anions, 8vo.

j\cTiON, in Mechanics, denotes cither the effort which
one body or power exerts againll another, or the cffctt re-
fultlng from fuch effort : or more accurately, the motwn
which a body really produces, or tends to produce, in an-
otlicr. The aftion of a body becomes apparent only by
its motion ; and we cannot affix any prccife idea to the
term action than that either of adtual motion, or a iimple
tendency to motion. 1-eibnitz and his difciples.for want of
dulv attending to the proper and difcriminating idea ot the
word aftion, have perplexed themfelves and others with up-
profitable and indecifive difputes coixerning vis vivn, and
vis mortua. Kee FoRCt.

The Cartefians refolve all phyfical aftion into metaphyli-
cal. According to them, bodies do not acl upon one an-
other ; but the action proceeds immediately from the Deity:
the motions of bodies, which fecm to be the caufe, being-
only the occafions of it. See Qccaficncl cause. Action is
either inilantancous or continued ; that is, either by per.*-.
culHon, or by preffure. Thefe two forts ol aihlion are hetero-
geneous quantities, and are not capable of mutual compa-
rifon any more than a line can be compared v.ith a furface,
or a furface with a folid. The leall degree of percuiTion
mav be made to overcome the preffure of the greateil
weight. Thefe aftions, therefore, cannot be nieafured one
by the other ; but each of them muft liave a meafure of its
own kind, as fohds are meafured by iolids, and iurfaces by
farfaces ; becaufe time is concerned in the one, but not in
the other.

It is one of the laws of nature, that aftion and re-aftion,
are always equal, and contrary to each other.

If a body be urged by equal and contrary aftions, it will
remain at reft. But if one of thefe aftions be greater than
its oppofite, motion will enfue towards the parts lead
urged.

it is to be obferved, that the aftions of bodies on each
other, in a fpace that is carried uniformly forward, are the
fame as if the fpace were at reft ; and any powers or forces
that aft upon all bodies, fo as to produce equal velocities in
them in the fame, or in parallel right lines, have no effedl
on the mutual actions, or relative motions. Thus the mo-
tions of bodies on board a fhip, that ij earned fteadily and
uniformly forward, are performed in tlie fame manner as if
the fhip were at reft. The motion of the earth round its
axis has no effect on the aftions of bodies and agents at its
fui-face, except fo far as it is not uniform and reftilincal.
In general, the aftions of bodies upon each other depend
not upon their absolute, but ielative motion.

For the adlions of powers, fee Friction, Force, Me-
chanics, Motion, Power, and Resistance. For the
laws of the aftlon of fluids, &c. fee Fluid, and Specific
Gravity.

Action, quantity of, in Mechanics, an espreffion ufed by
M. de Maupertuis, in the Mem. of the Acad, of Sciences
of Paris for 1744, and in thofe of Berlin, for 1746, to de-
note the continual produft of the mafs of a body, by the
fpace through which it runs, and by its celerity. He lays
it down as a general principle, that, " whenever any changes
happen in nature, the quantity of aftion neceffaiyto produce
this change is always the leaft. pofTjbk." And this, h? lays.

ACT

is a law indicating the higheft wifdom. This principle he
applies to the inveftigation of the Jaws of refraction, the
laws of the collifion of liard and elaftic bodies, and even the
laws of reft, as he calls them, that is of the equilibrium or
equipollency of prefTuivs ; aiid, thus inveftigating the laws
of motion, referring thefe and the laws ol equilibrium to the
fame p.-inciple, and connecling the metaphyfical confidei-a-
tion of iinj caufes with thi^ fundamental doflrines of me-
chanics, he deduces what he conceives to be a ftronger
proof of the exiftcncc of a Deity, or of a firft intelligent
caufe, than the other argumenttocommoaly alledged, and
derived from the oit^BI" of nature.

It may be obfer^jed, however, that the quantity of ailion,
according to the definition of M. de Maupertuis, is in
reality the fame with the produft of the mafs into the
fquarc of the celerity, when the fpace palled over is equal
to that by which the celerity is meafured ; and therefore
the force or quantity of m.otion will be proportional to the
mafs multiplied by the fquare of the velocity ; fince the
fpace is ir.eafiu'^ by the \elocity continued for a certain
time.

In the fame year that Maupertuis communicated his
principle, ProfefTor Euler alfo demonftrated, in the fupple-
meiit to a trcatife intitled Trietboclus inveiiiendi Lineas curvas
maximi I'el minimi proprietate gaudentes ; that in the tra-
jeftories defcribed by bodies urged by central forces, the ve-
locity multiphed by what the foreign mathematicians call
the element of the curve, is always a >;:iii:mitm ; which
Maupertuis confidered as an application of his principle to
the motion of the planets. For the manner in which this
principle of a minimum may be deduced from the Newtonian
theoiy of refraction ; fee Refraction.

Action, in Ethics, or moral Action, is a voluntary
motion of a creature capable of diflinguiihing good and
evil ; whofe effecft, therefore, may be juftly imputed to
the agent.

A mo)-al aBion may be more fully defined to be whatever
a man, confidered as endued with the powers of underftand-
ing and willing, with refpe£l to the end he ought to aim at,
and the rule he is to regard in acting, refolves, thinks, does,
or even omits to do ; in fuch a manner as to become ac-
countable vfor v>hat is thus done or omitted, and the confe-
quences thereof.

In the ftrict philofophical fenfc, fays Dr. Reid (Effays on
the Active Powers of Man, p. 97) nothing can be called
the attion of a man, but what he pievioully conceived, and
willed or determined to do. In morals the word is com-
monly employed in this fenfe, nor is any thing imputed to-
a man as his doing, in which his will was not interpofed.

The foundation, then, of the morality of aftions is, that
they are done knowingly and voluntarily : and all morai
aftions may be divided, with refpeft to the rule, into good
and evil.

But when moral imputation is not concerned, many things
are called the aftions of a man, which he previoufly neither
conceived nor willed. Hence the aftions of men have been
diftinguiflied into three clafTes, the voluntary, the involun-
tary, and the mixed. By the laft are meant fuch aftions as-
are under the command of the will, but are commonly per-
formed without any intei-pofition of the will. See Active
Poiuer, Motive, Principles of ylclioa. and Virtue.

Action, in Oratory, is an accommodation of the perfon
of the orator to his fubjeft ; or, a management of the coun-
tenance, voice, and gelture, fuited to the matter fpoken or
delivered.

Aftion makes one of the greateft branches or divifions of
rhetoric. The ancients ufually call it pronunciation.

AftioH

ACT

ACT

A£lion is'a coHaterr.! cr fecondary mctluH! of exprcfTing our
ideas ; and is fulcfptible of a kind of eloquence as well as the
priman-. In the infancy of Language, when words were
tew, or not eafily conneifled, men would naturally recur to
aftion for explauiing and expreffing their conceptions ; and
they would labour to make themfelvcs underftood, by vary-
ing their tones of voice, and accompanying their tones with
the mod fignilicant gefticulations. At this day, when
perfons fpeak in a language which they pofTcfs iniperfcftly,
they have reco'.irfe to all thefe fupplemental methods, in
order to render themfelves more intelligible. Eefidcs, in
the giadual imp-.'cvement ;ii!d extenfion of language, a warm
imagination would introduce into diftourfe a variety of
tones, and a conliderable degree of aftion. Thus Dr. War-
burton accounts for fo much fpraking liy aftion, as we find
among the Old Ttllamer.t prophets. Among the northern
American tribes certain motions and aftions are adopted in
order to explain their meaning on all great occalions of in-
tercourfe with one another. The Cliincfe find it ifittj^eafy
to exprefs different ideas by a variety of Jones tlian to*<:on-
trive words for all their ideas. The Greek aiid Roman
'languages alfo were pronounced with more numerous in-
flexions of voice, and more animated geftures than any to
which we are accuftomcd. Accordingly we find, that
action was treated of by all the ancient critics, as the chief
quality in every public fpeaker ; and the orators and players'*
of Greece and Rome were diilinguiflied by the vehemence
of their a(!;tion. This is, in all cafes, an addrefs to the ex-
ternal fenfes ; which it endeavours to move, and bring into
its party by well-concerted motion and modulation ; at the
fame time that the reafon and underftanding are attacked by
force of argument. Accordingly, Tully very pertinently
calls it fcrmo corporis, the dijcaiirfe of the hoHy ; and corporis
eloquent'l.i, the eloquence of the body. — The Roman mimes and
pantomimes, we read, had fucli a eompafs even of mute
aftion, that voice and language feemed ufelefs to them :
they could make themfelves underftood to people of all
nations ; and Rofcius, the comedian, is particularly famed,
as being able to exprefs any fentence by his gellures, as
fignificantly and variouHy as Cicero with all his oratory.
Quinftihan gives us a fyflem of the rules of aftion ; taken
not only from the writings of the ancient orators, but from
the bell examples of the forum.

What we ufiially attribute to eloquence, was really the
efieft of the aftion only, as fome of the greateft mailers in
that way have frankly acknowledged. — Demofihenes ex-
pressly Calls it, ' the beginning, the middle, and the end of
' the orator's office ;' and Cicero profeffes, that it is not of
• fo much importance what the orator fays, as how he
' fays it.'

The Greeks, who were attentive to multiply the means of
influencing the pafTions, omitted nothing which might bring
to perfeftion this firfl language of Nature. Poeti-y and
mufic were always fupported by the aftion of the performers.
This aftion, which was acquired by a kind of dance that
regulated the motions and different inflexions of the body,
animated the difcourfes of their orators, and fomctimes the
leffonsof their philofophers. See Plut. in Demofl;h. torn. i.
p. 851. Ed. Xyland. Id. in x. Rhet. Vit. tom. ii. p. 845.
Plato de leg. 1. vii. tom. ii. p. 816. Ed. Serrani. Athen,
Deipn. 1. i. c. 17. p. 21. Ed. Cafaub.

After all, it is a point that will bear being controverted,
whether aftion ought to be praftifed and encotiraged at
all ? A thing that has fo much command over mankind, it is
certain, muft be very dangerous ; fince it is capable of being
turned to our difadvantage as well as to our advantage. It
is putting a weapon in the hands of another, whichj if he

pleafts, he may make ufe of to fubdue and enfl.ivc us ; and
accordingly, .hiftory is full of the pernicious ufes made of it.
— For this reafon, eloquence and aftion have been unduly
difcouraged by modern policy ; and both the bar and the
pulpit have been brought to a more frigid way of deliverv.

But this is an extreme, wiiicli no objcftion four.ded on
the abufc of eloquence accompanied with aftion, and no ap-
prehcnfion of its pernicious ellcfts, can juftify. The bcnc;its
accruing from it amply counterbalance the mifchief which
it is capable of producing.

Perhaps the foundation of all aftion may be vicious and
immoral. — Voice av.d geflure, we know, will afl^tft bruUs ;
not as they have reafon, but as they have paffions ; fo far as
thefe are ufed in a difcourfe, therefore, it does not regard uu
aflembly of men more than it would a herd of quadrupeds :
tliut is, their whole eiFort is fpent, not on the rational facul-
ties, which are out of llie quedion, but on the animal ones,
which alone they endeavour to poflefs and aftuate, inde-
pendently of reaion. — Nay more, our reafon, and the judg-
ment itfclf, are intended to be biaflcd and inclined by them;
aftion being only ufed us an indireft way of coming at the
reafon, where a direft and immediate one was wanting ; i. e.
where the judgment cannot be taken by the proper means,
argument, it is to be taken indirectly by circuition and
llratagem.

The natural order of things, then, is here inverted ; our
reafon, which ftioula^go before and direft our paffions, is
dragged after them : inflead of coolly confidering, and
taking cognizance of things ; and according to what wc
perceive therein, raifing ourfelves to the paffions of grief,
indignation, ^r the like, we are attacked the other way ;
the impreffion is to be earned backwards, by virtue of the
natural connedtion there is between the reafon and the paf-
fions : and thus the helm, ths principle of our aftions, is
taken out of our own hand and given to another. See
Passion.

The cafe is much the fame here as in fenfation and ima-
gination : the natural and regular way of arriving at the
knowledge of objefts is by fenfe ; an inipreflion begun there
is tranfmittcd to the imagination, where the image is pro-
duced, fimilar to that which fiill llruck on the organ. — But
the procefs is fomctimes inverted : in hypocliondriac, lunatic,
and other delirious cafes, the image is firft excited in the
imagination ; and the impreffion thereof communicated back
to the organs of fenfe : lay which means objefts are feen
which have no exiftcncc.

Upon the whole, aftion does not tend to give the mind
any information about the fubjeft that is difeuffed ; nor is
it defigned to convey any arguments or ideas which the
fimple ufe of language would not convey. But is it not
that upon which we (hould form our judgments ? And can
any thing help us to form a jud judgment, befide that which
in fome way or other enlightens and convinces our undcr-
flanding ? When Cicero made Cxfar tremble, turn pale,
and let fiill his papers, he did not apprite him of any new
fuilt which Ciefar did not knmv of: the effect had no de-
pendance on Crefar's underftanding ; nor was it any thing
more than might have been produced by the unmeaning
founds of a mufical inftrument duly applied. However,
aftion may be ufeful in awakening and fixing the attention,
provided that it be accompanied with fuit.ible argument and
addrefs. As there is no nation, nor hardly any perton, fo
phlegmatic and dellitute of feeling, as not to accompany
their words with fome aftions and gefticulations, whenever
they are much in earneft, it would be unnatural in a public
fpeaker, and inconfiftent with that earneftnefs and ardour
which he ought to manifcft in all affairs of moment, to re-

niiun

ACT

ACT

main quite unmoved in his outward appearance : ami to let
tlic words drop from liis mouth without any cxprofTion ut
meaning, or w.irmth in liis gcllurcs. There is a coldnefs of
di-!iverj' as well as of compofition, which fhould be lludi-
oiidy avoided. Atlion, properly conduced, gives to the
fpcaker in tlie fenate, at the bar, and in the pulpit, veiy
great advantage in enforcing hio argument and impreffing an
audience. See Gesture.

Actios, in a theatrical fcnfe, is nearly the fame with
that among orators, vvitii this difRrence, that the attor
adapts his adion to an affumed character, whereas the orator
is fuppofed, in reality, to feel the patTion which his adion
cxpreffes, whether joy, or grief. Sec. vSee Declamation.
Action, in Paitiy, is an event, either real or imaginaiy,
which makes tlie fubjecl of an epic or dramatic poem. This,
fays Ariftotle (De Poet. cap. vi. p. 637,) is the foul of
tragedy. The aftion of a poem coincides nearly with the
fable thereof ; it being the ufual pradice not to take any
real tranfadion of hilloiy, but to feign or invent one ;
or at lead to alter the hiftorlcal fad, fo as to render it in
» good meafure iiditious. Critics coniidcr the principal
adion, commonly called the fable, and the incidental
adion or episode.

F. Boffu has two chapters, Of real aa'wn, the recitals
whereof are fables: and Of feigned aB'ions , the recitals whereof
are hiftorlcal.

The critics lay down four qualifications as necefTaiy to
the epic and tragic adion : the firil, unity; the fecond,
integrity; the third, importance; and the fourth,
DURATION ; to which fome add a fifth, viz. continuity.
Dr. Blair fpecifies three properties, which are efTential to
the adion or fubjed of an epic poem. It mull be one, great
and inlereftlng.

Ariftotle infifts upon unity, as effential to epic poetry ;
and he obferves, that, in order to render this unity more
fenGble to the imagination, and thus to give it a better
effed, it is not fufficient for the poet to confine hiinfelf to
the adions of one man, or to thofe which Iiappened during a
certain period of time ; but the unity muft lie in the fub-
jed itfelf, and arife from all the parts combining into one
whole. This unity of adion is fufficiently apparent in all
the great epic poems. Thus, Virgil has chofcn for his fub-
jed the eliabhftiment of jEneas in Italy, which he keeps
conftantly in view, and which ferves to conned all the parts.
The unity of the Odyffey is of the fame nature ; the return
and re-eftablidiment of UlyfTes in his own countiy. The
fubjed of Tafib is the recovery of Jerufalem from the In-
fidels ; that of Milton, the expulfion of our firft parents
from paradife ; and both of them are unexceptionable in the
Tinity of the ftor)-. The anger of Achilles, with its con-
fequences, is the profcfted uibied of the Iliad , hut, as
Achilles is in many books of the poem kept out of fight,
and the fancy terminates on no other objed than the fuccefs
of the two armies that are feen contending in war, the
unity is not fo fenfible to the imagination as in the jEneid.
This unity of the epic adion does not exclude all episodes,
or fubordinate adions. Moreover, the unity of the epic
adion neceffarily fuppofes, that the adion be entire and
complete ; or, as Ariftotle expreffes it, that it fhould have a
beginning, middle, and end. — If the three parts of a whole
fecm to be generally denoted by the words, beginning, midtlle,
^nd end, Boffu interprets them more exprefsly, thus : the
caufes and defigns of a man's doing an adion are the be-
ginning ; the eneds of thofe caufes, and the difficulties oc-
curring in the execution of thofe defigns, are the middle of
it ; and the unravelling and extricating of thofe difficulties,
are the end of the adion.

The poet, fays BofTu, fliould fo begin his adion, that, on
one hand, nothing fliould be farther wanting for the under-
(landing of what he afterwards delivers ; and, on the other,
that what thus begins require after it a neced'ary confequcnce.
The end is to be conduded after the like manner, only with
the two conditions tranfpofed, fo that nothing be ex-
peded after it ; and that what ends the poem be a neceffary
confequcnce of fomethiag that went before it. Laftly, the
beginning is to be joined to the end by a middle, wiilcli is
tile efl'cd of fomething that went before it, and the caufe
of what follov.'s.

In the caufes of an adion, one may obfervc two oppofitc
defigns ; the firft and principal is that of the hero ; the fe-
cond comprehends all the defigns of thofe who oppofe the
pretenfions of the hero. Thel'e oppofitc caufes do all pro-
duce oppofite effeds, viz. the endeavours of the hero to ac-
complilh his defign, and the endeavours of thofe who are
againft it. — As the caufes and defigns are the beginning of
the adion, fo thofe contrary endeavours are the middle of it,
and form a difficulty, plot, or intrigue, which makes the
greateft part of the poem ; and the folution or clearing up
of this difficulty makes the unravelling.

The unravelling of the plot, or intrigue, may happen two
ways ; either with a difcoveiy or without.

The feveral eff'tds which the uiiravelUng produces, and
the different ftates to which it reduces the perfiins, divide the
adion into fo many kinds. — If it change the fortune of tlie
principal peifon, it is faid to be with a peripetia ; and the
adion is denominated implex, or mixed ; if there be no peri-
petia, but the unravelling be a mere palling from trouble to
repofe, the adion is fimple. It has been debated among
critics, whether the clofe of the adion in an epic poem ftiould
be alw ays profperous or not ? The general opinion and the
general praclice are on the fide of a prolperous conclufion. But
there are fome exceptions. Luean and Milton, two authors
of great note, have purfued a contrary courfe : the one con-
cluding with the fubverfion of the Roman liberty ; the
other with the expulfion of man from paradife.

Another property of the epic adion is, that it be great,
or fufficiently fplendid and important both to fix our atten-
tion, and to jullify the magnificent apparatus which the poet
bellows upon it. One eircumftance that contributes to the
grandeur )f the adion is, that it be not of a modern date.
Antiquity is favourable to thole high ideas, which epic
poetry is defigned to excite and cherilh. Lucan and Vol-
taire have, in the choice of their fubjeds, tranfgreffed this
rule. As the adion is rendered important, fays Boffu, by-
giving a higher idea of the perfonages that are introduced
than any the readers can conceive from comparing them
with thofe of the prefent time, and where heroifm, fays
Dr. Blair, is the ground-work, and where the objed in view
is to excite admiration, ancient or traditionary hiftoiy is cer-
tainly the fafeft region. The diftance of the period, or the
remotenefs of the fcene, affords fufficient licence for fidion
and invention. The importance of the adion much de-
pends on the dignity and importance of the perfons con-
cerned in it. Thus, the fame of Homer's heroes, and the
confequences of their diffenfion, furnifti a fubjed important
in itfelf, and particularly important to his countrymen, who
valued themfelres on their defcent from thefe heroes. The
importance of the adion itfelf fhould alfo be regarded.
In this refped, the fubjed of the jEneid is greater than that
of the Iliad, as it is the foundation of the moft powerful
empire that ever was ellablllhed on the globe : which is an
event of much greater moment than the deftrudion of a
city, or the anger of a wan-ior. But in comparifon of the
greatnefs difplayed in Faradife Loft, all other grcatncfs,

fay*

ACT

ACT

fays Dr. Jolinfon, in his Life of Milton, (Tirliilcs away.
The fubjciit of the Enghlh poet is not the deftrudioii of a
city, the conduft of a colony, or the fonndation of an em-
pire : it is the fate of worlds ; the revolutions of heaven and
earth ; rebellion ajruinll the Snpreme Kinp;, raifed hy the
highell order of created beings ; the overthrow of their hod,
and the pmsifliment of their crinie ; the creation of a new
race of reafonable creatures ; their original happinefs and
innocence, their iorfeiture of immortality, and their rellora-
tion to hope and peace. •

Another property required in the aftion of an epic poem
is, that it be interefting. The fubjeft lliould intereil the
pubhc ; and therefore the poet Ihould fcleft for his hero,
one who is the foundei-, or deliverer, or favourite of his
nation ; and he fhould direct the attention to atchievements
that have been highly celebrated, or that liave been con-
nefled with important confeqtiences to the public caufe.
But more than this, in the management of his fubjeCl, he
Ihi^uld contrive to intereft not one age or countr)-, but all
re'.idefs, by concerting his plan fo as to comprehend many
afFefting- incidents. He may fometimes be awful and au-
guil ; he mull often be tender and pathetic ; and he mull
give us many pleafing fcenes of love, friend'hip, and affec-
tion : the more an epic poem abounds with lituations which
awaken the feelings of humanity, the more interefting it is ;
and thefe form, always, the favourite paftages of the work.
No epic poets have been fo happy in this rcfpeft as Virgil
and TalTo. It is needlefs to mention, that the fubjeC^ of
the Paradife I^oft is more univerfally interefting tlun that of
any other poem. The charafter of the heroes ferves alfo,
as we have already obferved,to render the aftion interefting.
As to the duration of the epic aftion, Ariftotle obferves
(De Poet. cap. v. p. 656.) it is not fo hmited as that of the
tragic aftion : the latter i: confined to a natural day ; but
the epopee, according to that critic, has no fixed time. — In
effeft, tragedy being full of pafTion, and confequently of
violence, which cannot be fuppofed to laft long, requires a
ihorter time ; and the epic poem, being for the habits which
proceed more flowly, requires a longer time, cither for them
to take hold, or to be rooted up ; and hence the difference
between the epic and dramatic action in point of duration.
Bofiu lays it down as a rule, that the more vehement the
manners of the principal pcrfonages are, the lefs time ought
the action to laft : accordingly, the aftion of the Iliad,
which is formed upon the wrath of Achilles, &c. lafts no
longer than forty-feven days ; whereas that of the OdyfTcy,
where prudence is the reigning quality, computed from the
taking of Troy to the peace of Ithaca, extends to eight
years and a half; and that of the JEne'id, where the pre-
vailing charafter of the hero is piety and mildnefs, com-
puted from the taking of Troy to the death of Turnus,
includes about fix years.

But if we eftimate the period only of the poet's own
narration, or compute from the time in which the hero
makes his firft appearance till the conclufion, the duration
of both thefe latt poems is brought within a much fmaller
compafs. The Odyffey, beginning with Ulyffes in the
ifland of Calypfo, comprehends fifty-eight days only ; and
the iEncid, beginning with the ftorm, which throws jEneas
wpon the coaft of Africa,- is reckoned to include, at the moft,
a year and fome months. See Blair's Left, on Rhetoric,
&c. vol. iii. p. 211 — 221.

Act I O.N is alfo ufed in Painting and Sculpture for the
pofture of a figure, or the attitude it is fuppofed to be in ;
exprefled by the pofition of feveral parts of the body, or by
the paifions appearing in the face. Thus we fay, the aftion
of fueh a figure finely exprelTes the paffions by which it is

agitated. The fame cxprcfPion is applied to animals.
Wiien the word aclion is iiftd by way of dillinftion from
iiliiluilf, it may have relptft to the ligure's being repre-
fented in motion, as running, jumping, ftriking, tailing, &:c.
which the painter dilliuguilhcs from fuch as are at reft, by
removing from the centre the imaginai-y line of gravity
uied in balancing his figures to lome diftancc, before, behind,
or on one fide, according to the degree of motion which ho
means to cxpreis. It is evident, that if a man be runiimg,
and we view him fideways, his head and chell will be thrown
as much before his feet, as immediately to fuggell the idea
of his falling on his face, unlefs the hinder leg be quickly
brought forward to prevent it. Sec Aititude and
Gravity.

M. ^Vatelet, after obfcrving that, however terms may
refemble (nie another in fignilleation, there are none which
are perfectly fynonymous, proceeds to afccrtain the differ-
ence between aflion, tnotion, and fxpre/Jion, as applied to
painting or fculpture. To this purpole he remarks, that
there are paffions, or rather fenfations, which, though tluy
immediately produce neither aftion nor motion, have their
charafteriilic exprefilons. Of this kind are dcjeftion, vo-
luptuoufnels, and melancholy ; the cxprefTion of which, being
pafilve, arreft motion, and fufpend action in thofe who arc
under their influence. On the other hand, figures that are
engaged in any violent bodily exertion may be faid to have
motion and aftion ; though they are not atfefted by thofe
paffions, to the external tokens of which the term expreHion
is peculiarly adapted.

Aftion, he farther obferves, requires a motion of fome
parts of a figure, without fnppofing that the whole changes
its place, which is the idea fuggeited by the term motion.
Thefe diftinftions are illuftrated by appropriate examples.
He fuppofes a pifture of what is commonly called the
judgment of Solomon, in which the monarch is reprefented
feated on his throne, and extending his arm to command the
divifion of the infant. Such a figure, even though the face
were concealed, ought, in confequence of this gefture, to
be faid to have aftion ; and yet it could not with equal ac-
curacy be affirmed to have motion. Again : fuppofe a
woman reprefented as rulhing forward to feparate two com-
batants, every part of her appears to concur towards the
precipitance of her courfe, and is drawn in that pofition
which is requifite to the immediate effeft of her intention ;
fo that the beholders ane ready to imagine that they fee her
change her place : fuch a figure may be more properly faid
to have motion than aftion. Watelet's and Levefquc's
Dift. des Arts de Peinture, Sculpture et Gravure, art.
jiaion.

Action of the Mouth, in the Manege, denotes the agi-
tation of a horfe's tongue, and mandible, or his champing
on the bit ; which produces a white foam. — This, with the
riding-mafters, is efteemed not only a fign of health, vigour,
and mettle ; but alfo of a fenfible mouth. — This aftion is
likewife fuppofed produftive of a good month, whence
various means are made ufe of to keep a horfe conftantly
champing. Some perfons put a large bit with feveral de-
tached moveable parts, called a flavering-bit, into his mouth
two hours before riding, and then turning his tail to the
manger faften him between the ftall-pofts ; others make
ufe of a fimilar bit in common, and mofl perfons ufe it for
his watering exercife. — There can be no doubt that this
aftion tends to keep the mouth fenfible and alive, as it is
termed, efpecially when accompanied witii a judicious bridle-
hand upon a horfe : but it muft be recoUefted that the bars
of a horfe's mouth are covered with cuticle or epidermis,
which is the outer infenfible ikin of other parts, the natui-e of

whiijh

A C T

which is to thicken upon picfTui-e ; therefo/e tlie flaveving-
bit put on fo long before ridnirj, though it nn\- give tempo-
vary fenlibjlity, mull conduce to permanent iiartlnef^;.

Action, in the Military ylrl, is an esgagemi;nt be-
tween two armies, or between different bodies of troops be-
lonffing to them. Ahhough humanity and found policy
will induce the general of an army to avoid an adion, when
no conliderable benefit is likely to accnic from it, yet there
are <:ertain circumllances that will dired him in the alter-
native either of commencing or avoiding it. Wildom will
fugged the importance of bringing the enemy to an imme-
diate aftion, when it will ferve to prevent the junction of
his forces ; to difcourage the hollile declaiatlon of a neutral
power ; when any advantage may be obtained by the dit-
union of his forces ; when there is reafon for apprehending
the inconftancy or aiSlual withdrawment of allies ; when
defertion, on account of an cxilling or impending fcarcity
of money, or of the means of fubllllence, is dreaded ; when
new allies may be thus gained, or ihofe of the enemy may be
induced to abandon him ; and when a reafonable profpect
occurs of fecuring a prcfcnt advantage, without riilcing any
lofs or injury that fhall in the event more than counter-
balance it. The commencement of an adtion, when it is
defn-able, may be expedited by threatening, or aftually be-
lieving a port or place, which is of importance to the
enemy ; by attempting to relieve and fuccour a place that
is befieged ; by ravaging and laying wafte the country ; by
prefenting the allurement of booty ; by depriving the
enemy of forage or water ; by exhibiting the appearance of
an untenable port, or of a feeble force ; and by feigning fear,
the diminution of forces, the diforder of retrenchments, or a
defertion of part of the army, or prevailing difcontent
and a difpofition to mutiny, or orders not to engage.
The motives which > ill induce a prudent general to avoid
to begin an action are fuch as thefe ; the defeft or the
diftance of his refources, the profpeft of frerti fupplies, the
dread of defection, the augmentation of the enemy's allies,
the difadvantage of ground, polition, number, &c. want,
difeafe, and defertion in the oppofing army, adlual nego-
tiations, or pofitive orders not to hazard an engagement.
The means of avoiding an aftion are the choice of polls and
retrenchments, well concerted and well executed ftratagems,
the devaftation of the country through which the hoftile
anny muft pnrfue that which is retreating, and from which
it muil draw fome of its fupphes; any movements that would
caufe a diverfion, real or feigned negotiations, report of
approaching fuccour, and the appesrance of confiderable
force. Thefe various circumftances are detailed at large,
and illuftrated by appofite examples felefted from the con-
duft of the moft able commanders, both ancient and mo-
dern, in the Encyclopedie, vol. x. or vol. i. Art. Militaiix.
Art. Action.

This term is likewife ufed to fignify fome memorable aft
done by an officer, or commander of a body of troops.

Action, in Law, is a right of demanding, and pur-
fuing in a courtof judicature, what is any man's due.

Or, affton is any kind of process or suit which a perfon
enters for the recovery of his right. See Cause.

^clions are divided, by Juftiiiian, into two different kinds :
real, or thofe againll the thing ; and perfonal, or thofe
againft the perfon. — For whoever brings an aftion, either
does it againll one obnoxious to him, in refpeft either of
contradl or offence ; in which cafe arife aftions againll the
perfon which require the party to do, or give fomething :
or, he does it againll one not obnoxious, yet with whom a
controverfy is arifen touching fome matter ; as if Caius hold
a field which Julius claims as his property, and brings his

ACT

aftion for the fame. See the Inftitut. lia. iv. tit. 4. wh-e
the principal anions, introduced by the Roman law, are
fummarily explained.

In common law, from the two claffes of real ^ni perfonal
anions, arifes a tiiirci called a mixed aSion ; which regards
both the perfon and tiie thin^^.

Action, real, or, as it is called in the Mirvov, feudal'
aPion, is that which concerns real property, whereby the
defendant claims title to lands or tenements, rents or com-
mons, in fee-fimple, fee-tail, or for life : and thefe aftions
are either anceflrd, or poffcffory. Ancejlrel aflion is that'
which we have by fome right deicending from our anceftar. —
PoJfeJTiry, fometimes alfo called /rr/in^r/aftion, is that which
hath its beginning in and from ourfelves.

But real aftions, formerly fo numerous and confiderable,
as writs of right, of entry, &c. with their appendages as grand
cape, pet:: cape, receipt, view, aid-prayer, voucher, counter-
plea of voucher, counter-plea of wan-antry, and recovery of
value, ar.; nov^ much out of ufe ; on account of the great
nicety required in the management of them, and the incon-
venient length of their procels : a much more expeditious
method of trying titles being iince introduced in other atlions,
perfonal and mixed. In a real aition leveral lands held by
ieveral titles may not be demanded in the fame writ ; but in
perfonal adlion feveral wrongs may be comprehended in one
writ. A bar is perpetual in the latter aftions, and the
plaintiff has no remedy, except by writ of enor or attaint ;
but, in the former, if the defendant be baired, he may
commence an aftion of a higher nature, and try the fame
again.

Action, perfonal, is that whereby a man claims a debt,
or perfonal duty, or damages in lieu thereof ; and likewife,
whereby a man claims a fatisfaftion in damages for fome
injury done to his perfon or property. The former is fald
to be founded on contraft ; the latter upon torts or wrongs.
Of the former nature are all aftions upon debt or promifes ;
of the latter all aftions for trefpaffes, nuiffances, affaults, de-
famatory words, and the like.

Many perfonal aftions die with the perfon ; but real
aftions furvive. In all aftions merely perfonal, arifing ex
deliHo, for wrongs aftually done by the defendant, as trel-
pafs, battery, and flander, the aftion dies with the perfon.
But in aftions arifing ^.v contraSu, by breach of promife and
the hke, though the fuits fhall abate by the death of the
parties, they may be revived by or againft the executors
who have affets to anfwer the demand ; as they are rather
aftions againll the property than the perfon.

Action, mixed, is that laid indifferently for the thing de-
tained, or againft the perfon of the detainer ; being thus
called, becaufe it has a mixed refpeft, both to the thin^, and
to the perfon.

Others better define it, a fuit given bylaw to recover the
thing demanded^ and damages for the wrong done.

Such is, affize of novel diffeifm, which, if the diffeifor
make a feoffment to another, the diffeifee (hall have againft
the diffeifor, and the feoffee, or other terre-tenant, to re-
cover not only the land but damages alfo. And the like
is aftion of waste, ^tare impedit, &c. See Assise.

Aftions are alfo divided into civil and criminal.

Action, ci-vil, is that which only tends to the recovery
of what, by reafon of a contraft, or other hke caufe, is a
man's due. — As, if a perfon by aftion feek to recover a fum
of money formerly lent, &c.

Action, criminal, is that the objeft of which is judgment
of death, as appeals of death, robbery, &c. or judgment for
damage to the party, fine to the king and imprifonment, as
appeals of maihera, &c. To this clafs belongs aftion penal.

Action,

ACT

AcTioK, penal, aims nt iome penalty upon the party
fiicd, either coiporeal or pecuniary.
, Sucli is the Aaio I^fi^is jlquiliie, in the Ck'd J.aiv ; and

with us, the next friends of a man felonioufly flain, or
wounded, ihall purfue tlie lawagainll the offender, and bring
him to condign punilhment.

. Action is alfo diilinguidied, as it hes for the recovery
either of the fmiple value of the thing challenged ; or of
the double, treble, quadruple, &c.

Thus, a Decies tantvm lies againft embracers ; and againil
jurors that take money for their verdidl, of either, or botli
parties.

To this clafs alfo belong all atlions on a ftatute that pu-
niflies offence by ref^itution, or line propoitionable to the
tranfgreffion.

AtVioti, again, is divided into pnjiidLui!, called alfo pre-
parntory, and principal.

Action, prejudicial, is that which arifcs from fome
queftion, or doubt in the/'r;W/^fl/ one.

As, if a man fue his younger brother for land defecnded
from his father ; and if it be objefted, he is a balhird ; this
poi!\t of baitardy mull be tried, before the caule can pro-
ceed : whence this acitiun is termed preejudicialis, quia priiis
jiidiciiiida.

Action upon the cafe, Aciio fuper cav.fam, is a general
aftion, given for the redrcfs of a wrong done any man with-
out force, and not efpecially provided for by law ; in order
to have fatisfatlion for damage.

This, of all aftioiis, is now moft in ufe. — Where there
ariles an oecafion of iuit, that has neither fit name, nor cer-
tain form already prefcribed ; the clerks of the chanceiy,
anciently, conceived a proper fonn of adtion for the thing in
queflion : which was called an adion upon the cafe, by the
civilians ylilio in fadwn.

This is called an adion on the cafe, becaufe the whole caufc
or cafe, as much as in the declaration (except time and place)
is fet down in the writ ; and there is no other aftion given
in the cafe, except only where the plaintiff has his choice to
bring this or another action. This aftion lies in a variety of
inflances ; as for words fpoken or written, which affeiil a
perfon'shfe, reputation, office, or trade, or tend to his lofs of
preferment, in man-iage or fervice, or to his dilinheritance,
or which occafion him any particular damage. Aftion on
the cafe likevi'ife lies upon an Assumpsit. It lies alfo, in
all inflances, wherein no general aftion could be framed:
e.g. againft Carriers, againft a common inn-keeper for
goods itolen in his houfe, for deceit in contrafts, bargains,
and fales, for negleft or malfeafance, for injuries done in
commons, for malicious profecution and falfe arrefts, againfl
flieriffs for default in executing writs, permitting elcapes, &c.
for confpiracy, nuifances, &c. &c. See Comyns's Digeil.
art. ABion, and Jacob's Law. Didl:. by Tomlins, art.
Action.

Action vpon the Jlatute, Adio fuper Jlaluiuw, is a writ of
aftion, brought againft a man, upon an offence againft a
statute, wiiereby an aflion is given that did not lie before.

Thus, where one commits perjur)', to the preiudice of
another, he who is damaged fiisll have a writ upon the
ftatute, and a caufe accordingly. ISuch aftion is now ob-
folete.

Action, popular, only differs from an aftion upon the fta-
tute, in that, where the ftatute gives the fuit or*attion to
the party grieved, or otherwife to one fingle perfou certain.
It is called action upon the ftatute ; and where tlu: autho-
rity is given by the ftatute to every one that will fo fue, it
is an action popular : and from the words ufed in the pro-
cefs, it is called a qui tarn aSion. Sec Infori»iation.

Vol. I.

ACT

yfrJlon is alfo divided into perpetual and temporary.

Action, fierpetiml, is that wliofc force is not dctennincd
by any period or term of time.

Of this kind were all civil adions among the ancient Ro-
mans ; viz. fuch as aiofc from laws, decrees of tl)e fcnate,
and conflitulions of the emperors ; whereas actions granted
by the praetor died witliin the year.

We iiave alfo perpetual and temporary Oiiioni now in Eng-
land ; all being perpetual which are not cxjirefsly hmitcd.

Divers ftatutcs give artions, on condition tlicy be piir-
fued within the time prefcribed. — Of thefe ftatutes tlie
principal are the following, viz. 32 Hen. V'lII. cap. z.
31 Eliz. c. 5. 21 Jac. I. c. 2. c. 16. JO W. HI. c. 14.
27 Geo. III. c. 44. See Limitation.

But, as by tlie civil law no adlions were fo perpetual, but
that by lime they might be prefcribed againft ; fo, in our
law, though aftion lie called perpetual, in comparifon of
thofe that are exprefsly limited l;y ftatute ; yet is there a
means to prefcribe ag;unft real actions, after five years, by a
FINE levied, or a rlcovkky fuffered. See Prkscrip-
tion.

Again, anions arc either local, as cjeflmcnt, wafle, &e.
vvhicli mull be brough.t in the county where the laud lie; ;
or tranjitory, fuch as debt, detinue, &.C. which may be
brought in any county.

By flat. 21 Jac. I. c. 4. all fuits on penal ftatutes Qiall be
laid in the county where the ofl'cnce was committed. See
Venue.

Adion is alfo joint or feveral ; joint, where feveral per-
fons are equally coucerned, and the one cannot bring an
a6\ion, or cannot be fued, without \.]\c other ; feveral, in cale
of trelpafs, etc. done, where perfons are to be feverally
charged, and eveiy trefpafs committed by many is feveral.

There are alfo various kinds of atlions fuited to different
cafes, ?!.?, anions oi Covenant, Debt, Detinue, Tres*
PASS, Trover, &c.

Action, Chofe in, fee Chose in Aclion.

Action of a 'wrii, is when a pcrfon pleads fomc matter
whereby he ftiews, that tlie plainiift had no jufl caufe tiS
have the writ he brouglit, though it be poffible he might have
another writ or action for the lame matter. — Such plea ii
called, a plea to the atlion of the writ.

When by the plea it appears, that the plaintiff has na
caufe of any adlion for the thing demanded, it is called a.
plea to the aSion. See Pleas.

Action, in affairs of Commerce, or Action of a com-
pany,is a part or fhare in the company's ftock orCAPiTAL«
which confifls of a number of fuch aClions.

Actions in France und Holland amount to the fame witK
Jlmres or fuLferiptions, in England.

Thus, the capital of a company, which has three hundred
aftions of a thouiand livrcs each, confifls of three hundred
thoufand livres. Hence a perfon is faid to have four or fi$
aftions in fuch company, if he hath contributed to the capi*
tal, and be intcreiled in it for four or fix thoufand livres.

A proprietor cannot have a deliberate vote in the affem-
blies of a company, unlefs he has a certain number of
atlions, fixed by the letters patent of its eftabliftiment ; nor
can he be a direftor, unlefs tie has a flill greater number of
adtions. AAions arc bought and fold, transferred, &c. mucU
in the fame manner as Stocks are with us.

Action alfo denotes an obligation or inflrument, whicli
the direftors of fueli companies deliver to thofe who pay
money into their iloek. See Bank and Actionaky.

To melt or liquidate an uSioii, is to fell, or turn it intij
money, &c.

To fn.d an aflibn, is fo pay esaclly when ihey become
B b due.

ACT

Auc, xYic fcveral fiirti". fubfcribid to the (lock of the com-
pany, acc(>r(tii;jr to tlie levcral oi Jcis of council made for
thi' creation of tlie new actions.

ACTIONARY, or Actionist, a term frequent in
forei-jn news-papers ; denoting the proprietor of an aitiou
or (haie in the company's (lock.

ACTIVE, fomething that communicates motion or ac-
tion to another. In this fenfc, the word Hands oppoi'ed to
pojjive. TIuis we fay, an attivc- oaufc, oiilve principles, ice.

The quantity of motion in tht world, Sir Ifaac Newton
(hews, nuill be always decrealing, ia virtue of the v:s inerliir,
&c. So that there is a necelTuy for certain at^ive principles
to recruit it : fuch he takes the caufe of gravity to be, and
the caufe of fermentation : addinpj, that we fee but little
motion in the univerfe, except what is owinj^ to thele aiftive
principles.

AcTiVii prindpks, in Chemi/lry, are tliofe which are fiip-
pofed to aft of thcmfclves, and do not need to be put in
action by others.

Salt, fnlphur, and mercur)-, have been ufually confidered
by the chcmiils as active principles ; and phlegm and earth
as paffive ones.

^Ir. Homberg, and fome chemifts after him, only make "
one aftivc principle, viz. fulphur, or fire ; which they take
to be the iource or principle of all the motion and aftion of
tlie univerfe.

The term aftive principle, fays Dr. Quincy, has been
ufed to exprefs certain divifions of matter, that are, by fome
particular modifications, comparatively aftive, in refpeft of
others. But the progrefs of icleuce, and particularly of
experimental philofophy and cliemiltry, has introduced new
and more rational ideas on this fubjeft.

In a llrift fcnfe, all motion in mattei\ is rather -pafTion ;
and there is no aftive principle, unlefs we thus call the
known powers of gravitation, attraftion, and repulfion, on
which the Newtonian philofophy is founded : fo that let
bodies exift under what modifications foever, there can be
no alteration made of thefe univerfal properties.

Active, in Grammcir, denotes a word having a fignifica-
tion that fei-ves to explain or denote an aftion.

Thus we fay a verb aLilve, a conjugation ad'ive, S:c. or an
adive participle.

Active Verbs, are fuch as do not only fignify doing, or
afting, but have alfo nouns following them, to be the fub-
jefts of the aftion or impredion : and they are thus diftin-
guilbed from verbs muter.

Thus to love, to teach, are verbs atlive ; becaufe we can
fay, to love a thin^, to teach a man.

Some grammarians, however, make three kinds of verbs
aftive : the tranfttive, where tlie aftion pafies into a fubjeCl
different from the agent ; rejieiled, where the aftion returns
upon th.e agent ; and reciprocal, where the aftion turns mu-
tually upon the two agents who produced it. See Verb.

Active Poiver, in Metaphyfics, is the power of execut-
ing any work of art or labour, in contradillinftion to spe-
culative powers. The exertion of this power is called
ACTION ; and as every aftion produces fome change, fo
every change muft be caufcd by fome exertion, or by the
ceffation of fome exertion of power. That which produces
a change by the exertion of its povi'er, we call the caufe of
that change ; and the change produced the effed of that
caule t and that being in which the change is produced is
faid to be pajjl-ve, or to be afted upon. Thus (fays Dr.
Reid, Eff. on the Aftive Powers of Man, p. 13.) we fee,
tbat aftion and paffion, caufe aud effeft, exertion and opera-
tion, have fuch a relation to adive power, that if it be under-
ftood, they are underftood of confequence ; but if power be

ACT

a word without any mcnnlng, aU thofe words which are re-
lated to it, mull be words without any meaning. See
Power.

ACTIVITY, the power of afting, or the aftive faculty.

The aftivity of fire exceeds all imagination. — The adtivity
of an acid, a poifon, 5:c. — Bodies according to Sir Ifaac
Newton, derive their aftivity from the principle of At-
traction.

Activity of a Icd^, the fphere of, is the fpace which fur-
rounds it, fo far as its efficacy or virtue extends to produce
any lenfiblc effeft.

ACTIUM, in Ancient Geography, a fmall town near a
promuntoiy of the fame name in the mouth of the Ambra-
cian gulph, on the coaft of Acarnania, and oppofite to
NicopoLis on the other fide of the bay. This place was
famous for a temple of Apollo, mentioned by Thucydldes
(1. i. c. 29. p. 24. Ed. Dukcri), and by Strabo (1. vii.
torn. i. p. 500. Ed. Cafaub.) thence denominated Aciius ;
(Virgil jEneld. viii. 704.) and afterwards for the viftory
obtained by Augullus over Anthony and Cleopatra in a
naval battle on the 2d of September, in the year of Rome
723. Nicopolis was built in order to commemorate this
viftory, and games were inllituted called the Actian games.
There were anciently folemn games at Aftium, at which the
Lacedxmonians ufed to prefide, mentioned by Strabo, and
alluded to by Vi:gil, iEn. iil. 278. The viftoi-y at Aftium'
was alfo celebrated by games inllituted at Rome. Sueton.
Tib. vi. Dion. Cafs. Hiil. Rom. lib. li. 19. liii. i. hv. 19.
tom. i. pp. 649 — 6g6 — 749. Ed. Reimari. The Actiam
<f Az took its rife from the battle of Aftium. The promon- ^
tory is now called Capo di Figalo. The medals of y\.ftium ■
were filver, gold, and bronze ; and the ordinary- type is a
flying pegafus.

ACTON, in Geography, a village about fix m.iles Weft
of London, where is a well of purging water, noted for the
pungency of its fak. Its coloiu- is whitifh, its tafte is
Iweetifh, with a mixture of the fame bitter which is in the
Epsom water. Its lalt is not quite fo foft, a^nd is- more
calcareous than that of the Epfom water, being more of the
nature of the fait of lime : it is however more nitrous than
the other. A quantity of it being boiled high, and mixed
with a folution of fublimate in pure water, throws down a Jj

yellow lediment. It llrikcs a deep red or purple with the *

tinfture of log-wood in brandy, as is ufual with nitrous
falts. It does not precipitate filver out of the fpirit of
nitre, as common fait does ; a pint and a half of the water
yields forty-eight grains of fait. See Allen's Hiilory o£
Purging waters.

Acton, a townfhip of Middlefex county in the Maffa-
chufets, containing 853 inhabitants; 24 miles N. W. of
Bofton.

Acton Biirnel, a village in Shropfhire, about three miles
from Great Wenlock, where a parliament was held in the
reign of Edward I. when the famous aft 1 1 Ed. I, A. D.
1283, called Statute-merchant, was renewed.

ACTOR, in Antiquity, was the name of a perfon who
had the fuperintendance of all the goods of a Roman citizen.
He was called " aftor bonorum, and after praediorum fun-
dor unique."

Actor Summariim, was a {lave, to whom was committed'
the ofiice of cafli-keeper : and that he was a (lave wt may
iivfer from tlie punilhment of the crofs which Domitian
caufed to be inflifted on one of thefe aftors.. See Sseton..
in Domit. c. x. t. 2. p. 1038.

Actor, in a general fenfe, one who performs any aft.

Actor, among Civilians, the proctor or advocate in
civil courts or caufes : ai aSor ecclefig has been lometimes

ufed

ACT

11 fed for tlie advocate of the church ; ador tJomhiicus for the
lord's attorney ; aSor vida, the flcward or liead bailiff of a
village.

Actor, in tlie Drama, one who rcprefents fome pcrfon
or character upon the theatre. The drama, in its original,
only conlifted of a (imple chorus, who lung hvnins in honour
■of Bacchus ; fo that the primitive aftors were no more than
fingers and mutlcians. Thefpis was the iirft who took upon
-him to introduce a perfona, or atlor, who wa^ to cafe the
chorus by reciting the adventures of fome of the heroes.
Thus came the recitation or declamation in ufe. iEfchyhis,
finding a Ihigle perfon tirel'ome, thought to entertain the
audience more agreeably by the introduction of a fccond
perfon, who Ihould converfe and condudt dialogues with tlie
Jirll. He likcwife drefTcd his aftors more decently than
they had been before, and put on them the uuskin and tlie
MASK. Sophocles, finding the two perfons of iEscnYi-us
too fevir for the variety of incidents, added a third ; and
here the Greeks (lopped : at leaft, we feldom lind in any of
their tragedies above three perfons in the fame fcene.
They might probably think it wrong to admit more than
three fpeakcrs at the fame time op. the llage ; a rule which
Horace has cxpreffed in the following verfe of his Art.
Poet:

" Nee quarta loqui perfona laboret."

In their comedies they took a greater hberty. The mo-
derns have introduced a much greater luimber of aftors upon
the ftage. This heightens the trouble and diftreis that
Ihould reign there, and makes a diveriity, in which the
fpertator is fure to be iiiterelled. Horace fpeaks of a kind
of fecondary adlors in his time, wliofe concern it was to
imitate tlie iirft, and degrade themfelves in order to become
better foils to their principals. The proper bullnefs of
thefe fubaltern ailors is unknown to us.

The acl.-,rs wore habits and fymbols fuited to their re-
fpeftive polls. Kings bore the regal appendages, as the
diadem and Iceptre ; and their garments were long robes of
purple and other colours, ornamented with gold. Heroes
were often covered with the ficin of a lion or tyger, and
armed with fwords, fpears, quivers, and chibs. The age,
fex, and condition, of every perionage of the drama were
almoft always indicated by the colours of the drefs. The
fame adlors fometimes performed both in tragedy and
comedy ; but they feldom excelled in both. In order to
acquire greater vigour and fupplenefs of body, they exer-
cifed in the palellra; ; and others, to render their voices
more duftile and fonorous, carefully obferved a ilnct ''''g'-
mcn. Cicero, Orat. cap. iv. torn. i. p. 423. Ed. Olivet.
Plato, de Leg. 1. ii. torn. ii. p. 665. Ed. Serrani.

Befides confiderable pay which was given to aftors who
had acquired great reputation, e. g. a talent in two days,
(Plutarch in X Rhet. Vet. torn. ii. p. 348. Ed. Xylandri.)
they enjoyed all the privileges of citizens : and as it was re-
quired that they ihould be free from all the ilignias of in-
famy, with which the laws puniflied ofl'enees, they arrived at
the moil honoursble employments. A famous atlor, named
Ariftodemus, was fent on an cmbafTy to Philip, king of
Macedon. Others pofleffed great influence in the public
.jiflemblies. iEfchylus, Sophocles, and Ariftophancs, did
not blufh to aft a part in their own pieces. Allien. Deip-
nos. 1. i. c. 17. p. 20. c. i^. p. 21. Ed. Cafaub. At
Athens, aftors were thus highly honoured. But at Rome,
they were defpifed, and degraded from their rank as citi-
7.ens, expelled from their tribe, and deprived of the right of
luffrage by cenfors. The French have adopted the ideas
of the Romans, and the Englilh thofe of the Greeks.
Actors, in Romaii /Intiqiiiiy, See Accusation.

ACT

ACTOR ICUM, in /Indent Ccgraf-hy, a tcrritoiy of
Epirus, according to Suidas, which he lays was aftciwards
called Leucadla, belonging more properly to Acaniania.

ACTORION, or AcrORis, in Enlcmolo^y, two fptcici
of PAPiLio, found in Surinam ; one with fnbcaiidated brown
wings ; the anterior marked with a yellowiih fafcia, and the
hinder with a blue fjiot and an oeellum underiKath ; th<:
other, with wings of an uniform colour, marked with brown
and white.

ACTORUM Talulr, were tables inftitutcd by Sei-vius
TuUius, in which the births of children were regiiltrcd.
They were kept in the treafury of Saturnus.

ACTRESS, AcTRix, a female who afts, or does the
office of an aftor.

ArticfTes, or women aftors, were unknown to the an-
cients, among whom men always performed the part ot wo-
men ; and hence one reafon for the ufe of maflis aniong
them. Mem. Acad. Infcrip. torn. vii. p. iKH. Among
the Greeks, the women only danced ; and their place in
tragedies and comedies was fupplied by tumichj, whole
voice refemblcd theirs.

Artred'es are laid not to have been introduced on the
Englilh ftage till after the reftoration of king Charles H.
who has been charged with contributing to the corruption
of our manners, by importing this ulagc from abroad.
But this can be but paitly true: the queen of James I.
afted a part in a paltoral ; and Prynn, in his Hillriomaftix,
fpeaks of women aftors in his lime as whore:; ; which was
one occafion of the fevere profecution brought againll him
for that book. Whitlock, Mem. 1632. Wood's Athen.
Oxon. tom. ii. p. 434.

ACTRIDA, in Ancktil Geography, a town placed by
Phny in Arabia Felix.

ACTUAL, fomething that is real and effcftive ; or that
cxiils truly and abfolutely. The philofophers ufe aSiial
heat, or cold ; in oppolition to f':rtual or potential.

Aftual heat, confidered aftively, is the aft of producinjf
heat : paffively taken, it is the qu.ality whereby a body i»
denominated hot. — Virtual or potential heat, aftively taken,
is the power or faculty of producing heat ; paffively taken,
it lliould be the power or faculty of being heated, or re-
ceiving aftual heat.

In medicinal language, aftual is alfo oppofed to fntentia!,
and is applied to any thing endued with a quality whicK
operates by an immediate power inherent in it. For ex-
ample : a red-hot iron, or tire, is called an aftual cauteiy,
in contradiftinftion to cauteries, whicli have a power of
producing the fame effefts on animal folids, as aftual (ire ;
and which are called potential cauteries or caullics. Boiling
water is aftually hot, and brandy is potentially hot.

ABual iln is that committed knowingly, by a perfon ar-
rixed at the years of difcretion : in contradiftinftion to what
Tiieologians have culled Original sin.

Ailiuil poffelhon and actual right of poffeflion are tci-ms
ufed in Jmiv, for the meaning of which fee Possession.

ACTUARIjE naves, in yintiquity, a fort of long and
light (hips, thus denominated as being particularly con-
trived for fwifinefs and expedition ; they anfwer to what the
French call hrigantines.

Cicero, in an epiille to Atticus, calk a fiiip decern fcalmt'
rum, of ten banks of rowers, atiuariola.

ACTLIARIUS, or AcTARivs, primarily denotes a no-
tary, or officer appointed to write down the afts or proceed-
ings of a court, aftembly, or the like.

In the eallcrn empire, the aftuarii were properly officeri

who kept the militai-y accounts, received the corn from the

fifceptores, or ilore-keepers, and diftributed it to tlie lol-

13 b 2 diatr

A C U

dicrs. Tliefc aifled as a kind of brokers with the foldiers ;
made barjrains with them for recciviiisr their pa\- before it
became due ; for which there were fixed rates. Aquin. Pitifc.
and Dii-Cange.

AcTUARius was iilfo a title of dignity, in the court of
Conftaiitinople, pecuhur to phylician'5. Du-Cange.

From ail appellative, the word has become a proper name
of a Celebrated Greek phyfician, on being appointed phy-
fician to the court of Conilantinople, whofe name was John,
and who was the fon of Zachaiy, a Chriilian writer. He
is faid, by fome, to have lived .nboiit the year 1300 ; though
others refer liim to the year iioo. He is faid tobetheilrft
Greek author, who has treated of mild purgatives, fuch as
manna, caflia, fena, and Myrobolan?, which were long
before in ufe .imong the Arabians, and to iinve introduced
them into the pniClicc of phylic. He is alfo the firft author
that mentions dillilled waters. His works, of which Friend
gives a favourable opinion, are compiled, principally, from
Galen, jEtius, and Paulus ^.gineta. They were originally
written in Greek, and have been tranflated into Latin, and
publifhed, forac of them accompanied with the Greek text,
I'hey are as follow : i. De mtdicamentorum compofitioiie.
Paris, 1539, izmo. republiflied at Hall, by Gcfner, 1540;
and with the Greek, 1546. 2. Methodi medendi, libri i'ex.
Ven. 1554, 4to. Paris, 1516, 8vo. with the reft of his
works. 3. De aftionibus ct afTcftibus fpiritus animahs,
ejufque nutritione, libri duo, 1547, 8vo. Venet. 4. De
Urinis, hbri feptem. Paris, 1548. Fab. Bibl. Grseca, torn.
xii. p. 635.

AcTUARius, or Actuary, alfo means the clerk who re-
giilered the ads and conftitutions of the convocation.

ACTUATE, to bring into aft, or put a thing in aftion.
Thus an agent is faid, by the fchoolmen, to aftuate a power,

when it produces an aft in a fubjea Thus the mind may

be faid to atluate the body. And thus a medicine, &c. is
fuid by fome ancient phyficians, to be aHualcd, when, by
means of the vital heat, it is made to produce its effeft.

ACTUS, in the /tnaent A^ncnlture, the length of one
furrow ; or as far as a plough goes before it turns. Plin.
lib. xviii. cap. 3. torn. ii. p. 97. Ed. Hard.

In Englifh it may be rendered by a furlong. — It is alfo
ufed by Vitruvius as a determinate meafure, containing 120
Roman feet.

Actus m/H/mr/j-, was T20 feet in length, and four in
breadth; being equal to the sextans, or fixth part of the
juc.eri;m, or integer.

Actus major, called alfo a?lus quadrat us, was the fquare
of 120 feet, or 14,400, being the /mw, orhalf of the juge-
RUM. — This was alio denominated moilhis, and nuna. Varro
de Re Ruft. lib. i. cap. 10.

Actus lutervicaiaUs, a fpace of ground four feet in
breadth, left between the lands as a path, er way.

ACUANITES, Acuanit;f,, \\\ Ecckjwfical H'iJlory,?,x^
thofe called more frequently Manichees. They took the
name from Acua, a difciple of Thomas, one of the twelve
apoIHes. Bib. Univ. torn. xxv. p. 330.

ACUBA, in Botany, is a tree of St. Domingo, which
rifes to a great height, and yields an excellent fruit. The
fruit is a kind of fig, refembling in tafte the mufcada pear,
but fo hard that it muft be foftencd in water before it can
be ufed. The wood is the hardcft of any in the ifland.
M. de Lam.arck (Encyelopedie, vol. vi. 'p. 39.) appre-
hends, that it is a fpecies of Chrysophollum, and the
fame which is called Au^uba, and according to Plumier deno-
minated Acomas.

AcuB A, iu Ancient Geography, a fountain or kke of Africa,
in the Syrtis.

A C U

ACUBENE, in Jfror.omy, a name given by fome to
a ttar of the fourth m.igiiitude, in the foutiiern claw of Can-
cer, marked a by Bayer.

ACUFIDA, in yliu-iait Geography, a town of Africa, ia
Mauritania.

ACUHYATLI, in Zoology, the name of a large fer-
pent, of a poifor.ous quaUty, in America, more ufually
known by its name of cucurucu, or curucuca.

ACUITION, in Grammar, Profody, and Medicine. See

AcUTlTION".

ACUL, in Geography, a fmall port on the north coaft of
the ifland of St. Domingo.

ACULEATED, a tei-m applied to a plant or animal
that hf'.s ACULEi, or prickles.

Naturaliib divide fidies into thofe with actdealed, and
non-acuhafcd fins. Phil. Tranf. N^ 204.

AcULEATED /.cey'i SccLeAF.

ACULEATUS longns, in Ichthyology, a name given by
fome to the pugnitius marhnis longns, a fmall prickly
Weft-India fifti. Wilhighby. See Stickle-back.

ACULEI, formed from acus, a needle, among Ro'.amjli^
&c. denote the prickks or fpines of plants of the thorny
kind.

Among Zooliglfs, aculeus is alfo ufed for the iling of a
bee, fcorpion, or the like. See Sting.

The word aculeus is alfo ufed for certain parts of the
Echini marlnl.

AcvLV.1 pinnarum. See Pinn.ie.

ACULEOSA, aT^7\me oi xhc carduus poljacanthos. See
Gortfria.

ACULER, in the Manege, is ufed for the motion of a.
horfe, when in v.'orkiiig upon volts he does not go far
enough forward, at every motion, fo that his llioulders cm-
brace or take in too little ground, and his croup comes too
near the centre of the volt. Horfes are naturally inclined to
this fault iii making demi-volts.

ACUMANTI8 Mons, in Jnelent Geography, a moun-
tain of Cyprus, fituate to the fouth of the promontory of
Acamas. See Acamantis.

ACUMEN, o«i/1n?, in the Ancient Mufic, was ufed to-
fignify a found produced by the intention, or raifing of the
voice.

Acumen differs from Intention, as the ejfecl from the caiife.
Ariftoxen. p. 10, &c. Ed. Meibom.

ACUMINA, among the Ancients, denoted a kind of mi-
litary omen, or aufpice, fuppofed to have been taken from
the points of edges or darts, javelins, fwords, or other wea-
pons, viz. by examining whether they were bright or folid,,
Iharp or blunted.

ACUMINATED Leaf. See Leaf.

ACUMINCUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Lower
Pannonia, called by Ammianus Marcellinus Acunincum,
and fuppofed to be the fame vvilh Acnniim on the Danube.

ACUML^LO, in Geography; a fmall place in the pro-
vince of Abruzzo, in Italy, 17 miles north-weft of Aquila.
N. lat. 42" 36'. E. long. 13" 24'.

ACUNA, Christopher de, in Blographv, a Spanifli Je-
fuit, born at Burgos, in 1597, and admitted into the fociety
in 1612, at the age of fifteen years. After having been
employed for fome years in endeavouring to make converts
in Chili and Peru, in South America, he returned to Spain
to give an account of his difcoveries on the riv-er of the Ama-
zons, a defcription of which he publilhed at Madrid under
this title, viz. Nnevo Dcfcubrlmcnto del Gran Rio de fas
Amazonas ; i. e. a new difcovery of the great river of the
Amazons. He embarked again for Am.crica, and was at
Lima in 167J. Political motives occalloned a fuppreiTion

of

A C U

A C U

of die dlfcoveries of this Jtcfuit, and his work became vary
fcarce. The Spaniards were jealous of the Portugiiefc, and
wiilied to prevent their deriving any advantage from the re-
lation of Acuna. The work was tranllatcd by M. de Gom-
bervillc, in four vohimes i2mo in 1682; and, it is faid,
that the only copy of the orioinal, befides that which the
tranflator nied, is in the Vatican hbrary. Gen. Dift.

ACUNUM, in ylndnit G.'ojraphy, a town of Pannonia,
north-eaft of Sirmium.

ActtNUM is alfo the prefent Ancona ; fuppofed by M.
d'Anville to be the Acufion of Ptolemy.

ACUPUNCTURE, a method of curing many difeafcs,
by pricking fevcral parts of the body witl\ a needle, or in-
(Irument of that form ; prattifcd by the Chincfe and Ja-
panefe, and other nations in tliat part of the world. They
pcrfinm the operation with a large gold or lllver needle,
which they (Irike into the feveral parts of the body, either
with their hand, or with a hammer made on purpofe. This
fevere and defperate operation is performed on the head and
breaft, as well as the abdomen, arma, legs, thighs, and many
other parts of the body, nay even in the abdomen of women
with child, when the foetus is reftlefs. The difeafe, for the
relief of which this operation is chiefly performed, is afcribed
By the Japanefe phyiicians to the immoderate ufe of the
fakki, a ilrong wine made of rice, whieh gradually fills the
abdomen and lower parts of the body with a noxious flatus,
that occafions convulfioiis and exquiiite pains. The place
in which the punfture is commonly made, is the middle be-
tween the navel and the pit of the ifomach; and the holes are
diftributed into three rows, with three punftures in each
row, at the diftance of about half an inch, and the whole
difpofcd in the form of an oblong fquare. The needles are
Tended by the emperor's licence.

Surgeons are furniflied with images, wherein all the
places in the body proper for the needle are deligned by
marks. M. Ten Ryne was an eye-witnefs of the ufe oi this
punfture on a foldier, who being afllifted with violent dif-
orders of the ftomach, and frequent vomitings at fea, fud-
denly relieved himfelf by pricking a thumb's breadth deep
into four different places about the region of his rvLORUs.
Ten. Ryn. Dilf. de Acupuna. ap. Phil. Tranf. N° 148.
p. 231, feq._

We fometimes alfo find mention 01 an acupunfture prac-
tifed in Europe ; but this amounts to no more than the per-
forating or opening a pait, e.g. the cornea, with the point
of a needle ; which has been done with good fuccefs, for the
cure of an hydrop'.hah.la and hybopyon.

ACUR, in yincier.t Geography, a town of Afia, accord-
ing to Ptolemy, in Lat. 15° 20'. Long. 124° 45'.

ACUROA, in Botany, a genus of the rliacklphta dccan-

altera major fpecies of Ariflotlc, according to Willughby
and Ray. It is the lyjni-Jifcb of Jonllon. It is found in
the northern ocean of Europe ; in length, as ftated by
Gmelin, it is about two or three feet, and it is variegated
with alternate fpots and belts of a brown and light-oker co-
lour, 'i'he aeu;; of Ariftotle, according to Rondclctiuf,
Jonilon, Willughby, and Ray, and the Tecunda fpccies of
Arillotle's acus" according to Gefner, is the syncsatmu*
TVPHUE of Linnxus. Ihis is the n\o\\.cr p'lp.'-jtjh of the
Britilh zoology, and the stA-adt/er of Borlale. The acut
•vulg/iris of Aldrovand, Willughby, and Ray, the acus of
Oppian, and the acus i"". fpecies of Rondeletius and Gef-
ner, is the BELONE of Ariftotle; the Esox bcloiic of Lin-
naus, the sv.h-]>iL- of the liritilh /oology, and the gar-
Jijli of ot'ncr authors. The acus maxima chinenfis, witii a
compiefTed bodj'., is the fistularia fAmcn/Zj of Linnxus.
The a:iis ma:<iina fqiinnwfa viridis of Catcfty, is the ESO.t
iiiridis of Gmclin's Linnius. Mr. Daines Barrington con-
ceives', that a foffd which he found near Clirillc-liurch, in
Hampfhire, had the appearance of the fcales of this fifli,
though it be a llranger to our feas. Phil. Tj-anf. vol. Ixiii.
p. 171.

The acus /iimbricifurmis of Willughby and Ray, is the
SYNGNATHUs o/i/'/W;</« of Linnxus, and the httle vxtr-Jlfli
of the Britilh zoology.

Acus is alfo ufed by fome authors for the ammodytes,
or fand-eel, a fmall eel caught in the fandj.

Acus, in Natural Hiflory, is a name given to the oblong
CI M EX, with fihform antenns, or the awax Jlagnorum of
Linnaeus, with a roundifli black body, and two globofe
points in the middle of the thorax, which is very common
in the lakes of England. Jtcus is alfo a fpecies of ascak.is,
fti-aight, rigid, and acicular, and bending at both ends. It
is white, about two inches long, and found in the inteftines
of the pike, yhus is alfo a fpecies of the voluta-Ak-U,
marked with tranfverfe feriefes of red points, and terminating
in a fmooth pointed wreath. It is fcarce an inch long, and
of a white or yellowifli colour.

A fpecies of nucciNUM, of a whitilh colour, with hori-
zontal undulated lines, with bifid crenulated rugofe wind-
ings, and theculumclla fpirally twifled, is called acus.

Acus Pnjoris, in Boiaiiy, a name of the scandix.

Acus Mnfchata, a name of the geranium mojchatum.

ACUSCHY, in Zoology, a fpecies of Cavia. See

AuOUECHY.

ACUSI, in Botant, a fpecies of apocynum.

ACUSILAUS, in Biography, one of the mod ancient
Greek hiltorians, was born at Cercas, near Auhs, not long
before Pherecydes of Athens, and compiled genealogies of
the ancient royal families from tables, which his father is rc-

dria clafs and order : the' charaaers of which arc, that the porced to have found in digging the foundations of his houfe.

that the He goes back to the ages before the war of Troy, and as

calyx is quindentated ; that it has five petals ; and
legumen is roundifli, coriaceous, not gaping, with a fingk
cell, and a fingle feed. There is one fpecies, viz. A.
vioLicra.

ACURON, a name given to the alisma.

ACUS, in Ichthyology, the name of feveral fpecies of fi(h,
ivhofe form is long and llender, belonging to different genera
in the Linnr?an fyftem. 7^he gymnotus acus is diftin-
guifhed by liaving no fin on the back, belly, and tail, and by
an anal fin terminating before the apex of the tail, with fixty
rays. It is found in the Mediterranean. The colour of the
tipper part is whitifli, beclouded with reddifli and brown
fpots, and underneath it is bluifli. It has no tentacula.

The syngn'athus acus is of an heptagonal figure, and..
has a pinnated tail. This is the typhle of Gefner ; and, ac-

ages
far as Phoroneus, king of Argos. Suidas.

AcusiLAus is alfo the name of an Athenian orator,
who went to Rome in the time of Galba, wlierc he prac-
fifed rhetoric, and gained a large fortune of a hundred
thoufand drachma?, with which he returned to Athens,
where he died. Suidas.

ACUSIORUM Colonia, now Ancona, in Jncient Geo-
graphy, isfituated, according to Lucas Hollltnius, between
Orange and Valence, near Montelimart, on the banks of
the Rliine. It was called Jcunum ; and, according to Pto-
lemy, was one of the cities of the Cavari.

ACUTjE lu/uLe, in ylncioit Geography, arc compre-
hended in the number of the F.chinades. They are a little
more to the fouth-weft, in the foutii ot the promontory of

■cording to Aldrovand, the acus of Ariftotle, and the acus Araxum. M. d'Aimlle calls them Oxiyi; /Vi/K/<f.

ACUTE,

A G W

ACUTE, Jharp, fomething drat terminates in a point, or
C(i;;e ; difpofcd eitlier for piercing' or cutting.

In tliis i'ciift the word ufually ftands oppolcd to ohiufe.

Acute au^k, in Geometry, is tiuit wliich is lefs than a
right angle, or which does not fubtcnd 90 degrees.

Such is the angle ACB {Phite Ceomelry,fi^. 1.)

Acvr t.-nngled trhw^le, is that whofc three angles are all
acute ; called alio an oxy«onous triatv^le.

Such is the triangle ACB {Ttil/.Geomelry,JiZ; ••) .

Acvrt-im^/ed Cone, is that whofe oppofite lides tbrm an
acute angle at the vertex ; or whofe axis, in a right cone,
makes leli than half a right angle with the fide. See cone.
Pappus, in his mathematical collettions, p. 164. Ed. Pi-
faur. 1588, fays, that this name was given to fuch a cone
by Euclid, and tlie ancients before the time of Apollonius ;
and they called an

AcuTE-.7;.'j,r„/rt;-.5f^7/'oH of a Cone, which was made by a
plane, cutting both fides of an acute-angled cone, an E l l i p s r. ;
but they did nut confider, before it was pointed out by
Apollonius, that fuch a fettion might be obtained in any
cone whatever. See Conic Sei/ion.

Aci'TF, in Miific, is underftood of a found, or tone,
which is (harp, flinll, or high, in rcfpeCl of fome other : in
which fenfe the word Hands oppolcd to gt\m\: Both thcfe
properties of found depend on the quicknefs or flownefs of
the vibrations by \vhich they are produced ; and are inde-
pendent of loudnefs or force ; for a tone may be acute or
high, without being loud, and vice verfa. There are de-
grees of acutencfs and gravity beyond our powers of appre-
ciation. The warbhng of birds is of that kind. No birds
but the nightingale and cuckoo produce mufical tones
which we can imitate, or compare with thofe of our mufical
inftruments. A bullfinch and canary bird can be taught
tunes by our flageolets and bird-pipes ; but their natural
warble is incommenfuiatc with our fcale. Tlie grave addi-
tional tones in our large piano-fortes become the more difficult
to tune as they defcend. The oflave below double C can, with
the utmoft difficulty, be made to fatisfy a nice ear by the
moil experienced tuner.

Sounds confidered as acute and grave, that is, in the re-
lation of gravity and acutenefs, conititute what we call tune,
the foundation of all harmony.

Acute j1ccent,in Grammar. See Accent.

Acute Leaf. See Leaf.

Acute Difeafe. See Disease.

ACUTELLA, in Botany, a name ufed by fome to ex-
prefs the common anonis, or REST-harrow, a fmall prickly
plant, with red or white flowers, and famous for its fpread-
ing and tough root. Ger. Emac. Ind. 2.

ACUTIATOR, in writers of the barbarous ages, de-
notes a perfon that whets, or grinds cutting inftruments :
called alfo in ancient glolTaries, acutor, aMnir.r, famiar'ms, co-
hariiis, &c. Du-Cange.

In the ancient armies there were aculiatorcs, a kind of
fmiths, retained for whetting or keeping the arms Iharp.
Aquin,

ACUTITION, or AcuiTiON, in a general fenfe, the
fame with acuating or fharpening.

AcuTiTiON, in Grammar, denotes the pronouncing, or
marking a fyllable with an acute accent.

AcuTiTiON, or acuition, in Medicine and Chemlflry, is
lifed for fliarpening or increafing the force of any medicine.

AC WORTH, in Geography, a townfhip 'of Cheniire
county, in New Hamplhire, incorporated in 1 766, and
containing 704 inhabitants. It is eight miles eaft-by-north
from Charlellown, aad 73 north-weft-by-weil from Portf-
mouth, 2

A D

ACY, a town of France, in the department of the Aifne,
one league louth-eall of Soiffons.

ACYLIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Italy, built
by the Romans, to reftrain the barbarians who inhabited the
Aljjs. It was a Roman colony.

ACYPHAS, a city of the Doric Tctrapolis, called by
Stiabo and others Pindtis.

ACYROLOGIA, compounded of ay.u;oj, improper, and
?.o-,o,-, difcourfe, denotes an improper acceptation, or expref-
fion, by wliich a word or phrale is ufed in ionic unufual or
oblique fenfe, hardly reducible to the rules of language.
Such, e. g. is the. word Jpero, fometimes ufed in Roman
writers for timeo. The acyrologia bears a near affinity to
the CATACHREsis, infomuch that many terms and exprcf-
fions alleged as inftances of the latter, are by others brought
as examples of the former.

ACYTUS, a fmall ifland near Cvdonia, in the ifle of
Crete.

ACZUD, in Geography, a town of Moldavia, in Euro-
pean Turkey. N. lat. 47" 20'. E. long. 29° 10'.

AD, in Grammar, a Latin propoiition fignifying to, and
often ufed fingly, and in compofition to exprels the relation
of one thing to another. Among all the eailcrn nations,
Ad was a pv-culiar title j and, according to the learned Mr.
Bryant's opinion, was originally conferred upon the fun.
Analyf. of Anc. Mythol. vol. i. p. 24.

An bejiins, in Antiquity, is underftood of a kind of
punilhment ot criminals, condemned to be thrown to wild
beafts. The term was alfo applied to a fort ot gladiators
hired to fight with wild beafts.

Thefe are otherwife called hejliarii, Calv. I^ex. Jur. p. 36.

An extra, a term ufed among School Divines, in iptak-
ing of the external operations of the Godhead.

Afts or operations ad extra, are properly thofe whofe
teiTn or efl^ect is not within the divine efience ; by which
they ftand expofed to operations ad intra. Creation, pre-
fervation, regeneration, converiion, renovation, &c. are ac-
tions of God ad extra.

Ad intra, among School Divines, is underftood of thofe
afts of the Divine Being, whofe term and effect is within
his own eflfence. In which fenfe, adts or operations ad in-
tra, ftand oppofed to thofe ad extra.

Ad hotninem, among Logicians, is underftood of a kind of
ARGUMENT drawn from the belief or principles of thofe we
argue with, and which of confequence inuft be conclufive
to them, though otherwife diftjeheved by us ; or, it is
where a difputant quits his own language and fyftem, and
borrows that of his opponent to con^^nce him, by turning
his own prejudices or errors againft himfelf. This the
fchoolmen call argumentum ad hominem.

Ad libitum, ufed in hlujic, for a piacere, when the prin-
cipal performer is at liberty to give way to his conceptions,
to change the meafure from quick to (low, or the contraiy,
without accompaniment, and to manifeft his abihties in
eiTufions of fancy, tafte, and brilliant paffages. But this
privilege is often abufcd in the length and dulnefs of thefe
extemporaneous flights, as they are called, though generally
prepared at home with great pains and application to very
little purpofe. None but performers of (Irft-rate abilities
ftiould be permitted to obtrude their crude, and often
clumfy attempts on the public, interrupting the progrefs
of, perhaps, an elegant or ingenious compolition.

Ad ludos, in Antiquity, a Roman fentence, whereby cri-
minals were condemned to entertain the people, either by
fighting with beafts, or with each other, and thus executing
juftice on themfelves. Kennet. Rom. Ant.

Ad metalla, the puiiiftunent of being doomed to vvoik

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in the mines. Criminals condemned to this, were called
wetaU'ui.

It were to be wifhed that pnnifiiments of this kind could
be fubftituted in lieu of our frcciueut executions ; which arc
as repugn:int to the principles of humanily as to thofe of
found policy.

Ad qu'iJrlities, among fchoolmen, inchulc the relations,
analogies, agreements, difagrcemcnts, funilitudcs, and difR-
militudes of things.

ylil quiil'iries are properly thofe attriliutes of things, which
anfwer to the queition, ad quid ? to -u.'hnl ? I'y wliieh they
differ from mere qi'idditiks, which anfwer to the qutllion,
quid Jit ? -trhnl is it ? The latter enquire what tilings are in
themfelves ; the former what they are, ad alia. Herb. de.
Verit. p. 233. ..."

Ad valorem, is ufed in fpeakiiig of the duties, or cuftoms,
paid tor certain commodities ; fome things are rated by the
weight, mealure, tale, or the like; others pay «</ TijAy/rm,
according to the value or worth, fworn to bv tlie owner.

Ad JEJlm, in Ancient Geography, a town of Italy near the
river iEfis, between Senogallia and Ancona.

Ad An'j^clris., a place remarkable for the martyrdom of St.
Mark, and which is thought to have been near Alexandria.

Ad Aquas, a name given to feveral places in Moefia,
X)acia, Numidia, Spain, &c.

Ad Aquas calidas, a town of the Picentini, about ten
miles from Afcoli.

Ad Aquas gradatas, a town fituated near Aquilcia, and re-
markable for the martyrdom of three brothers, of the illuf-
trious family of Anieius.

Ad Aquas labodas, or I.ahodas, a place called Therms
Selinontiir, in Sicily, famous for its baths, and fituated near
the mountain now called S. Calangero.

Ad Aquilas, a denomination dillinguifliing feveral places
ia Mauritania, Attica, Gaul and Italy.

Ad Ara;, the name given to various places, in which al-
tars wei-e ereftej ; one in Afia between Thirronia and Me-
lentenis, not far from the Euphrates ; and another in
Boetica, in Spain, between Alligi and Corduba.

Ad Anium, a place of Etruria, in Italy, welt of Floren-
tia.

Ab Aii.''eos, a place in Venetia, betvreen Viccntia and
Verona.

Ad Bafiruam, a place of Africa, in Numidia, between
the colonies of Saldx and Igilgilis.

Ad Bivium, a place in Italy, 30 miles from Rome, nov?
Valmontone.

Ad Caballos, BagnacavaUo, in Italy, was alfo called Ti-
bcriacum.

Ad Calcuhs, called by Aritlotle Pfephis, was fituated in
a fmall ifland near Etruria.

Ad CaJiin, Cagli, a place of Umbria in Italy, on the
Flaminian way.

Ad Calomn, a place m Italy, between Salernum and
Marcellianum in tlie Appian way, called alfo Ad Codorum.

Ad Caprff. paludcs, or Capriiva, a country near Rome
in which Romulus died.

Ad Capras, Capr-t:, Capraia, a diftrift of Umbria in
Italy, where Totila, king of the Goths, died of his wounds.

Ad Cajtra, a denomination given by the Romans to fe-
veral places where they had cajlra or camps.

Ad Cenienaiium, a place of Gaul, about five miles from
Summus Pirenocus, belonging to the Sardoncs.

Ad Centffimum, a place in ItaJy, fouth-eail of Afculum, fo
called, becaufe it was at the diltance of 100 miles from Rome.
Tlie Romans, who paid great attention to the incafurcment

of didances, denominated places by their diftance from
Rome, in miles.

Au Ceiituriones, a place in Spain near tlie Pyrenees.

Ad CoJumAlas, a place in Italy, five miles from Ra»
vcnna.

Ad Columnam, was fituated in Brntiiim, north of Rcgium,
and oppofite to tlictownof MelTina, in Sicily.

Ad Cimftuciilis, a place in Italy, between Ccftna and
Arimininn : and another fm.iU place ne:ir Parma.

Ad C.ollias, Cozo, was fituated between N'ercellx and
I.aumellum, in Italy.

Ai) Crifpiis, now Oraii, a place of Mauritania Ca;fariana,
in Africa.

Ad Diiinain, a place of Numidia, in Africa, 32 miles
from Hippo-regius.

Ad Dracoius, a place in Mauritania Caefar. between Albula
and Regia, fouth-eall of Siga : there wa:- alfo a place of the
lame name in Armenia minor in Afia, between Ototocdazi/o
and Aza.

An Ihms Columnas, a place of Italy, between Laumcllum
and Tieinum.

Ad Duodiriin, the name of a place in the Cottian Alps,
fouth-caft of Segufio, and of another in Italy, north-caft of
Patavium.

An Duodetimum, a name applied to feveral places, one in
Magna Crscia north of Hydruntum ; another belonging to
the jEdui, between Augullodunum and Cabillonu?n ;
another in Gaul, between Diviodurnm and IJcccm Pagi, be-
longing to the Medioniatrici, and another, now Doodwcrd,
between Noviomagus and Lugdnnnin Batavorum.

Ad Duos Ponies, a place in Spain between Vicus Sparc-
orum and Giandimirum.

Ad En/em, a fmall place in Umbria, north of Iguvia, in
the Flaminian way between Hevillus and Cale.

Ad Fu.nim Martis, a place of Gaul in the Cottian Alps,
well of Ocellum.

Ad Feroniam, a place near Mount Sorafte, in the tenitorj'
of the Falifci, north of Rome, where were a temple and grove
confccrated to the goddeis Feronia. There was another
Feroiiia fouth-eail ot Luna, near the road to I.nca.

Ad Ficuni, or Picas, a place of Numidia, fouth of Igilgilis.

Ad Fines, a denomination given by the ancients to fe-
veral places, becaufe they were on the limits of a country.
There were feveral places of this name in Italy, Belgium
and Gaul. See Ad Fines.

An Flexum, a place in Italy, between Brixia and Ario-
lica, Weil of the lake Benacus.

Ad Flunun, a place in Pannonia, correfponding to that
which is now called Saint-Veitam-I'liuun, in Croatia.

Ad Fromulos, a place of Norica.

Ad Galium Galliuacium, a place of Africa propria, in the
road from Utica to Carthage.

An Graces, a place of Italy, north of Chifinm, and
weft of Cortona.

Ad Herculeui, the name given to the port of Leghorn in
Tufcany : alfo to a fmall place in the ifland of Sardinia ;
and to another 1 2 miles from Gades, called Tonplum Htr-
culis.

Ad- Herrca, Canes, a place of Gaul, between Antipolis
and Forum Julii, pertaining to the Oxibii.

Ad Intcrcifa, a place of Italy; belonging to the Scnones,
between Callis and Forum Sempronii.

Ad Ladios, a place of Pannonia, in the route from Sir-
miiun to Salona.

Ad Laminas, was fituated between Varia arid Carfeoli in
Italy, and bdoaged lu. the ..^qui.

As

A D

Ad Lap'iJew, a place of Great Britain, fuppoftd to be
between Wincheder and Southampton, and to be that which
is now called South Stoiianu

Ad Lippoi, a place of Spain, between Cecilionico and
Sentice.

Ad LuUiam, now jlrgoulles, in Gaul, belonging either
to the Morini or Ambiani.

Ad Martis, the name given to different places in Um-
bria, Etruria and the Alps.

Ad Matnm Mii^iiam, a place belonging to the Hhp'mi,
fiippofed to be the lit nation of the abbey on Mont Ver-
gine.

Ad Mcdias, a name given to a place in the ifland of Sar-
dinia, to another of Infubria in Italy, and to another, called
Meza, in that part of Latium iu Italy inhabited by the
Vx)lfci.

Ad Moniin, was fitnated in the route from Cartliage to
Caihilon, between Eliocroca and Bafti.

Ad Noniim, a denomination given to feveral places, whofe
diHance was nine miles from a more ren^arkable ftation ; one
north of Bovillx in the Appian way ; another in Campania,
nine miles from Capua ; another, nine miles from Me-
diolanum or Milan, now Marignan, according to Cluviei ;
another in Venetia, fouth-eaftof Altinuni, and another weft; of
jEmona ; and another, denoting a fituation in Gaul among
the Tolofates, between Tolofa and Badera.

Ad Novas, a place in Italy, near the mouth of the Ru-
bicon,.on the borders of the Adriatic gulf: another place
in Italy belonging to the Sabincs ; another in Spain be-
tween Illerda and TaiTaco ; another in Etruria, fouth-eall of
Cofa, and another north of Clufium ; and another in Upper
Maefia.

Ad Oclai'iim, an appellation denoting the diftance of
eight miles from a well-linown and principal place ; one in
Italy belonging to the Taurini, and another in Umbria,
partly occupied by the Senones ; and another in Duria
Minor.

Ad OHvam, a place of Africa, in Numidia, fouth-eaft of
Saldce, and eaft of Tubpfuptus ; and aU'o another in Sicily,
in the route from Agrigentum to Libybxum.

Ad Opultntos, a place of Campania in Italy, near the
fea, and three miles from Pompeii and Stabia;.

Ad Palalii'.m, a place in Venetia upon the Athefis, four
miles foiith of Tridentum.

Ad Perticns, a place iv:ar Ticinum or Popea, (lill called
Sanfla Maria del Pertiche.

Ad Pclras rubras, or ad fuxa rubra, a place near Fidencs,
■now Borghetto.

Ad Plnum, a place of Italy in the Apcnnine, 1 2 miles from
Venufia, in Apulia. Another is alfo in the extremity of Italy
in 4he Julian Alps, in the route from Aquileia to ^mona.

Ad Pinim, a place of Italy in the Samniuni, and another^
with the addition Ph'ditmeni, in the Adriatic gull", between
Metaurus ajid Sena Gallica.

Ad Pontcm, a denomination given to feveral places which
had bridges : one in Great Britain, now Lincoln ; another
of Boetica in Spain, between Gades and Corduba ; another
JEm, in Vindehcia ; another, 7/w, in Norica ; another,
Mur'i, in Norica, now Muraw ; another, Sonth, fouth-eaft of
Forum Julii.

Ad Publicanos, a place of Gaul, on the confines of the
territories of the Allobrogi and Centrones, between Cafua-
ria, Mantala and Obitum.

Ad Sljiartum decim:im, a place in Venetia, E. of jEmona.
Ad ^lintanas, a place of Magna Gra;cia, in Apulia ; and
of Italy in Latium, on the Latia way.

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Ad Rjg'uina, a place of Upper Media, on one of the ■
ftreams which form the river Gyndcs.

Ad Rotam, a place of Numidia, in Africa, between Cirta
and Lambxfa.

Ad Rotas, a place of Italy belonging to the Cenomaui.

Ad Rubras, a place of Boetica, in Spain, belonging to
the Turdetani, and anotlier of Mauritania, in Africa, be-
tv/een Calaa and Ad Regias.

Ad Salices, a place in Scythia, lituated on the borders of
the Black Sea, near the moll foutherly mouth of the
Danube.

Ad Salinas, now Spatana, a fmall place on the Adriatic
gulf, between the conhnes of the Pr;etutii and Vcftini.

Ad S.iiios, a place of Italy, fituated according to Clu-
vicr in Venetia.

Ad Scptem Aras, a place in Spain.

An Sfptein Fratres, ieven mountains of Mauritania, known ■
by the name of Abyla ; at the bottom of wliich was a towu
called Si'pia, whence the modern Ccuia.

i\u Scptimuni dci:imum, a place of Spain, 17 miles front
Tarraco.

Ad Sex Infulas, fmall iHands, v/hofe fituation is not pre-
cilely afceitiuned ; but M. d'x'lnviile places them near a
i'raall pioniontoi-yi fouth of Malaca in Boetica, and north-eall
of Parietina on the coaft of Mauritania Coefarienfis.

Ad Scxt'uis, or Ad Scjl'uis, a place fituated by the Peutin-
gerian tables on the Adriatic gulf, 1 2 miles from Sena Gal-
lica.

Ad Sextum, a name given to two places in Italy ; one in
the Qaudian way, north-welt of Rome, and fouth-eaft of the
Veil, and another in Etruria, fouth-wcll of Sena. It is alfo the
name of a pofition in Gaul, Ralz. or ylrrnt%, between the
Aufci to the weft, and Hugunuerro to the eaft.

Ad SUanuni, a pofition ia Gaul, between Segodunum to
the fouth-v>-eft, and Andentum on the north-weft, o« the
frontiers of the Ruteni and Gabali.

Ad Sdiiianum, or Ad Sik'iiim, is placed by M. d'Anvillc
in Apulia, between Venuiia to the weft, and Blera to the
fouth-eaft.

Ad Solaria, a place of Et>-uria, in Italy.

Ad Sorores, a place marked by Antonlne, 25 miles from
Emerita Augufta, in tlie road acrois Spain to Cxfar Au-
guita.

Ad Spchiticas, a fmall place of Italy, in Meffapia, on the
fea-coait:, weft of Brundufiuni.

Ad Span/cis, a place of Italy, in the Appian way, be-
tween the pofition of I'res tahernas and Forum Appii.

Ad Stabulum, a pofition of Gaul, between Illiberis on
the north-eatt, and Ad centuriones to the fouth ; fituate .
at the foot of the Pyrenees, and belonging to the Sar-
dones.

An Statuas, a place of Etruria, in Italy, 25 miles from
Arctium, and 1 2 from Clufium : another, between Labi-
cum and Pra:nefte, in tlie Labican way ; another in Spain
in the route from Valentia to Carthage : and another, in
Pannonia on the Danube, between LufTuniam and Ripa
alta.

Ad Talernam friv'idam, a place of Etniria, in Italy.

Ad Tarum, a pofition in Italy on the Tarns.

Ad Templum, a place of Africa, to the fouth of By-
zacene.

Ad T'tiulos, a place of Liburnia, in the route from Ter-
gefte to Tarfatica.

Ad Trcs Infuhis, fmall iflands placed by M. d'Anville in
a fmall gulf, fouth-eaft of Rufadir, fouth-weft of Siga, and
nearly fouth of Charideinuni, pertaining to Boetica.

3 Ad

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ADA

Ad Ires Td/h-niiis, a place !n luily on the Appian way,
17 miles from Aricia, culled Cailello.

Ad Tncefiniuni is fituated 30 miles, as the name imports,
from Aquileia, now Tricefimo ; another pofitiou in Gaul,
50 miles from Narbo Maitius, whence the ilinerai-)' reckons
the diftanee;.

Ad Tropoea, a place of Italy in Bnitium.

Ad Turrcin, a place of Sardinia, known by__thc name of
Turris Libiffonis. It is alfo tlie name of a place, called
Tourves, in a part of Gaul, called the«third Narbonnefe,
pertaining to the Suelteri, north-eafl ef Marlilla, and fouth-
eaft of Aqure Sextire.

Ad Ttirh-s, a place in Italy on the Aurelian way, in the
territory of Cerite : another, on the Appian way in Bru-
tium, north of Vibo : another at the extremity of the pro-
montory Circeiiun : anotlier, in Liburnia, on the road from
Aquileia to Sigiiia, fouth-eaft of Tarfatiea: anothei-jiu Spain,
between Vakntia and Carthago : and another between Au-
gufta Emerita and Angufta Coefarea. A'd Turns albas, is a
place in Italy between Circeium and Antium.

Ad Undec'im, a place of Venetia in Italy, well of Aqui-
leia ; in the road that leads^ to Ahimum.

Ad Vrhanas, a place o'f Campania in Italy, between
Capua and Teanum, called by M. d'Anville, after Pliny,
Urbana, and alfo Colonia Sillana, from the colony efta-
blilhed here by Sylla.

Ad Vkefiinum, a place of Italy, 20 miles from Rome,
on the Flaminian way, fouth-well of Capena : another, in
Lucania, on the gulf of Tarentum, north of Sybaris, and
fouth of Heraclea : another, in Afia Minor, in the road
from Trapez.us to Satala, in Armenia Minor : and another,
called by M. d'Anville Ad Vigefimum, fouth-eaft of Tolofa,
between Badera and Elufio.

Ad Vuiorriolas, a fmall place of Italy in the road from
Hutina to Bononia.

Ad V'dlam Serviliam, a place of Numidia in Africa, 20
miles from Hippo Regius, in the way to Cirta.

ADA, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey in Na-
tolia, about a league from the river Zacarat, in the road
from Conftantinople to Ifpahan.

Ada Gulf, lies on the eaft fide of Kaffa ftraits, and to the
eaft of port Hads hilar, having a town in the north-weft
part of it.

ADABA, in jlncient Geography, a town of Media.

ADAC, a lake whence one of the branches of the Ti-
gris flows.

ADACHA, a town of the Palmyrene region in Afia.

ADAD, compounded of jid with itfelf, was ufed, fays
Mr. Biyant (Anal. Ane. Myth. vol. i. p. 23.) for a fupreme
title, with which both kings and deities were honoured.
Macrobius (Satiu-n. 1. i. c. 23.) fays, tliat it fignified one,
and was fo interpreted by tlie Affyrians, who gave this name
to their fupreme deity. Mr. Bryant fuppofes, that what Ma-
crobius renders one, lliould be_yfr/? or chief ; and he obferves,
that it was a facred title, and when fingle, was conferred
upon a Babyloniih deity, but when repeated, it denoted
greater excellence. We read of Adad, king of Edom.
Gen. xxxvi. 35. I Kings xi. 14. And tliere was another
of the fame name at Damafcus, whofe ion and fuccefibr
was denominated Benhadad, i Kings xx. i. The kings
of Syria, according toNicolaus Damafcenus (fee Jofeph.
Antiq. 1. vii. c. 5.) for nine generations had the name of
Adad. The god Rimmon was ftyled Adad. Zechar. xii. 1 1.
The feminine of Adad was Ada, and this was a facred title,
and appropriated by the Babylonians to their chief goddefs.
The authors of the Ancient Univerfal Hilloiy are of opinion,
that Benhadad II. was dciiied by the Syrians, under the

Vol. I.

title of Adad or Ader. By Adad they meant the fun, and
rcpnfentcd him with rays darting downw-ards to cxprefs hi*
beneficence. But tliia honour would iiavc been nmre fuit-
able to the profperity of Hazacl than of Benhadad, whu
was often unfortunate. And Jofcphus (Anti(i. 1. vii. c. 6.)
infonr.s us, that they were both deified. Adad was rot
properly a Babylonian deity, but one who had been deified '
by the ancient Syrians, and probably revived again afler the
dcftrucflion of the Babylonian empire, whole new god«
niuft have brought him into difcredit. Adad, llius de-
graded, and afterwards reinltated, was the fuu, as well as
Bel or Baal, Ofiris and others. Auc. Un. Hill. voL i.
p. 443. vol.iii. p. 391. 8vo.

ADADA, in y/neienl Geography, was a towa of Fifidia
to the fouth eaft of Scleucia. 1 here was alfo a town of the
fame name in Syria, fituate to the north-weft of Palmyra, and
at no great diftance from it. We alfo find a place of this
name mentioned by Jolhua, (ch. xv. 22.) and lying in tlit
fouth of Judah, towards the borders of Edom.

ADAD Rimmon, a city of Judah, fituate in the plain of
Megiddo, in the valley of Jezreel, in the half-tribe of Ma-
nafich ; where Jofiah, king of Judah, was killed by Pharaoh
Necho, king of Egypt. It was aftei-wards called Maximi-
anopolis, in honour of the emperor Maximilian. It is 17
miles from Ca;farea in Paleftinc, and 10 miles from Jezreel.
Calmet.

ADiE, a town of Phiygia, which Strabo places at the
foot of mount Ida.

AD^EI, a people of Arabia, placed by Ptolemy !ii
Egypt, in a country encompafied by mountains near the
leli'er cataraft of the Nile.

ADAGE, a fententious proverb or popular faying.
Erafmus has made a large and valuable colleclion of Greek
and Roman adages from their poets, orators, philofiiphers,
&c. Mi". Ray has done the fame with regard to the Eng-
liili ; and Kelly has made a colleftion of Scots proverbs.

ADAGIO, in Mnjic, one of the words ufed by the
Itah:ms to denote a degree or dlftinftion of time. Adagio
exprefles a flow time ; the floweft of any, as fome have faiii,
except grave. Ufed fubftantively, it fignifies a flow move-
ment. Sometimes this word is repeated, as adagio, adagio,
to denote a ftlll greater retardation in the time of the muiic.

Adagio has been faid by RoufTeau and others to b'- the
floweft degree of time in mufical mcafures, except grave ;
but we think that exception erroneous. In Corelli's works
and thofe of bis cotcmporaries, we find that quavers iu
adagios, vocal and inftrumental, are fung and played as flow
as crotchets in grave. An adagio in a fong or folo is, gene-
rally little more than an outline left to the performers abi-
lities to colour ! and the performer who is not enabled to
jntereft an audience by the tone of his voice or inftrumeht,
and by tafte and expreffion, (hould never be truftcd with
flow notes, in the performance of which the fmalleft dcfefls
are fo eafily dlfcovered ; and if not highly embelliflied, they
foon excite languor and difguft in the hearers. The talent
of executing an adagio well, in which perfonners of great
powers of execution often fail, is a merit of the bighell
clafs which a mufician can poflcfs.

ADAGUESA, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the
province of Aragon, and diocefe of Balbaftro, fituate on the
Vero. N.lat. 41° 5S'. E. lon^. 2° 4'.

ADAGYUS, in Mythology, a Phoenician deity, whom
Bochart takes to be Herraapluoditus, the fon of Venus and
Mercuiy, from the fimilitude of found between Adag-yus
and Androgynus.

ADAJA, in Geography, a river of Spain, wliich rujis
.into the Duero between Simalicas and Tordelillas.

C c ADAIA

ADA

ADAIA, Porte Je, a large harbour on tlic north-eall of
the idand of Minorca, well flickered by the inountains from
north-weft winds. It is north-eail of mount Toro.

ADAIR's Harbour lies on the weft fide of Falkland
found, and nearly oppolite to Jordan's bay on the ea!l coalh
It is dirtinguilhed by a high hill to the noith-weft of it.
Within the harbour the water is from eight to ten fathoms
deep ; but the numerous rocks and breakers on the coaft
are d:mgerous. This harbour is by fome called Port
Howard.

ADAL, in the fenfe of Paracelfus, fignifics that part of
plants in which their medicinal virtue conliils ; or the pure
and adive parts of plants, feparate from the impure and
inert.

ADALARD, orADELARn, in B]o^raphy, the fon of
count Beni-rd, grandi'on of Charles Martcl, and coufin-
gcrman of Charlemagne, was bom about the year 753.
Havin T abandoned the court for the religious habit, he was
nominated by the emperor to the abbey of Corbie, and af-
terwards appointed prime miniiler to Pepin king of Italy.
In S23, he founded the celebrated abbey of New Corbie,
in Saxony; and died January 2, 826, at the age of 72,
much lamented by the virtuous and the learned. He was an
excellent linguilt, and denominated the Aaguftine of his
age. His principal work was, " A treatife concerning the
♦' order, or the ilate of the palais, and of the whole French
" monarchy." Diog. Dicl.

ADALiJERON, Aschlinus, was an ambitious pre-
late, and a fervile courtier. He was confecrated bilhop of
Laon in 977, and died in 1030. He is the author of a fa-
tirical po^m, dedicated to king Robert, of wh'ch an edition
■was publilhed in 1663, in 8vo. by Adrian Valois, at the
end of the panegyric on the emperor Berenger. It contains
feveral curious hillorical fads. Biog. Diet.

ADALBERT, a German divine of the tenth century,
archbifhop of Magdeburg, was educated in the monaftcry
of St. Maximin of Treves, and was employed in 961, to
preach the gofpel to the Ruffians. He was more fuccefsful
after his return from this embafly, in his labours among the
Sclavonians, on the borders of the Elbe and Oder. He died
in 98;. Dupin's Eccl. Hift. lothcent. vol. iv. p. 58.

ADALBERT, bilhop of Prague, in the tenth centuiy,
was- one of the firft founders of the Chriftian religion in
Hnngar)'. He alfo preached the gofpel in Prullia and
Lithuaua, where he was murdered by Sego, a pagan prieiL
Dupin, uh] fupra. Mofheim's Eccl. Hiil. cent. 10. vol. ii.
p. 378, 8vo.

ADALIDES, in the Spanlfh policy, are ofiicers of
juftice for matters that refpedt the military forces. In the
laws of king Alphonfus, the Adahdes are mentioned as of-
ficers appointed to guide and direft the marching of the
forces in time of war. Lopez reprefents them as a fort of
judges, who take cognizance of the differences arifing upon
excurfions, the diflribution of plunder, &c.

ADALUS, in Ichihyology, a name given by authors to
the Sturgeon.

ADAM, in Biography, the firft man whom God created,
and the original parent of the whole human race. He was
fonned by an immediate ad of divine power, out of the chijl
of the ground, as his name imports, on the fi:ith day in the
fcripture-an-angement of t!ie works of creation ; and God
breathed into his iirjlnh itilal breath, fo that he became a A'n-
/n^/-«/or perfon. Gen. ii. 7. We read alfo. Gen. i. 27.
that God created man in his O'wn image. He was then placed
in the garden of Edf.n, a particular diftrid which was pre-
vioufly ordained and adapted for his fubfiilence and accom-
modation. In procefs of time, probably after fome expert-

ADA

ence of the inconveniences of folitude, and after he had
found that the various animals which had pafled in review
before him, and to which he had given names, afforded no
proper companion, he was provided with a fuitable help-
mate ; wlio, being formed of a rib taken out of his ilde,
when he was in a deep fleep, as the hillory informs us.
Gen. ii. 2U was called Hii^N' o"" '^"'''''"on. Adam and Eve
thus created as fit affociates for each other, did not long
enjoy, v.-ith the fecurity and fatisfadion of innocence, the
happincfs which was defigned for them. In the garden,
which was the appointed place of their refidence, and from
the prodndions of which they were to derive the means of
their fupport, there was one tree, called the tree of the hnotu-
ledgf of good and evil, the fruit of which they were forbidden
to eat ; and the prohibition was enforced by the awful fanc-
tion, that in the day they did eat of it they JI:ould furcly die.
Gen. ii. 17. The woman, deluded by the mifreprefentation
of the ferpent, and bv the alluring appearance of th? fruit,
difregarded the prohibition ; and having herfelf tailed it,
gave it to her hufband, who likewife fliared her guilt ; and
they both became obnoxious to the threatened doo:-n. The
conl'equenccs of their tranfgreffion were iliame and fear. The
m.an was alfo fubjeded to labour, and the woman to the
pain of child-birth, and to the dominion of her hufband.
They were both excluded from paradife, and their return to
it was prevented by an a«'ful apparition, i, e. by cheruUns
and by a flaming fivord. Gen. iii. 24.

After their expulfion from paradife, they had feveral
children ; bat of thefe the fcripture records the names
ooly of three, t;2. Cain, Abel, and Seth. The life of
Adam was prolonged to the age of 930 years. The time
of the death of Eve is not recorded in fcripture ; but fome
have prefumed to fay, that Ihe furvi"ed her hufband ten
years. Such is the concife account which the fcriptures
give us of the origin of the human race : but this account,
even if we allov/ Mcfes to have been the writer of it, was
not compiled till about 2300 years after the creation ; and,
in the opinion of many, it is either whoUy, or in part, fo
blended with allegory, that it is not eafy to give a latisfac-
tory explication of every circumftance to which it alludes.
Whether it be underftood hteniUy or allegorically, it fuggefls
many curious queflions, which have furnilhed fcope for much;
learned criticifm, and for a variety of fanciful conjectures.

As to the etymology of the name Adam, the greater-
number of biblical interpreters have derived it from n^"Ti>f».
Adamah, fignifying the earth or mould, or as fome render it,
the red earth, of which he was formed. According to Mr..
Bryant, Ad denotes^//;/?, or chief, and in this fenfe it may
be applied to the appellation Ad-am. This conjedure is con-
firmed by the ufe of the t.:\n\ protogonos, or Jirfl made, in
Sanchoniatho, which fecms to be the Greek tranflation of
the Egyptian title of Adam, taken, as this author profeffes, .
from the pillars of Thoth ; and alfo by a hint of tliat ad--
mirable fcholar Sir William Jones, in his Afiatic Refearches,
who queries whether Adam may be derived from Adim,
which in Sanfcrit means the Jirfl, ar.d is the name of the firil
Menu. Mr. Parkliuril iuppofes the name Adam to be de-
rived from rn!2"T» daviuth, ufed for likenei's, (Gen. v. i.)
and thus to denote the likenefs of God, in which Adam
was created. Ludolphus (Hift. Ethiopia, p. 77.} deduces-
it, from the Ethiopic Adamah, which iig:afies leautifui, ele-
gant, or pleafant, and refers it to the abltlute pertedion of.
his frame and fhape, as being the mailer-piece, to fpeak
more humano, of his creator. But whatever be tlie true
etymology of the name, it is an appellative, rather than a
proper name, and comprehends both the fexes.

The time of the year in which Adapi was created has

been

ADA

teen alfo a fubjcft of difcuflion. This has been mod gene-
rally fiippofed to be tlie autumnal equinox, which is the
sera from which the year anciently commenced.

According to Blair, in his firft chronological table, Adam
and Eve were created on Friday the 28th Otlober, ante ChryJ,
4004; and Adam died 3074 ante Chrijl, at the age of 930
years.

Another fuhjeft of inquiry hai been the place where
Adam was created, and in which his firft. habitation was
affigned him. See Eden.

A confidemble difference of opinion has prevailed with
refpedl to the vigour of Adam's intclleftual faculties, and the
degree of knowledge which he pofTefTcd at the time of his
formation. We may reafonably imagine, that, as our fird
parents were created in an adult ftate, they were imn^ediately
capable of the full exercife of their natural powers and facul-
ties : and there is a certain dignity of intcllecl:, as well as
rectitude of will, that is probably implied in the exprefllons
<' our image," and " our hkenefs," in which God is faid
to have created them. Mr. Shuckford, however, (Creation,
&c. of Man, p. 74, &c. ) refers this expreflion to the llruc-
ture of his body, which was fupsrior to that of other living
•creatures, agreeably to Ovid's defcription, Os hoiiv.m fuhVime
ckJit. — Metam. or to Cicero's (De Leg. lib. i.) Figuram
corporis hal'ihm et aptam tngcn'io humano ded'it, ^r. : — And
lie fuppofes, that this is an Hebrew form of fpeech,
which refers to God whatever is mod excellent in its
kind. He adds, that this expreflion denotes his deligna-
tion for immortality, fo that fin introduced death. But
whatever were Adam's original powers, without exer-
cife, and without experience, his aftual knowledge mull
have been, in a very confiderable degree, reftrlfted and partial.
It feems, therefore, unreafonable and unnecefiaiy to fuppofe,
that he was endowed with a much greater comprehenfion
and vigour of mind, and with a greater compafs of know-
ledge tlian any of his defecndants ; and that he was, in real
attainment, as well as in capacity of improvement, little in-
ferior to higher orders of beings. The knowledge that was
adapted to his condition, and that was fubfervient to imme-
diate ufe, was without doubt communicated to him at his
firft formation : and as he had no native prejudice, and no
irregular propenfity or bias to miflead him, he poffefTed pe-
culiar advantages tor extending his knowledge, and more
cfpecially his moral improvement. But as religious prin-
ciples, devout affeftions, and virtuous difpofitions are efta-
blifhed and ftrengthened by exercife and difcipline, it may
be luppofed that, v.ithout fome fupcrnatural defence and
afliftance, which his hillory does not mention, he would be
liable to be feduced and overeome by a temptation, w'lieh
the maturity of habit, and the wifdom of experience might
bave enabled him to withftand. See Fall ai AL-m and Ori-
ginal Sim.

Adam pofleded, without doubt, the ncce:Taiy powers of
articulation, and the faculty of fpeech ; but in the exercife
of thefe faculties he mull have been puzzled and perplexed ;
nor is it eafy to conceive, that the few words of which even
the fcanty vocabulary that ferved his neeefiities confilled,
could have been invented by him, nor the ftamina of that
language, whieli was afterv.-ards enlarged and improved,
coild have been devifed by him without a fupcrnatural com-
munication. See Language.

How long our firft parents continued in parr.dife before
or after their fall is a queftion, for the folution of which we
have no fufficient evidence, nor indeed a/e fuch queftions of
any real importance. It is probable, that they were not
removed to any great diftance, and that they found fcope
<nouijh for thdr attention and labour near the fpot where

ADA

they Were firft fettled, and from which they were excluded,
according to the literal acceptation of tlie feripture-hillory.
The fcriptures give ua no information as to tlie place where
Adam was buried. St. Jerome inclines to tlie opinion of
thofe who think, that he was buried at Hebron, in the
cave of Machpelah, afterwards bought by Abraham for a
burying-place. The caftern Chriftians fay, that he gave
orders to have his body embalmed, and depofitcd in a cave
on the top of a mountain, which cave was called Al-kenur,
from an Arabic word which fignitles to lay up privately ;
and it is alleged, that this order was given to prevent his
pofterity from worftiipping his relics. It is added, that he
ordered his body to be placed in the midft of the earth, be-
caufe thence Ihould proceed his falvation, and that of hit
pofterity. The primitive fathers generally believed, that he
died in the place where Jernfalem was afterwards built, and
that he was interred on Mount Calvary, on the fpot where
Chrift was citicified ; and where a chapel was erefted in
honour of liim. Some of the Arabians inform us, that he
was buried on mount Aboucais, near Mecca ; biu- the an-
cient Perfians fay, that he was buried at Serendib, where
his corpfe was guarded by lions at the time of the war of
the giants.

As to the reveries and fables of Jewllli Rabbins and Maho-
metan writers, thc)' arc fcarcely worthy of being recited. A«
a fpecimen, however, the following particulars may be fiib-
joined.

Some of the Rabbins fay, that Adam was diftinguifticd
by his perfonal beauty, and that God, before he formed
him, aflumed an human body, after the pattern of which
he was created. They alfo pretend, that iiis llaturc wa»
fo gigantic, that it reached even to the heavens, and ex-
tended from one end of the world to the other ; and that it
was reduced after his tranfgrefTion, firft to the meafure of
100 ells ; and, as others fay, to 1000, or 900 cubits, which
was done at the requcft of the angels, who were terrified at
his enormous ftature, or who were envious and jealous on
this account. Thus they pretend lie was able to paf«
through the ocean, which feparatcd Eden from thc other
parts of the world. Similar to this is the defcription given
of Polyphemus by Virgil, jEn. 1. iii. v. 6(14. and of Orion.
^n. 1. X. V. 763. Writers of this clafs aflert, that Adam
was at firft both male and female ; and that he confifted of
two bodies joined together by the Ihouklers, and that Eve
was formed by merely feparating thc one body from the
other. But more abfurd even than this is the opinion of
Paracelfus, (vid. Vofiium de Philof. c. ix.) Negabal primot
parentis ante lapfum hahu':[fe partes generatiom hominis necef-
J'arias : creJel/al pojiea accejfiffc., tit Jlnimam gii'turi. Thc
Jews, in order to exalt the importance of the rite of cir-
cnmcifion, affirm, that Adam was created in this ftate, and
that one part of his tranfgreffion confifted in his attempt to
obliterate' the traces of it. Some of them have alfo ima-
gi?.ed, that Eve v.-as the forbidden fruit, and that Cain wa«
the produftion of the ferpent, &c.

The Mahometan writers, in their account of the crea-
tion, and firft ftate of man, blend many fables with the par-
ticulars, which they feem to have borrowed from thc Jewiftl
fcriptures. They fay, that Azrael, notwithftanding the pre-
intimation which he had received of Adam's rebellion, exe-
cuted the conimifllon for creating him, though tlie other
angels to whom it was propofed ■fiad declined the ofiicc, and
for this reafon he was called the angel of death. The earth of
which he was formed was, as they fay, carried into Arabia,
to a place near Mecca, where it was prepared by the angels,
and fafiiioned into the human form by God himfelf. The
angel Eblis, afterwards the devil, dreading a fuperior,
C c 2 ucat;^

ADA

treated the materials of the human frame, which were left to
dry for forty d:iys, or as fo:ne fay, fo many years, with
contempt. The clay, it is faid, was animated by the Al-
mighty, and cr.do-.ved with an inteUigcp.t foul: and Eve
was formed after Adam had been placed in p^radife, out
cf his left fide. This paradife Mohammed conceives not to
Inve been on earth, but in the fcventh heaven. Wlien our
liril parents were call down from para'.iile, Adam is faid
to have falUn on the iflc of Serendib, or Ceylon, and Eve
near Mecca ; and after a fepinitioji of 200 years, they were
conduded to each other by tlic angel Gabriel, on a moun-
tain near Mecca, and afterwards removed to Ceylon, where
they propagated their fpccics. In this illand there is a
mountain called Pico ilc AJam, on which they (liew the
print of Adam's foot, of an enormous fize. Sale's Koran.
c. ii. p. 4. &c. The Rabbins and Muffulmans give ftrange
reports of Adam's knowledge. They afcribe to him
the invention of the Hebrew letters, and a degree of infpi-
ration, which enabled him to write a great number of books
on different fubiecls, particularly one on the, creation, and
another on the Deity. T'hey fay, that h« was the author
ofthe.92d pfalm, which was compofed immediately after
his creation. AVe have alfo an account among the apoci-y-
pl'.al writings of a book called the " Revelations of Adam ;"
and there is another mentioned by pope Gelafius, called
" Adam'a penance."

Adam and Eve are honoured among the Greeks on the
Sunday preceding the feftiral of Chriftmas ; and on Feb. 4.
the firil day of their Lent, they commemorate their exclu-
fion froin paradife with religious mourning and humiliation.
In fomc Latin martyrologies there are fixed days for the
commemoration of Adam ; as March 25, April 24, and
Dec. 24.

Of the opinion of Tatian concerning Adam, fee Ta-

TIANITES.

Adam jMelchior, a wi-iter of the 17th century, was
born in the dil^nct of Grotkaw, in Sikfia, and educated in
the college of Brieg. He was appointed reclor of a col-
lege at Heidelberg, where he publiflied his firll volume of
illuftrious men, " Vitae illuiiriorum virorum," in 1615.
This volume confided of philofophers, poets, writers on
polite literature, hiftorian?, &c. It was fucceeded by an-
other, in 1619, which treated of divines ; by another of
lawyers ; and by a fourth of phyficians, both which were
publilhed in 1620. The fubjefts of thefe volumes were the
lives of learned men, who were either Germans or Flemings
of the i6ih, and beginning of the 17th centuries: in 1618,
he publifntd a volume containing the lives of twenty divines
of other countries. All his divines, however, were pro-
tcftants. The Lutherans thought him partial, and will not
allow his work to be a ilanJard of the learning of Germany.
He wrote other works, fuch as " Apographum monu-
mentorum Heidelbergenfiuni ;" " Notas in orationem J. C.
Scaligeri pro M. T. Cicerone contra Cice-'onianum Erafmi;"
and " Parcdiae et Metaphrafes Horatians." The catalogue
of the Bodleian library afcribes to him the " Hiftoria eccle-
fiail. Hamburg et Bremen." which, according to Mr. Bayle,
•was written by Adam, a canon of Bremen, in the nth
century'. This work begins with the reign of Charlemagne,
and ends in the time of the emperor Henry IV. To this
work is annexed a dtfcription of Denmark, aiid the other
northern kingdoms, with an account of the religion and
manners of the inhabitants. The lail editicm, of it was
printed at Helmlladt, in 4to, in 1670. Bayle gives to
Melchioi- Adnm the charaftcr of an induflaous colleSor,
and acknowledges himfclf much kidebted to his writings. He
died in 1622. Gen. Dift.

ADA

Ajjam, Scotus, a doftor of the Sorbonne, who hvcd
in the 12th centurS'. He was born in Scotland, and edu-
cated in the monaftery of Lindisfarne, now called Holy
Illand, near Berwick upon Tweed. He afterwards went to
Paris, imd became a teacher of fchool divinity in the Sor-
bonne. Towards the clofe of his life he returned to his
native co'jnti-\-, and bi;c;uue a monk, ilrft in the abbey of
Melrofe, and next in that of Durham, where he wrote the
lives of Columbus, and of other monks in the 6th centur)'.
He alfo wrote the life of David I. king of Scotland, who
died in 1 153. His works were printed at Antwerp, in fol.
in 1659. Biog. Dicl.

Adam, Lambert Sigisbert, an eminent f'^ulptor, was
born at Nancy, in 1 700, and finl inilructed by his father,
who exercifcd the fame profeffion. In 17 19, he came to
Paris for farther improvement. From thence he went to
Italy, where he fpent ten years, and fmiflied feveral conC-
dcrable worlis, one of which, i<iz. the relloration of tha
mutilated group cf tlie family of Lycomedes, difeovcred
by cardinal Polignac, in the ruins of the villa of Marius,
gained him great applaufe. He alio formed a model for the
fountain of Trevi, v.hich was much- approved, but he was
prevented from executing it by the jealouiy of the Italians,
After being admitted a member of the academy of St. Luke,
at Rome, he returned to Paris in 1733. Here he executed
feveral defigns for the decorations of palaces, gardens, &c.
of which the moll celebrated are, a group reprefenting the
union of the rivers Seine and Marne, at the cafcade of St.
Cloud, two groups of hunting and fifliing, Neptune calm-
ing the fea, the triumph of Neptune at VerfaiUes, the has
relief of the chapel of St. Adelaide, St. Jerome, Poetiy,
and Mars careffed by Love. In 1 754, he publiflied a col-
lection of ancient Roman and Greek fculpturcs, defigned
by himfelf, and engraved by able artiils, in folio. Excefs
of application brought on an apoplexy, of which he died in
1759. The llyle of his works is harlh and favage, re-
fembUng rocks by thsir deep cavities and afperities ; but
they manifeft an acquaintance with the antique, and furnifh
fpeeimcns of patient thought and labom-. Gen. Biog.

Adam, Nicholas Sebastian, fecond brother of tlis
preceding, was born at Nancy, in 1705. From Paris,
whither he went for improvement, he removed to Rome in
1726, and afliduoudy applied for nine years to the ftudy
and imitation of the antique, devoting his leifure hours to
painting. In 1734, he came to Paris, and by his rrodeis
of CHtie, and the facrifice of Iphigenia, obtained the ap-
plaufe of the academy of painting. He alfo admirably fuc-
ceeded in his model of Prometheus chained to the rock.
His bas-relief for the chapel of VerfaiUes, refpefting the
martyrdom of St. Victoria, is reckoned one of his heft per-
formances. He affiiled his brother in executing the group
of Neotune ; and, in 1740, he obtained the apartment of
the deceafed RoufTeau, in the Louvre, which is a favour
granted onlv to excellent artifts. In 1747, he was urged,
by liberal oiTers, on the pait of Frederick king of Pruffia,
to remove to Berlin. His younger brother, to whom the
offer was made by the elder Adam, accepted the propofal ;
and Nicholas remained at Paris, where he was employed bv
king Staniflaus in executing a monument for his queen in a
maufolcum near Nancy. His laft performance was the Pro-
methcu!', which was greatly admired. This aitill was
eftimable for the fimplicity, integrity, and mildnefs of his
charafter, which conciliated the friendfhip <jf his brother
artiils. He loft his fight feveral years before his deaths
whieh happened in 1778, at the age of 74. Gen. Biog.

Adam, Gaspard, was born at Nancy, in 1710, and
purfued the fame courfe of ftudies with his brothers above-

Dientione-d.

ADA

mentioned. He refided fome years at Paris, and died there
in 1759. Gen. Biog.

A 0 A M of Franltfurt. See E L s h r. i M F. r.

Adam, Rorkrt, an eminent architect, was born in
172t!, at KIrkaldy, in FifcOiirc, and ediurited in thi; iini-
verlity of Edinburgh. Upon his return from Italy, in
1762, he was appointed arehitedl to his inaieily, but re-
figjied this office in 176^*, on being ekitcd to rtprefcnt the
county of Kinrofs in parhament. The geniu'i of jNlr. Adam
extended itfelf beyoiid the decorations of buildings, to vari-
ous branches of manufacture ; and befidea the improvements
which he introduced into th: arehitcAure of the countiv,
he difplayfd great (kill and tafte in his numerous drawings
in landfcape. Such were his alTiduity and aftivity, that in
the year preceding his deathj he deligned eight pubhc, and
tu'enty-iive private buildings. The new univerfity of Edin-
burgh, and many other confiderable edifices were crefted
from his deiigns, and under his direftion ; and they are lad-
ing monuments of his diil.i;!guiflied talents in the line of his
profeihon. He died Marcli 3, 179Z, and his remains were
interred in the fouth aifle of Wcilmiafter Abbey. His bro-
ther, James Adam, who died, October 20, 1 794, was alfo
eminent as an arcliitefl; ; and his abilities are apparent in the
Adelphi buildings, and Portland place, in L,ondo;i.

Adam, in Geo-^rapi:y, a town of European Turkey, in
IN'Ioldavia, ten miles north-north-well of Galatz.

Adam, or Adom, in jincient Geography, a town of Per^a,
on the banks of Jordan, vvhere the river liegan to be dried
up for the paiTage of the Ifraelites over againit Jericho.
Jofliua, ch. iii. 16.

Adam's Apple, in Botany, a fpecies of Citrus.

Adam's Bridge, or, according to Sir William Jones,
Ramos Bridge, in Geography, a ridge of fands and rocks, ex-
tending acrofs the north end of Manara gulf, from the
idand of that name, on the north -well coaft of Ceylon, to
Ramencote, or Ramankoil ifland, oiff Raman point.

Adam's jVW/c, \v\ Botany. See Yucca.

ADAr4's Peah, in Geography, a high mountain in the
ifland of Ceylon, in the form of a fugar-loaf, and terminat-
ing in a circular plain about 2C0 paces in diameter. , The
fummit is covered with trees, and interfered with ftreams,
and has aifo a deep lake, which fupplies the principal rivers
that water the illand. This mountain is feen at the diilance
of twenty leagues at fea ; but though its height is confi-
derable, it is not equal to that of the Pic of Tcneriife. Lat.
S° S'i'- Long. 80° 39'. See Adam.

AD AM A . See A D M A H .

Adam a, a high mountain in Abyffinia, being one of the
ridges of the range of mountains called Amid Amid.

ADAMAH, one of the fenced cities belonging to the
tribe of Nephtali, mentioned Jofliua xix. 36. and called by
the Seventy Armaith, and by the Vulgate Edema. It was
alfo called Nec:h.

ADAMANT, Adam as, \n Natural Hiflory, an ancient
name for a precious ftone, by us called a diamond. Ada-
ijias is ufed by fome ancient naturallfls for the fpume or
fcoria of gold, wliich, not being malleable, is call a«ay.
This is particularly'' called Xft^cra aJcstf^ov'ja, and is miftj.ken
by Pliny for a gem of that name. Mr. Boyle more parti-
cularly gives the denomination adamas lucidus to a diamond'
in his poflefllon, which had the property of fhining in the
dark, hnce difcovercd. in many others, at leaft when excited
byfriition. See Eoyle's v-'orksby Birch, vol. i. p. 452. 796.

Adamant is alfo ufed for a fpecies of iron, denoting the
hardeft, or moft highly tempered part of it. This is lome-
times called the adamantine part of iron.

Adamant is fometimes alfo ufed for the Magnet, or

ADA

load-flone ; in which fenfe Skinner tiiinks it may be derived
from the French aimant, which lignifies tlie fame.

ADAMANTII, \n EcclefiaJUcal Hi/lory, a name given
by fome Chrillian hiftorians to the followers of Origen, fur-
named AJamanlius, on account of liis indefatigable iiiduftry
in reading and writing, or the llrcngth and acutenefs of his
reafoning, according -..> fome ; or rather, as Heuman fays,
becaufc his name wa^i Adamantius ; however, Eiifcbius favs,
(lib. vi. cap. 14.) this was a common name given to Ori-
gen, without afligning any reafon for it. There was an-
other perion named yJdairiarliii:, and mentioned by I .ardner
(works. Vol. iv. p. 295.) as the author of a dialogue agaiiilt
tiie Marcionites, which he places about the year 330.

ADAMANTEA, in Mythology, the nurfcof Jupiter
in Crete.

ADAMANTINE SPAR, Spalh adamanlinr.—CmiH-
dum. — Nellu corivindum. — TeUa cstivindum. — Corone. — Poti-
J'a. Adamatitintis Corundum. Linn. This itone is found either
cryftalli/ed or in mafs. When cryftallized its ufiial form
is that of a regular heitacdral prifni (CRYSTAi.i.ocRAPHy,
plate i. fig. I.) of a rough furface, and but little i xtemal
lultre ; this, however, being ineapablt of being fplit in a
direction either perpendicular or parallel to its axis, is ob-
vioully not tlie primitive cryllalline figure belonging to this
fubftance. Cryllals of adamantine fpar are occafionally met
with, which, inllead of folid angles at thejunttion of the
fides of the prifm with the planes of the extremities, pre-
fent alternate ifofceles triangles of diiTercnt fizcs, but all
forming foUd angles of 122'^. 34'. with the extre.Tic planej
of the ciyllal (fig. 2.): if by following this indication of na-
ture we detach fucceffively the cr^-ftailine laminse, we fhail
at l;ngth entirely lofe the hexaedral prifm, and (hall have in
iis place a rhomboidal parallelepiped (fig. 3.) of wliich the
plane angles at the rhombs will be 86"". and 94°. ; the folid
angles at the fummit will meafure 84°. 31'. and that at the
reunion of the bafe will be 95°. 29'. Alfo, the diameter G H
will be to the whole height E F as A B to B F (fig. I.) The
parallelepiped thus obtained, can be fplit only, in a diredtion
parallel to its faces,and muft therefore always preferve the fame
form, which is that of the nucleus or primitive cryftal. In
fome inftances the folid angles of the prifin are replaced by
ifofceles triangular planes, as in fig. 2. but which form folid
angles of 160''. 42'. with the planes of the extremities:
hence refidts a new modification which fiiews itfelf in the
cryllalline varieties (fig. 4, 5, 6.) A third modification is
produced by the gradual decreafe in diameter of the hexae-
dral prifm ; the varieties of this clafs are moftly irregular, but
fome fpecimeas exhibit a regular truncated hexaedral pyra-
mid (fig. 7.).

Corundum cryflals are procured from China and India ;.
tliofe from the latter country are in general the pureil. Of
the Indian variety the-' colo-.ir is grey, with fiiades of "rcen
and light brown ; its fracture is foliated and fpany, fome-
times vitreouv ; its external lullre is cauial, hut gi:nernlly
vciy flight, that of its crofs frafture is feeblcj. but whea
broken in the direftion of its laminx, it is refplendcnt ; in
thin pieces, and at the edges cf the cryllals it is femitran-
fparent ; it is brittle, and of fuch great hardnefs as to cut
rock-crvllal and moft of the gems. Sp. Grav. from 3. tjjo
to 3. 959. The Chinefe variety difieis from the Indian in
containing grains of magnetic iron ore dilfeminated through
its fubilaiice ; in being generally of a darker colour and
having- externally a chatoyant luftre : its fpccific gravity iii
rather greater, aod its hardnefs is commonly fomtwhat in-
ferior. There are two varieties known of conindum in
mafs, that from Bengal is of a purplifh hue, and compart
fradturc, fp. gr. 3. 876. It is called by the natives coroiiL ;

that

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that from the coafi. of Coromandcl is of a foliated texture,
and feems in fail to be confuftdly ciyftallized, but its Ip.
gr. is only 2. 785.

Adamantine fpar is ufed throughout India and China for
the purpofc of polilhing fteel and gems, for wliich its great
hardnefs renders it pecuharly well adapted. Of the mines
of this (lone, and the method of proecring it in China and
Bengal we have no account, but fome intcrefting topo-
graphical information refpeiling the conmdum of the coaft
was procured by Mr. Grtville in 1792. In the Myiore
countiy, about four miles fouth of the river Cavery not far
from Caranel, is an excavation from i\\ to (ixteen feet deep,
running eaft and well about a mile and a half in the direc-
tion oT a vein of adamantine fpar that traverfes a hill of
grittv granite. The matrix of th.e vein co:iiifts of granitic
fragments cemented by corundum ; mafies of this, weighmg
fcveral pounds, are cut out with iron crows, and then
broken to pieces, among which the ciyllals of corundum are
found : thefe are loaded on horfes and bullocks, and diftri-
buted to the call of likuldars or polimers thvoughout Ir.dia;
its price, at Madras, is about fix (hillings a pound.

This mineral appears to have been fiill brought into
Europe by Mr. Bulkley, a correfpoiident of Dr. Woodward,
wiio, in his catalogue of foreign foiTils, pv.blilhed about 17 19,

'is found in

ADA

earth, or a new fimple earth with peculiar properties. In
this llate of the inquiiy Mr. Kirwan, and feveral other emi-
nent cbemiils, were induced to confider the adamantine fpar
as containing an earthy?// gtnerls, which was called the ada-
matilini; or corundum earth. Soon after Klaproth, having
improved his method of analyfis by the ufe of caullic pot-
alh as a fc^lvent, undertook a fecond time the analyfis of this
uncommonly refra£lo)-y foflil in which he complcatly fuc-
ceedcd, reducing the fuppofed adamantine earth to aiuraine
and filex.

The Chinefe fpar yielded

Alumine - - - - 84 .

Oxyd of iron - - - 7.5

bilex ----- 6.5

corivtiUiUm

has the following notices : " Nella
fields where the rice grows ; it is commonly thrown up by
ficld-rats, and ufed as we do emery, to polifii iron." —
" Telia convindum. Fort St. George, Mr. Bulkley. It is a
talky fpar, grey with a call of green ; it is ufed to polifh
rubies and diamonds." In Dr. Woodward's additional ca-
talogue of foreign foflils, 1 725. " Nella corhnndum is
found by digging at the foot of hills about five hundred
miles to the i'outhward of this place. They ufe it as emery
to clean arms, &c. it ferves alfo to grind rubies by making
it like hard cement by the help of ilick lac mixed with it.
Eaft India. Mr. Bulkley." From this time no farther
infoiTnation was obtained concerning it tiU about 1767,
when Mr. Berry, feal engraver of Edinburgh, received from
Dr. Andcrfon of Madras a box of cryilals, with information
of their being the material ufed by the Indian lapidaries to
polilh ci-yilal and all gems but diamonds. They were
found by Mr. Berry to cut agate, cornelian, &c. but for
minute engraving were not equal to diamonds, in confc-
«juence they were laid afide as cunofitics. Dr. Black afccr-
tained their difference from all the known European mine-
rals, and their hardnefs gained for thtm the name of ada-
mantine fpar. In 1784, Mr. Greville obtained fpeciniens
from India, together with the native name corunduyr., which
iifcertained their identity with Dr. Woodward's fpecimens.
Adefcription of its external eharafters by M. de La Metherie
and Hauy appeared in the Journal de phyf.que for January and
March 1787. Its chemical compofition, however, ftill re-
mained unknown till Klaproth was enabled, by the hbe-
rality of Mr. Greville, in facrificing fome fpecimens for the
purpofe, to undertake its analyfis. The extreme hardnefs
of the adamantine fpar, rendered the firft attempt to decom-
pofe it imperfeft : by the ftrongeft nitro-murlatic acid, no-
thing was feparated but the iron, which is accidentally dif-
fufed through the Chinefe variety, and after this the moft
concentrated acids were digefted upon it in vain. Carbo-
nated potalli ignited together with it for two hours, was
perfectly ineffedlua!, and even eleven times repeated calcina-
tion and fufion with cau.lic foda produced cnlj' a partial
decompcfition. Th.e refi-Jts of the iiril analyfis were prin-
cipally aluminous ca'th, together with a n-iatter that ap-
peared to be either a mixture of ahiminous aad filiceous

Lofs -

That from Bengal gave
Alumin; - - -
0<yd of iron
Silex - - - -

Lofs -

98. o

89.5
1 . 25

5 • 5

96. 25
3 -IS

The Philofophical Tranfaclions for 1798 contain a valu-
able paper on corundum by Mr. Greville, which is the lafh
addition that has been m.ade to our inform?.tion on this fub-
jccl ; we here find the firft authentic account of the corun-
diuu mine in the Myiore, the charafteriilic differences be-
tween the Chinefe and Indian varieties, the ciyilallography
of the mineral by Count Bournon, and a comparifon be-
tween the characlers of corundum, topaz, ruby, and

S A P P H I EL K .

Coi-undum is faid to have been found in France, in the
Forez, by Count Bournon, and in Brctagne by Morveau ;
of thefe, however, the latter at leaft is faid by Hauy (Jour-
nal des Mines.) to be titanite. Perhaps a mineral found
by M. Rafpe at Tiree, one of the richrides, which was
fuppofed by him to be Jade, belongs moi e properly to ada-
mantine fpar ; its fpecific gravity is 3 . 049, and in hardnefs
it coirefponds with the matrix of corundum, that is, it will
fcratch glafs readily, but not rock-ciyilal. GreviUe on
corundum, Philof. Tranf. for 1798. Kirwan's Mineralogy,
vol. i. art. Adamantine Spar. — Klaproth's Analytical
Effays.

ADAMANTINiE Terrx, in the Linnxan fyftem of
Mineralcgy, denote the lixth order of earths; which are
chiefly compofed of adamantine earth. To this order be-
longs one fpecies, which is the adamantlnus or corundum.

ADAMARA, in Geography, a diftrift of Abyffinia, near
the province of Waldubba, containing feveral confiderable
villages, that are inhabited by Mahometans ; who by their
number and ftrength contribute to the fafety of the monks
in that part of the country. It is fo called from ytdama,
which in the Amharic dialect fignifies pleafant, the name of
an adjacent mountain. The river An-^o runs in a contigu-
ous valley. Bruce's Trav. vol. iii. p. 1 79.

ADAMAS, in AJlrohgy, a name given to the m.oon.

Adamas, in Geography, a town of Cordova in Spain,
fevcn leagues from Cordova, Adamas is a.'fo a river of India,
the fource of which Ptolemy places in Mount Uxentus, and
its mouth in N. lat.' 18°, 7'. and long. 142°. 4'.

ADAMEEA,

ADA

ADAMBEA, in Bctany, a geinis of tlic pohamtiHi
monotrynia elafs and order ; the charailers of vvliidi are,
that the corolla has from five to fevtn petals, the calyx is
hemilpheric, and parted into five or le\-en divifioiis; the
capfula is flefhy, covered by the calyx, containing five or
fevcn cells, and polyfpcnnous, Gmclin mentions one
fpecies ; but La Maick (Eneycl. vol. i. p. 39.) defcribcs
two, viz. A.gbbra, which grows on the coall of Malabar,
in ia.ndy and llony !>laces, rifes to about fevcn feet, and fends
forth branches which arc ttniiinated by panicles of fine
purple flowers, large, and refembling rofes ; and /I. hlrfutii,
which grows on the mountains of Sinlabar to tlie height cf
about nine feet ; its branches of flowers refemble thofe of
the former fpecies.

ADAMl, in Geography, a town of Jndah, in the tribe of
Nephthali. Jofhua xix. 33.

ADAMI, I'oinum, in Anatomy, a protuberance in the
fore -part of the throat. Some fancy, that it is thus called
upon a ftrange conceit, tliat a piece of the forbidden apple,
which Adam eat, Ihick by the way, and was the occafion
of it. In reality it is only the convex part of the firil car-
tilage of the lai-ynx, called fcutiformis and thyroides. This
is ufually larger in the male than in the female fij;)^ieft.

The name, Adam's apple, is alio given to a kind of fruit
frequent in Italy, refembling a lemon, faid to be a good re-
medy^ againfl the itch. See Citrus.

ADAMIC Earth, is a name which fome have given
fo common clay, called alfo tena zoica, rubella, and lutum.
Woodw. Method. Fod". p. 4. The occafion of the name
is fuppofed to be, that this is taken for the adam:ih, or
ruddy earth, of which the firil man was formed. This ap-
phcation is likewife given to the mud depofited bvfea-water,
which is a fediment of the mofl flimy and unttuous parts
contained in it.

ADAMITES, or Adamiaxf, in Ecckfwfical H'ipry,.
a feft of perfons who took upon ti.em to imitate the naked-
nefs of Adam ; as if man had been reinftated in his origi-
nal innocence. They are fuppofed to have been a branch
of the Carpocratians and Basilidians. Prodicus was
their author, according to the account given byTheodoret;
though, according to Tertullian and Clement of Alexan-
dria, the followers of Prodicus were never called by this
name. Epiphanius is the firft writer who fpeaks of the
Adainites, and he places them towards the end of the fecond
eentury.

He profefles to have no certain account of thefe people ;
but he lays, that they met together, both men and wom.en,
naked as they were born ; and fo performed their readings
and prayers and other aSs of religious worfhip. They are
a kind of monks, who rejcft marriage, and they call their
church a paradife. When they approached tl'.eir places
of worfliip, which were made warm for their accommodation,
thev took off their clothes ; and when they left them, they
clothed themfclves again. Dr. Lafdner is of opinion that
there never were any fuch people ; and to this purpofe lie
alledsTcs, that they are not mentioned by anv aneient v.riter
before Epiphanius, and that lie had no certain account of
them ; nor does he give the leaft intimation of the counti-y
or period in which this feft appeared. He does indeed lav,
that the Gnollics prayed naked ; but they were a v>'icked
people, and praftifed lewdnefs in their afferablies ; whereas
he reprefents the Adanxi'es as endeavouring to imitate Adam
and Eve, not only in their nakednefs, but likewife in the in-
noccr.ce of their original ftate. But Dr. Lardncr thinks
that Epiplianius's charge againft the Gnoftics is not true.
Theodoret's account of this feet was boiTOv/ed from Epi-
phanius, as he l:ad no knowledge of Prodicus, the vepuicd

ADA

founder of it, liut wliat he received from Clement of Alex-
andria, who does not fay any fuch thing of him. Befidcs,
it is faid that Prodicus was againll praying at all ; and
therefore the Adamite cuftom of praying naked could not
be derived from him. Lardner's Works, vol. ix. 337—

340-

A fimilar fefl :.ppcared in the twelfth century, under the
direiSion of one 'I'andamus, known by the name of Tan-
chelin, who propagated his errors at Antwerp in the reign
of the emperor Henry V. This was followed by the

TuRLllPlNS.

In the fifteenth century Picard pretended to rc-cftablini
the law of nature, wliich, according to him, confiftcd in two
things, viz. connnunity of women and nakednefs. His fol-
lowers are faid to have walked naked in the public places ;
whereas the onginal Adamites only put off their clotiies in
their alfemblics. See 13eghards, liRtTHREN o/" /Zif yVc-f-
/■/:rit, and Pi cards.

An ingenious writer, viz. Beaufobre, has fliewn that the
A(liuni:':j'm, i. c. the nakednefs of thefe people, is a mere
calumny, forged by their adverlaries, the Cahxtines and
Papirts, at the time when the Vaudois firil appeared in that
country. See Beaufiibre's DiiTertation at the end of L'En-
fant's Hiftoiy of the Warof tlie Huflites, and Bayle'sDidl.
Art. Adamitfs, PicARDS and Prodicus.

Jovet and Morcri fpeak of Adamites in England ; and
indeed the Romilh and reformed mutually reproach each
other with having Adamites among them.

Adamites, a name alfo given by fome writers to the
firil patriarchs, the fons or delcendants of Adam by Seth ;
in which fenfc Adamites a e the famd with Sethitcs, and
Hand diftinguiflicd from Cainites. There are various
traditions concerning the quaiTcls, wars, &c. between the
Adamites and Cainites.

Adamites, Pre. See Prf.-Adamites.
ADAMS, in Ciogrcphy, a towrifiiip of Berkfiiirc county in
theMafiTachufetSjGontaining 2040 inhabitants, about i4omik3
north-weil of Bollon. In the northern part of this dillridl, the
mill-ftream, called Hudfon's Brook, which rifes in Ver-
mont, and falls into the north branch of Hoofuck river,
has formed a deep channel, about 30 or 40 rods in length,
and in fome places 60 feet deep, through a quarry of white
marble ; and over this channel the rocks form a natural
bridge, about 1 2 or 15 feet long, 10 broad, and 62 feet
above the water.

ADAMSDORF, a town in Germany, in the Circle of
Upper Saxony ; one league eafl of Eippehne.

ADAMSON, Patrick, in Biography, a Scots prelate, ■
who was born March 15, 1536, at Perth, of mean but
honeft parents, and had his collegiate education at the uni-
verfity of St. Andrew's, where he obtained the degree of
Mafler of Arts. In 1566, he fet out for Pans as tutor to
a young gentleman ; and here he wrote a Latin poem on
occafion of t .1.' i-irth of the prince, who was afterwards James
VI. of Scotb.nd, and firfi; of England. In this poem lie
gave the titles of France and England to his own prince, which
cffended the French court, and occafioned his arreft and con-
finem.cnt. As foon as he was relcaf d, he retired with his pu[>il
to Bcurges, the c:ip:tal of the duchy of Beny. During the
mafTEcrc at Paris, he was concealed in tiiis place, and veiy
mu-rowiy efcaptd fuffering martyrdom for the protcftant re-
ligion. In his fepulchre,' as he called it, he wrote two ex-
cellent La!;n poems, which are Hill extan.t, t/c. a poetical
\CTfion of the ht^ck of Job, and the tragedy of Herod,
who was fmitten by an angel. In 1 573, he returned to Scot-
land and entered into holy orders, and officiated as minilter
of PaiHey. In 1575) he was appointed one of the com-

iiiillionei'S

ADA

mifiion.M-3 for fellliiig tlic jurifdiftion and policy of tlic
rliurch, by tlie Gemral Ailcmbly ; and being in the next year
tlcputed to report tlicir proceedings to the Earl of Morton,
then regent, he was named by tlais nobleman ai one of his
chaplains, and afterwards nvivanced by him to the archbi-
flioprlc of St. Andrew';;. I'his preferment fubjetted him
to various difputes with the General Aifembly, which con-
tinued for fe\eral years. lu 1577, he compoleda cateclnim
iji Latin verfes for the ul'e of the young piince, which was
iiiuch admired and applauded in England, France and the
Low Countries, wiicre the author was already known by
his Latin tranflation of the Confeifion of Faith, which was
printed in France, during his relidence in Fiance, at tlie
hazard of his life. In 1582, he was feized with a dlfordcr,
for the relief of which he took fojne imiple medicine that
was recommended to him by an old woman. This woman
cas ciiarged with witchcraft, and within three or four years
executal at Edinburgh ; and the prelate was traduced by
his enemies for applying to the devil in order to fave his life.
Tiie archbifliop, however, recommended himfelf to the fa-
vour of king James V'L by zealoully defending the epifca-
pal order ; and he was fent as his ambafladov to queen Eli-
zabeth, which office required his relidence in London for
ibme years. Q^ieeu Elizabeth was jealous of his populari-
ty, as a preacher, and dreading the impreflions which he
made on the minds of the people in favour of the young
king, his mafter, prohibited his preaching during his Jlay
in her dominions. Soon after the execution of the firft earl
of Cowrie, viz. in 1584, the archbilhop was recalled, and
fat in the parliament held at Edinburgh, and concun-ed in
cnatling feveral laws for fettling the peace of the kingdom,
and for eftabTilhing the king's authority in ecclefiaftical of-
fices. Many attempts were Hill renewed for degrading his
reputation, and making him odious to the people ; nor was
the royal declaration of the reafons which induced thofe
laws, fufiicient to reitrain them. At a provincial fynod,
held at St. Andrew's in 1586, the prelate was accufed and
excommunicated ; but upon his fubmiflion at the next Ge-
neral Affembly at Edinburgh, he was abfolved from the ex-
communication. Li 1588, a commiflion was granted by the
General Affembly, before which he was cited, for tr^-ing him
on account of various crimes, with which he was charged.
In the beginning of next year, he pubUfhed the Lamenta-
.tions of Jeremiah in Latin verfe, which he dedicated to the
king, and in which he complained of his hard ufage : and
at the clofe of the year he publilhed a fmiilar tranflation of
the Apocalypfe, together with a copy of Latin verfes, ad-
drefTed to his Majefty, and deploring his diilrefs. His ap-
plication, however, was of no avail. The revenue of his
fee was granted to the duke of Lenox, and the prelate, with
his family, were literally reduced to the want of bread.
The fcanty relief he obtained was procured for him in the
moll humiliating manner ; fo that he lingered out a moft
chearlefs exiftence till the latter end of the year 159 1. His
charafter has been vei-y differently appreciated by perfons
of difcordant fentlments in religion and politics. It is ge-
nerally allowed that he fupported, under the authority of
the king, oppreffive and injurious meafures ; arni that his
bigotiy and timidity involved him in the difficulties and dif-
grace which beclouded the clofe of his life. Duriug the
reverfe of his condition and the trials with which he \vas
exercifed, he manifefted fentiments of pious refignation. Of
his learning there is no qiiellion ; and he is faid to have been
one of the moll polite prelates of the age in which lie lived.
Befides thofe pious works, which were coUefted and publifhed
iii a 4to. volume, by Mr. Wilfon, this prelate wrote many
things which were never publilhed ; fuch as fix books on the

ADA

Hebrew republic, various iranflations of the propliets into
Latin verfe, preleftions on St. Paul's epiilles to Timotliy,
various apologetical and funend orations, and a very candid
hiilory of Iiis own times. Blog. Brit.

ADAMSTOV.i'N, in Geo'^rciphy, a town of Lancafler
county in Penfylvania, confiiling of about 40 houfes ; 20
miles iiorth-eall of Lancafler.

ADAMUS, in Alchemy, is ufed to fignify the phi-
lofopher's flon$;, which perfons addicled to this kind of
feiencc call aa animal, and, as they fay, has carried its
invilible Eve in its bt>dy, ever lince they were united by the
creator.

ADANA, in Geography, a town of Natolla, or Afia
Minor, in the province of Caramania. It is iituated on the
river Choquen ; on the banks of which, is a finall but llrong
calllc, eredled upon a rock. The water of the river is
brought to the town by means of water-works, which con-
vey it into the feveral fountains ; and a bridge of 15
arches leads to thefe works. The climate is healthy, and
the winter mild ; but the fumiuer is fo hot as to render it
neceffary for the inhabitants to retire to the neighbouring
mountains, and to flicker themlelves in groves and grottoes.
The adjacent countiy is rich and fertile, and produces
melons, cucumbers, pomegranates, pulfe rmd herbs of all forts
through the year ; betides corn, wine and fruits in their
proper fcafon. Adana is much reforted to by the inhabi.
tants of the other towns of Cilicia, efpecially from the
mountain fide, for its wines, corn and other fruits, which
are hence difperfed into the moil bairen parts. It is about
^o miles north-call of Tarfus. N. lat. 38° 10'. E. long,
36= 12'. _

Adana, in Anc'isnt Geography. See Aden.

ADANATES, a people of the Cottian Alps, called by
Phny Edenales.

ADA_NI Iiifuls, two iflands of the Red Sea, according
to Ptolemy.

ADANO, fee Sturgeon.

ADANSON, Michael, in Biography, was born at Aix
in Provence, in April 1727, and at a proper age he was fent to
Paris, where he profecuted his ftudies in medicine, botany,
and allronomy with fingular zeal. He was a pupil of the
Celebrated Reaumur. In the year 1748, be went to Se-
negal, where he fpent fix years in examining the produftions
found in the neighbourhood of the famous river of that
name. In return for fome valuable communications refpeft-
ing the geography of the country, and on the plants and
animals he had difcovercd there, which he fent to the Royal
Academy, he was made one of their con-efponding mem-
bers. On the death of Reaumur, in the year 1759, he was
eledled a member in his place, and about the fame time was
made honorary member of the Royal Society of London,
At the end of fix years, he returned to Paris, where he
publiflied his Hiftoire naturelle du Seneg:d, 4to. containing
obfervations on the difeafes incident to hot cKmates ; and
in 1763, his Famille des Plantes, 2 vol. 8vo.

In February 1775, he prefented to the academy a plan of
a natural hiflory which he did not live to perfeft. The
time of his death, which happened foon after, is not precife-
ly kriown.

ADANSONIA, in Botany, the name of which is derived
fromMr. Adanfon, above mentioned, is a genus of the mouadel-
ph:a order znUi polyamlna clafs,and belongs to the natural order
oi colummfera ■d.wA. Mal-vaccie oi ^m'&s.Vl. Its charaClers are, that
the calyx is a one-leafed femiquinquefid, cyathiform perlan-
thium, with divifions revohrte, and deciduous; the corolla
confifts of five, roundifli, nerved, revolute petals, connetled
b^ the claws with eacii other, and the llamina ; the flamina

have

ADA

ADD

have numerous filaments united at bottoir. into a tube, wlilth
they crown, expanding hori/onlally : the pillilhim has an
ovate germ, very long, tubulous and varioully intorted llylc ;
the ftigmata are many (lo) prifmatic, villous and radiate-
expanded : the pericarpium is an ovate, woody, not gaping,
ten-celled (from lo to 14) capl'ule, with farinaceous pulp,
and the partitions membranaceous: the feeds are numerous,
kidney-lhaped, rather bony, and involved in a friable pulp.
The Ailanfoma d'lgitata, Ethiopian four-gourd, or Monkics'
bread, called alio Abavo, Cluunabanus and Baobab, is the
only known Ipecies of this genus. See Baobab.

ADAOUS, in Geoaraphy, a people of Africa, rcfiding
on the ivory coail in the kingdom of Sacca.
ADAPTER, in Chemi/h-)'. Sec AnorrrR.
ADAR, in the He/'rciv Chronology, the 12th month of
the ecclcfiailieal year, and the 6th of the civil year. It
contains only 29 days, and anfwers to our February, and
fometimes enters into the month of March, according to
the courfe of the moon. On the 7th and 13th days of this
month, the Jews obferve two fails ; the former on account
of the death of Mofes, and the latter called that of Ellher,
in commemoration of the conipiracy of Haman. On the
gth they have a fall in commemoration of the fchifm be-
tween the fchools af Shamniai and Hilltl. The 12th is a
feail in honour of two profelytes at Laodicea, who pre-
ferred death to the violation of the law ; fome obferve the
13th as a feail in memory of the death of Nicanor, an ene-
my of the Jews. The fealls of Purim are celebrated on the
14th and 15th days ; the leffer on the 14th (Eilhei ix. 21.)
and the greater on the 15th day. The 17th is obferved in
commemoration of the Sages of Ifrael, who efcaped from
Koflik, a city of Arabia, whither they were driven by the
perfecution of Alexander Jannacus. The 20th is obferved
as a feaft in remembrance of the rain obtained in a time of
drought, during the reign of this prince. The dedication of
the temple of Zenibbabel wason the 23d day, Ezravi. 16. ;
and the 28th was obfei-vtd in commemoration of the repeal of
the decree by which the kings of Greece had forbidden the
Jews to circumcife their children, to obferve the fabbath,and
to decline foreign worfhip. Selden de Syned. 1. iii. c. 13.
Megillat. Taanith et Gemara.

As the lunar year is (horter than the folar by 1 1 days,
which in three years amount to about a month, the Jews
then infert a 1 3th month, which they call v E ad ar, or a fecond
Adar, confilling of 29 days. This intercalation poftpones
the great fcafts, &c. a whole month.

Adar, in Geography, a city in the tribe of Judah.
Jofhua XV. 3. Eufebius places another town of this name
in the neighbourhood of Lidda or Diofpolis, in the diftridl
of Thamna.

ADARCE, in the Materia Medka of the ancients, a
faltifh humour, concreting about the (lalks of reeds and
other vegetable matter, in form of incrullations. The an-
cients fpeak of adarce, as chiefly produced in Cappadocia
and Galatia, though we alfo read of it in Italy ; and alfo of a
native kind produced in Indian reeds, much as fugar in the
cane. Its colour is like that of the fine powder of the
Aflian ftone, or Sarcophagus, and its fubllance is lax and
porous, much like the bullard fponge ; fo that it might be
called the baftard fponge of the marlhcs. It is a topic
adapted to rub and fcour the fl<in in a leprofy, fun -burning,
tetters, freckles, and fimilar blemifhes, being on the whole
of an acrimonious quality. Dr. Plot dcfcribes it in his na-
tural hiftory of Oxfordfliire.

The incrullations often feen about our fprings, are very
different in their nature and (juahties from the ailanc of the
Greek phyficians.
Vol. I.

Adarci, in Natural Hijhry, a name given by fomc
writers to the ckulepora fpnn^tta of Linnxuj.

ADARCON, Aclarcnmm, an ancient coin mentioned in
fcripture, ufually of gold, derived, as fomc think, from thole
gold pieces coined by Darius, called oapi;^ci. SccDaric.
l^Iollus makes the adareon only equal to the attic drachma ;
but Eifhop Cumberland, after the fcholialU of Arillophancj
and Harpocration, twice as much.

ADARE, in Geography, a fmall town in the county of
Limerick in Ireland, whicli was once fortified.

ADARl, a town, according to Ptolemy, of Arabia
Felix.

ADARINA, a town of India, .according to Ptolemy.

ADARMK, in Commerce, a finall Spanifli weight ufed
through their American provinces, equal to the iixteenth
part of an ounce. Stephens renders it in Enghlh by a
dram.

ADAROPOLIS, AJ2f!«ro^l,-, AJarl ctvitns, a city in
the Perfian gulf.

ADARTICULATION is ufed by fome analowijl; for
apvfa.'Ji», by others for JtapSpuo-ij. See Arthrodia and

DlARTHROSIS.

ADAS A, or A Jar/a, in Anc'irnI Geography, a city of
Palelline, in the tribe of Ephraim, four miles from Bethoron,
and not far from Gophna. i Maccab. vii. 4J. This place
is called Adazar, and Adaco or Acedofa, by Jofcphus.
Here Nicanor, with 35,000 men, was overcome and routed by
Judas Maccabseus, with an army of 3000. We learn from
Jofcphus, that Judas, in another war, was killed in this place.
Jofeph. Ant. 1. xii. c. 17. and de Bell. 1. i. c. 1.

ADASATRA, or AiUfaihrnn, a town according to
Ptolemy, and according to others a mountain of India.
The middle of this mountain is placed by Ptolemy in lat.
23°. and long. 132°.

ADATAIS, or Adatys, in Commerce, a muflin or
cotton cloth very fine and clear, of which the piece is ten
French ells long, and three quarters broad. This muflin
comes from the Eail Indies, and the fineil from Bengal.

ADATES, in Ancient Geography, a town of Pifidia in
Afia Minor.

ADATTHA, a town of Afia, not far from the Eu-
phrates. In Ptolemy's charts, it is weit of the moimtains
which feparate, to the fouth-eaft, Cappadocia from Coma*
gene, in lat. 37° 30'. long. 69° 30'.

ADAYES, in Hydrography. See Mexicano river.

ADCHER, in tlie Materia Medica, a name given by
Avicenna and Serapion to the sc;enanth, or camel's hay.
The Arabians have not rellridled this word to thcfcrnanth
alone, but cxprefs by it all the kinds of ru/lies. Thus
Avicenna tells us, that the Adcher is of two kinds, the one
bearing no fruit, the other bearing a hard black fruit : thi'j
plainly belongs not to the fcasnanth, but to the common
rufh, of which Diofcorides ha^, in the fame manner, dc-
fcribed two kinds, thus differing from (me another.

ADCORDABILES denarii, in ancient J.a-w-l>o')h,
denote money paid by the vaffal to his lord, in the nature of
a fine, upon the fale or exchange of a feud. The word is
fonned from accorder, to agree.

ADCRESCENTES, in the Roman empire, the fame
with AccENSi.

ADDA, or Addua, in Geography, a river of Switzer-
land and Italy, which rifes in Mount Brauiio, on the con-
fines of the Grifons, and, paffnig through the V;dtcline,
traverfes the lake Como, and the Milanefe, and falls into the
Po near Cremona. A canal has been carried from the city
of Milan to the Adda. Hillory records a famous battle
Dd on

ADD

ADD

on the banks of tliis river, in which Flaminius was viif^o-
riov;s over the Infubrian Gauls.

Adda is alfo the name of n fmall diftiid in the duchy of
Milan, where Louis XII. gained a victory over the Vene-
tians in 1509.

Adda, El, in Zoology, a fpecies of fmall lizard defcribed
by Mr. Bruce, and reprefentcd as a native of Atbara be-
yond the rains, in the iituation to which he refers the an-
cient ifland and city of Meroe. Its length is iix inches
and a half : its body is round and tail of the fame form, but
Tei y (harp pointed : its forehead is flat, of a conical fiiape, and
rounded at the end : the head is darker than the body, and
its face covered with black lines crofTing one another at
rii^ht angles : its eyes are fmall, and defended by a number
of llrong black hairs which ferve for eye-lalhes : its upper
j:iw projefts beyond the under, and its jaws are furnithed
v.-ith leveral fnort and line teeth : its ears are large, open,
and nearly round : its body is of a light yoUow colour,
croffed with eight black bands : the fcales are clofc, and
largell along the back, and their furface is polifhed : its legs
from the flioulder to the middle toe are near one and three-
fonrths of an inch long, and its feet have five toes, each of
which is fnrnilhcd witli a brown claw tipt at its end with
black. Its motion is very fwift, though it crawls with its
belly almoft clofe to the ground. It burrows in the fund,
but comes out in the heat of the day to baflv in the fun ;
and when it is not much frightened, it will flielter itfelf be-
hind ftones, or in the withered roots of the ablinthium when
they are dried fo as to be nearly of its own colour. This is
one of the few hzards which the Arabs believe to be free
from poifonous qualities, and they afcribe to it many medi-
cinal virtues. It is thought to be a certain remedy for the
elephantialis ; and to be efficacious in cleanfing the Ikin of
the'body and the face, from cutaneous eruptions ; and it is
alfo ufed againft films and fuffufions of the eyes. Such are
the virtues afcribed to it by Arabian authors.

ADDACA, in Geography, a town according to Ptolemy
ef Mefopotamia.

ADD ACE, in Zoology, the name by which the Africans
call the common Antelope.

ADDiEA, in Anc'mit Geography, a town of Afia in the
fouthern part of Mefopotamia, near the Euphrates ; placed
by Ptolemy in lat. 34°, and long. 77° ij', and probably
the fame with Anatho.

ADDjEUS, a river of Afia, which is fuppofed to be
the Anamis of Arrian, and the AnJanis of Ptolemv.

ADDEPHAGIA, compounded of aji'», ;n;.rZ.,'and yx^*-,
J cat, in Medicine, ;t term ufed by fome phyficians to denote
a greedinefs in children, whereby they load themfelves with
new food, before the old is digelled. Some ufe Addephagia
in a more extenfive fenfe for voracioufncfs in general, fo as
to comprehend the Bulimia, Pica, and Malacia.

ADDER, in Zoology, a venomous reptile of the ferpent
kind, more ufually calkd a viper. See Coluber. The
miller is fometimes confounded with afp : thus the deaf
adder, fpoken of in the Englilh Bible, is not properly the
adder, but the afp. C'almet.

The adder differs from the fnake, as the former is much
{Iiorter for its bulk, and efpeeially its tail below the vent ;
that it is marked on the back with black lines or fpots,
which the fnake has not ; that its belly is blackifli, and of one
colour, whereas the fnake's is party-coloured, of a pale yellow
and blue; that it never grows to the fize of fome fnakes ;
and laftly, that it is viviparous, whereas the fnake is ovi-
parous.

AoDEa, Sea, in Ichthyology, the Englifti name of the
SvNCNATHUs TyfHLE. See Sea-adder.

2

Adder, nvaler, in Zoology, a name given to the N"atrix,
See CoLUiiER.

Adder's JJa/il, in Geography, a flioal which lies off the
north-weft point or ei. trance of the river Ilfequibo, in Gui-
ana, in South America, which, with fome others, extends lar
into the fea, and reaches to Cape NafTau, or the eail point of
the river Pouniaron.

Adder-Bolts, in ZooJigy. See Dp-agon-elies.

ADDERGEY, in Geography, a village in the diilrici of
Salent, or Talent, in Abyiiinia, not far from the river Ta-
cazzc, fituate amongll rugged and ban-en mountains, and
fnriounded by a thick wood in form of an amphitheatre,
which is full of lemons and wild citrons. The river mai-lumi
rifes near the village, and precipitating into a catai-adl 153
feet high, at fome dillance difcharges itfelf into the Tacaz/x'.
N. lat. 13", 24', 56". E. long. 37^57'. Brucc's Tiav.
vol. iii. p. I 70.

Adder-stumg is ufed with refpeft to cattle when ftung,
whilll tlicy are grazing, by any kind of venomous reptiles,
particularly the adder. Dogs are peculiarly liable when hunt
ing to this accident ; and it rehef is not obtained it fometimes
proves fatal. Tlie fymptoms are great pain, anxiety, and
fwelling of the wounded part ; after wir.ch, the body fwelis
univerfallv. — Oil has been given with advantage, as likewife
onions : but the remedy moll to be depended on is the
caullic volatile alkali, which is the eau de luce of cabinets,
the aqua ammonia pura of tlie college difpenfatory, and the
fal volatile of the (hops. To a horle or ox two moderate
table- fpoonfuls may be given in half a pint of milk ; to a
large dog three tea-fpoonfuls in tlie fame manner, and to a
lefler dog or other fmall animal a proportional dofe. What-
ever is given internally may with propriety be applied ex-
ternally to the wound. — The adder is perhaps the only ani-
mal in our iiland whofe bite occafions any confiderable
morbid confequences ; the goat-fucker, the hedge-hog, and
the (hrew-moufe, are animals perfectly inoffeniive, and in^
capable of inflifting any venomous wound.

Adder's Tongue, in Botany, a medicinal plant, fo called
either from its refembhng, or its curing, the bite of a viper.
It is more conunonly called Ophioglossum. This is a fpring
plant, and is only to be found in April and May. It is nc\t
uncommon in wet m.eadows, and is eallly dillmguilhed among
the other fpring plants by its fpike or tongue. It is
cfteemed one of the beft vulnerary herbs this country pro-
duces ; but it is more in ufe among the common people
than in the fliops. They give its juice internally, and ufe
the herb bruifed, or an ointm.ent prepared from it with lard,
or May-butter, externally, at the fame time. Farriers, &c.
prepare an ointment of this herb, called culcler's tongue ointment,
ufed as a remedy againil the bites of venomous beafts.
Phil. Tranf. vol. xlix. pt. ii. n°. 112. p. 853.

Adder's Wort. See Bistort.

ADDEXTRATORES, or Addextrarii, in the
court of Rome, denote the pope's mitre-bearers. Som.e
fuppofe that they are thus called, on account of their
walking at the pope's right hand, when he rides to vifit the
churches.

ADDICE. See Adze.

ADDICO. SeeAoDicTio.

ADDICTI, in Antiquity, infolvent perfons, or thofe
who being fentenced to pay a debt, but unable to do it,
were adjudged to a temporary kind of fervitude to the cre-
ditor. In this fenfe addifti were a fpecies of fervl ; from
whom, however, they differed in this, that a (lave, whca
difcharged, became a libertus ; whereas an addllius became
ingenum. Again, a flave coiJd not be difcharged without
tjic confer.t of his mafter ; whereas the addiitus was dif-
charged.

ADD

ADD

■charged of courfe •when his debt was fatisfied. Pkifc. Lex.
Ant. and Calv. I,ex. Jur.

ADDICTIO, Addiction, in the Roman La--", a tranf-
ferring or pafling o!" goods to another, citlicr bv fcnttncc
of a court, or in the way of ia!e, to him that bids molt for
them. The word Hands oppofed to ciliiui'io, or abdica-
tion. It is formed of aJdico, one of tlic ilated words ufed
by the Roman jndircs, when they allowed tlie delivery of
the thing or perlon on whom judgment had palled. Hence
goods, thus adjudged by the prator to the right owner,
were Culled io;/(Z <7(/(//i?rt ; and the debtors delivered up, in
like manner to their creditors to work out their debt, were
called Jirvi acliUcfi.

Addictio in diem, denoted the adjudging of a thing to
a perfon for a certain price ; unlets by fucli a day the owner
or fome other perlon gave more for it.

ADDINGTON, Anthony, m Bkgraphy, finidied his
lludics at Trinity College, Oxford, where he took his de-
gree of doftor in medicine, i 744. I le then fettled at Read-
ing, in Berkfliire, and there acquired confiderable reputa-
tion for his judic'ous and fuccefsful method of treating
dileafes. About the year 1754 he came to I^ondon, and
in 1756 was made Fellow of the Royal College of Phyfi-
cians, and foon attained that eminence in his profeilion, to
which he was entitled by his genius and talents. In a few
years after, the indiiTerent ihite of his health obliging him
to quit London, he returned to Reading, where he opened
a houfe for the reception of maniacal patients. In 1789
he was fent for to vilit his prefent Majeily, then labouring
under a fevere fever, and was the firll of the phyficians
attending him, who gave a favourable prognoftic of the
event of the complaint, which was foon after verified, to the
great fatisfaftion of the country. The doftor died at Read-
ing, on the 2 1 ft of Maich, 1790. While pratlifmg in
London he became acquainted with the great Mr. Pitt,
afterwards Earl of Chatham, with whom he lived in the
Itrictell intimacy. It was on the recommendation of his
lordlhip's fon, then Chancellor of the Exchequer, that he
was called on to vifit his Majefty. By the fame intcreft
Henry Addington, Efq. his eldefl fon, was made iirlt
fpeaker of the Houie of Commons, and having filled that
arduoi'.s ofKce, nearly through two parliaments, with great
reputation, he was raifed, by his Majefty, in March, 1801,
to the high dignity of Chancellor of the Exchequer, whica
hi^ friend and patron had refigned.

The only publication we have of the doctor's, is an effay
on the fea fcurvy, printed -1753, containing an account of
a method of prefer\'ing water fweet in long voyages. This
was propofed to be effcifted by mixing a portion of the
acid of fea fait, with the water. A more effeflual mode
has been fince difcovered by Mr. Henry of Mancheftcr.

ADDISON, Lancelot, in Bkgraphy, the fon of a
clergyman of the fame name ; was born in the parifh of
Croiby Ravenfworth, in Weftmorland, in the year 1632.
Having received the rudiments of claifical learning in the
grammar fchool of Appleby, he was fent to Q_iicen's Col-
lege, Oxford, in 1650, and admitted to the degree of bat-
chelor of arts in 1654; and diitinguifliing himfelf by his
genius and application, he became mafter of arts in 1657,
and in 1 658 he was felcfted to be one of the Terrs fiU'i for the
aft v/hich was celebrated in that year. As in the orations
delivered on this occafion he reflected on the perfons then
in power, he was obliged to recant and allc pardon on his
knees. After this he foon retired from the univerlily, and
chofe for his reti-eat the neighbourhood of Petworth in
Suffex, where he ^caloufly propagated prmciplcs of loyalty
to the king, and of attachment to the churcli. Upon the

refloration of King Charles II. he was rccotnir.cndcd to Dr.
King, bifl'.op of Chichefter, who would have provided for him,
it he had not prcvioullyengaged to go tc Dunkirk,a3 chaplain
to the gariilon. When that place w-as delivered up to th.e
French iji 1662, he accepted the lame office to the garrifon
of Tangier, but returned to England in 1670, and was made
one of the chaplains in ordinary to the king. After ilruff-
ghng with fome difhcullies by the lofs of his thaplainfinp
at Tangier, he obtained a reAoiy in Wilts, and one of the
prebends in the cathedral church of Sanun ; and in 1675,
took the degrees of batchelor and doftor in divinity at Ox-
ford. Thus advanced and decently provided for, he lived
in the countiy with hofpitality, dilchargcd his parochial
duty with diligence, and devoted his Icifure houra to writ-
ing on behalf of religion and the tftablifiied church. la

1683 he was initalleu into the deanery of Litchfield, and in

1684 collated to tlie archdeaconry of Coventry, which he
held with his deanery in commcndam. After the Revolu-
tion he might, it is faid, have been made a bifltop, if he had
not, in the convocation of the preceding year, and on other
oce;dions, manifefted a degree of zeal for the church
which afforded a pretext for mifrtprefenting him to perfons
in power. His integrity, however, was unqneftionable, and
his literary reputation univerfally acknowledged. He de-
parted this life on the 20th of April, 1703, in the 71 ft year
of his age, and was buried in the church-yard of the cathe-
dral at Litchlicld. He was twice married, and had tliric
fons and three daughters by his lirft wife ; but by his fecond
wife, who furvivcd him, he left no iilue. The trcatifes
which he pub'.ilhcd are as follow : viz. 1. Welt Barbary, or
a Ihort Account of the Revolutions of the Kingdoms of
Fez and Morocco, &c. 1671, 8vo. 2. The prelent St. te
of the Jews, &c. with an annexed Difcourfe on the Mifchna,
Gemara, and Talmud, 1675, ^'•''^- .V 1''"^ primitive Inlli-
tution, or a feafonable Dilcourfe of Catechifmg, S:c. 4.
A modeft Plea for the Clergy, &c. republilhed by Dr.
Hickes in 1709, 8vo. 5. The firll State of Mahometifm,
&c. 1678, 8vo. 6. An Introduftion to the Sacrament,
&c. 1681 ; repnblilhed with an appendix, called the Com-
municant's Affiitant, 5cc. in 1686, i2mo. 7. A Difcourfe
of Tangier, &c. 1685, 4to, fecond edition. 8. The Cate-
chumen, 1690, i2mo. 9. An hiftorical Account of the
herefv, denying the Godhead of Chrill, 1696, i2mo. lo.
The Chriftian's daily Sacrifice, or right Performance of
Prayer, 1698, i2mo. 1 1. An Account of the Millennium, the
genuine Ufe of the two Sacraments, viz. Baptifm, and the
Lord's Supper, with the Chrillian's Obligation frequently
to receive the latter,

Addij ON, Jofeph, the fon of Dean Addifon, the fnbjeft
of the preceding article, was born at Million, near Abro-
fbur)', in Wiltfliire, May i, 1672, and being unlikely tp
live, was baptized the fam.c day. Mr. Tyers fays, that
he was laid out for dead as foon as he was born. At
the Charter-Houfe, whither he was removed at an carn-
age, and where he was under the tuition of Dr. Ellis, he
commenced an intimacy with Mr. afterwards Sir Richard
Steele, which lalled during life. At the age of 15 he was
entered of Qiieen's College, in Oxford ; and there he foon
acquired an elegant Latin ftyle, of which a fpecimen ap-
peared in a copy of verfcs that fell accidentaUy into the
hands of Dr. Lanealler, afterwards provolt of Qjieen's Col-
lege, in 1687, and which induced him to procure the elec-
tion of Mr. Addifon a:, a demy of Magdalen College in
1 689 : where he took the degrees of batchelor and mailer
of arts. His Latin poetry, in the courfe of a few years,
gained him the reputation of a great poet ; and his poems
m this language, eight of which were puWilhed in the lecond
D d 2 volume

ADD

volitmc of Mufitrum jin^lkananim ylnaleSa, were fo much
approved, not Oi.lv in both univtrfitics, but among foreigners,
that the celebiatL-d Boilcau was led to conceive a veiy fa-
vourable opinion of the Englifh genius for poeti")", from thcfe
fpccimens of it, and to fpi.ak ot the author in high terms of
commendation. The full exhibition of his talents in Eng-
liih poetry was a copy of verfes addrelTed to Mr. Drj-den in
the 2 2d year of his age, whic!: wai very much admired by
the beft judges. This was foon fiioceedcd by a trandation
of the 4th Georgic of Vifgil, highly commended by Mr.
Dr)-den, and a Difcourfe on the Georgii:s, prefixed to
Mr. Drvden's tranflation, \rhich is allowed to poffcfs the
dillinguiflung cliarafters uf juil crilicifm. Amongft other
poems, which appeared in 1694, there was one which con-
tained an account of the greiteft Englifh poets, addrefled to
Mr. H. Sacheverell, witli whom he leems to have been inti-
niate ; and whofc filler he is faid to have courted, tho\igh
their intimacy was afterwards inteirupted by the author's
adherence to the political principles which Mr. Sacheverell
defevted. The fubjedl of his next performance was one
of King William's campaigns ; and this poem, which was
addreffed to the Lord Keeper, Sir John Somers, and much
approved by him, engaged the attachment and patronage of
this eminent (latefman.

Mr. Addifon having refilled urgent folicitations to enter
into holy orders, and abandoned a rcfolution which he
feems to have once formed, obtained, from the friendfhip of
Lord Somers, an annual penfion of 300 1. which enabled
him to gratify his inclination of making a tour to Italy to-
wards the clofe of the year 1699. In 1701, he tranfmitted
from Italy an epiflolary poem to (Montague) Lord Hali-
fax, which fome have pronounced as the beft of his perfor-
mances. On his return he publilhed an account of his
travels, dedicated to the Lord Somers. Upon the death
of King William, his penfion was difcontlnued, and in con-
fcquenee of the exclufion of his friend3 from the minillry,
he remained for a confiderable time inactive and unrecom-
penfed. However, in 1 704, Lord Halifax recommended
him to the Lord Treafurer Godolphiu, as a lit perfon to
celebrate the Duke of Marlborough's vl6tory at Blenheim.
Mr. Addifon was engaged in a manner peculiarly refpecl-
ful to undertake this important office ; and this produced
the poem, intitled the Campaign ; which was received with
very loud and general applaufe, and which will be admired
as long as the viftory is remembered. In 1706 the author
was appointed under fccretaiy of ilate ; and about this
time he compofed his inimitable opera of Rofamond, and
he alfo affilled Sir Richard Steele in his play called The
Tender IliiJhanJ, to which he wrote an humorous prologue.
In 1709 he went over to Ireland as fecretai-y to the Lord
Lieutenant, the Marquis of Wharton, where her Majelly
conferred upon him the office of Keeper of the Records in
that kingdom, with an augmented falar)-. In this year the
Tuthr appeared ; the author of which was difcovered by
Mr. Addifon to be his friend Mr. Steele, by an obfervation
on Virgil, which he had coninnmicated to him. In confe-
quence of this difcovery he afforded to the author fuch af-
fiftance as induced him to fay of it, that he fared by this
means, like a dlftreficd prince, who calls in a powerful
jieighbour to his aid ; that is, that he was undone by his aux-
iliary. The Taller being difcontinued in 171 1, was fuc-
cceded by the SpeHator upon a plan concerted between Mr.
Steele and Mr. Addifon. It commenced, March i, 171 1,
and was concluded, September 6, 17 12. Mr. Addifon's
papers in this work, the excellence of which time has veiy
highly appreciated, are marked by the letters that form the
same of the Mufe Cuo. It is faid, that when his book-

3

ADD

feller came to him for the Spedator, Baylc's Hillorical and
Critical Diiflionary always lay open before him ; and that
he was io extremely nice in his profe compofitions, that when
almoft a whole impreflion of a Spedalor was work'd off, he
would flop the prefa, to infeit a new prepoiilion or conjunc-
tion. Of the value of this publication, and <rf the good
fenfe that direfted the judgment and tafte of the Britilli
nation at the period in which it was written, we fliall form
a very favourable opinion, when we confider that 20,000
copies were fometimes fold in a day. An attcmot was
made to continue it by other ingenious writers ; but it
proved unfuccelsful. Eighty numbers were publiflied, to
wl'.ich Mr. Addifon contributed about a fourth part, and
thefe fonned an eighth volume. The Guartfnin, in which Mr.
Addifon had a principal concern, amufed the town in the
years 171J? and 17 14: his papers are marked by a hand.
Two numbers, in a paper called the hover, were alfo writ-
ten by him. During his travels, Mr. Addifon executed a
defign, which he had conceived at an early age, of writing
a tragedy ; and in 17 13 appeared his famous Cato, with a
fublime prologue by Mr. Pope, and an humorous epilogue.
by Mr. Garth. It had an uninteiTUpted run of thirty-five
nights ; and it was read with a fatisf'aftiou and commenda-
tion equal to the eagernefs and plealure with which it was
attended on the ilage. It was tranflated into French,
Italian, and German ; and the jefuits at St. Omcr made a
Latin tranflation, where it was aftcd by their pupils with
great magnificence. The foliloquy of Cato was rendered
into Latin verfe by Billiop Atterbuiy, in a ftyle worthy of
the fublime original, and which would have been admired
even by the critics in the court of Augullus. The author
had intended to have written another tragedy, under the
title of The Death of Socrates : but the offices and honours
which were devolved upon him in his advancing years, pre-
vented the accomplifhment of his purpofe. He was like-
wife under a necelfity of declining another work wliich he
had projected, viz. that of compofing an Englifh Diftionary
upon the plan of the ItaUan Delia Crufca ; in his projeft
for this purpofe, he confidered the writings of Archbilhop
Tillotfon as the chief llandard of our language. During
the period in which the Earl of Sunderland was Lord
Lieutenant of Ireland, he was his fecretary ; but on the
removal of the Earl, he was appointed one of the Lords of
Trade. In 1715 he began to publifli the Freeholder, which
is a kind of political fpertator, and admirably conceived
and executed, at a period of difcord, for the purpofe of
removing prejudices, fetthng the government, and making-
his country happy. This admirable colleftlon of papers
contained fifty-five numbers, the laft of which was pubhihed
June 29, 1716. About this time he alfo publilhed his
verfes to Sir Godfrey Kneller, on the King's pitlure, and
another copy to the Princefs of Wales, with his tragedy of
Cato. In 1 7 16 he married the Countefs of Warwick,
without deriving from the connexion, as it has been faid,
any great addition to his happinefs. In the following year.
King George I. appointed him one of his principal fecre-
taries of Itate ; but the application and parliamentaiy
attendance which this office required, concurred with an
afthmatic diforder, to which he was fubjedl, in impairing his
health, and haftcning his diffolution ; and he wa'<, therefore,
under a neceffity of refigning it, in lieu of v^hich he had'
a penfion of 1500I. a year. His friends hoped that by re-
cefs from public bufinefs, and the ti'anquillity of retirement,
his health would be re-eftabliflied, and his life prolonged.
For fome time he feemed to experience the good effefts of
his new courfe of life ; and he employed his hours of lei-
fure in completing his Treatife of The Chnjlian Religion,

which

ADD

wliich he liad bepjun long before, and of which the full part,
in an \infinifhed llate, is contained in his works, lie in-
tended hkewife to have paitiplirafed fomc of the Pfalms of
David ; but a long a!id palnfnl lelapfc hiokc all his deliujns,
and terminated the life of this excellent perfon, June 17th,
1 7 19, in the 48th year of his age. He died at Holland-
Houfe, near Kenfington, leaving behind him an only
daughter by the Countefs of Waavick. After his deceafe
Mr. TicktU, in ])urfuance to the inllruilions which he had
received, coUefted and publiflied his works in four volnmes,
4to. This edition contains, befidcs the pieces already men-
tioned, the " D'ljf.rtnt'wn upon Meih-h," for which the ma-
terials were collected in Italy, and digofted at Vienna, in
1702 ; " The prefent Stair of the IFnr, and the KecelJily of an
Augmentation conftdereil" firll publilhed in the formof a pam-
phlet in 1707; " The li'hig Examiner," pnb!i(hed in 1710,
of which live papers are attributed to Mr. Addifon, and
they are the moll fevcrc of his publications : they were
written by way of reply to the " Examiner," publiihed on
the part of the Tories, and contain fonie harlh animadver-
fions on Dr. Sacheverell, Mr. Prior, and others. A limi-
lar piece, intitled, " The late Trijl and Coni'iilion of Count
Tariff," and defigned to expofe the Tory minillry on the
fubjeil of the French commerce-bill, was publilhed in 1713.
The comedy of the " Drummer or Haunted Houfe," though
not noticed in this edition, was afterwards publilhed as
Mr. Addifon's, by Sir Richard Steele. The following
pieces have been alfo afcribed to Mr. Addifon : viz. " DiJ-
Jertatio de infgnioribus Romanorum Poetis" written about
1692 ; " A Difcourfe on ancient and modern Learning" pre-
ferved among the MSS. of the late Lord Somers, and printed
in 1739, 8vo. ; and N"^. i and 2 of " The Old Whig," pam-
phlets, written in defence of the peerage bill, 17 19.

The charafter of Mr. Addifon, as a claffieal fcholar, as a
ftatefman, as a poet, and elegant writer, and as a man of
religious principle and exemplary probity and virtue, has
been delineated and ably defended againll the attacks of
prejudice and envy by many writers ; and their tellimonies
have been collefted and duly appreciated by Dr. Kippis, in
the laft edition of the Biogi-aphia Britannica. The Latin
poems, which were his early productions, his difcourfe on
theGeorgics, and his differtation on medals, afford ample evi-
dence of his clafiical tafle and erudition.

As a ftatefman it has been alleged againft him, that his
invincible modefly and timidity difqualified him for con-
ducing any political d.ebate in parliament ; that he made a
mean figure in the office of fecretary of Hate; that he
was tmfit for active life ; and that he was very defervedly
removed from office to make way for a more able fucceffor.
Such are the contemptuous charges retailed by Sir John
Hawkins, in his Hiilory of Mulic, (vol. v. p. 315.) who
adds, that Dr. Ma.ideville, the author of the Fable of the
Eaes, called him, " a parfon in a tye w-ig." In reply to
thcfe charges it has been urged, that Mr. Addilon was gra-
dually trained up to a qualiiication for the feveral employ--
mcnts in which he was engaged ; that he was deligned for
the fervice of the ftate by Lord Somers and Lord Hahfax ;
and that he occupied in fucceffion various departments of
public bulinefs without incurring the reproach of want of
ability. As to his removal from public office, the true
caufe of it was his declining health ; and that on his own
part it was purely voluntary, appears from his intimate con-
nection with Lord Sunderland and the Lord Vilconnt
Stanhope, who were in oiTice, and his friendfliip with Mr.
Craggs who fucceded liim, and from the zealous fupport
which he gave to the miiiftry after his refignation. The
referve and diffidence charged upon him by Dr. Mandeville,

ADD

if the ftory be true to which the anecdote refers, might pof-
fibiy arile from his dilii.clination to be free and intimate
with a perfon whofe principles and charader he mud liavc
dillikcd.

As a poet, Mr. Addifon was for a long time highly ex-
tolled ; but his reputation has lately been upon the decline.
Ho is ranked by Dr. Warton in the fecond clafs of our po-
etical authors, and joined with Dryden, Prior, Cowley,
^ValIe^, (jarth, Fenton, (Jay, Denham, and Parnell : whilft
the full clils comprehends Spenfer, Shakefpeare and Mil-
ton. Others have degraded him to a llill lower rank. Mr.
Gilbert Cooper fays, (Letters concerning Talle, p. 34.)
that he has no right to a pretention of being a good poet.
Dr. Hurd (Critical Commentary and Diffeitations, v. iii.
p. 122.) fpeaks of him as one who had no want of natural
talents for the greater poetry ; which yet were fo reftrained
and difabled by his conilant and fupcrllitious ihidy of the
old claffics, that lie was, in faft, but a very ordinary poet.
Although it llionld be allowed that Mr. Addifon did not
really dilplay, in his poetry, a highly vigorous imagination,
yet there are many and dillinguilhed excellencies in his
poems, which intitlc him, in the opinion of very competent
judges, to a higher rank than even Dr. Hurd affigns him.
In this conneftion it may not be improper to obfeiTC, that
Captain Thompfon, in his edition of Mr. Andrew Marvell's
Works, (vol. i. Pref. p. 19, &c.) afcribes to Marvell the two
fine hymns in N'^453 and 465 of the Spectator, which
hitherto have been univerlally, and without doubt, jultly
afcribed to Mr. Addifon. Whillt it is not to be diffembkd
that criticifm was not a talent, in the exercife of which he
excelled, neveithelels thofe who queftion his abilities as a
critic concede that his tafte was truly elegant, and that he
may be ranked in this department of literature with Lon-
ginus, though he finks below Arlftotle ; and that, however
defeftive he may be thought with regard to the phllofophy
of his criticifms, he determined juftly from his feehngs, and
contributed by his critical remarks on the Georgics, on
Ovid, and efpecially on Milton, more than any other man,
to excite and propagate a good talle in the Engliih nation.
His ElFay on the Pleafures of the Imagination Ihould not
be forgotten by thofe who difpute his critical fagacity ;
and the candid will recoiled, that philofophical criticifm
had not been cultivated at the period in which he hved, and
that in this refped he was far fuperior to his contempo-
raries.

Whatever difference of opinion there may have been as
to the rank and celebrity to which Mr. Addifon is intitled
as a poet and a critic, his diftinguiflied and almoft fuper-
eminent excellence as a profe writer has been univcrfally
allowed. Thofe whofe province it has been to mark his
cafual errors and defefts, have concurred in paying him a
triJKite of high commendation. Many tellimonies ot this
kind might be cited from the publications of Mr. Cooper,
Dr. Hurd, Dr. Young, Mr. Melmoth, Dr. Warton, Dr.
Johnfon, Dr. Blair, and others. Under this head the foU
iowing refledions may not be unacceptable to the reader.
In various parts of IVIr. Addifon's profe effayt;, fays Dr.
Warton, are to be found many llrokes of genume and'fu-
blime poetry ; many marks of a vigorous and exuberant
imagination. After all, his chief and charaderiftic excel-
lency was his humour ; for in humour no mortal has excelled
him, except Moliere : for which he refers to the charader
of Sir Roger deCovcrley, fo original, fo natural, n'.d fo inviol-
ably preferved; and to the Drummer, th: t excellent and nc-
gleded comedy. Dr. Young, in his conjectures on original
compofition, defcribes his charader as a writer at large ;
and upon a comparifon of Addifon with Swift and Pope,

he

ADD

lie rcmaiks, that he pofTcflcd a more refinol, tlccent, judici-
i;us, and extenftve genius, than cither of the latter writers.
Swift, fays he, is a fir.gular wit. Pope a coneft poet, Addi-
fon a great author. AdJifon's crown was elcttivc ; he
reigned by the public voice :

volentei

Per populoi dill jitra, vmaijuc aJfeSal Olympo,

ViRGM..

Addifon wrote little in vcrfe, much in fwect, elegant
Virgilian profe. His compofilions are built with the tineit
materials, in the taile of the ancients, and on truly claffic
grovnid ; and though they are the delight of the prefent
age, yet I am perluaded (continues this author) that they
will receive more juftice from poilerity. His admirers call
him an elegant writer. That elegance which fhines on the
furfacc of his compoiitions feems to dazzle their undcr-
ftanding, and renders it a little blind to the depth of fenti-
mcnt which lies beneath : thus (hard fale ! ) he lofes reputa-
tion with them, by doubling his title to it. On fubjects
the moll inlerelling and important, no author of his age has
written with greatei', I had almoft faid, with equal weight :
and they who commend him for his elegance, pay him lueh
a fort of compliment, as they would pay to Lucrctia, if
they fliould commend her only for her beauty. Young's
Works, vol. V. p. 130, &c.

Truth and beauty of imageiy (fays Mr. Mehnoth) is the
charaeteriltical dillinttion of Mr. Addifon ; and the principal
point of eminence which raifes his ftyle above that of every
author in any language that has fallen within my notice.
He is evesy where highly figurative ; yet, at the fame time, he
is the moft eafy and perfpicuous writer I have ever perufed.
His images are felefted with the utmoft delicacy and judg-
ment, from the moft natural and famihar appearances. One
is particularly mentioned, taken out of a thoufand that
might be named, which appears to me, fays Mr. Melmoth,
the fineil and moft exprefiive that ever language conveyed.
It occurs in one of the inimitable papers upon Paradife
ioft, where Milton reprefents the fun in an eclipfe ; ai.d
at the fame time a bright cloud in the weftern regions of the
heavens, defcending with a band of angels. The whole
theatre of nature, fays Mr. Addifon, is darkened, that this
glorious machine may appear in all its luftre and magnifi-
cence. After other expreffions of high commendation, Mr.
Melmoth clofes. — " In a word, one may juftly apply to
him what Plato, in his allegorical language, fays of Arifto-
phanes, that the graces having fearched all the world for a
temple, wherein they might for ever dwell, fettled at laft in
thebreaft of Mr. Addifon." Fitzofbornc'sLetters,Let. xxiv.
p. 112, &:c. Let. xxix. p. 137.

Dr. Johnfon, in delineating the literary charafter of Mr.
Addifon, obferves with Tickell, that he employed wit on
the fide of virtue and religion. He not only made the
proper ufe of wit himfelf, but taught it to others ; and
from his time it has been generally fubfervient to the caufe
of reafon and truth. He has diflipated the prejudice that
had long connefted gaiety with vice, and ealinefs of man-
ners with laxity of principles. He has reftored virtue to its
dignity, and taught innocence not to be alhamtd. This is
an elevation of hterary charafler " above all Greek, above
all Roman fame." No greater felicity can genius attain
than that of having purified intelleftual pleafure, feparated
mirth from indecency, and wit from Iicentioufnefs ; of hav-
ing taught a fuccedion of writers to bring elegance and
gaiety to the aid of goodnefs ; and, to ufe expreffions yet
more awful, of having " turned many to righteoufnefs."
As a defcriber of life and manners, he muft be allowed to
Hand perJiaps the Ijril of the firft rank. His humour, which

ADD

as Steele obferves, is peculiar to himfelf, is fo inppily dif-
fufid as to give the grace of novelty to domeftic ictnes and
daily occurrences. He never " outlleps the modelly of
nature," nor raifes merriment or wonder by the violation
of truth. His figures neither divert by diftortion, nor
amaze by aggiavation. He copies life with fo much
fidelity, that lie can hardly be faid to invent ; yet his ex-
hibitions have an air fo much original, that it is difiicult
to fuppofe tliem not merely the produft of imagination.
As a teacher of wifdom he may be confidently followed.
His religion has nothing in it enthufiaftic or fuperftitious :
he appears neither Wi.akly credidous, nor wantonly fceptical:
his morality is neither dangeroufly lax nor inipraflicably
rigid. All the enchantment of fancy, and all the cogency
of argument, are employed to recommend to the reader his
real intereft, the care of pleafing the author of his being.
Truth is fiiewn fometimes as the phantom of a vifion, fome-
times appears half-veiled in an allegoiy; fometimes attracts
regard in the robes of fancy, and fometimes fteps forth in
the confidence of reafon : fhe wears a thoufand dreflfes, and
in all is pleafing. Johnfon's Poets.

Among ourlelves, fays an anonymous writer, in the iCth
number of the World, no writer has made fo happy and
judicious a mixture of plain and figurative terms as Addifon,
who was the firll that banilhed from the Enghih, as Boileau
from the French, ev^ry fpecies of bad eloc|uence and falfe
wit, and opened the gates of the temple of tade to his fel-
low-citizens.

Dr. Blair obfen-es, that of the higheft, moft coiTeft, and
ornamented degree of the iimple ilyle, Mr. Addifon is, be-
yond doubt, the moll perteA example ; and therefore,
though not wilh.out fonie faults, he is, on the whole, the
fafeft model for imitation, and the freell from confiderable
defects, which the language affords. Perfpicuous and pure
he is in the higheft degree : his precifion, indeed, is not
very great, vet nearly as great as the fubjcCls which he treats
of require : the conftruftion of his fentences, eafy, agree-
able, and commonly very mufic'al, carrying a chava£ter of
fmoothnefs more than of ftrength. In figurative language
he is rich, particularly in fimilies and metaphors, which are
fo employed as to render his ftyle fplendid, without being
gaudy. There is not the leaft affectation in his manner ;
we fee no marks of labour, nothing furced or conftrained ;
but great elegance joined with great cafe and fimplicity. He
is, in particular, diftinguifhed by a charafter of niodefty
and of politenefs, v/hich appear in all his writings. No
author has a more popular and infinuating manner ; and the
great regard which he every where fiiews for virtue ar.d reli-
gion recommend him highly. If he fails in any thing, it
is in want of ftrength and precifion, which renders his man-
ner, though perfectly fuited to fdch cffays as he writes in the
Speftator, not altogether a proper model for any of the
higher or more elaborate kinds of compofition. Though
the public have ever done much juftice to his merit, yet the
nature of his merit has not always been feen in its true
light ; for, though his poetry be elegant, he certainly bears
a higher rank among the profe writers, than he is entitled
to among the poets ; and, in profe, his humour is of a
much higher and more original ftrain than his philofophy.
The character of his Roger de Coverley difcovers more
genius than the critique on Milton. Blair's Leftures, vol. ii.
p. 41, &;c.

Mr. Addifon's character, as a m.an of probity and reli-
gious virtue, ftands in high eftimation. His attachment
to his principles and his friends was invariable, and afforded
the moft convincing evidence, in times of political difcord,
of his inflexible integrity. It was, neverthelefs, blended

with

ADD

with an amiable libemlity and candour. Sticli, indctJ, was
his general pcpiilarity, that Dr. Swift fays of liim on a par-
ticular occ^ilioii, " Mr. Addll'oii's elettion liaa pafTcd lafy
aiid undifpiu-d ; and, I bdieve, if lie had a mind to be
chofen kinjr, he v.-ould hardly !)e refnftd." The fricndlhip
tliat fubfilled between thefe two gentlemen continued
through life, without interruption, iiotwithllanding the
difference in their political principles and coiniec\ ions : and
fo nobly did Mr. Addifon aft on an occafion, iji wiiich he
was defn-ed by lord Sunderland not to converfe wiih fonie
people in Ireland that were not agreeable to him, that whilll
he profefled his great obligation to his Majelly for the
honour intended him, (of being fccretary to the Lord Lieu-
tenant,) he declared, at the fame time, he could not comply
with his excellency's requeil ; as he would not facriiiee his
frieiKilhip ior Dr. Swift, to be made chief governor of tliat
kingdom. Suppl. to Swift's works, vol. ii. p. 410. His
charatSer for probity has not, however, efcaped CiJum.iy
and reproach. Dr. Johnfon relates an anecdote, which
eveiy admirer of the dlilinguilbed merit of Mr. Addifon will
be very reluftant to believe, at lead without f nne authority
which Dr. Johnfon has not produced, and efpeeially in op-
poution to the evidence that has been alleged of its falle-
hood. Steele is faid to have borrowed lool. in a time
of preffing exigence of his friend Addifon, probably with-
out much purpofe of repayment : but Addifon, being im-
patient of delay, reclaimed the loan by an execution. The
following anecdote, wlilcli is of a very dlfrerciit kind, was
told by the late Dr. Birch. Mr. Addifon and Mr. Temple
Stanyan were very intimate, and were accuftumed to difpute
each other's opinions. Mr. Stanyan, however, was re-
duced to the neceflity of borrowing 500 1, of Mr. Addifon ;
the confequence of which was referve and diffidence, and an
apparent acqulefcence in the fentlments of his creditor on the
part of Stanyan. A difpute occurred on a topic, with re-
gard to which the latter had always been ufed to oppofe the
former ; but on this occafion Mr. Stanyan was fdcnt and
acquiefcing, which conduft hurt Mr. Addifon fo much, that
he faid to his friend, " Either ccHitradicl me, or pay me
the money." It appears alfo by fome particulars recited
concerniaig Mr. Addlibn, by a late fprightly writer, (Mr.
Tyers) that upon his return to England, after his traveh,
he difchargcd tlie old debt contracted at Oxford, with ample
intereft ; and that he refuted a gratilication of a 300 1. bank
note, and afterwards cf a diamond ring of the fame value,
from a Major Dunbar, whom he had endeavoured to ferve
in Ireland by his intereft with lord Sunderland ; and, it Is
probably- on this cccaiion, that he writes irt a letter ; " Be-
lieve me. Sir, wl-en I affure you I never did, nor ever will,
on any nretence whatfosver, take more than the dated and
cuilomaiy fees of my office. I might keep the contrary
praftlce concealed from tlie world, were I capable of it ;
but I could not from myfelf ; and I hope I (hall always
fear the reproaches of my own heart more than thofe cf
all mankind." V/e are informed by the writer jull men-
tioned, that having received encouragement from, a married
lady, of whom he had been formerly enamoured, he had
the integrity to refift the temptation. Addifon has been
charged with manifeftlng a great degree of jealoufy, envy,
and malevolence in his conduft towards Mr. Pope. Dr.
Warton and Cibberfeem to have given credit to this charge;
and the accufation has been direftly and circumltantlally pro-
duced by Mr. Ruffhead in his life of Pope, p. 184. — T93.
The late Judge Blackttone took great pains to inveftigatc
the grounds of it, and to evince its falfity. Befides the
jealoufy of Mr. Pope's fuperior talents, which conllitutes
part of the charge, Mr. Addifon is accufed of permitting
Mr- Tickell, who was his dependent, to publilh a traixHation

ADD

of the fir.l book of the Iliad, whlcli fome fay wa^ the juvc
mle woi-k of Addifon. and which othei-s afTirni was TickcU'v,
reviled by him, jull at liie time «lien the full volume of Mr.
Pojie's work was delivered to his fuijferibers. After a very
elaborate invelll»ation of this bufi.icfs, pulililhcd in ilic lall
edition of the Biog. Brit, the learned Judge tlofes witii
this paragraph : "As there are fo mar.y iiicontilUncics in
ih,- tlory itfelf, which never found its way into print till
near II My years after it is faid to have h.appened, it will be
no breach of cliarity to fuppofc, that the whole of it was
founded ou fomc niifai)prchenlioii in either Mr. Pope or the
cari (Warwick) ; and unlefs better proof can be given, we
Ihali readily acquit Mr. Addifon of this, the moll odious
part of the charge." At the clofe of his life, and with the
near views of his dlffolution, he fent for the young earl of
W.uwlck, and alio for Mr. Gay. He told the latter that
he had injured 111:-; ; but if he recovered, he would recom-
peiife him. Mr. Gay was ignorant of the clrcumilance to
wiiich he- adverted, but fujrjxxfed tliat fome preferment had
been deligiied for him, wlilch Mr. Addifon prevented hi*
obtaining.

Of his interview with the young Earl, Dr. Young has
given the following aecouiit. After a long aud manlv,
but vain druggie vrith his dillemper, he difm'iffed his phy-
iicians, and with tliem all hopes of life. But witli his hopU
of life he dlfmilTed not his concern for the living, but fent
for a youth, nearly related, and tinely accomplllhed, but
not above being the better for good impreflions fmm a dying
friend. He came ; l)ut life now glimmering in the focket,
the dying friend was fdent : after a decent and proper paufv,
the youth faid, " Dear Sir ! you fent for rat ; I believe,
and hope, that you have fome commands ; I ihall lu)td them
moii facred." May dillant ages not only hear, but feel,
the reply ! forcibly grafjiing the youth's hand, he foftly
faid, " See in what peace a Chriilian can die." He fpok'e
with difficidty, and foon expired.

Mr. Addifou, fiys his Biographer, notwlthftanding the
feveral things which have been advanced to leffen him in tlic
public opinion, will always be held in the hlghed eilimation,
as an amiable and excellent man in private life, as one of the
brighteft ornaments of, perhaps, the lined age of Englidi
literature ; as one wl-.o greatly contributed to the fpreading
of good fenfe and good tade in the nation ; as one of our
moil eafy, elegant, and graceful writers ; as having been
lingularly beautiful in his allegorical papers, and admirable
for the vein of humour which runs througli many of his
compolitions. Biog. Brit.

Addison County, in Grogm/>hy, a county of Vermont in
America, on the ead Cde of lakeChamplain.and divided nearly
into equal parts by Otter Creek. It has Chittenden county
on the north, and Rutland county on the fouth ; and contains
6449 inhabitants, dlfperfed in twenty-one towndilpS. Its
dlmeufior.R are about thirty miles by twenty-feveu, and a
ra.ige of the Green Mountains paffes through it. Its chief
town is A'HiliHibury.

Addison ir. alfo a town of the above county, lying on
the lake Cluuiiplain, fcparated from Newhaven, on the' ealt by
Otter Creek. The Snake Mountains are on the fouth-ealK
I'his to.v.-n contains 401 inhabitants.

ADDITAMENT, in a general fenfe, denotes a thing
added to another. It lignllics the fame as Epiph'f/i.t.

Add.itament, ill J'/nfr ^nd C'MmiJJiy, are things fuper-
added to the ordinary ingredients of any compolitlon.

ADDITION, the aiA of joining one thing to another,
or of augmenting a thing, by the accellion of others.

Addition, in jlrhhrnd'h; is the lull of the four funda-
mental rules, or operations, of that art.

Mditian tonfills in fuiding the amount of feveraj nunv.

ADD

ADD

bfrs, er quantitifs, fcverally added one to anoilier. Or,
arliruion is the invention of a number, from two or more
homogeneous ones given, which is equal to the given num-
bers taken jointly, or together.

The number thus found is called the/ww, or aggregate
of the numbers given.

The character of aiMilion is +, which we ufuaily cxprefs
by plus. Thus 3+4 denotes the fum of 3 and 4 ; and is
read 3 plus 4.

The addition of finiple numbers is eafy. Thus it is rea-
dily perceived that 7 and 9, or 7 -j- 9, make 16; and
II -|- 15, make 2rt.

In longer, or compounded nun\bcrs, the buliiicfs is per-
formed by writing the given numbers in a row downwards ;
homogeneous under homogeneous, /. c. units under units,
tens under tens, &c. and accurately collecling the fums of
the refpeClive columns.

To do this, we begin at the bottom of the outmoft row
or column to the riglit ; and if the amount of this column
be ten, or fome number of tens, we ftt down only the over-
plus, and carry one for each ten to the next column.

Suppofe, e.g. the numbers 1357 and 172 were given to
be added : write either of them v. gr. 172, under the other
13^7 ; fo that the units of the one, viz. 2, ftand
under the units of the other, viz. 7 ; and the other
numbers of the one, under the correfpondent ones of
the other, viz. the place of tens under tens, as 7
under 5 ; and that of hundreds, viz. i, under the
place of hundreds of the other, 3. Then, begin-
ning, fay 2 and 7 make 9 ; which write underneath ; alfo
7 and 5 make 12 ; the lalt of which two numbers, viz. 2,
is to be written, and the other one referved in your mind to
be added to the next row, 1 and 3 : then fay i and i make
2, which added to 3 make 5 : this written underneath, and
there will remain only i, the firft figure of the upper row of
numbers, which alfo muft be written underneath ; and thus
you have the whole fum, viz. 1529. The fame method
will extend to any number of fums, which are required to
be united in one.

When a great number of feparate fums, or numbers, are
to be added, it is more eafy to feparate them into two or
more parcels, which may be added ftparately, and then their
fums added together for the total amount : and thus, by
dividing the numbers into parcels in different ways, the
truth of the addition may be proved.

Another method of proving addition was fuggefted by
Dr. Wallis in his arithmetic, publifhed in 1657, by calling
out the nines. Thus, add the figures of each line of num-
bers together fcparately, and call out always 9 from the
fums as they arife, adding the overplus to the next figure,
and fetting down at the end of each line the excefs above
the nine or nines. Purfue the fame procefs with the fum
total, and the former exceffes of 9, and the laft exceflies
will be equal when the work is right. The former examples
may be thus proved :

1357
172

1529

1529

o

u
y.
M

Thus alfo ;

350709

3 1 806500

339087

4601 1

2935

32545242

6

^ 5
'B 3

"^ 3

W —

Addition of numbers of different denominations, for in-
flance, of pounds, (hillings, and pence, or yards, feet, and
inches, is performed by adding or fumming up each deno-
mination by itfelf, always beginning with the loweft ; and
if, after the addition, there be enough to make one of the

next higher denomination, for inftance, pence enough to
make one or more (liiUings, or inches to make one or more
feet, they mull be added to the figures of that deno-
mination, that is, to the fhillings or feet, only referving
the odd remaining pence or inches to be put down in the
place of pence or inches. And the fame rule is to be ob-
fervcd of (billings with regard to pounds ; and of feet w ilh
regard to yards.

As in the following examples :

£■
120

65
9

'5
12

8

9
5

yds,

271

36

14

10
2
2

Avoirdupois weight.
dr.

195 16 2 Sum 326

Ih.
15

4

12

o

OS.

I I

10
o

15

12
O

'3
9

Sum 33 6 2

Addition of Decimals. Sec Decimal.

Addition of f^iil^ar Fratlioiis. See Fraction.

Addition if Logarithms. See Logarithm.

Addition of Ratios is ufed by fome authors in the fame
fenfe with composition of ratios, which fee.

Addition, in Algebra, or the addition of indeterminate
quantities, expreffcd by letters of the alphabet, is performed
by conneAing the quantities to be added, by their proper
figns ; and alto by uniting into one fum, thofe that can be
fo united ; /. e. fimilar quantities, by adding their co-effici-
ents together if they have the fame figns, or fubtracling
thofe which have diflerent figns. So that addition compre-
hends three cafes.

Cafe I. To add quantities which are like, with hke figns :
add all the co-efficients together, and to their fum annex the
common quantities, and prefix the common fign. Thus,

7fl-}-9<7=i6a. And iibc+i^bc=.26bc. Alfo 32.-^-5 "

el ^ ^

=8-: and 2^ ac-{--]^ac=g^ ac; and 6v^ai — .-vx +

'JVab — .\x=:i^'i/ab — x.v: and in like manner, 6^/3+7
y/3 = I3v^3. Again, a,^/iic-{-b^ ac = a-\-b\^ac ; and

2a-\-i,c'/ ^ax'-

^aV ^a :

a-\-x a-\-x

And 6a-j-9i— 3r — 4
4a4-5^-2f-3

Sa + jcV ■jax'-
a+x

\oa-\-l^~ S<'~1

Cafe II. To add quantities which are hke with unlike figns:

add all the affirmative or pofitive co-efficients into one fum, and

all the negative ones into another ; then fubtraft the leall of

thefe fums from the greateft, and to the difference prefix the

fign of the greateft, and annex the common quantity.

I , A.axiiax.

ihus, —2 and— 3 make —5; r-and ; — make

^ b b

^— ^; ~a \/ a x and —b^^ax make —a — bv a x. Alfo,

3 — 2 = 1; ga — -]a=2a;

— — —J-; and —a^Uc

-\-b^/ac=b — a,,/ac; and, 2 — 3 = —! ;

b

I I (7.V

4(7 .V

7«X

and 2,J ac — •] ,^ ac-= -—^^/ac.

b-^ b -
Again, -3,7-f.

7a-{-8a — ^— 2a = — 6^4-15^ — -l-Qa ; and —^xy — ^ xy
•\-^xy-\-']xy=:—ixy-\-l$xy=-\--jXy; and —6^ax-\-Z

V'ux — 5^ax-f-ioy'fl.v= —II y^a.v-j- 12^ ax = ,^ ax:
And ^a■\-^^b-%c-^
— 6a-3i4-4f4-4

2.7-1-4^-4^-3 •

Cafe

ADD

Cafe in. To aJd quantities wliicli arf unlike, with un-
like figiis : coUeft nil the like quantities together liy the
lall rule, and fet down thofe that arc unlike one another,
with their <)roper figns. Thus, 5.vr +4a.v — xy — 4<jx =
^xy~xy=^xy : and —6^ax-{-2^/ ax — ^^iix-\-lo^/ ii-t
=:iz^/ax — ll,/ax = ^ax . And ^nb ~Ci^/ac-\-'^hc —
^x-\-^x—-]iib-\-x>^/ac—2bc-\--] ~.^=^2iib — 2^^ac-{-bc —

"• + ■-

Addition of irroliontil qunntlties, ox funis. See Surd.

Addition, in Lniv, is that name, or title, whieh is given
to a man over and above his proper name, and furname ; to
fliew of what cllate, degree, or myllery he is ; and of what
town, village, or country.

ylJdil'wns nf FJitite, or quality, are yeoman, gentleman,
.efqnire, and fueh like.

Addit'wm of Decree, are thofe we call names of dignity;
as knight, lord, earl, marquis, and duke.

Additions of Myjlcry, are fueh as fcrivencr, paiiitcr, inafon,
and the hke. See Chopchurch.

Additions of Place are, of Tiiorp, of Dale, of Woud-
flock. — "Where a man hath houfliold in two places, he
fliall be faid to dwell in both ; fo that his addition in cither
niav Uifliee. Knave was anciently a regidar addition.

By flat. I Hen. V. cap. 5. it was ordained, that in all
original writs of atlions perional, appeals, and indiftments,
upon which procefs of outlawry may be awarded, fueh ad-
dition Ihould be made to the name of the defendant, to flicw
his ellate, degree, or myftei-y, and the place where he
dwells ; and that the writs, not having fueh additions, (hall
abate, if the defendant take exception thereto ; but not by
the office of the court. — The reafon of this ordinance was,
to prevent any clandelHne o: niiftaken outlawry, by reduc-
ing to a fpeciiic certainty the perfon who is the objecl of
its procefs.

If one be of the degree of a duke, earl, &c. he fliatl have
the addition of the molt worthy dignity. 2 Inft. 669.

Such titles, however, are not properly additions, but
names of dignity. The title of knight or baronet, is part
of the party's name, and ought to be rightly ufcd ; but
the titles of efqulre, gentleman, or yeoman, &c. being no
part of the name, but additions, as people pleafc to call
them, may- be ufed, or not ufed, or if varied, it is not ma-
terial. I Lill. 34.

An earl of Ireland is not an addition of ho;iour here in
England ; but iuch a perfon mull be written by his Chrif-
tian and furname, with the addition of elquire only ; and
thi fons cf Englilh noblemen, although they have given them
titles of nobiht^*, in refpefl: to their families, if you fue
tliciT!, they_ mull be named by their Chriftian and furnamcs,
with the addition of efquirc ; as — fuch-a-one, efquire, com-
monly culled lord A, &C. 2 Inft. 596. 666,

No addition is neceiTary where procefs of outlawry doth
not lie. I Salk. y. If a city be a county of itfelf, wherein
are feveral paridics, addition thereof, as ds I.rjtidon, is fiiffi-
cient ; but addition of a parilh not in a city, muil mention
the cownty, or it will not be good, i Danv. 337.

Addition, in Mufic, is a dot placed on t'.e right fide
of a note, to fignify, that the time of the fouiid of fueh
note is to be lengthened half as much more, as it would ,
otherwife be.

A note of addition amounts to the fame with what is by
fome old Englifh authors called /■/•«■/■ of perf::':uii.

Thus a fcmibreve, when marked with a dot, is to be as
long as three minims ; the minim, with the l.ke dot, to be
as long as three crotchets ; the crotchet, as three quavers, &c.
Sec Character.

Additioms, la Heraldry, denote a kind of bearings, ii>

ADD

coafs of amis, wherein arc placed rewards, or additional
marks of honour. In whidi fenfe, additions Hand op-

l)ofed to ABATEMINTS, Or DIMINUTIONS. StC DlF-

FERENCK.

Adtlillont refemble, but differ from ordinaries. To the
clals of additions belong a bordiirc, quarter, canton, gyron,
pyle, flafque, flaiiche, voider, and an inefeiitchcon gules,
called alfo an rfciitcliam if j<rctence. On any of thei'e may an
addition of honour be placed, according to the pleafnre of
the prince, or the fancy of the herald ; which reward de-
fccnds to none of the family, e.^;ccpt the perfon's own direct
line. In this manner the arms of a kingdom have been
fometimes given, by way of addition, to a private fubje(f\.
The eliimation in which thtfc additions are held, has de-
clined fmce the college has granted them to perfons who ap-
ply, although neither they nor any of their aneclloi-s have
had any particular claim on marks of the royal favour.

Additiosis, in Dyiilling, a name given to fiicli things as
are added to the wafh, or liquor, while in a Hate of fer-
mentation, in order to improve thevinolity of the fpirit, pro»
cure a larger quantity of it, or give it a partievilar flavour.

All things of whatever kind, thus added in the time of
fermentation, are called by thofe of the bulinefs, who
fpeak moil intelligently, additions; but many confound
them with things of a very diftereiit nature, under the name

of FERMENTS.

The additions ufed in the diftilleiy may be reduced to
four general heads. 1. .Salts, z. Acids. \. Aromalics, ani
4. Oils. A little tartar, nitre, or common fait finely pow-
dered, may be added to the lic^uor while fermenting, cfpc~
cially in the beginning of the operation ; or in their Head, 3
little of the vegetable, or hner mineral acids, may be dii,j>-
ped in at different times, when found lUCelTary. Thefe are
of great ufe, efpecially yi the fermenting folntions of treacle,
honey, and the like fweet and rich vegetable juices, which
either wholly want an acid in themfelves, or have it in too
fmall a proportion, or have been robbed or divefted of it.
The proper acids for this purpofe are, the juice of Seville
oranges, or lemons, or the fpirit of fulphur, or Glauber's
fpirit of fait, or, what is greatly preferable to all thefe, a
particular aqueous folution of tartar, a fuccedaneum for
which may be tamarinds, or the robs of fome very acid
fruits, or the media fuhflantia vini. On this foundation
ftands that ingenious pratlice of uiing a fuitable proportion
of the flill bottoms, or the remaining wadi, in the iubfequent
brewing.

After the fame manner, a very confiderable quantity of
any edential vegetable oil, may by proper management he
converted into a furprifingly large quantity of inflammab'c
fpirit ; but great care in this cafe muil be had not to drop
it in too fail, nor too much at a time ; this might damp the
fermentation ; and, indeed, the adding a large quantity of
oil ritonce, in the common way of llojjping the feimentatiop
at T.r-.y point required.

The bcft n-icthod of all, of introducing the oil, fo as- to
avoid all inconvenience, is to reduce it firft to an elaeofac-
charur.i, by grinding it in a mortar, with a due quantity of
fine fugr.r in powder. The oil thus added, with its particlen
difunited, arid in form of powder, will readily mix with the
liquor, aiui immediately ferment with it.

A large proportion of rectified fpirit, or of any oth.er
fpirit, may, by prudent management, be alfo introduced into
the fermenting liquor; and this will always come back willi
a large addition to the quantity of fpirit, that would other-
wife have arifeii from the diilillalion. Shaw. See Combi-
natory Distillation.

ADDITIVE, denotes fomcthing to be added to another.
E e Gcome.

ADD

A D E

Geometrician!; fpeak of additive ratios ; aflronomers of ad-
ditive equations, &c.

Additive nilio is iifed, by fome writers, for that whofe
tenns are difpofed to addition, that is, to coinpolition, in
oppoiition to fiiltrafl'ive ratio, whofe terms are difpofed to
fubtraition, ;. c. to divifion. Pliil. Trarif. N" 257.

Suppofe the line ac divided in the points b and .v,
a b X c

the ratio between a b and b x is additive ; becaufe the
terms a b and b x compofe the whole a x. But the ratio be-
tween ax and bx is fubtraftive, becaufe ax and bx differ by
the line ab.

AnoiTivE equal'ions, in yljlronomy, thofe which are to be
added to the fun's mean axomalv, in order to find the true
one. See Equation.

ADDIX, in ylnUqiiily, a meafure of capacity in Afia
and Ej^ypt. vSee Piloc.

ADDIXIT, or Addixerunt, was the word by which
they txprelTed the favourable augur of the facred birds. For
an unfavourable augur, a negative was annexed.

ADDOUBORS, m Laiv. See Reiiubeors.

ADDRESS, in a general fenfe, is ufed for ikill and good
management, and of late has been adopted from the
French, and is ufed in genteel phi-afe, and alfo in Com-
nurce, as fynonymous with direiftion to a perfon or place.
The word is formed of the French verb addrcjfer, to dinli
any thing to a psrfon.

Address, means alfo a difcourfe prefented to the king,
in the name of a confiderable body of his people ; to exprefs
or notify their fentiments of joy, fatisfatlion, or the like,
on fome extraordinar)' occafion.

AVe fay, the lords addrefs, the commons addrefs. — Ad-
dreffes were firft fet on foot under the adminlllration of Oli-
ver CromweU. — At Paris, their office of intelligence was
commonly called bureau d^addrejfe.

Address, in Rhelorlc. See Apostrophe.

ADDUCENT Mufdes, or Adductors, in Anatomy,
are thofe which bring forward, clofe, or draw together, the
parts of the body whereto they are annexed.

The word is compoimded of ad, to ; and ducers, to drwo),
er Iring.

Adducents, or adduftors, Hand oppofed to abducent, or
abduftors.

ADDUCTION, in Anatomy, the motion or aftion of
the adducent mufcles, or adductors.

ADDUCTOR bre-o'is femoris. See Triceps.

Adductor longus femoris. See Triceps.

Adductor niagnbs femoris. See Triceps.

Adductor Octili arifes from the inner fide of the fora-
men opticum, between the obhquus fuperior and depreffor,
and is inferted into the globe of the eye oppofite to the in-
ner angle. It is from its fituation the fliortefl of the four
ftraight mufcles of the eye. It will turn the eye towards
the nofe.

Adductor OJfis metacarpi minimi diglti manus, mctacar-
fhis of Winflow, arifes from the os uncifonne, and the
ligament of the wrift, and is inferted in a tendinous form,
into the inner fide and front of the metacarpal bone of the
little finger. It will bring the metacarpal bone of this fin-
ger towards the reft, and will bend it.

Adductor minimi diglti pedis, arifes from the infide of the
metatarfal bone of the httle toe, and is inferted into the infide
of the root of the firft joint of the httle toe. It wiU bend
the firft joint of the little toe, and draw it inwards.

Adductor poUlcis manus, has a broad fielhy origin from
the whole length of the metacarpal bone of the middle fin-
ger : its fibr« are collcfted togetherlo be inferted tendinous

into the inner part of the root of the firft bone of the
thumb. It will pull the thumb towards the fingers.

Adductor poUicl: pedis, the antlthenar of Winfiow, arifes
by a long tendon from the os calcis, from the os cuboidcs,
from the os cuneiforme externum, and from the metataifal
bone of the fecond toe. It is inferted into the external fe-
famoid bone of the great toe. Its uie is to bring the great
toe towards the other toes.

Adductor projlatte, a name given by Santorini to a muf-
cle, which he alfo calls levator proJlat<f, and which Winllow
cslh prq/Intlcus fuperior. Albinus, from its office, had veiy
properly called it comprejj'or projlatir.

ADDUS, in Ancient Geography, a tovi'n of Paleftine in
the tribe of Judah.

ADDYME, a town of Africa, placed by Ptolemy in
Mauritania Ccefarienfis.

ADEA, in Geography, a diftricT; of Abyffinia, called alfo.
Hade A.

ADEC, in Commerce, the name of a large Egyptian
weight, ufed principally for rice, and confilling of 2 10 okes,
each of three rotolos, a weight of about two drams lefsthan
the Englifti pound. But this is no certain weight : for at
Rofetta, the adeb is only 15c okes. Pococke, Egypt.

ADEBA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Hifpania
Tarragonenfis, placed by Ptolemy among the lUcrcaonea.

ADEBAREA, in Geography, a defert, hilly diftricl of
Abyffinia, called the countiy of the Slaves, as being in the
vicinity of the Shangalla.

ADEDUS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Arabia
Felix, on the borders of the Red Sea, placed bj'- Ptolemy
in long. 72° 15'. and lat. 17° 10'. among the CalTaniti.

ADEGE^I, in Geography, a town of Flanders, five leagues
eaft of Bruges.

ADEL, a kingdom on the eaftern coaft of Africa, fo
called from its metropohs, and Zeila from an eminent fea-
port, fituated to the fouth of the Red Sea, the Straits of
Babelmandel and Cape Guardefui, and has tlie Indian ocean
on the eaft, on the fouth the kingdoms of Magadaxo and
Adea ; and on the weft the country of the Gallas, or the
kingdoms of Dancali, Dawaro, Bali, Fatigar, and other
diftrifts of Abyffinia. The exact extent of this kingdom
is not known ; but it is fuppofcd fi-om eaft to weft to
be about 160 leagues, and trom north to fouth aboiit
72 leagues. The interior part of Adel is very imperfeft-
Iv-defcribed. The principal places in it are Adel the capi-
tal and royal refidence, fituate in tiie inland country, near
the river Hawafti, about 300 miles fouth of^, Mocha, N. lat.
8^ 5'. E. long. 44° 20'. ; Aflcm, a fmall town on the eaft-
ern coaft, which furniffies provifions for mariners, but has
no haven ; Cape Guardefui to the north of Affi;m ; Meta
on the northern coaft near the river Soal, Barbora and
Zeila. Some geographers have mentioned other cities in this
kingdom, vi%. Aran, Bali, Doara, Comizara, Novorata, Soccl
and Auffiigurella, fituate on a high hill in the centre of the
kingdom. The whole coaft to the fouth-eaft is defart. This
kingdom is faid to have been founded by a prince of Abyf-
finia, called Salatru, who, efcaping from the prifon in which
the princes of the blood are confined in that country, took
refuge in the province of Adel, and mari-)-ing the daughter
of the king of Zeila, eftablifhed himfelf in the pofleffion
of thefe united kingdoms. Of all the enemies, with whom
the Abyffinians have had occafion to contend, the kings of
Adel have been the moft powerful and inveterate : and, in-
deed, the hiftory of this kingdom confifts principally of de-
tails of alternate defeats and viftories. The Adclians being
Mohammedans, and the Abyffinians Chriftians, a mutual
aniraofity has fubfifted between them ; and the rancour has

increafed

A D E

iiicreafed in eonfeqiience of the fuccoiir given to the latter
by the Poitiiguefe, and the alarm occaliontd by theiv Uib-
niiffion to the authority of the Roman fee. At length,
however, the Portuguefe were totally exjjelled, and the
kingdom of Adel became tributary to the Grand Signior.
The kings of this country have been for a long time in iiigh
favour at the Porte, and dignified with the title of Saints,
on account of their fingular zeal, and frequent wars againll
the Chriftians. Nevertlielefs the Svdtans have contrived to
ftrip them of their moil confiderable maritime towns on the
Red Sea : fo that they have now no port left, except that
of Zeila, the rell being all in the hands of the Turks. By
thefe means the kings of Adel are precluded from maintain-
ing any intercourfe with Europe.

The country, though it has fcldom any rain, is fo well
watered by rivers and canals, that it is very fertile and pro-
ductive. It has plenty of wheat, barley, and millet ; and
a great variety of (heep, cows and other cattle. Some of
the flieep have large tails, which weigh between 20 and 30
pounds. But the chief trafilc of the inhabitants confills of
gold duft, elephant's teeth, frankincenfe and negro-daves,
which tliey procure from Abyffinia with which they are al-
moil always at war, and convey to the port of Zeila, where
ihey find purchafers from Arabia, Cambaya, and other parts.

The Adelites, called Gibbertis, are a ftout and war-
like people, and fight with furprifing intrepidity againil the
Abyfllnians, partly from a zeal for religion, and partly with
the hope of plunder : and they are furniflied by the Turks
and Arabs with a variety of fire-arms. Their complexion,
particularly on the northern coaft, is of a tawny brown, and
towards the fouth it is of a more deep black. Their drefs
chiefly confifts of a piece of cotton, which covers them
from the girdle to the knee, the reft of the body being
naked : but the king and nobles wear a kind of loofe gar-
ment that covers the whole body, and a cap over the haad.
All, and efpecially the women, are fond of adorning their
necks, arms, wrifts, and ankles with bracelets of glafs,
amber, and other fimilar trinkets.

ADELARD, or Athelard, in Biography, a bene-
dicline monk of Bath, flouriihed about the year 1 130, and
for the fake of mathematical knowledge, travelled into
France, jSpain, Germany, Italy, Egypt and Arabia, and
is faid to have fettled at Paris, where he acquired reputation
as a teacher of medicine. He tranflated Euclid, among
other Greek w-riters, out of Arabic into Latin ; and alio
an Arabic work, intitled " Ericheatarim," upon the feven
planets. He wrote a treatife on the feven liberal arts, compre-
hending, according to the language of the times, the tri-
vium and (fiadriviuin. He is alfo faid to have written many
books of phyfic and medicine, which are loll. Wallis, in
his Algebra (p. 6.) mentions the prefaces to two MS. books
of Travels ; one or both of \\'hic!i had noticed the travels
of Athelardus Bathonenfis, which had been cited by Vof-
fius, who fays that he was learned in ail the fciences of his
time ; but thefe have fince been cut out of the books in
Corpus Chrifti and Trinity colleges, Oxford, and carried
away : — a fpecies of larceny, vi-hich, in the RepubUc of Let-
ters, deferves to be treated as a capital offence.

Adelarp. SeeAD.^LARD.

ADELBERG, in Geography, a town of Germany, in
the duchy of Wurtemberg ; two leagues fouth-eaft from
Schorndorff. See Adlesberg.

ADELBOLD, in Biography, a monk of Lobes- in the
diocefe of Liege, and afterwards bifliop of Utrecht, wrote
the hie of his emperor Heniy II. furnamed Claudius, with
\vhom he was a favourite. He was made bilhop of Utrecht
iji 1008, and died 1027.

A D E

ADEL-/V/J, in Ichthyology, a name given by fomc au.
tliors to the Lavaretiis, or albula nobilis.

ADELFORS, in Geography, a gold-mine in the pro-
vince of Smoland, in Sweden, difcovcred in I73y, Ducats
arc coined with its gold.

ADELHOLZEN, or A-oelmoetz, in Crogmphy, a
town of Germany in the circle of Bavaria, famous lor its
medicinal baths ; four miles fouth of Traunilein,

ADELIA, formed of aSnXo^, uncertain or ohfcure, in
Botany, a genus of the diorcia monadelphia clafs and order,
of the natural order of tricocca aiid euphorbitr of Juflieu. Its
charadlers are, that the male calyx is a onc-lcafed, tripar-
tite perianthium, with oblong and recurved leaflets ; it has
no corolla ; and the flamina are numerous, capillary fila-
ments of the length of the calyx, united into a cylinder at
the bafe ; and the anthers are roundllh : the female calyx is
a five-parted perianthium, the parts being oblong and jier-
maneiit ; no corolla ; the pilUllum has a roundifli gcrmen,
three very fhort divaricate ilylcs, and torn ftigmas ; the pe-
ricarpium is a tricoccous, roundilh, thrcc-ccUcd capfule ;
and the feeds are folitary and roundifli. Tiicre are three
fpecies, \v/,. A. bernardia, the villous-lcaved beniardia ; A.
ricinclla, Imooth-kaved bernnrdia ; and A. ncidolon, or box-
leaved adclia. Thefe flirubs grow naturally in the ifiand of
Jamaica, and are nearly allied to the croton. The fecond grows
to the height of eight or ten feet ; the third rcfembles a
young ebony, and does not rife above four feet high. They
may be propagated by feeds brought from the countries
where they grow. Martyn. In the lall edition of Lin-
nxus by Gmelin, this genus is ranked under the monadelphia
icofandria clafs and order.

ADELING. SeeAxHELiNG.

ADELLA, Adalus and Adano, in Ichthyology, mma
given to the sturgeon.

ADELLUM, in ^Indent Geography, a town of Spain,
north-weil of lUicis.

ADELM, or Aldhelm, m Biography, fon of Kenred,
and nephew of Ina, king of the Weft-Saxons, was a learn-
ed Enghlbman, who fluuriflKd about the year 6P0. He
was firft Abbot of Malmfbury, and afterwards bifhop of
Sherburn. He was much efteemed, and is laid to luivobeen
the firfl Enghfliman who wrote in Latin, and the firft who
brought poetry into England. He compofed fevcral books,
not only in theology, but in the mathematical fciences, as
arithmetic, aftrology, and de difciplinis philofophorum. He
died in 709, in the monallcrj' of Malmfbury, and is ho-
nourably mentioned by Bcde and William of Malmfbuiy,
and alio by Bale and Camden. He was canonized, and
many miracles are afcribed to him.

A'DELMANoFELDEN, in Geography, a town of
Germany in tlie circle of Swabia, two leagues weft of
Elwangen.

ADELNAU, or Odelno, a town of Poland, feven
leagues fouth-wefl of Kalifli.

ADELPHI, a fmall illand in the Grecian Archipelago,
about a league eafl-fouth-eaft of Scopelo.

ADELPHIANI, in Church IJiJory, a fcfl fo called
from their leader Adelphius, who kept the fabbath as %
fart.

ADELSCALC, in ylncient Cujloms, denotes the fer-
vant of the king. The word is alfo written Adelfcalche,
and Addelfcalcus. It is compounded of the Gennan add
or cdct, noble, and fcalc, fervaitt. Among the Bavarians,
adelfcalcs appear to have been the fame with royal thanes
among the Saxons, and thofe called niiiiijlri regis, in ancient
charters.

ADELSDORF, in Geography, the name of two fmall
E e 2 towns

A D E

A D E

to\vns of Franconia ; one in the bifhopric of Bamberg, and
tlie othtr ill tlie marciiiifate of Anfpacli.

ADEMPTION, ill the Civr! Law, tho revocation of a
grant, donation, or tlie like. The ademption of a legacy
may be eitlier e.\J>rrfs, as when the tcflator dechvrcs in form,
that he revokes what he had bequeathed ; or fas'it, as when
he only revokes it indireflly or implicitly. Thus, if A. by
will gives his da'.itrhter M. loool., to be firll paid after his
debts, befidcs a ftiare out of the dividend of hi; eflate ; and
afterwards on her marriage, an aj^reement be made forvvlint
fhe /hoidd have out of A's elbtc, that it (hould be only
liool., which (hould be in full of what was intended out
of it ; tliis agrrecment is an ademption ot the legacy.

ADEN, a gland. See Gland.

Aden, in Geo;;rapl.>v, a celebrated mart, giving name to
a country of which it is the capital, iituate at the moft
fouthern extremity of Arabia Felix upon the Indian ocean,
near the (Iraits of Babclmanilel. According to the Arabs,
its founder was Aden the fon of Saba and grandfon of
Abraham. Some fuppofc that the etymology of the iiame
is the fame with that of Eden, and that it was fo called
from the dehgluful country in which it was fituated. It
ftands at the foot of feveral high mountains which fur-
round it almoft on all fides. The Arabs have erefted forts
on the furnmits of thefe mountains : and a fine aqueduft con-
veys the w.Uer from thence into a large refervoir or canal,
built about three-quarters of a mile from the city, which
fupplies the inhabitants. G-olius fuppofes, that Ailen is the
ulrablr Emporium of Ptolemy ; and it is without doubt the
jldana of Uranius, mentioned by Stephanus, vol. i. p. 2 1.
The fituation of the harbour of AJm., ^vluch opened an
eafy communication with Egypt, Ethiopia, India and Per-
fia, had rendered it for many ages one of the moll flourilh-
ing faftories in Afia. Fifteen y;ars after it had repulfcd
the great Albuquerque, who attempted to demolifn it in
1513, it fubmitted to the Turks, under Soliman II. in
'539> "'^'° '^'d not long remain mailers of it. The king of
Yeman, who poffefTed the only diilrift of Arabia that merits
the appellation of happy, drove them from thence and re-
moved the trade to Mocha, which till this circumftancc oc-
curred, was only a village. N. lat. 12° 40'. E. long. 46°

'3'-

Aden, is alfo tlie name of a mountain in the kinjrdom
of Fe«.

ADENANTHERA, formed of r^vn;, slandulous, and
avSnpx, an anther, hnjinrdjio'xer-jenre, in Bitnti\', a genus of
the decandrla monogyma clafs and order, of the natural order
of hmeiitacex, and legiimmofa: of Juffieu ; the charailers of
which are thefe : the calyx is a one-leafed, five-toothed,
very fmall perianthinm ; the corolla is five-petalled and bell-
fiiaped, the petals lanceolate, fcffile, convex inwards and
concave underneath ; the llamens are fubulate filaments,
crcdl and fomewhat (liorter than the corolla ; the anthers are
roundifh, incumbent, bearing a globofe gland at the outer
tip ; the pillillum is an oblong germen, gibbous downwards,
ftyle fubulate and as long as tlie Itamens, the iligma fimple ;
the pericarpium is a long comprelTed membranaceous legume,
and the feeds are very numerous, roundifli and remote.
There are three fpecie;, -vi-z. A. pavomna, or poinciana,
with leaves fmooth on both fides, which is one of th.e largeil
trees in the Eall Indies. Its duration is 200 years, and its
timber is much ufed on account of its folidity ; the powder
of the leaves is ufed in their ceremonies ; the feeds are eaten
and are alfo valued as weights, being each of them four
grains ; and beaten with water and borax, they form a ce-
ment, and the bruifed leaves yield a liquor which is elleemed
good againft pains in the loins. This f])ecies muil be raifed

on a hot-bed from feeds, and it myft afterwards be placed
in the bark-(h)vc. It has not yet flowered in England. Mr.
Miller mentions a variety with fcarlet feeds received fron'k
India, which is of a very flow growth. 2. A. fdlcata,
with leaves tomentofe underneath, is a native of the Eall
Indies. 3. A. fcanilcns is a native ot Mallicollo, an illand
in the South-feas. Thefe two Ipecies are hltle known with
us ; having never been cullivatid in England.

Adf.nanthera, is alio a ipecies ot anthkricum.

ADENUA, ill Gco^iraphy, a town of Africa, in the em-
pire of Morocco, and province of Terafena.

ADENI'jURG, or Aldrnburg, a town of Wcftphaha,
in the duchy of Berg, fubjecl to the elector Palatine ; 12
miles north-eafl of Cologne. E. long. 7"' 16'. N. lat.
51'' 2'.

ADEN I A, in Bolany, a genus of the hexandna mcn'i-
gynm clafs and order ; the characters of which art, that the
corolla has fix petals ; the calyx is very long, and divided
into lix portions; the ncftarium is compofcd of fix linear ■
fcales. There is one fpecies, xi/s. A. -anenata, with pal-
mated leaves and fpikcd flowers. This fpecies is mentioned
by Forflval in his Flor. iSgypt. And he fays, that the
powder of the young branches mixed in any kind of liouor,
is a Urong poifon ; and that the cafiparis Jp'uiofa is an anti-
dote to it. The tree grows in Arabia.

ADENOGRAPHY, compounded of aJrv, ghin:', and
y^oi^j;, I defcrihi-, that branch of Anatomy which deicribes thd
glands, and the glinduiar parts of the body.

yldcnography is the f:ime Avith what forae others call adc
nology, or the adenological part of Anatomw

ADENOIDES, q. d. ^/«n</«/ouj-, an epithet applied to

the PROSTAT.'E.

ADENOS, a kind of cotton, otherwife called marine
cotton. It comes from Aleppo by the way of Marfeilles,
where it pays 2.0 per cent, duty, according to the tariff of
the year 1706. Its valuation, by the fame tariff, i; of 76
livres 16 fols.

ADENOSUS ahfc'Jfus, in Surgery, a crude Iiard tuber-
cle, difficult of difcuflion, and relembling the appearance of
a gland. See Abscess.

ADENSIiN, in Geography, a parcchi;il village in the
bailiwick of Calenberg in Hanover, which formerly be-
longed to the lords of Adenoys, whofe male ifl'ue became
extinft in 133 1, and whofe ellates defcended by marriage to
the counts of Hallermund.

ADEONA, in Mythology, a goddefs invoked by the
Romans when they fet out upon a journey. Tins (fays Mr.
Biyant) is the fame with Idione or Adione, formed of ad
and Imah, q. d. reg'ta coh:mla, referred to in the Hebrew
word fai: necromancer (Dcut. xviii. 11.), and probably the
DiONE of the-Greeks. Mythol. vol. ii. p. 313.

ADEPHAGIA, the goddeJs of gluttony," as the name
imports, to whom the Sicilians paid religious worfliip. In
the temple erefted to her, her ftatue was placed next to tliat
of Ceres.

ADEPHAGUS, or voracious, an appellation of Her-
cules.

ADEPS, in Anatomy, the fat found in the abdomen.
The term alio denotes more generally any kind of fat.

ADEPTS, Adepti, from the verb adipijri, to obtain, a
denomination given to the proficients in Alebemy, by which
thofe cheraills chofe fonnerly to dillinguiih themfelves who
were engag.'d in experiments on the tranfmutation of
metals, and refearches after the univerf.d medicine. The
appellation is derived, according to Paracelfiis (de alhonomia
magna lib. i.), from the Latin term phil(ij':phin adeptu, phi-
lofophy acquired by contemplation, in oppofition to that
4 whicU

A D E

which ^n-as tauj^Iit and tranfmitted in tlif Ccliools, phUofoph'ta
thmtntfins. Such is tlie nature, fays Paracclfus, of this
hij^litr pliiiofopliy, that it does not orijyinate from man but
from heaven ; and one mortal can no more communicate it
to another, than the paper on which letters art traced, can
of itfelt declare their meaning. Hence the cnthufiads who
rave themfelves up to this kind of lludy, intilled them-
iclves pb'iloftiph'i ad<pti, as they fpoke of others by the name
oi phllvfophi tcrreni. Van Hclmont alfu fays, " vocantur hi
ililipfi quorum fctlor fpintus Dei eji" ( ile tnc^net. vuln. curat.
119.) " Adepts are thole who are guided by the Ipirit of
God."

Ori'^iually, however, tiiis flattering epithet was common
to fevcral Iciences, for Paracelius exprefsly mentions adept
theology, adept geometry, adept medicine, &c. All thefe
Iviblirae dillinftions are however fallen into neglecl, ar.d the
believers in the philofopher's ftone have alone retained pof-
feflion of the title of adepts. The term therefore in the vo-
cabulaiy of the alchemills, means a perfon, who, befides
being a mailer of all that has been written, or is current by
tradition, relative to the occult qualities of bodies, has by
contemplation, and in fome myfte;ious manner, aequb'td an
inlight into thofe fecrets of nature, on which depend the
tranfmutation of metals, and the univerfal medicine. It was
a tradition ^mong the adepts, tliat the number of perfons
thus divin-vly initiated, was never either more or Icfs than
twelve. The moil ce!:brated of tins fraternity are Ray-
mond Lully, Paracelfus, Van Hclmont, and Ifaac Hol-
landus •. men fuperior in real chemical knowledge to nioH of
their contemporaries, but who were ltd partly by thyir own
vanity and love of myllicifm, and partly by the eafy and
eager credulity of the public to be contented with the fame
of cor.iurers, when they might have deferved the notice of
pollerity as philofophcrs.

The term adepts is fometlmes more generally applied to
thofe v\-ho are proficients in any kind of fcience.

ADEQLTATANGIE Creeh, in Gfc-^/Y-/>,!y, is the eaftern
head water of Sufquehannah river, in the ilate of New
York.

ADEQITATE, fomething equal to, or co-extended
with, another ; and filling the whole meafure and capacity
thereof.

In this fenfe the word Hands, oppofcd to iNADErvirATE.

Adequate, or loial, in Lo^ic, is applied to the objcfts
of fcience. The adc-qnnte objett of a fcience includes the
ma!cnal Tmd. forma! oh\iGt : the iv.ateria! objed of a fcience
is that part which is common to it with other fciences ; the
formal is that which is peculiar to itfelf.

Adeq,uatr ideas, or notions, in ]\Tetaph-jfics, are fuch
images or conception cf an cbjeft, as perfectly reprclent it,
or anfwer to all the parts and properties of it.

M. Leibnitz defines an adequate notion to be that of whofe
feveral charadlers we have diftincl ideas. — Thus, a circle
being defined, a figure bounded by a curve line which retinais
into itfelf, and whofe points are all equally diftant from a cer-
tain intermediate point therein, our notion of a circle is
adequate, if we have diilinft ideas of all ti'cfe circumRances,
viz. a curve returning upon itfelf, a middle point, an equa-
lity of diftance, &c.

All fimple ideas are adequate and perfetf ; and the fa-
culty, be what it will, that excites them, reprefents them
entire.

The ideas of modes are likewife adequate, or perfeft ;
except of thofe niodts which occafionally become fub-
ftancci ; for when we fptak of modes feparately exifting,
we or'y confider them feparate from the fubllar.ce by way
of abllrasSJon.

A D E

All abftrafl ideas are alfo adequate and perfefl ; /ince
they reprcfent all tiiat part of the fubjed wlileh we tlua
ccnihder. — Thus, the idea of roundiufs is perfcdl, or ade-
quate, b.'caufe it oflers to the mind all that is in roundnifs,
in general.

Of the fame kind are all ideas, of which we know no
original, or external objtcl really exilling out of the rriind,
by oecafion of which they were excited in us, and of which
we think them the images. Thus, when a dog is before us,
it is the external cbje't without us which raifcs the idea in
our mind ; but the idea of an animal in gcnend, has no ex-
ternal objtft to excite it : it is created by the mind itfelf,
and mull of neciflity be adequate or perfect.

On the ccnitraiy, the ideas of all lubllances are inadequat*
and imperfeft, which are not formed at the plcafurt of the
mind, but gathered from certain properties, which experi-
ence difcovers in them.

This is evident, becaufe our knowledge of fnbflances is
very defedlive ; and we are only acquainted with fome of
their properties : thus, we know, that filver is while, that
it is malleable, that it melts, &c. but we do not know what
farther properties it may have ; and %vc are wiioUy ignorant
of the inward texture of the particles whereof it con-
fids. — 0\n- idea of filver, therefore, not reprefenting to
the mind all the properties of filver, is inadequate and iin-
perfecl.

ADER, GuiLr.AUMr, m Biography, praftifed medicine
at Touloufe in the begiiniing of the 17th century ; and
pulilllhed " Enanationes de iEgrotis et Morbis in Evan-
gelia." Tolofa?, 1620, 4to. " De pellis Cognitione, Prae-
vifione et Rcmediis." 1628, 4to.

Ader, Eder, Ha!, ad or Hired, \\\ ylncient Geography,
a town thus varioufiy called, allotted to the tribe of Judah ;
which, before that diflribution was made, is faid to have
been the capital of Arab, one of the Canaanitidi kings.
This prince attacked and vanquidied the Ifraelites before
their entrance into the promifcd land. The town was fituated
to the fouth, and near the lake Afplialtltes.

ADERAIMIN. See Alderaimin.

ADERANPATANAM Bay, lies about north-weft by
we'd fnnn Point Pedro, in the ifland of Ceylon, and weft
by fourli from Calimer Point, on the coad of Coromandel.

ADERBIGAN, or Ad^rbeitzan. Sec Aiderbeit-

2AN.

ADERBORGH, a fmall town of the circle of Upper
Saxony, in Pomerania, belonging to the king of Pruflia ;
three leagues north-wed of Stetin.

ADERBOURG, a fmall town in Germany, in the
marche of Brandenburg.

ADERCAN, a town of Perfia, iu the province of Lu«
rillari'; to leagues north-ead of Laar.

ADERCO, in Ancient Geography, a town of Iberia,

ADERKAN, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the
province of Farfiftan ; 45 leagues fouth of Sehiras.

ADERNO, a fmall place in the Val di Dxmonain Sicily,
anciently called AJranum, and iituatc near the river Fiume
d' Aderno, at the foot of Mount Gibcl. E. long. 15^ 25'.
N. lat. 38^ 5'. The remains of the walls of this ancient
city ftill retain an air of grandeur. The pretended temple
of Adrauo in the vicinity of it is nothing more tl'.an a bath,
condrudled of bricks and lava, in the lower period of aiiti-
quilv, when hoih Sicily and the Roman tm.pire had loft all
their eminent artiils. See Houel's Vcy. Pittortfque dea liies
de Sicile, vol. ii. N^. 26.

ADERSLEBEN, a town of Germany, in the princi.
palily cf Ilalbcrdadt ; 16 miles fouth-eaft cf Halbcrftadt,

ADES, or Hades, Lin;, from a and il-^i, 10 fee, denote.- the

invifible

A D E

A D F

invifiblc ftatf. In the heathen mythology, it comprehends
all thofe regions that lie beyond the river St) x, viz. Erebus,
Tartanis, and Elvlinm. See Hfll.

Dr. Campbell ohferves, that the word aJu,-, a(les, occurs
eleven times in the New Tcllament, and is trandated helim all,
except one, where it is tranllated grave. He thinks, however,
that it ought never in fcripture to be rendered hell, at leail
in the fenfe applied to that word by Chrillians. In the Old
Teftament, the correfponding word is 71 :\f),JheoU which
fignities the ftate of the dead in general, without regard to
their charafter or to their condition, either of happinefs or
luifeiy. The Seventy, in their tranllation of the word, have
almoft invariably ufed a5>ij. See Gen. xxxvii. 35. ch. xlii.
38. Pf. xvi. 10. Ads ii. 27. Some biblical critics, however,
among whom we may reckon Father Simon, Bilhop Law,
and Dr. John Tavlor, have contended that the term, in the
Old Tcllament at leatl, means no more than TUp fepukhre
or grave. This opinion is examined by Dr. Campbell, and
he alleges, that, though our word grave may, in feme
cafes, fufficiently exprefs, not the import of the worA Jheol,
but the purport of the fentence ; yet, in other cafes, it gives
but a feeble, and fometimes an improper verfion of the ori-
ginal. He maintains, that with regard to the fituation of
hades, it feems always to have been conceived both by Jews
and Pagans, as in the lower parts of the earth, and correfpond-
ing in depth to the height of the vilihle heavens, both which
are on this account contrafted in facred writ. See Job, xi.
7, 8, 9. Pfal. cxxxix. 8. Amos ix. 2, 3. Befides, the
inhabitants of hades are, from their fubterranean abode, de-
nominated in the New Teilament, (Phil. ii. 10.) xa1a;^&onoi,
a word of the fame import with the plirale uVoxoIm tJi; yn:,
vnder the earth (Rev. v. 13.) which, with the En-oufavwt and
fn'iioi, celellial and ten-eftrial beings, include the whole ra-
tional creation. In proof of the coincidence of the Hebrew
and Pagan notions concerning the fituation of the Jnace of
departed fpirits, he refers to the lines of Virgil, iEn. viii.
V. 243. &c.

Nonfecus, acji qua penllus vi terra deh'ifcens
Infernos referet Jedes, et regna recludnt
Pallida, diis invjfa ; fuperque hnmane barathrum
Cernatur, irepidentque imm'ijpj lutnine manes.

Dr. Campbell farther obferses, that hler, the Hebrew word
for grave, is never rendered in the ancient tranflation a-jm,,
but TK?io?, /ivD^a, or fome equivalent term ; whereas^/^W is
never rendered r^tjo--, or /jlvbrk, but always adij--. This word is
alfo always Angular in meaning, as well as in foim ; but the
word for grave is often plural : and the former never admits
the poffeffive pronouns, being the receptacle of all the dead,
and therefore incapable of an appropriation to individuals ;
the latter often. In hades all the dead are reprefented as
prefent, without exception ; but the cafe is quite different
vith the graves or fepulchres. If. v. 14. ch. xiv. 9. See alfo
Job xxxviii. 1 7. in which the challenge to Job could have no
relation to a fepulchre, the door or entry to which is always
known to the living ; whereas the cafe was verj' different with
regard to the habitation of departed fpirits. Upon the whole,
Dr. Campbell concludes, that the word grave, or fepulchre,
never conveys the full impart of theHebrew^c-o/, or the Greek
hades. This author proceeds to examine the fenfe of a^ric,
hades, in the New Teftament ; and refers to Afts ii. 27. in
which the writer, in ufmg two expreffions, one regarding the
foul, the other the body, would undoubtedly adapt his lan-
guage to the received opinions concerning each ; and if this
■be the cafe, hades was as truly, in their account, the foul's def-
tiny after death, as corruption vjas that of the body. Another
clear proof from the New Teftament, fays Dr. Campbellj that

hades denotes the intermediate ftate of fouls between death
and the general refuneftion, occurs in Rev. xx. 14. where
the expreflion denotes that death, and the ftate of fouls in-
tervening between death and judgment, i. e. hades, fliall be
no more ; but that to the wicked thefe (hall be fucceeded by
a more terrible death ; /•(//, properly fo called. See alfo
ch. vi. 8. The apoftle Paul, it is iaid, without naming
hades, conveys the fame ideas of the ftate of fouls departed.
Rom. X. 6, (f. Hades is often ufed ligi\ratively to denote a
humble and miferable ftate ; and thus it isoppofed to heaven.
Matt. xi. 23. xvi. 18. Here it may be obferved, with
Grotius, (Truth of Chriftian Religion, p. 308. Clarke's
edit. ) and many others, that -nmXai i.'^w, the gates of hades,
are a very natural periphrafisfor death. So the expreflion is
ufed by the Seventy as a literal verlion of the Hebrew. If.
xxxviii. 10. See alfo Wifdom of Solomon xvi. 13. The
claflical ufe of this phrafe is the fame with that of the in-
fpired writers. Homer makes Achilles fay, as rendered by
our Engliih poet :

Who can think one thing and another tell,
My foul detefts him as the gates of hell :

£t^o> ocioxo wu^no"*. II. lib. li.

/. e. I hate him as death, or mortally.

To fay then, that the gates of death Jliall not prevail againft
the church, is, in other words, to fay, it ftiall never die, or be
extinft. The only paffage, fays Dr. Campbell, in holy writ,
which feems to countenance the opinion, that a^>i;, hades,
means the fame thing as yuna., gehenna, or a place of punifli-
ment, is in Luke xvi. 23. According to the explication given
of this paffage, the rich man and Lazarus were both in
hades, though in very different fituations ; the latter in the
manfion of the happy, and the former in thofe of the
wretched. When hades is reprefented as being under the
earth, and heaven, or the feat of the bleffed, as being above
the ftars, thefe expreffions fhould be regarded merely as at-
tempts to accommodate what is fpoken to vulgar appre-
henfion and language. See Campbell's Four Gofpels, tranf.
lated from the Greek. Prelim Diff. vol. i. p. 206. — 236
See Sleep oi the Soul.

Ades, in Geography. See Rhades.

ADESA, or Ad.^sa, a river of Lycia, in Afia Minor.
A town of this name is placed by M. d'Anville, on a fmall
river, which unites with a much larger, called Xanthus.

ADESSE, or Adesta road, hes on the weft fide of
the ifland of Teneriffe, and fix leagues eaft from Gomera
ifland road, which is oppoftte. It is open to the fouth-
weft.

ADESSENARII, formed of the verb adeje, to be pre-
fent, in Ecclefiajlical Hiflory, a name given to thofe who in
the 1 6th centuiy held that Jefus Chrift is really prefent ia
the euchai-ift, but in a manner different from that which is
maintained by the Romanifts. The adeffenarii, called alfo
impanatores, are divided into four different opinions con-
cerning this point. Some hold that the body of Jefus
Chrift is in the bread ; others, that it is about the bread ;
others, that it is with the bread : and laftly, others, that it
is under the bread. See Impanation.

ADFECTED, or Affected Equation, \n Algebra, is
that in v.hich the unknown quantity is found in two or
more different degrees or powers : e.g. x^—px'Arqx^=-a''h,
which has 3 different powers of x, viz. .\^, x', and .v'. See
Equation. The term affeded is fometimes ufed in fpeak-
ing of quantities that have co-efficients. Thus, in 2 a, the
quantity a is faid to be affedled with the co-efficient 2 : and
an algebraic quantity is faid to be affefted with the fign-J-
or — , or with a radical fign, when thefe figns are prefixed

t»

A D H

A D H

to it. The term adfeAcd, or affcfted, is faid to have been
introduced by Victa.

AUFILIATION is ufe-d to fitrnify a Goibic cultom,
where a perfon remarrying, who has children by a former
bed, renders them capable of inheriting equally with the
common children of both parties. This ii done by agree-
ment, and is otherwifc c:dleil by fomc adoplio per tiuilrimo-
mum. This cullom is ftill retained in Germany, under the
name e'lndk'tndchafft, and iimo prolhim. But the learned liiu-
neccius obferves, that the unio prohum is not an adoption.
Elem. Jur. Germ. torn. i. § i6l.

AD FINES, in y^ncinit Geography, a town of Switzer-
land, fuppofed to be the modern Pjhi, in the north of the
diftrift of Turgaw, on the river Duro, or Thur, not far
from the borders of Swabia, about half way between Con-
ftance and Fraven field. It is fo called, becaufe at the time
when C:scinna, the general of the emperor Vitellius, with the
auxiliary Rhctians, defeated the Helvetii, the former ex-
tended their borders thus far ; and in the time of the Ro-
mans, it was the laft town of repute in this quarter.

ADGADNA, in d'ozmphy, a town in the Guan, one
of the Mariana iiles in the South Sea.

ADGE, Agde or AuDE, is a river that falls into the
gulf of Lyons. It is north-eail from Narbonne, between
Beziers and Montpelier, and forms a good bay.

ADHA, among the Mahometans. See Batram.

ADHAD-Eddoulet, in Hijhry, fecond prince of the
race of Buiah, or Dilamites, was born about A. D. 935,
and fucceeded his uncle, Amad-eddoulet, in the empire of
Perfia ; and by the additions he made to it, became the moft
powerful prince in the eaft. In 977, he became emir and
mailer of Bagdad, and direfted his attention to the im-
provement of his extcnfive dominions. He built hofpitals,
founded mofques, cleanfed the beds of rivers, and recovered
and rendered more falubrious large trafts of land. He en-
couraged htcrature and poetry, and cultivated a tafte for
fciencc, and a proficiency in that kind of knowledge which
was moft elleemed among the Arabs. By marr^'ing one of
his daughters to the caliph Al Tay, he mingled the blood
of the Buians with that of tlie ancient fovereigns of the
Moflcms. His ambition led him to commit occafional afts
of feverity ; but his government was, upon the whole, wife
and beneficent. He fell ft facrifice to repeated attacks of
the epilepfy, at the age of 47, A. D. 982, and left fuur
fons, who fliared his dominions. When this prince was at
the point of death, he is reported to have faid, with a faultcr-
ing tongue, " What have all my riches and profperity
" availed me ? My power and authority are now at an
" end :" and thefe words he continued repeating till he
expired. Mod. Un. Hift. vol. ii. p. 410.

ADHATODA, in Botany, a fpecies of JusTiciA. This
name is given to it in the Zeylanic tongue, from its fup-
pofed virtue of expeUing the dead foetus, which it fignifies.

ADHERENCE, aaion of, in the Scots Laiv, is an ac-
tion competent to a huiband or wife, to compel either party
to adhere in cafe of defertion.

ADHERGAT, in Geography, a town of Syria, on the
frontiers of Arabia.

ADHESION, or Al-herence, compounded of ad, to,
and htrrere, to Jlici, in a general fenfe, the ftate of two bodies
which are joined or fattened together, either by mutual at-
traftion, the interpoiition of their own parts, or the im-
pulfe or preffure of external bodies. Anatomifts fometimes
obferve profphyfes, or adhefions of the lungs to the fide of
the thorax, the pleura, and diaphragm, which give occafion
to various diforders. We alfo read gf adhefions of the dura

mater to the cranium ; of the ftone to the bladtler, though
fome combat this laft as a chimera ; at leaft the iiillaiiccs of
it are i-arc. We have alfo fevu-al cafes of adhefions of the
inleftines, mentioned in the Philofophical Tranfaclions,
N''48i. The adhcfion of two hollow heinifplitres and of
two poliflied planes exhibit oilier inftanccs of adhefioii.
See Adhesion Infra.

Adhesion, in Logic. The fchoolmcn diftinguifh two
kinds of CERTITUDE ; the one of fpcculation, which arifes
from the evidence of the thing ; and the other of a<llicfi()n,
or attachment, which does not depend on the evidence, but
on tha importance of the matter, and the intereft wc have
in its truth.

Adhesion, or Adherence, is alfo ufed for the perfifting
in a former opinion or refolution. After the free conference
between the two houfcs concerning the bill for preventing
occafional conformity, when the Lords retired, and it came
to the final vote of adhering, they were fo equally divided,
that in three queftions put to diftcrent heads, the adhering
was carried but by one vote in every one, and by a different
perfon each time. The Commons hkewife adhered ; and
thus the bill was loft.

Adhesion, adhifion, Fr. in Ph'ilofophy, and Ch.-mijry,
is a term generally made ufe of to exprefs the property
which certain bodies have of attracting to themfclves other
bodies, or the force by which they adhere together : thus,
water adheres to the finger, mercury to gold, &c. Hence
arifes an important dillinction bctv/een two words, that in
a loofe and popular fenfe are often confounded. Adhrfon
denotes an union to a certain point between two dilhmilar
fubftances, a.n^cohefton tliat which retains together the com-
ponent particles of the fame inafs. See Cohesion.

Adliefion may take place cither between two folids, as
two hemifpheres of glafs, which, according to an experi-
ment of Defaguhers, adhere to each other with a force equal
to 19 ounces on a furface of contaft -^l^ of an inch in dia-
meter; or between fohds and fluids, as the fufpenfion of
water in capillaiy tubes ; or lalUy, between two fluids, as
oil and water.

The proximate caufe of adhcfion has been varioufly ftated
by (fifferent philofophers. James Bernoulli, in his' Differ-
tation on the Weight of the Atmofphere, publifhed in 16M2,
maintains, that the refiftancc which two pieces of polillicd
marble oppofe to their ftparation, is owing to the preffure uf
the air ; in proof of which, he aihrms as a faft (what in all
probability he had himfelf never attempted to verify), that
the two plates were eafily feparable In vacuo.

Dr. Brook Taylor having obferved, in 17 13, the afccnt of
water between two planes of glafs, was induced to make
feveral experiments on the adhefive power of furfaces, from
which he concluded that the degree of this force might be
meafured by the weight required to feparate them. About
the fame time Mr. Haukfbee proved experimentally the error
which Bernoulli had fallen into, in attributing the adhcfion
of furfaces and capillary attraction to the preffure of the
atmofphere, (Philof. Tranf. vols. xxv. xxvi. xxvii.). Ncver-
thelefs, in 1772, M. M. Lagrange and Cigna, taking for
granted a natural repulfion between water and oily fub.
Itances, imagined if there was an adhcfion between water and
oil, or tallow, that it muft be ocoafioned by a caufe different
from attraclion ; and having afcertained the reality of the
adhefion, they concluded that it was occafioned by the
preffure of the air, and that Dr. Taylor's method was not
well founded.

Such was the ftate of opinions on the fubjcft, when, in
1773) Guyton Morvcau made his celebrated experiments on

adlicdon

A D II

A D H

H'lhefion ill prefence of the Dijon academy, (Joum dc Pliy-
fiqiii;, i. p. 172 aiul 41^0.) ck'inoiilliating, as indeed Hniikf-
bee iiad done before iiim, not only tluit water alcends be-
tween two parallel plates of tallmv fepavatcd from each other
f of a line, but alio that the atmofpheric prefluie is not in
the lead decree the caule of the phenomenon, whieli is folely
attributable to attraelion : in proof of this, a pollflied dil1< of
glafs, 30 lines in diameter, was fufpended to the arm of a
balance, and brought into contatl with a furface of mer-
cury ; the countcrpoife required to feparate it was equivalent
to 9 gros, and a few grains, and upon moving the apparatus
into the -receiver of an air-pump, and forming as perfect a
vacuum as pofiible, precil'ely the fame couiUeipoife was re-
quired as before.

In the profecution of his inquiries on this fubjeCt, which
hitherto had pnncipally interelled the mathematical jjhilo-
fophers, Morveau was led to difcoveries, wiiich promiled at
firll to reduce the intricate fcience of chemical affinities to
the certainty of algebraic computation ; and, if that hope
has fince been deceived, it Hill remains an intereiling objeft
to the chemift, and affords much fubfidiary afTillancc in the
inveftigation of the general laws of chemical agef.cy.

He obferved, that the fame dilk of glafs which, when in
contatl with pure water, adhered to it with a force ctpial to
2j8 grains, required a countcrpoife of only 210, in order to
feparate it from a folution of potafli, notwithftanding the fu-
pei-ior denfily of this lad. This inequality of effefts on
equal diameters, and in an invcrfe order to that of the re-
fpecflive fpecific gravities of the two fluids, appeared not
only to be decifive in favour of Dr. Taylor's method, but
to encourage the hope of applying it to the calculation of
chemical affinities.

In order to verifv this propofition f Elcmens de Chym'e.
de I'Acadcmie do Dijon, vol. i. p. 63.) plates of the difTe-
rent metals in their higheft flate of purity were procured,
perfectly round, an inch in diameter, of the fame thicknefs,
well poliihed, and furaiflicd with a fmall ring in the centre of
each fo as to keep them lufpended pvecifely parallel to tlie
plane of the horizon. Each of thefe plates was in turn
fufpended to the anri of an alfay balance, and exaclly coun-
terpoifed by weights placed in the fcale attached to the
oppofite arm ; the plate thus balanced was applied to the
furface of fome mercuiy in a cup about two lines beneath
it, by Aiding the plate over the mercury as in the filvering
of mirrors, fo as to exclude every bubble of air, weights
were then fucccfiively added till the adhefion between tlie
plate and mercury was broken. Frelh mercury was ufed
for each experiment. The following is the Table of refults.
Gold adheres to mercury with a force equal to 44.6 grains.
Silver - ■. - 429

Tin - - - 418

Lead - - - 397

. Bifmuth - - - 372

Zinc - - - 204

Copper - - - 142

Antimony (regulus) - - 126

Iron - - - 115

Cobalt ... 8

The Pcriking differences in the above Tabic fhew that the
prefTure of the atmcfphere has no (hare in them, fince in
this refpeft the circumftances of each were precifely fimilar :
nor do they depend on the refpeflive fpecific gravities ; for
if fo, filver fhould rank after lead, cobalt before zinc, and
iron before tin. The only order which agrees with the
above is that of the chemical affinity of thefe metals, or the
rcfpedlive degrees of their folubility in mercury (See amal-

gam! : it is highly probable, therefore, that at leall the
principal part or the adhefive force thus found by experi-
ment is owing to chemical alfinity, and that the above nu-
merical feries 446, 429, 418, 397, &c. is an apprcximation
towards the ratio of the relative aflinities of gold, filvcr, tin,
lead, See. for mercury.

M. Achard, of Berlin, convinced by Morveau's difcoveries
of the accuracy of Dr. Taylor's iriethod, toUov.'cd them up
by a great multitude of experiments which were publiOied.
in 1780, along with other trafts in his Chym!j'r/.i Pls^J'iche
fchnp.en. Tlie rehilts of thefe, if accurate, would make a
conliderablc aceellion to the fcience of cheir.ical philofophy,
but as there are tome rather fufpicious circumllances, it
will be UeCL-fTaiy to inveibgate M. Achard's lyllem with
fome minutenefs.

He lays down three conditions as efFentir.! to the accuracy
of each experiment. I. Tliat the iclid, whole adhefion with
the fluid is to be afcertaiued, fliould be fufpended by its
true central point, in order to be in a truly hori/onval po-
fition, and that the force employed to feparate the adhefion
fliould always form a right ar:gle with the fluid. 2. That
no air bubble fliould remain interpofed between the folid
and fluid ; which is eafily perceived when ufing dlfks of
glafa, but can only be inferred when ulir.g opaque folids ;
to obviate this caufe of inaccuracy he has found no method
an'wer fo well iis Aiding the plates on the furface of the
PiUid as explained above. 3. In adding the counttrpoife,
elpecially towards the end, care mu ft be _ taken to ufc very
fmall weights, fuch as pieces of paper, a quarter of a grain
each, and to place thefe in the fcale, gently and gradu:Jly, fo
as to avoid any jerk or fuddcn action.

The lirft point to be afcertaiued was, -whether tlie tem-
perature remaining the fame, the difference of atmofpherical
prefiure, as evinced by the barometer, had any influence on
the adhefion of furfaces.; he found that in this refpecl there
was no difi'ererice in the adhefive force between a plate of
glafs and dlfliUed water.

The refults were, b.owever, no longer tjniform, when ha
operated at different temperatures with the fame elevation
of the barometer, nor did this variation arife from the
different temperatures of the furrounding air, bat folely
from that of the water : purfuing this train of experiment
he found that the adlicfiou of folids to fluids is conflantly in
an inverfc ratio to tlieir temperature : and for the verilica-
tion of his experiments he inftituted a number of calcula-
tions from the following data. Let s be the temperature
of the water ; y, the correfpanding adhefion ; h, its co-effi-
cient ; and a the conltant force ; hence we have the equa-
tion x:=a — hy. To find the value of a and 3 he made
ule of two experiments, the one in which water at, 104° of
Sulzer's thermometer (152°. 278 Fahrenheit) adhered to
the glafs difk with a force equal to 80 grains, the other
where water at 56° S. (96^. 764 Fahrenheit) adhered with
a force equal to 89 grains. Proceeding from thefe two
terms 104=1; — 80 3
56=:(Z— 89 b

we have, n = 530

3=-ili

Hence the relation of the temperature of the water to its
adhefion to the glafs, may be thus expreffed, .v=530 — V J* »
and from this are deduced the correfponding values of
.V and y for all the adhefions of glafs to water at any tem-

perature.

From thefe data.

and the correfponding experiments, M.

Achard

A D H

A D II

Achard ronned the following Table of the adhcfiv* forae of
a glafs dilk, 1 1 inch in diameter, to water at different tem-
peraturci.

TABLE I.

Degrees of

Degree? oflAdliefion

Adl'.i-rion

Sul/.er's

Fiihrcn.

by Expe-

found by

Difference.

Therm.

Therm.

riment.

Calculntion.

95

141. 6S7

8i.25gr3.

81.55

-0-3

90

I35-9H

82.5

82.5

0

85

130.141

83-75

83-43

+0-34

80

124.368

S4.5

84.37

+o-'3

75

11S.595

S5-75

85-^'

+0.46

70

112.822

86.

86.2 J

-0.25

65

107.049

S7.25

87.18

+0.07

60

101.276

88.5

88.12

+0.38

5S

95-503

89.

89.06

— 0.06

50

89.730

90.25

90.

+0.25

45

83-957

90.75

90-93

— 0.16

40

78.184

92.

91.87

+0-13

35

72.411

92.75

92.81

— 0.04

30

66.638

93-75

93-73

-I-Q.02

^5

60.865

94-5

94.68

-0.18

20

55.092

95-75

95.62

+0.13

15

49-319

96.25

96.56

-0.31

10

43.546

97-5

97-5

0

Of the accuracy of this Table of M. Achard's there feems
no reaion to doubt, fmce, in the individual inilances, the dif-
ference between the force of adhefion found by e.-^periment,
and that afcertsined by calculation, is fo confiderable as to
exclude the idea of fiAion; while, upon the general average,
the diiference is fo fmall as to give a high opinion of the
precillon with which the enquiry has been condutlcd.

We learn from this Table, that for every degree of Sulzer's
thermometer ( i.i565Fahren.) taken in adefcending feries,the
force with which a gbfs difl': 1.5 inches in diameter adheres to
the furface of water, is increaicd by 0.1876 grains according
to calculation, or 0.1858 by experiment, in an uniform
ratio : now two things take place during the coohng of the
water, viz. a portion of caloric is feparated, and the bulk
of the water is leffened : each of thefe caufes may account
for the increafed adhefive force, but upon different pnnciples.
If it is owing to the cfcape of caloric, it may be accounted for
in the following way. Water at any tlate of liquidity is, pro-
perly fpeaking, a compound of caloric and water, which
combine together by a flight degree of affinity ; and in pro-
portion to this force refill the union of any third fubftance
either with the caloric or the water : if part of the caloric is
taken away, the water is more difpofed to union with a third
fubftance by the whole quiefcent affinity of the water and the
abftradled caloric ; therefore the force by which a plate of

glafj adheres to water is increafed, exactly in proportion to
the diminution of the temperature, or, in oilier wordj, tlie
increafc of weight is the exponent of the quiefcent alfinity
between the mafs of water and the calorie taken away. Ac-
cording toMon-eau'aobfervationson this fame Table ; " The
" adhefion is ftronger whtiv the water is colder, becaufc
" containing more ponderable matter in a given volume, it
" prefents to 'the glafs-plate more points of contafl ; and
" the force of adhefion being proportional to the futn of
" thefe points, it ought to augment or diminiPi, asthelluid
" is condenfed by cold, or rarefied by heat." Tliife few-
words exprefs the aim and objeifl of all the experiments of
Morveau on this fubieCt ; namely, that chemical affiiiitv is
only a modification of the attraction ofcohefion, and in like
manner fubjedt to mathematical computation. The general
reafonings on which this opinion is founded will be diicuffed
hereafter in the article chem'ual affinity ; all that is nccef-
fary here, is to flicw, that the argument juft mentioned, de-
duced from M. Achard's Table, is liable to a very llrong oh-
jedion. The fadl being allowed, that the adhefion ber jme«
uniformly greater in proportion to the diminidied tempera-
ture of the water, it follows, that if this adhefion is owing
fiinply to the cohefive altraftion of the proximate particles ot
the glafs and water, the degree of this force will be accord-
ing to the number of proximate particles in a given fuper-
ficies ; or, in otlier words, dirciitly as the fpecific gravity.
Now, by the experiments of Achard, the adhefion Ijetweeii
the glafs-plate and water at 152° Fahren. is equal to 80
grains, and at 96° Fahr. equal to 89 grains. From Kir-
wan's experiments on fpecific gravity (Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixxv.
pt. 1. p. 267.) it appears, that the weight of a cubic inch
of water at 152'' Fahr. is equal to 248.7 grains; and the
fiime at 96 Fahr. equal, to 252.47 grs. ; if, therefore, the
adhefion is as the fpecific gravity, the adhefive force at
96 Fahr. ought to be only 81.21, inllead of 89. for

248.7 : 80 : : 252.47 : 81.21 .
Having afccitained the influence of temperature on tlie ad-
hefion of furfaces, the next objeft with M. Achard was to
detemiine the ratio between the force of adhefion and the
fuperficial magnitude of the folid. For this purpofe he pro-
cured round plates of glafs of different diameters, from
1.5 inch to 7 inches, and havhig firfl. determined the
force of their adhefion with the different fluids, by the
number of grains neceffary to overcome it, he afterivards
calculated the fame by the following equation. Let /> be
the force of adhefion belonging to a dilk of glafs, wliofe
diameter is a ; and y the adhefive force of a fimilar dilk,
whofe diameter is b, we fliall then have «' : i' : '• p • y i

and V = .

■^ a'

From thefe materials the following Table has been cou«

Umaed.

VoL.L

Ff

TABLE

A D n

A D H

TABLE II.

Tlie furce of aJJicfion between glafs difl;s of different diameters, and different kinds of fluids, determined by

experiment and calculation.

''■a.
neicc
ir'thc

Diftilled
water.

Alcohol.

L'quid
ammonia.

Solution of
potdih.

Oil :{
Tufj-emiiie.

Lin feed
oil.

, . 'Experim.

Cjlcul txj.er!
g's. 6'S.

Calcul.

rxpcrim.
gra.

Calcul.

i'xperim.
gis.

Calcul.

trs.

Experim,
grs.

Caicul.
grs.

bxperim.

gis.

CalLul.
grs.

'5

364-

216.

328.

1 420-

240.

268.

'•75

494-5

495-

294.25 j 294.

447-

446.

571-

57I-.

■326.5

326.

363-25

364-

'-, 647.25

647.

384. 384.

582.

583-

746.

746.

425-

426.

475-

476.

J.25 818.75

819.

457-5 457-

738.

738.

945-

945-

539-

540.

604.

603.

■ J.5 lOIO.

ICII.

600.'

600.

912.

911.

1167.

1 1 66.

667.

666.

744-

744-

2-75

1223.5

1223.

735-

726.

1 103.

I 102.

1410.75

1411.

806.

806.

901.

900.

■)•

1457-

1456.863.25

864. 1311.5 1312.

1680.5

1680.

961.

960

1072.25

1072.

3.25 1709.

170S. 1015.

IOI4. 1538.25 {1539.

1970.

1971.

1 126.5

1 1 26.

1259.

1258.

^5

1981.5

1982. 1177. 1176.I1786.

1785.

2287.

2286.

1305-75

1306.

1458.5

1459.

3-75

2257.

2257.

1350-

I350.J2049.

2050

2624.5

2625.

1500.

1500.

1675.25

1675.

I.

2587.

2588.

1538. I536-J2332-

2332-

2986.

2986.

1707.

1706.

1905.

1905.

)•

4044.

4044.

2399-

2400.13645.

3644-

4665. S

4666.

2666.

2666.

2977.

2977.

V

5824.5

5824.3455.5

3456.J5248 25

5248. j

6721.

6720.

3839-5

3840.

4289.25

42S8.

^-

7026.25

7927.4.703. 4704.17143.

7143-

9146.

9146.

5227.

5226.

5835-75

5836..

Hence it appears, that the difference of adhefion manifeiled
by different fized diflcs of glafs with the fame iluid, is in the
ratio of the fquares of their diameters ; and this may be
admitted as true, at the fame time that it may be doubted
■whether the Table exprcffcs faithfully the refults of the ex-
periments. If we bear in mind the firfl of the conditions
which M. Achard hlmfelf lays down as effential for the cor-
reAncfs of the experiment, namely, that the diil-c {hould be
fufpended by the true centre of its mafs and figure, and that
the force employed to detach it ffiould always form a right
angle with the plane of the dlflc, and of the fluid, it will be
obvioiifly extremely difScult to procure the concurrence of
thefe circumftances, when operating even with the fmalleft.
of the diflcs mentioned in the Table ; and with larger diflcs,
the canfes of tiTor mufl increafe at leaft in proportion to the
((juarcs of their diameters. By comparing the differences

between experiment and calculation, when a ditk 1.75 inch in
diameter was ufed, with thofc that took place when a diflc
7 inches in diameter was ufed, we fhall find them to be ac-
cording to the Table, 0.999799 : 1.000025 ' ■'vhereas, if
the probable caufes of error were only as the diameters, the
proportion ought to be O.999799 : 4.000100; and if the
fquares of the diameters are admitted as the true proportionj-
then it fliould be 0.999799 : 21.700542.

Befides the experiments already mentioned, a feries of 6co
more was made by M. Achard, with different folids formed
into diflis of equal diameters, and applied to the furface of
fome of the fimpler and more compound fluids ; unfortunately
feveral of the fohds and fluids are fo heterogeneous in thei»
chemical compofition as to afford few important refults ;
thofe which are of moll confequence ai;e affcmbled iu the^
following Table ;

TABLE

A D H

A D H

T A B L E III.

The force of aJhcfion of difT-rent folids, in diilw t.5 inch in diameter, with water and other fluids, at
Fahrenheit's thermometer, detcnnined in grains.

2 Fluids. .

0
■n

Specific
gravity. ' .

Concentrat.
ed vinegar.

<

0

.J u

° i

S3

<

•= «

Liquid
ammonia.

C/2

0 1/

0

-^4
0

1000.

1868.4

1019.7

'Mz. 1 131. 5

1000. 1368.4 1046.

i

828.9 1^81.5

907.8

Plate-glafs - -

91.

115.

87.

5+-

98.

96.

105.

82.

54-5 I'^o-

66.

Rock cryftal -

90.

1 12.

S6.

52. 98.75

95-

103. 80.

53- |58-5

66.

Gypfum - -

.0.

'99-75

78-

46.5

S7.25

85- 93-

71-

48. I52.5

56.J

Sulphur - -

:965

123.

92.5

58.

107.

101.5

II 0.5

86.

57-5 ''54- \^">

YcUow-wax - 97.

120.5 92-75

J6.5

106.5

103. III.

88.

59-

64.

7'-

Iron . - -

93-5

116. |88.

56.

104.

98.25 108.

83-5

55-5 ;6»-

68.

Copper - - .

96.5

123.

92.

57-2?

106.

102.

112.

87.

58. 62.S

68.75

Tin - . - -

94-5

91.

55-5

103-5

100.

108.5

86. 54-75 j6i-

69.

Lead ... 100.25

129.25 '98.

59-

III.

107.

115.

91-5

61. |67.

72.

Drafs ... 99.

124.5 19*5-

59-

no..

103-5

114.

90. 60. 65.

70.5

Zinc ... J96.

190.25

57-

106.25

102. ,110. 85.75

56.75 I61.25

69.

If this Table may be at all depended upon, the refults are very extraordinary, as will appear at once by arranging the
articles in the feveral columns according to the order of their adhefion. Thus

T A B L E IV.

Diftilled
water.

Sulphuric
acid.

Concentrat-
ed vinegar.

Alcohol.

Acetite
of lead

Acetite of
copper

Deliquiat-
ed potafli.

Ammonia.

Sulphuric
ether.

OilofTur- Oil ot al- j
pentine. monds.

Lead

Gypfum

Lead

Lead

Lead

Lead

Lead

Lead

Lead

Lead

Lead

Brafs

Lead

Brafs

Brafs

Brafs

Brafs

Brafs

Brafs

Brafs

lirafs

Wax

Wax

Drafs

Wax

Sulphur

Sulphur

Wax

Copper

Wax

Wax

f Sulphur 13 rals |

f Sulphur
\ Copper

f Sulphur
\ Copper

Sulphur

Copper

Wax

("Copper
J^Zinc

Wax

Copper

Copper

jWax

r Sulphur

Copper

Zinc

Zinc

Sulphur

fTin
I Sulphur

Sulphur

Copper

1 ^""'

Zinc

Wax

Tin

Wax

Copper

Sulphur

Zinc

Zinc

Zinc

(Tin

[Tin

Iron

Zinc

Tin

Iron

Tin

Tin

Zinc

Iron

f Iron
|Tm

Copper

Irod

Plate-glafs

Iron

Pl.-glafs

Tin

Iron

Iron

Iron

Tin

Iron

Plate-glafs' R. cryllal

Plate-glafs

R.cr>-llal

R. cryftal, Pl.-glafs

Pl.-glafs

Pl.-glafs

Pl.-glafs

Pl.-glafs

" Pl.-glafs

R. cryllal

R. cryftal

Gypfum

Pl.-glafs R. cryftal R. cryftal

R. cryftal

R. cryftal R. c^'ftal

R.cryftal

Gypfum

Gypfum

Gypfum i Gypfum Gypfum

Gypfum

Gypfum Gypfum

Gypfum

Hence it is manifeft that the ftrength of adhefion is not
owing either to the fpccific gravity of the folld or of the
fluid ; nor is it at all more confiftent with the acknowledtjcd
order of chemical affinities. Why lead and brafs ftiould
generally be the flrft in each column, and why fulphur and
wax fliould be interpofed between thefe and the reil of the
metals, is wholly unaccountable, and contradiftory to all
known chemical fafts. The column, at the head of
which is the acetite of lead, contains befides feveral pecu-
liar difficulties. The plates of zinc, iron, and tin, would
begin to decompofe this fait as foon as they came in ccm-
taft with it, and would in confcquence be fuperficially
(Covered with lead j the acquired weight of lead, thertfocc.

and the lofs of fubftaiice fuftained by the metallic platcc,
would be two powerful difturbinj caufcs in the performance
of the experiment ; befides, as each of the j>lates would
be coated with lead, the greateft part of the adhefive force
ought to be reckoned as belonging to the adhefion of lead
to acetite of lead, and in confequcnce the three corrcfpond-
ing numbers in Tab. III. ought to be nearly equal, which
they are not ; the fame objeftions, and perhaps with ftill
greater force apply to the column whofe title is acetite of
copper, on account of the more perfcifl adhefion of the ie»
vived copper to the furface of the zinc rfnd iron plates.

Li the Journal dc Phyfiquc (vols. xv. xvi. andxix.) is a

feries of papers by M. Dutour, on the fubjcdt of capillary

JT 2 attiadion.

A D H

A D I

attraiSion, which contains fome excellent obfervations on
Dr. Taylor's method : he maintains, that the force of ad-
helion is then only tilily exprcdld by the weight of the
counterpoife, when upon railing the folld plate out of the
fluid no particles of this lall are found ndlicring to it : thus
the adhefion of mercury to glafs, to marble, to thofe metals
with which it does not readily amalgamate, is accurately ex-
prclTcd by the wci<,'ht necelfary to counterpoife this ad-
hefion ; but where the folid comes out covered with a thin
plate of the fluid, as is the cafe when a plate of gold or
filver is applied to a fiirfacc of mercuiy, it is obvious that
the reparation of the folid ai:J fluid does not take place at
their plane of adheljon, but fome way below it in the fub-
ftancc of the mercury, fo that the weight of the counter,
poife is rather the exprefiion of the coheiion of the mercury,
than of the adhefion between it and the gold. Hence arifes
the ncceffity of taking into conlldcration the cohefive force
of the fluids themfelves in calculating with any accuracy
the adhefion between folids and fluids, and this requires fo
much nicety, is fo liable to be afl'i-fted by fmall changes of
temperature and other circumftances, as to preclude any
great dcpendance upon it, in determining the comparative
energy of difTcrent cafes of chemical aflinity.

Upon the whole then we may conclude that there exills
a tendency to adhefion between many, and probably be-
tween all fubftances in nature, abfolutcly independent of
atmofpherical or any other external preiTure ; that the force
of this adhefion between folids and fluids is in an inverfe ratio
to the therniomctrical temperature, and a direft ratio to the
fquares of the furfaccs ; that every folid adheres with a
peculiar force to each fluid, and that the diff"erent degrees
of adhefive force between the fame fluid and equal furfaces
of different folids form a feries which correfponds with the
order, and is perhaps the exponent of the proportion of
their refpeftive chemical aflinities to the fame fluid ; that
this force is truly expreflcd by the weight necefTaiy to
break the adhefion in all cafes where the folid comes out
clean from the fluid, but that whenever any particles of the
fluid adhere to the folid, the weight of the counterpoife is
then expreflive of the mixed forces of the adhefion between
the furfaces of the folid and fluid, and of the cohefion be-
tween the component particles of the fluid, which laft cafe
in the prefent (late of our knowledge, cannot be depended
on with any accuracy in the calculation of chemical af-
finities. Er.cyclop. Method. Art. Aclhcfirm.

Some, however, have fiippofed, and others have allowed,
that, although in the cafe of pohfiied planes, brafs hemif-
pheres and leaden bidlets, which adhere to one another v>'ith
a confiderable force both in the air and in vacuo, the prin-
cipal caufe is their mutual attraftion, yet the preffure of
the air may contribute in a flight degree to their adhefion.
But the effefl. of this caufe is very inconfiderable, and,
compared with the other, fcarcely deferves notice.

vVdhesion, in Surgery, the fame as agglut/nAtion,
a preternatural procefs, by v^hich various parts of the body
cohere together and becon;e one mafs. A partial cohefion,
for example, often takes place between the pleura of the
lungs and ribs, between the heart and pericardium, the
hver and diaphragm, or between other contiguous vifcera,
after an attack of inflammation. This procefs alfo follows
if two abraded or ulcerated furfaces be applied for fome
time to each other, as when the fingers have been feverely
burnt and not kept afunder. What is' called " healing of
■WOUHUS by the tu-fl; intention," likewife comes under this
•denomination : the doftrine of adhefion is, therefore, of con-
fiderable importance in furgery, and fhovild be carefully at-
tcjided to. The right underltandin^ of tliis doftrine has

led to many of the greateft improvements in modem prae»
tice, efpecially in the extirpation of tumors, in the treat-
ment of recent wounds and in amputation. The per-
feft UNION of living parts can only happen where there is
a mutual elongation or inofculation of the blood-veflels at
the two contiguous furfaccs, or at Icaft where the veffels
from one part flioot into the adjacent fubftance, and thus
keep up a vital communication.

ADHIIo in yfjiroriomy, a liar of the fixth magnitude,
upon the garment of Anjiromeda, under the lall ilar in
her foot.

ADHOA, in yfndent Cifioms, denotes what we otker-
wilc call RELIEF. In which fenfe we alfo fometimes find
the word written adoha, adhoummltitn, and adbogamcntum.
Du Gauge.

ADJA, or Agga, in Geography, a burg and fort of
Guinea, on the coait of Fantin, belonging to the Eall India
Company.

ADIi^BA, in Ancient Geography, a town built by Simon
Maccabsus, in a plain, or fephala, as a place of defence.

ADIABDA, a town of Afia, in Albania, placed by
Ptolemy in long. 79^, and lat. n.^° 30'.

ADIABENE, thechiefprovinceofAflyria, which forac-
times gave its name to the whole country-. It was fo called
according to Aramlanus, (1. xxiii. c. 20.) from the two
rivers Diaba and Adiaba, which Valcfius (in loc.) fays, are
more frequently denominated Zabas and Anzabas. Stephn-
nus (de Urb. vol. i. p. 22.) confounds Adlabene with
Mefopotamia. In this province, which was the richeit and
moft fruitful of Afl"yria, Ptolemy (1. vi. c. 1.) and Ammi-
anus place Ninus or Nineveh, Gaugam.ela, and Arbela ;
and with them Stri'.bo (I. xvi. vol. 2. p. 107 1) agrees; for
though he places Ninus and Gaugamela in Aturia, and
A:bela in a diftritl of its own name, yet he makes both
Aturia and Arbelis parts of Adiabene. This province be-
came a difl:in£t kingdom in confequence of the difturbances
that prevailed among the Seleucidj;, and was held by fuc-
cciTive fovereigns in oppofition to the Syrian kings, till they
were expelled by the power of the Roman emperors. The_
firll king mentioned in hiftory, reigned in the time of th«
Mithvidatic v.'ar, and joined Tlgranes agair.ll Lucullus.
In the reign of the emperor Claudius, Monobazus, called
alfo Bazeos, ruled over the Adiabenians ; who was fuc-
cecded by Izates, his fon, by his filler Helena, whom he
had mairicd. Izates, being inftrudted in the Jewilh reli-
gion (fee Jof. Antiq. 1. xx. c. 2. torn. i. p. 957, &c.
Ed. Haverc. ) introduced it among his fubjefts ; upon
which they confpired againft him, and called in Abias the,
king of Arabia, to their afiiftance. Faihng in this attempt,
tbcy folicited the affillance of Vologcfes, king of the Par-.
thians; he was equally unfuccefsful ; and Izates clofed his.
life and reign in peace, and left five fons, who were edu-
cated under their grandmother PIclena at Jerufalem, and
there taught both the Jewifli language and religion. Little
is known concerning the affairs of this kingdom from the
death of Izates, who was cotemporary with the emperor-
Claudius, and who bequeathed his crown to his brother
Monobazus, until the reign of Trajan, when it was go-
verned by one Mebarfapes, who joined Chofroea, king of
the Perfians, againft the Romans. This war proved un-
fuccefsful, and Mebarfapes was driven from the throne ;
and though Manus king of Arabia, attempted to refl.ore
him to the kingdom, his enterprife for this purpofe was
ineffeftual, and he was obliged to conclude a peace \vith
Rome. Trajan, having obtained poireffion of Adenyflra:,
a fortified place of great ilrength, wliich was dehvered to
him by Sentius, a centurion, who had efcaped the treachery

A D I

of Mfbarfapes, fonned a biidg-e of boats ovtr the river
Tig^ris, and made himiclf mailer of the whole kingdom of
Adiahcne, A. U. C. 860, or in the 115th year of the
Chriilian wra. The Adiabenians, however, emancipated
themfelves from the Roman yolve ; but were again reduced
by Sevcrus, A.U. C. 94S, denominated from tiiis circum-
ttance Adiabcnieus. See Dion. Cafs. Hill. Rom. vol. ii.
p. 1 137. Ed. Reimari. In the reign of Sapor 11. king of
Perfia, the Adiabenians, as we learn from Sozonien (1. ii.
c, 12.) embraced the Chriilian rehgion, and were on that
account treated with great cruelty by this king, to whom
they were fubjetl.

ADJACENT, or Adjoining, of ad, to, and jc.ceie, to
lie, fomething lituate near, or by the lide of anotlier.

Adjacent ir;,vo-/c. See Angle. ■

ADIADA, in Anc'tcnt Geography, a town of Palellinc,
in the tribe of Dan. See Adida.

ADIANTUM, Ma'uL-nhair, in ^o/^/y, the name of a
genus of plants of the crypiogamia JlUces clafs and order,
the charaflers of which are thefe ; tliat tlie frudtihcations
are collefted in oval fpots, at the end of the fronds or leaves,
which are folded back ; or at the reflex tip of the frond
underneath. Prof. Martyn enumerates thirty-five, and
Gmelin forty-four, fpccics ; of thefe fome have a fimple
frond, viz. I. A. remforpie, a native of the iiland of Ma-
deira, and introduced here, in 1778, by JVIr. F. MafTon.
2. A. fagtitaiiiin. 3. A., philippenfe, a native of the Philip-
pine iflands. 4. A. npens, native of the ifle of France.

5. A. ikatmns. Others have a compound frond, viz.

6. A. tnloltiiii, native of America. 7. A. radialum, an ele-
gant plant, with fmall fronds, a native of Jamaica and Do-
mingo. S. A., ptdulum. g. A., fiifcum. 10. A. caudatum,
native of the Eaft Indies and Japan. 11. A. femdalum,
native of Jamaica. 12. A. hajlatum, native of the Cape of
Good Hope. 13. A. lanceiw., native of Surinam. 14. A.
macroplylluin, native of Jamaica. \^. K. dehoidcum, native
of Jamaica. 16. A. punulum, native of Jamaica. 17. A.
cunca!um, native of Jamaica. 18. A. triphyUum, a beautiful
little fern, found by Commerfon in Buenos-Ayres. Thofe
with a decompound frond are ; 19. A. dtnticulatum, native of
Jamaica. 20. A. jlaidlulatum, native of China. 21. A.
trifoliatum, native of America. 22. A. chufanum, native of
China. 23. A. capllliu luncris. 24. A. trtmcjtum. 25. A.
^uianenfi. 26. A. crijlatum, native of South America. 27.
A.furcatum. 28. A. j^/'/V/wot, native of Jamaica. 29. A.yir-
rattim. 30. A. v'lUuJum, native of Jamaica. 31. A. piike-
nikiilvm, native of South America. 32. A. caffrorum. 33.
A._/ri7^;-i7«j,orPolypodium fragrans, native of Madeira, intro-
duced here, in 1758, by Mr. F. MafTon. 34. A. Jliiatn.n,
native of Jamaica. 35. A. niicniphyUum, native of Jamaica.
36. A. lorboiilciim. 37. A. ienellum. 38. A. fciv.dins, na-
tive of Cochinehina. Thofe with a fuper decompound
frond are, 39. A. fragde, native of Jamaica. 40. A.
Uncrmn, native of Jamaica. 41. A. clavatum, native of
Dominica. 42. A. trapc-zifurme, native of New Zealand,
and between the Tropics. 43. A. aciilealum, native of
Dominica and Jamaica. 44. A. hexagoimm, or Pteris
heterophylla. 45. A. ptcroides, native of the Cape of Good
Hope, introduced, in 1775, by Mr. F. MafTon. 46. A.
JEih'wpicum, native of the Cape of Good Hope and Japan.

Of all the fpecies above enumerated one only belongs to
Great Britain, viz. the A. cap'dlus •veneris, or true maiden-
hair, which is found rarely in Scotland and Wales on rocks
and moifl walls, and which is a native of the fouth of Eu-
rope and the Levant. The fronds or leaves of this fpecies
are doubly compound ; the leaflets or wings arc alternate ;

A D I

the pinnas or leafits are wcdge-fhapcd, lobcd, and pfdJcelled,
or on leaf-llalks : it is perennial, and flowers from May to
September. This is a veiy fuceulent plant, yielding almofl:
its whole weight of juice ; but neither its tafle nor fmill
promifes any efficacy. If the fyrup of capiUairc, which it
made from it, be good for any thing, it is from the orange-
flower water that is put into it. The A. fcdalum, or Cana-
dian maiden-hair, is a native of Canada, Japan, and the
Society ides, and was brought into England from Virginia
by John Tradefcant, the Ion, before the year 1640. It
flowers in Augull and September. In Canada this plant
grows fo plentifully, that the French, when they were in
poflefTion of that country, fent it to France as a package for
goods, and the apothecaries at Paris ulcd it inllead of the
true maiden-hair. The leaves of both thefe fpecies have
a (light fwcetilh roughilh talle, and a pleafant but weak
fmell, ver)- perceptible when boiling water is poured upon
them. Infulions, or decoftions of them infpin'ated, yield a
moderately rough, bitterifh, mucilaginous extract. Maiden-
hair has been long elleemcd good againft difordeni of tlic
breafl, for promoting expcftoration, foftening recent coughs,
and allaying the tickling in the throat occafioned by de-
fluxions of thin rheum. For thefe pui-pofes a fyrup of the
true fort, flavoured with orange-flower water, has been
ufually brought from France ; and a fyrup of the Canada
fort, made with maple fugar, is fometimes received from
America. Our confeiitioners prepare a fyrup of the maiden-
hair, which they fell under the name of capillutre. But the
Enghlh maiden-hair, or asplenium, has been commonly
fubllitutcd in the pecloral fyrups and infufions made among
us. The Canada fpecies is faid to be fuperior to both.
But the virtue of the maiden-hair may be obtained to much
greater ad,vantage, by drinking an infulion of the herb as tea,
fweetened either with fugar, or by the addition of a little
liquorice. Lewis, Mat. Med.

Culture. The only fpecies that have been cultivated with
us are the ift, 8th, 23d, 3cth, 33d, 42d, and 45th, in the
above enumeration. The A. capdlus -veneris may be pre-
ferved in pots filled with gravel and lime-rubbifh, in which
it will thrive much better than in good earth. The A.ped,i-
tum will live through the winter in the open air, if the fcafoii
be moderate ; but as fevere frofts will fometimes dcllroy it,
a plant or two flionld be kept under flicker. The A. villo-
fum, and A. trape^iforme mull be prefen'ed in a ilovc, and
will afford by their fhining black llalks, and odd-fliaped
leaves, an agreeable variety among other exotic plants.
The A. ren'iforme, frcigrans, and pteroldes, may be kept ill
the green-houfe.

Adiantum aureum. See Polvtrichum.

Adiantum ti/gruin, a fpecies of Asplenium.

Adiantum, in Nalurtil liifiory. See TubulariA.

ADIAPHORISTS, or Adiaphorites, compounded
of a /ic/i). and ^iK^ofoj, different, a\v\ AcmAma indijfereni ; in
Eceltfiajikal Hijlory, a name given in the l6th centur)' to
the moderate Lutlierans, who adhered to the fentiments of
Melanfllion ; and afterwards to thofe who fubferibed the
Interim of Charles V. Melan('thon, whofe fentiment*
were moderate, and temper mild and gentle, declared on thi»
occafion, that, in his opinion, compliance was due to the
Imperial edifls in matters of an indjjfercnt nature : but both
he and his aflbciates ranked in this clafs many things which
appeared to Luther and his diiciples to be of the highefl
importance ; particularly the do6lriiie of juflification hy
faith alone, and the neceflity of good works to ttenial fa'-
vation, as well as the number of the facraments, the jurif-
diclion claimed by the pope and the billiops, extreme

unctibu;

AD J

Bnftion, anJMic obfcrvation of religious fe(lival« and u'prt"-
llitious rittfs. Hciicc fjjriing the aiUaphoryiic coutioverfy,
as il was called, whieli divided the church for many years,
end obllnnfted the progrefs of the reformation. See Ponn
nfCoKCriKT).

ADIAPHOROUS is a denomination given by Mr.
Eoyle to a kind of fpirit diililkd from tartar and feme otiier
vegetable bodies, and which is neither acid, vinous, nor
urinous ; but in many refpeds different from any other fort
of fpirit.

ADIAPNEUSIA, from «, J.a, and tv.x, I breathe, in
Medicine, llgnifies defeiitive perfpiration, from denfe pores, SiC.

ADIAPTOTOS, a Greek word fignifying /;•«, and
applied by fome medical writers to a remedy for the colic,
whieli is llone-parfley, heubane-fccd, white pepper, 5cc. made
into an eled^narv.

ADIARRllCEA, from a, cV,, and pv, / Jo'm, fignifies
a total fuppreffioii of all the neceflary evacuations.

ADJAZZO. SeeAjAzzo.

ADICARA, in jlndent Geography, a town of Afia,
near tlie Ptriian gulf, which Ptolemy places in long. 79",
and h'.t. 29% 36'.

ADICE, in Botntty. See Nettle.

ADiDA, Addiba, or Adiada, in Jtneicn! Geography,
a city of Judea, not far from Jenifalem. Jofcplnis fays,
(De J3ell. Jud. 1. iv. c. 9. tom. 2. p. 300. Ed. Haverc.)
that v.'hcn V^efpafiaa bcfiegcd Jenifalsm, he ellablifhed a
camp and guards in this place as well as in Jericho. Simon
?rlacchabxus alfo encamped in this place to difpute the
entrance into the country witli Tryphon, who had bar-
baroutly feized his brother Jonathan, at Ptolemais. I Mac-
cab, xiii. 13. cli. xii. 3S. Jof. Ant. 1. xiii. c. 6. § 14.
tom. I. p. 653. yiilida is probably the fame with Addus.

ADJECTIVE, in Grammar, a kind of noun joined
with a fubftantive, either exprelTed or implied, to fhew its
(lualities or accidents.

The word is formed of tlie Latin adjicere, to add to ; as it
is dcfigned to be added to a fubftantive, without which it
has no precife fignification.

Fatlier Buflier defines adjeftives in a manner fomewhat

different from other grammarians Nouns, according to

bim, are fubftantives, when the objefts which they repre-
fent are confidered fimply, and in themfelves, without any
regard to their quaUties ; on the contraiy, they are adjec-
tives, when they exprefs the quality of an objeft. Thus,
when I fay, fimply, a heart, the word heart is a fubftantive,
becaufe none of its quahties are exprelTed ; but when I fay,
a generous heart, the word generous is an adjeBive ; becaufe it
adds a quality, or attribute, to the heart. Adjeftives, then,
appear to be nothing elfe but modificatives.

In efFecl, the end of an adjeftive being only to exprefs
the quality of an objeiSl ; if that quality be the objeft itfelf
whereof we fpeak, it becomes a fubftantive ; e. gr. If I fay,
this book is good ; good here is an adjeftive ; but if I fay, good
is a/ways to he chojen, it is evident ^oo;/ is the fubjedt I fpeak
of ; and confequently good, there, is the fubftantive.

On the conti-ai-y, it often happens in other languages, and
fometimes in our own, that a fubftantive becomes an adjec-
tive ; as, for inftance, in thefe words : the king, hero as he is,
remetjiliers he is a man, where the word hero, though ordi-
iiarily a fubftantive, is apparently an adjeftive. From this
idea of an adjeSive, it appears that many of the nouns,
which, in the common grammars, are accounted fubftantives,
are really adjeftives, and vice verfa : grammar in this, and a
jthpufand other inftances, depending upon cuftom.

Aa adjedlive, according to the definition of Mr. Harris,

AD J

(Henries, p. t85.) hnS no aflvrtion, and only denotes fucli sa
attribute, as has not its elTenee cither in motion or its priva-
tion. Thus in general the attributes of quar.tity, quality,
and relation, fuch as many and few, great and little, bl.iek
and white, good and bad, double, treble, quadruple, S:c.
are all denoted by adjeftives. Every adjtdive may alfo be
confidered as capable of being refolvcd into a fubftantive,
and an expreffion of connection equivalent to cf, e. g. a good
man, is a man of goodnefs ; in v.hich caie the adjedive cx-
preffes not only an attribute, but alfo the connediou be-
tween the attribute and its fubftance : and the particular
kind of connedion is afcatained by experience. In this
view of the fubicd the adjedive appears to have two ufes.
The firft and principal is that of reihiding or modifying a
general term, as in the inftances above recited. Tlie lecond
is, when the abftrad fubftantive contained ui the adjedive is
modified by the noun, with which, in the concrete or adjec-
tive form, that abftrad fubftantive is joined. The former
may be called the dired, and the latter the inverfe, accepta-
tion of adjeSives. In the following pailage, Livy fays,
Regnatum eji Rorrnc ah urbe condita ad hberatam annos ducenlos
quadraginta quatuor, i. e. monarchy fubfifted at P..ome from
the building of the city to its deliverance : here the partici-
ples, or adjectives, condita and liheraiam, are ufcd inverfely ;
i. e. the abftrad fubftantives contained in thefe words are
modified or reftrided by the fubftantives urle and urbem,
with which they are fuppofed to unite. Mr. Harris obferves
(ubi fupra, p. 187), that attributes fometimes aflume an
afTertion, and appear as verbs : as albeo, or albus fum, tumet
or tumidus eft, and ij-a^-i q. d. 1(70; eh, is equal. Of thefe
there are but few, and they may be called verbal adjeHi'ves.
Participles likewife infenlibly pafs into adjedives, as doBus
or learned, lofe their power as participles, and mean a per-
fon poffefled of an habitual quahty. Thus alfo "vir eloquens
denotes a perfon who poffefles the habit of fpeaking, and
not a perfon now fpeaking. Subftantivcs may be alio con-
verted into adjedives ; when we fay the party of Pompey,
the ttyle of Cicero, the philofophy of Socrates, the perfons
perfonn the part of attributes, or ftamp and charaderifc
their fubjeds ; fo that they affume the form of adjeeT;ives.
And we accordingly fay, the Pompeian party, the Cicero-
nian ftyle, and the Socratic philofophy. Even pronominal
fubftantives admit the like mutation. Inftead of faying the
book of me, of thee, and of him, we fa)', my book, thy book,
and his book ; or the country of us, of you, and of them,
we fay our country, your countiy, and their oountrv ;
which words maybe c?X[i:& pronominal adjeSives. In Englilli
the adjedive is not varied on account of gender, number,
or cafe. Dr. Lowth, indeed, (Introd. to Eng. Grammar,
p. 56.) excepts fome few pronominal adjedives, which have
the poffeffive cafe, as.

Teach me to feel anolhcr''s woe. Pope.

and the adjedives/onncr and laller, which may be confidered
as pronominal, and reprefenting the nouns, to which they
refer. The only variation which it admits of, is that of
the degrees of comparison.

In the Greek and Latin, however, they have the fame
foiTn with fubftantive nouns ; and are declined, like them,
by cafes, and fubjeded to the hke diftindions of number
and gender. It is obvious, that neither number, nor gender,
nor cafes, nor relations, have any thing to do, in a proper
fenfe, with mere qualities, fuch as good or great, foft or hard:
and yet bonus, magmis, and tener, have their lingular and
plural, their mafculine and feminine, their genitives and
datives, hke any of the names of fubl1:ances, or perfons.
To account for this circumftance, Dr. Blair (Ledures, vol. i.

p. 199.)

A D J

■p. 199) directs us to conililcr tlie genius of tliofe tongues.
They avoided, as much as polTible, legardiiig qualities Tcpa-
ralely, or in the abllrad. They made the adjedive depend
on its fuhlhintive, and leftmble it in termination, number,
and gender, in order that the two might coalefce the more
intin-ately, and be joined in the form of cxpredion, as tiiey
were in the nature of things. Thus alfo they favoured that
liberty of tranfpofition, uliieh tiiefe languages- allowed.
In the Engliih fentence, " Beautiful wife of a brave man,"
the juxtapoiition of the words prevents all ambiguity. But
in the Latin, " Formofa foitis viri uxor," it is only the
agreement in gender, number and oafe, of the adjedive
^'■formofa," which is the rirft word of the fentence, with the
fubftantive " uxor," which is the lall word, that declares the
jmaniag.

The learned Mafclef obferves, (Gram. Heb. v. i. p. 56.)
that in the Hebrew language, all thofe words are adjedives
which are eiianged from the mafcuhne into the feminine by
the addition of the letter ~, as •y\\2 ^"""^1 PlDID l-oii!i,&.c.
and therefore the Hebrews refer to the clafs of iiiljecllves
many words which we (liould rank as fubllantives. There
are many diilinguifliing idioms of the Hebrew language that
refult from the ufe and application of the adjective : e. g.
the fubilantive precedes it, as npiR T> "i"""" foriis ; and
when the contraiy is the cafe, the verb fubilantive is under-
ftood, as in Pi', xxxiii. 4. Pf. xxxii. 10. except when numeral
adjedives occur.

Again, the Hebrews often cxprefs their adjedives bv fub-
ftantives, w!th the prepofitions ^, *7> j5 prefixed ; as
H'tSD ITiVJtyN' Pf- xc. 4. ciijlodia in noBe, i. e. tmlurnir.
TiiUo Hebrail'ms occur in Matt. xxii. 16.; Luke iv. 32.
I Tim. ii. 7. ; 2 Pet. ii. 13. ; iMark v. 2. ; I John v. 19.
With ^ prefixed niUV*? '"^j/ VH If- i- H- Fuenint
niihi oneri, i. e. onsrqfi. A limilar inftance occurs John viii.
52. fiavalov Ei; tov aiiva, mortem in letenmm i. e. aUrnnm.
With r> prefixed, ly'Q "i'lri- ^- l-^'^- H- "P"' d-' fyh'",
i. e. fylvejlrn. Similar modes of expreffion occur in i John
iv. 5. Rom. iii. 26. Rom. iv. 14. Matt. v. 37. Moreover,
the Hebrews fometimes exprefs adjedives by fubftantives
without any prepofition, or in the language of grammarians,
they ufe the abftrad for the concrete : as, "'"I'lyti^ EDH?
Jud. vii. 13. pints hardei, i. e. horchaceus. Similar to wi'(icli
are Eph. v. 8.; Luke xvi. IJ.; John xvii. 17.; 2 Cor. v.
21. When two fubllantives occur, one is* fometimes taken
for an adjedive, and fometimes the other, as Ht^Jii' n'7Dn
Ff. cxxxix. 22. p^rfsdlone od'ii, i. e. perfcclo odio. Hebraifms
of this kind are found in [ Cor. i. 21. ; Gal. iii. 14.; i
Cor. i. 25.; Phil. iv. 5.; 2 Pet. ii. 14. Adverbs are fome-
times fubitituted for adjedives, as "^nO CZDV Gen. xxx.
33. dies cms, 1. e. crqjlinus. Similar expreffions occur in
Matt. vi. 34. ; Luke x. 29. ; 2 Pet. i. 9. and alfo in tlie
Greek and Roman claffics. See Mafclef. ubi. fup. p. 256

-265.

Adjectives, in Logic, are divided into four kinds ; the
nominal, the verbal, th-e numeral, and the pro-nominal. The
nominal are thofe which dillinguilh certain fpecies by fome
inherent and permanent quahty, which arifes either from the
nature of the thing, or from its fonn or lituation ; fuch as
good, black, round, external, &c. The verbal, are thofe
which denote fome accidental or adventitious quality, which
appears to be the effed of an adion which paffes, or has
palTed, in the thing under confideration, inch as rampart,
domineering, carejjing, embellijhing. Sec. Numeral adjectives
are thofe which rank any fubjedin numerical order, z.i,jirjl,
fecottd, Injl, &c. Pro-nominal are thofe which do not con-
cern either fpecies, adion, or arrangement, but are merely
JBdicatipuG of individuality ; thefe adjedives are either />av

A D I

fotial, as mine, thine, &c. or tliey have a vague and ir.detep-
minatc meaning, fuch as feme, one, many, &c. ; or lailly,
thev fcrve the purpofc of mere indication, fuch as, iLli, that,
fuel), Sic.

Verbal and nominal adjedives, arc alfo called coscuktes.
Some dillinguilh adjedives into phy'tcat and metaphyficai';
the former being ufed to dillinguilh phylieal tlk'iices, in
confeqnence of t!i- immediate impreHlons tiuy make U|J»n
us ; the latter to denote thofe wliich arc metaphyfical and
abllradtd, in coufequencx- of fomo operations of 0111 mind*
with regard to them.

ADIENUS, or Adineus, m Ancient Geography, a river
which emptied itfclf into the Euxine Sea, probably near
Colchis, in the territory of the licnioclii.

ADJE ROUTE, in Geography, the name now g_iven 10
the ancient Heroopolis.

ADICE, anciently Athesis, a river of Italy, which
rifes fouth of the lake Glare, in the Rhitian Alps, runs
fouth by Trent, and cad by Verona, and falls into the gulf
of Venice, north of the mouth of tlie Po. This river
ferves by the treaty of peace between France and Aullria,
figned at Luneville, February 9th, i8or, for the limit be-
tween the Hates of his Imperial m.-ijelly, and thofe of the
French republic ; and the freedom of its navigation is efta-
blillud, lo that neither party Ihall be allowed to fix any toll
upon it, or to have upon it any armed liiip of war.

ADJI, a river of Hindollan, which difcharges itfelf into
the Hoogly, 11:^ miles well of Kilhenagur, in the province
of Bengal.

ADILL, in Zoology, a name given to the Canis Au-
reus of Linn.fii';, .-Mid Adive of Buifon.

ADIMA, in Botany, a fpecies of Sauvagesia, with
ramofe ftalks.

ADIMAIN, a name given by Leo Africanus and Mar^
mol, to a variety of Iheep, called by Naturalilts the African
or Senegal sheep.

ADIMANTUS, in Biography, a difciple of Mani, who
probably flourilhed about the cloL- of the tliird centur)', and
wrote a book againfb the law and the prophets, endeavour-
ing to llicw the difagreement between the Old and the New
Tellaments, and that confequently tlu former could not be
of God. This book was confuted by Augulline, who fup-
pofed this Manichsan to be the fame with Addas. Til-
lemont likewile, Lardner, and many otliers are of the fame
opinion ; but Cave (Hid. Lit. t. i. p. I45.) fuppofes
them to be dltferent perfons. The book of Adimantus
was every where conlldered by the Manichees as one of
their bell books. It was famous in Africa, and was alfo
ufed by the Manichees in Alia, who afcribed it to Addas ;
but it is not now extant. Lardner's Works, vol. iii. p. 395

ADIM.\R[, Alexander, a defceiid,7nt of the ancient
and noble family of Florence, was bom in that city A. D.
I5'79. lie devoted himfelf in early life to the lludv of the
Greek language, and alfo to poetry, traiiilatcd Pindar into
Italian verfe, and wrote original poems. He was honoured
by Ferdinand II. duke of 'Pufcany, aiid much elleemed by
learned men. The troubles that befell him were alleviated
by his tafle for poetry, which was his occupation and de-
light. He died in 1649, at the age of 70 years. Geu. Did.

ADIMARI, Raphael, a native of Rimini, who lived
towards tlie latterend of the ifith century : wrote a hiiloiy
of his country, which is held in good ellimation, though
that of Clementine is preferred by the Italians. It was
publiflied in 410. at Brefcla in 1616, under the title of
" Sito Rimenfe."

AD INQIJIRENDUM, in Law, a judicial wiit, com-
manding inquiry to be made of any tiling touching a c.mltf
5 dcpendiog

A D I

depending in the king's court, for the better execution of
juilice ; as of baftardy, or the like. Reg. Jiulic.

ADINSEIK, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey,
three leagues fouth-eall of Artaki.

ADjODIN.a town of HiiuloHan, in the Subahof Moiil-
tan, 95 milts call of Moultan, and 68 foulh of Lahore.

ADJOINING is particularly ufcd for the aflbciatiiig of
B perfon to another, or appointing him a colleague, or ad-
junct.

ADJOURNMENT, fomed oi ad, to, and Yr. jour, day,
q. d. another day, in I.a'tu, the putting off a court or
meeting ; and appointing it to be kept at another time or
place : in which fenfe we meet with the phrafe adjournment in
cyrc, for an appointment of a day when the juilices in eyre
intend to fit again. Adjournment of parliament is a conti-
nmncc of the feffion from one day to another, and is done
bv the authority of each houfe feparatcly, every day, and
fometimes for a fortnight or month together ; and differs
from PROROGATION and dissolution. The adjournment
of one houfe is no adjournment of the other. After an
adjournment, all things continue in the fame ftate as at the
lime of the adjournment, and may be proceeded on with-
out any frelh commencement ; whereas, after a prorogation,
fucli bills as are only begun and not perfected, mull be re-
fumed de nivo (if at all) in a fubfequent feffion.

ADIPOCIRE, Gras, matiere grajfe, matiere adipo-ii-
Veufe, is a term formed of adeps, J'at, and cera, wax, and
denotes a fubftance, the nature and origin of which are ex-
plained in the fequol of this article.

The changes which animal matter undergoes in its progrefs
towards total decompofitlon, have been fijr many obvious
reafons but little attended to : the difgulling circumftanccs
by which they are accompanied, the real danger to health,
and the decent reverence for the receptacles of the dead
which prevails in all countries, have hitherto oppofed almoit
infuperable obftacles to the inveftigations of fcience on this
moll interefting fubjett ; it is therefore a pecuharly fortu-
nate circumftance, when from motives of police or general
Convenience, the great progrefs of the refolution of or-
ganifed into inorganic matter, with all its various modifica-
tions, is fubmittcd to the infpeftion of chemical philofophy.
An opportunity of this kind was offered at Paris in 1786, and
1787, when the old burial ground of the Innocens was laid
out for building upon, in confequence of which, the furface
foil, and the animal remains contained therein, were re-
moved. This cemetery having been for ages appropriated
to the reception of the dead, in one of the moil populous
diilricls of Paris, was eminently well calculated to exhibit
the various proceffes of animal decompofition ; another fa-
vourable circumftance was, that it contained feveral of thofe
large pits (fojfes communes) in which the bodies of the poor
are depofited by hundreds. Thefe pits are cavities 30 feet
deep, with an area of 20 feet fquare, in which the (hells
containing the bodies are cloftly packed in rows over each
other, without any intennediatc earth, and with only a flight
fupcrficial covering of foil, not more than a foot thick :
each pit contained from 1200 to 1500 bodies, and may be
confidered as a mafs of animal matter of the dimenilons
above-mentioned. M. M. Fourcroy and Thouret were pre-
fent at the opening of feveral of thefe receptacles, and it is
from a memoir by the former of thefe, that the principal
part of til is article is compofed.

The firft pit that was examined, had been filled and clofed
up 1 5 years before : on opening fome of the coffins (for the
wood was ftiU quite found, only tinged of a yellow colour)
the bodies were found within, (hrunk fo as to leave a confi-
deiable vacant fpace in the upper pait of the coffin, and

A D I

flattened as if they had been fubjeftto aftrong comprefflon ;
the hnen v>hich covered them adhered firmly, and upon be-
ing removed, prefcnted to view only iiTCgular maffes of a
fott ductile grcyifli-white matter, apparently intermediate
between fat and wax : the bones were enveloped in this,
and were found to be veiy brittle.

The bodies thus changed, being but little offenuve to the
fmell, a great number were dug up and minutely examined ;
in fome this alteration had, as yet, only partially taken
place, the remains of mufcular fibres being llill vifible, but
where the converfion had been compleat, the bones through-
out the whole body were fotmd covered with this grey iub-
ilance, generally foft and duclilc, fometimes dry, but al-
ways readily feparating into porous cavernous fragments,
without the (lighteil trace of mulcles, membranes, veffels,
tendons, or nerves : the ligaments of the articulations had
been in like manner changed, the connexion between the
bones was deftroyed, and thefe la'l had become fo yielding,
that the grave-diggers, in order to remove the bodies more
conveniently, rolled each upon itfclf from head to heels,
without any difficulty. The whole contents of the abdominal
cavity were wanting, and the mufcles and integuments con-
verted as above-mentioned, lay fiat on the vertebral column ;
in like manner the heart and other vifcera of the thorax were
diffolved, nothing being left but a little white grumous mat-
tei\ The glandular part of the breaft in the female corpfes
frequently afforded this foapy matter of a homogeneous tex-
ture, and a pure wliite colour : the hair appeared to have
undergone no alteration ; the brain was not wanting in any,
it was fuperficially of a blackilh grey, and had experienced
the fame change as the integuments. According to the
tcilimony of the grave-diggers, to whom the rafts jufl
mentioned had been long familiar, this converfion of animal
matter is never obfen'ed in thofe bodies that are interred
fingly, but always takes place in the fojjcs communes ; to ef-
fcft this change nearly three years are required. The foapy
matter of lateil formation is foft, very duttile, fight and
fpungy, and contains much water ; in 30 or 40 years it be-
comes much dr^-er, more brittle, and affumes the appearance
of denfe laminae, and where the furrounding earth has been
dryer than ufual, it is femitranfparent, of a granulated tex»
tuit, brittle, and bears a confiderable refemblance to wax.

Animal matter having once paffed into this llage of de-
compofition, appears to refill for a long time any further al-
teration : fome of thefe pits that had been clofed above 40
years, were upon examination, found to be little elfe than a
folid mafs of foapy matter, nor is it yet afcertained how long
in common circumllances it would continue unchanged, the
burial ground of the Innocens being fo fmall in comparifon
to the population of the dillritl, as to require each pit in
30 or 40 years to be emptied of its contents, in order to
receive a new fuccefiion of bodies : it appears, however,
that the ulterior changes depend in a great meafure on the
quantity of moifture draining through the mafs.

From the hiftor)* of this fingular fubilance, we proceed
to an examination of its chemical properties. It was firll,
however, purified by gently heating in an earthen veffel, till
it became of a pally confillence, and then rubbed through
a fine hair fieve, by which means the hair, fmall bones, and
remains of the mufcular fibre were feparated with tolerable
exaftnefs. In this ftate, being expofed in an earthen veffel
to the naked fire, it readily became foft, but did not hquefy
without confiderable difficulty, rather fiying as a piece of
foap would do, and difengaging at the fame time ammo-
niacal vapours. Four pounds being put into a glafs retort,
and fubmitted to flow diftillation in a water bath, afforded
ia th'C fpace of three weeks, eight "ounces of a clear watery

fluid,

A D I

fluid, with a foctict odour, turning fyriip of violets green,
and manifclUy conialiiing ammonia in lolution ; ttic fo^ipy
matter remaining in tlie retort had acquircxl a greater con-
fiilence, was beeome Ida fuiible, of a deeper brown colour,
and iipon cooling, was evidently drier than before, though
not admitting of being broken.

Two pounds of purified foapy matter were dillilled by a
very gradual fand heat ; after two hours, the matter was
nielted, and in ebullition, it foon became covered with a
blackidi fioth, and fwelled greatly ; dui-ing 36 hours nothing
came over but water witli ammonia in folution ; at length,
after 48 hours, ci-yftals of carbonated ammonia began to
line the adopter; thefe were foon after difTolved by a reddifli
brown oil, which continued to come over till the experiment
was ftopped. Hence it appears that the component parts of
this fubllance are water, ammonia, and a concrete oil. No
elaftic gas was difengaged during the whole proccfs.

In order to afeertain the aftion of atmofphcric air on this
fubftance, feveral pieces being previoully weighed, were ex-
pofed to a v/rrm and diy air during a whole fummer ; they
were found by this to have becor.ie dry and brittle without
being lefTcned in their bulk, had acquired a whiter colour,
and loIL their peculiar odour ; their upper furface was be-
come friable, and almoft fell into po'Ader under the finger ;
on iubjeftioii to analyfis, it was found not only that the
water, but a confiderable part of the ammonia, had been
evaporated by this long expofure, and the remaining oily
matter on melting became femitranfparent, brittle, and con-
fiderably refembling wax.

Some purified foapy matter was rubbed in a glafs mortar
with a little water ; an immediate mixture took place, and
the refult was a kind of magma, or foft unifonn pafte : by
a further addition of water an opaque liquor was produced ex-
aftly fimilar to a folution of foap ; like this, it formed a ftrong
lather, and by the addition of pump-water, acids, lime-wa-
ter, or metallic la'.ts, it curdled and threw up to the furface
a quantity of white infoluble clots. With nitrat of mercury
it gave a greyifh-yellow precipitate, and the fupernatant li-
quor became of a permanent red-purple. The aqueous fo-
lution being thrown on the filter depofited there almoft the
whole of the oily matter, and the clear liquor by evaporation
yielded a I'ttlc animal mucilage and extradl, and a fmall
variable proportion of the phofphats of ammonia and foda.
The combination with boiling water is not more permanent
than that with cold, the whole of the oil and ainmonia fe-
parating on the filter. When inftead of frefh foapy matter,
fome which had been expofed during the fummer to the ac-
tion of the air was made ufe of, the liquor, though of a
foapy appearance and feel, was much lefs fo than what was
made with the frefli fubllince, and upon boiling the mix-
ture a number of brown oily drops rofe to the furface,
which, on cooling, concreted to a femitranfparent matter
like wax, perfeftly analogous to that obtained from the
fame by fimple melting ; hence it appears, that the folubility
of the frefh foapy matter depends on the ammonia which it
contains, as is alfo evinced by the perfeftly clear folu-
tion which the addition of a further quantity of ammonia
occafions.

Eight ounces of foapy matter, v.hite and purified, were
mixed with an equal weight of powdered quickliine, on the
addition of a little water, the mafs heated, fwclkd, and
difengaged a very ftrongly ammoniacal vapour, accompanied
by a peculiar putrefcent fmell ; a fufficiency of water being
then added to bring the whole to the ftate of an emulfion,
it was heated to ebullition, much ammoniacal vapour efcap-
ing at the fame time ; the liquor being thrown on a filter,
pafled perfeftly clear and colourlefs, and appeared to be
Vol. L

A D I

only lirrtc-water wiili n very fmall quantity of foap In fohi-
tion ; the matter remaining on the filter, being will wallitd,
was beaten up with water, but fhowcd no tendency to unite
with it, fubfiding after a time in the form of a white mafs 5
this by drying for a few days in the open air, becaire grey
and much reduced in volume : it was then mixed with di-
luted muriatic acid, which immediately dceompofed it j and
a number of white clots rofe to the furface of the liquor.
This lall being obtained clear by filtration, yielded tryftaU
of muriat of lime and a flight tiace of phofphoiic fait ; the
white clots being waflied and dried, and afterwards melted
in a water bath, cooled into a dry couibuftible oily matter,
brittle, waxy, cryllalli/.able, and perfeftly infoluble in water,
to which the name of adipucire has been appropriated.
From this feries of experiments with lime, it appears that
the foapy matter is a true ammoniacal foap, with a bafe of
adipocire to which lime has a llrongcr affinity than ammonia,
but which lall; compofition is agaui in its tum dceompofed
by all the acids, leaving the adipocire in a ftate of purity.
Pot-afh and foda produce cffefts perfeftly analogouo to thofc
of lime.

The aftion of acids on this foapy matter is to decom-
pofe it, by uniting with the ammonia ; the concentrated
mineral acids, as the nitric and fulphuric, alfo deepen the
colour of the adipocire, by the evolution of part of its car-
bonaceous bafe.

Pure alcohol at the ordinai-y atmofpheric temperature has
no aftion on the foapy matter, but when boiling, it will
with eafe diftblve one fourth of its weight, of which all the
ammoniacal foap will be depofited by cooling, and that por-
tion of adipocire which is uncoir.bined with ammonia* will
be held in permanent folution. Hence alcohol is perhaps
the beft agent that can be ufed in the decompofitlon of the
foapy matter : the phofphoric falts contained in it are not
foluble in alcohol ; the ammoniacal foap is wholly depofited
by cooling, and the uncombined adipocire may be obtained
afterwards by evaporating off the alcohol.

The moft effeftual way of procuring perfeftly pure adi-
pocire, is to mix well the foapy matter with twelve times its
weight of warm water, and to decompofe it by adding a
flight excefs of acetic or muriatic acid. This concrete ani-
mal oil thus prepared, as long as it holds much water be-
tween its particles, is of a pure white ; by drjnng it acquires
a brownifii grey colour, which neither expofure to the air,
nor the oxymuriatic acid will remove : while it retrjns water
it is foft to the touch, and becomes duftile like wax by the
warmth of the hand : when well dried and deprived of wa-
ter, it aftlimes by flow congelation, a lamellar and cryftaU
line texture, but when cooled quickly, has a compadt gra-
nular appearance : in the firft of thefe ftates, it greatly re-
fembles fpern'.aceti, yet differs from it in the following parti-
culars. It requires a lefs heat for its fufion by ftven degrees
of Fahrenheit ; it is foluble in boiling alcohol in the pro-
portion of one ounce and a half, to one ounce of the fluid,
whereas the fame quantity of alcohol at the fame tempera-
ture, will fcarcely take up more than 36 grains of fperma-
ceti ; it fcpava;es alfo in cooling from this menftruuin, in a
much lefs decidedly cryftallir.e form than fpe- maceti does ; it
unites eagerly with hquid ammonia in the cold, which fper-
maceti does not in the fmalleft degree.

To the foregoing experiments of Fourcroy, a few fafts
have fince been added by Dr. Gibbes. The receptacle at
Oxford for thofe bodies which have been ufed by the ana-
tomical profcfl"or there for his demonftrations, is a hole dug
in the ground to the depth of thirteen or fourteen feet, and
a little ilream is turned through it in order to remove all
offcniive fmell : the flefli contahied in this was found, on
G ^ examination,

A D I

A D I

examination, to be quite white, and for tlie moft pnit
changed into the foapy matter above mentioned. From
this hint, pieces of lean beef were inclofcd in a perfoiutcd
box, and placed in running water, and at the end of a
month were found converted into a mafs of fatty matter ;
this change was obfcrved tu take place much fooner and
more completely in runni.ig than in ftagnant water : in
order to get rid of the fcrtid fmell, nitrous acid was had
recourfe to, which inimcdiately had the defired efTedl ; a
waxy fmell was perceived, and by melting the matter it was
obtained nearly pure ; the yellow colour which had been
given to it by the nitrous acid, was wholly difcharged by
the oxymuriatic acid. A fmiilar converfion of mufcular
fibre takes place by maceration in veiy diluted nitrous acid.
Dr. Gibbes has not mentioned whether the fatty matter
produced by running water is pure adipocire or ammoniacal
foap ; it appears probable, however, that it is in the former
ilate ; where nitrous acid is the menftruum employed, it is
obvioufly impcfiiMo that the adipocire (hould be combined
with an alkaU. Annates dc Chimie, vol. iii. 120. v. 15^.
vii. 146. viii. 17. Pliilof. Tranf. for 1794. (vol. Ixxxiv.
page 169.)

ADIPOSUS, fat Of fatty, is a word chiefly ufed in ana-
tvmy, as an epithet of certain cells, dufts, membranes, and
veffels ; e. g. membrana and tasa adipofa, cellul/e ad't-
fofs, DUCTUS adipofi, &c.

ADIPPE, in Entomology, a fpecies of papilio, with
dentated yellow wings, fpotted with black, and underneath
marked with 23 filvery fpots. This infect is found in Eu-
rope, and is called by fome writers Cynippe.

ADIPSIA, fornied of a priv. and ^'ij-a, th'irf}, denoting
a want of thirft, in Nofology, a genus of difeafe, which Dr.
CuUen refers to the fecond order, called Dyforexia, and the
fourth clafs denominated locahs. This he reckons to be al-
ways fymptomatic of fome dillemper affeding the fenforium
commune.

ADIPSON, a name given by Hippocrates to Oxymel ;
who fays alfo, that the ptifTana, by its glutinoufnefs, pre-
vents or cures thirft. Medicines adminiftered for allaying
thirft are called by this name. This property led the Greeks
to diftinguilh \hs gkcyrrhiza glabra of Linnceus, or LicyJO-
RJCE, by this appellation.

ADIPSOS, fignifies the Egyptian palm-tree, liquorice,
and a pill or catapotium, compofcd by Afclepiades, and
•mentioned by Galen.

ADIRATUS, a price or value fet upon things ftolen or
loft, as a recompence to the owner.

■ADIRIS, or Dyris, in Ancient Geography, a name
given to the mountains of Atlas by the Indigent, orfirft
inhabitants. Bochart affinns (Geog. Sac. 1. ii. c. 13. Oper.
tom. i. p. 89.) that Atlas was called Duris and Dyris, by
the Phcenicians ; and this name might probably be derived
from TIJJ, ad'tr, which fignifies ^;-c«/ or mighty.

ADISAGA, a town of India, placed by Ptolemy in
long. 159° 30'. and lat. 23°.

ADISALEM, a town of Gojam in Abyflinia, between
the Nile and the lake Dembea. E. long. 34° 50'. N.
lat. 10° 30'.

ADISAMUM, a towm of the iftand of Taprobana.

ADTSATHRA, a tov/n of India, on this fide of the
Ganges, which Ptolemy places in long. 128° 30'. and- lat.
24° 30'.

The Adifathri, who inhabited the furrounding country,
tad for their metropolis Sagida.

ADISATHRUS Mom, a mountain of India, near the
gulf oY "Bengal, which Ptolemy called the Gangetic t^ulf :
long. 132°. lat. 23°. ^ '^

ADIT, AniTUS, formed from ad'ire, to go to, in a gf-
neral fenfe, denotes the approach to, or entrance of any
thing : in which fenfe we meet v.'ith adit of a houfe, adit
of a theatre, of a circus, &c.

Adit of a mine, the hole or aperture, whereby it is
entered and dug, and by which the water and ores are car-
ried away.

Adit of a mine, is nearly the fame with amiculus, or
drfty and is diftinguifned from Ai?.-Jljnft. Phil. Tranf.
N'' 69.

The adit is ufually made on the fide of a hill, towards
the bottom thereof, about 4, 5, or 6 feet high, and H
wide, in form of an arch ; foinetimes cut in the rock, and
fometimes fupported with tim.ber, fo condufted, as that
the fole or bottom of the adit may anfwer to the bottom of
the fliaft, only fomcwhat lower, that the water may have
a luflicient current to pafs away v/ithout the ule of the pump.
Damps and the impurity of the air are the great impe-
diments againfi: driving adi'-.-i above 20 or 30 fathoms, by
reafon of the neceflity, in this cafe, of letting down of air-
fliafts from the day to meet the adit, which arc veiy often
cxpenfive, both on account of the great depth of mines,
and the liardnefs of the mineral ftrata to be cut through.
The bell remedy againft this is that praftifed in the coal-
mines near Liege, where they work their adits without air-
fhafts : the manner of which is defcribed by Sir Robert
Moray. Vide Phil. Tranf. N° 5.

Adit of n mine, is fometimes ufed for the AiK-/7jqft itfclf,
being a hole driven peipendicularly from the furface of the
earth into fome part of a mine, to give entrance to the air.
In this fenfe \\^ fometimes find it improperly written addit.
Phil. Tranf. N° 200.

To draw off the ftanding water in winter, in deep mines,
they drive up an adit, or AiK-Jhaft, upon which the air dif-
engages itfelf from the water, when it begins to run with
fuch violence, as produces a noife equal to the burrting of
a cannon, dafties ever)' thing in the way againft the fides of
the mine, and loofens the very rocks at a diftance. Ibid.
N° 16. See Mining.

Adit infljips, in Antiquity, was a fpace in the upper part,
where the Ihip was wideft, at which people entered, ani-
ciently called agea.

Adits of a theatre, aditus theatri, in Antiquity, were doors
on the ftairs, whereby perfons entered from the outer porti-
coes, and defcended into the feats.

ADITES, or the tribe of Ad, in Ancient Hijlory, a very
powerful tribe of the ancient Arabians, are faid to have
been the defcendants of Ad, the fon of Aws, or Uz (Gen.
X. 22, 23), the fon of Aram, the fon of Shem, the fon of
Noah, and, after the confufion of tongues, to have fettled
in Al Ahkaf, or the winding fands, in the province of Ha-
dramaut, where they greatly multiplied. In proctt* of time,
they abandoned the worftiip of the true God, and fell into
idolatry ; chiefly worfliipping four deities, viz. Sakia, Ha- i
fedha, Razeka, and Salema ; the firft of whom, as they
imagined, fuppHed them with rain, the fecond preferved
them from all '• mgers abroad, the third provided food for
their fuftenance, and the fourth reftored them to health
when afflifted with ficknefs, as their feveral names import.
God, it is faid, comniifiioned the prophet Hud, or Hcber,
to attempt their reformation : but they were obftinate and
irreclaimable, and were therefore deftroyed, a few of them
excepted, by a fufi'ocating wind. Thofe who efcaped re-
tired with Hud to another place. Before they were thus
feverely puniftied, they were vifited with a drought of four
years, by which tlieir cattle perifted, and they themftlvts
were reduced to great diftrefs. They are often mentioned

in

A D I

jn tlie Koran, and fomc commentators on tliis work pretend,
tlmt they were of prodigi-.iiu llature, tlie hirgcll bcin<^ loo
cubits high, and the kail 60 ; for which tlity refer to the
teftimony of the Koran. Salt's Prehm. Difc. p. 6. Koran,
chap. 7. p. 123.

ADITHA, or Adithaim, in yftinail G.op-aphy, a city
belonging to the tribe of Judah. Jolhua, xv. 36. Eufc-
bius mentions two cities named Adatha, one towards Gaza,
and another towards Lyd la, ealt of this city.

ADJUDGING, in I.jiv, the a£l of paffing a determi-
nate fentcnee in behalf of aperfon.

ADJUDICATION, tlu- aft of adjudging the proper-
ty of a thing to a perfon by a legal fentencc, decree, or
judgment.

Adjudication is more partit ."larly ufed for the addition,
or conligning a thing fold by auCiion, or the like, to the
liighelt bidder.

Adjudication, in the Scots I.aiv, the name of an ac-
tion by which a creditor attaches the heritable tllate of his
debtor, or his debtor's heir, in order to appropriate it to
himfslf, either in payment or in fecurity of his debt ; or
that aiflion by which the holder of an heritable right, la-
bouring under any defei^t in point of form, may fiipply that
defetl. Adiudications were fubftituted by aft 1672. c. 19.
in the place of apprilings, and they are carried on by way
of aftion before the Court of Seffion. By that ftatute, the
debtor mu'l deliver to the creditor a valid nght of the lands
to be adjudged, being fuch as are equivalent to the princi-
pal and interell of the debt, and a fifth part more in confi-
deration of the creditor's taking land for his m.oney ; re-
nounce tile poirefTion in his favour, and ratify the decree of
tidjud'cation. This is called a fpcaal adjuduaiion : and the
time within which the debtor may redeem is declared to be
iive years ; but if tlie debtor does not produce a fufScient
right to the land, or is not willing to renounce the pofTef-
fion and ratify the decree, it is lawful for the creditor to
adjudge all right belonging to the debtor in the fame man-
ner as he could, by the former laws, have apprifed it. In
this gencrrd adjudication, as it is called, the creditor mull
limit his claim to the principal fum, intereil and penalty,
without demanding a fifth part more. Abbreviates are or-
dained to be made of all adjudications, which muft be re-
corded within 60 days after the dite of the decree. There are
two kinds of adjudications, wi.. thofe on a decree cognhiorm
(aufc, otherwife called contra httvcd'italem jacentem, and adju-
dications in implement. A new fort of adjudications has
been lately introduced into the law of Scotland, by 23 Geo.
III. for rendering the pay m.ent of the creditors of infolvent
debtors more equal and e.xpeditioin.

ADIVli, in Zoology, an animal of the Jackai, kind,
the CAN is aureus of Linnxus, mentioned by Buffon, fome-
what rcfembling a fmall fox. It is kfs thai; the common
jackal, and is fometimes tamed, and kept in a domeilic ftatc.
In the Arabian language, the name Adive figuilles a wolf;
and its figure, hair, and voracity are analogous to the name;
but it is fmaUer than tlie fox, and very ttupid. It yelps
like tiiis animal ; and when one cries, the reft reply. It
roams about in the night in fearch of food, and is naturally
■difpofed to conceal itlclf in the day. The adivts form large
packs, enter houfes and churches, where they devour every
thing they can find, and when they have been once accuf-
tomed to eat human bodies, they never fail to frequent
cluirch-yards in fearch of yiutrid carcafes, to dig into
jrvavts, to follow armies, and to attend the caravans in tliofc
eallern countries where they abound. Tlie adives may be
■confideivd as the ravens among quadrupeds.

ADJUNCT, Adjunc'I'i'm, in J'/ji/ojlph, foiiutliing

A D J

joined or fuperaddtJ to a being from without ; or, an ao
celFion to a thing, not eirentially belonging to it, but only
aceidenlal to it.

There arc two kinds of adjutii'is ; the one a fubllance
(''• S- fp'''' "■■ body) accidentally fiiperaddcd to another, at
its Inbjtft — Such is water in a fponge, or vefie!, .ind fuch
is the i'oul in the body. Tlie fecond an attribute or mode,
accidentally likewifc fupenidded to a fubllance, whether
body or fpirit. — Such is figure in a body, knowledge in the
mind, &c.

In ethics, they ufually reckon feven adjunHs, popularly
called circuwfanca ; quii, quid, ul/i, quibut auxiliit, cur,
quomod'j, quando.

Adjunct, in Mujic, a word that is ufed to exprcfs the
conneftion or relation between the principal mode, and the
modes of its two-fifths, which, from the intervals thai con-
ftitute the relation between them and it, arc called its ad-
junfts.

Adjuncts, in Rhetoi'tc and Grammar, are certain word»
or things added to others ; to amplify the difcourfe, or aug-
ment its force.

Such are adjeAives, attributes, and epithets, which are
added to fubftantives, fubjefts, &c. to exprefs their nature,
qualities, accidents, &c.

Arguments drawn from adjimSs, are fupplemcnts or en-
forcements of the proof ariling from the circumftauccs of
the faft.

Adjunct is alio ufed in civil concerns, for a col-
i.EAGun, or fellow-officer, aflbciatcd to anotlier, to aflift
him in his miniftry,

AdjVKCT gods, or Adjoints of the gods, in Mythology,
among the Romans, were a kind of inferior deities, added
as aflillants to the principal ones, to eafe them in their func- .
tion. Thus, to Mars was adjoined Bcllona and Nemcfis ;
to Neptune, Salacia ; to Vulcan, the Cabiri ; to the Good
Genius, the Lares ; to the Evil, the Lemures, &c.

Adjuncts, or Adjoints, in the Royal Academy of
Scknces at Paris, denote a clafs of members attached to
the purfuits of particular fciences. See Academy.

ADJUNCTION, the aft of joining, or adding, of one
thing to another. There are various fpecies of adjunftion j
viz. by adhefion, appojilion, au^acency, accusation, incubalioHf
imiqflior., ap-JJion, &c.

'ad jura REGIS, is a writ that lies for the king's
clerk, againfl him who endeavoured to ejeft him, to t'lc pre-
judice of the king's title in riglit of his crown.

ADJI^^RATION, a part of exorcifm, wherein the devil
is commanded, in the name of God, to depart out of the
body of the pofTelled, or to declare fomething.

ADJUTAGE. SeeAjuTAor.

ADJUTANT, formed of adjulare, to ajfijl, in the HP-
lilary Art, an oflker in the army, whofc bulinefs is to affift
the major : otlierwife called aid-ma]or.

In the cavahy, each regiment has an adjutant, and in the
infanti-)-, each battahon, who receives the orders every night
frorK the brigade-major, which, after he has carried to the
colonel, he delivers out to the ferjcants. WTicn detach-
ments are to be made, he gives the number each company
mufl fnrnifh, and affigns the hour and place of rendezvous.
He alfo places the guards, receives and dillributes ammuni-
tion to the companies, and by the major's orders regulales
the piice of bread, beer, &c. See y?(i{f«/</n/-GENF.RAL.

Adjutant is fomelimes alfo ufed by the French for an
aid <le camp.

Ai'jv VAST ^-General, among the %^/;/j, a felecl niuvihcr

of falliors refiding with the general of the order, each of

«hom had a province, or country, under his care, as

G j; z Trance,

A D L

ADM

France, England, &c. Their bufiiicrs was to infann tlie
father-general of the occurrences of itatc in fuch counties ;
to which end, e-\ch of them had their correfpondents, de-
legated cmiiTaiies, vifitors, regents, provincials, &c. See
Jesuits.

ADJUTOR, among the Romans, was an adjunft or
affiftant ; and under this appellation they had many fubor-
dinate officers, who afted in the abfence of their fuperiors,
or by way of aiding them in the execution of their rtlpcc-
fivc offices.

ADJUTORIUM, from adj-.ivare, to help, in Anatomy,
the humerus, or (houlder-bone.

Some authors nfc this word for a medicine intended only
as auxiliary, or fiibfiTvieiit to another ot great cfRcacy : in
particular, after a due ufe nf internals, for an external re-
medy applied to a part aflt-aed, to afiill in, and complete
the cure.

ADJUTRIX, prima kg'to, an appellation applied to a
legion which often occurs in the Roman laws.

ADJUVANTIA, formed of adjuvo, I help, in MedU
t'nte. See Juvan'Tia.

ADLE egg, that which is not fecundified by the cock's
tread.

Adle tgg is the fame with that which is otherwife called
7i fiihventaneous one.

Adle eggs', after incubation, are found to contain a (liape-
lefs globofe, a(h-coloured body, not unlike a mola. Phil.
Tranf. N'" 87.

ADLECTI, among the Romans, fignified affociates, or
rather felefted, and was applied to perfons of various de-
fcriptions amongil the common foldiers, officers of ftate,
and fenators ; there were gods of this denomination, who
were deified men, and called by the Romans " dii minorum
gentium."

ADLEGATION, in the Public Laiu of the Gennan
empire, a right claimed by the ftates of the empire of ad-
joining plenipotentiaries, in public treaties and negociations,
to thofe of tUe emperor, for the tranfafting of matters which
relate to the empire in general.

In which fenfe adlegation differs from legation, which is the
right of fending ambaffadors on a perfon's own account.
Several princes and ftates of the empire enjoy the right
of legation, who have net that of adlegation, and mce verfa.
The bilhops, for inllance, have the right of adlegation in
the treaties which concern the common intereil, but no
right of legation for their own private affairs. The like had
the duke of Manti'.a.

The emperor allows the princes of Germany the privilege
of legation, but difputes that of adh.gai'ion. They challenge
It as belonging to them jure regn'i, which they enjoy in
common with the emperor himfelf. Ludwig has a dif-
courfe on the fubjeft, wherein the controvcrfy is treated at
large.

ADLENTARE larlam, in Antiquity, a phrafe which
denoted the care th;it was taken every day to comb the
beard, and to render it foft and flexible.

ADLERFELDT, Gustavus, in Biography, a Swe-
clifh ofSeer and hiftorian, was born near Stockholm, ftudied
at Upfal, where he was diftinguilhed by his appUcation and
improvement, and then made the tour of Europe. On his
return, Charles XII. appointed him a gentleman of his
chamber. Having accompanied this monarch in his mili-
tai7 courfe, and witneffed both his viAories and defeats,
he was qualified to compile his hiftory, which terminates
with the day of his death, at the battle of Pultawa, in
1709, ap.d which was tranflated into French by his fon, and
printed in four vokuics izmo. at Amfterdam, in 1740...

ADLESBERG, in Geography, a well built market,
town in the inner Carniola, in Aullria, fituate at the foot
of a high rocky mountain, near the river Alben, on which
ftands a citadel, under which is a grotto of very confiderable
extent and capacity. Many curious figures of Hones, na-
tural ftone theatres, ftone bridges, &c. are to be fcen in it ;
and near the entrance of the cavern the river Potg, ■fthich,
at about a mile's diftance from it, iffues out of a mountain,
runs into an aperture in the rock, and then glides off under
the cavern.

AdLJierg, is called in Latin Pojlnena. It is four leagues
eaft-north-cafi: fiom Trieil-'.

ADLOCUTIOM, Adlocutio, in y^nZ/'y//;/)', is chiefly
underilood of fpccchL,-, made by Roma.j generals to their
armies, tc encourage them beiore a battle. We frequently
find thefe adiu-:utionb eypreffcd on medals, by the abbrevi-
ature ADLOCVT. con.

The general is fometim.es reprefented as placed on a tri-
bunal ; often on n bank or mound of turf, with the cohorts
ranged orderly round liijn, in manlpuTi and iurmi^. The
ufual fonnula in adlocutions \v:\s,fartis ejfet acfidus. Pitifc.
Lex. Ant. torn. i. p. 27. Walk, on Coin. p. i. c. 10.

AULWANG, in Geography, a town in the archduchy
of Aullria, three leagues fouth-welt of Stej'r.

ADLZREITER, John, in Biography, chancellor of
Bavaria, an hiftorian and lawyer, flourifhed in the 17th
century. His annals of Bavaria, written in Latin, cc-m-
prehend the hiftoiy of the country from its beginning, to
the year 1652, compiled from authentic fources. This
work firft appeared in 1662, and was reprinted at Leipfic
in 1710, by Leibnitz, in folio.

AIDMAH or Adama, in Scripture Geography, one of
the cities involved in the dellruftion of Sodom and Go-
moiTah. It was fituatcd between Zeboim and Gomorrah.
Gen. X. 19. xiv. 2 — S. Dent. xxix. 23. Hofea. xi. 8.

ADMANUENSIS, compounded of the Latin ad, to,
and raanus, hand, in Ancient Laiu Books, denotes perfons
who fwore by laying their hands on the book. I)u-Cange.

In which fenfe, admanuenfes amount to the fame with
laymen, and iland oppofed to clerks, who were forbid to
fwear on the book, their word being to be reputed as their
oath : whence they were alfo denominated^i^f-r/yw/.

ADMEASUREMENT, Admensuxatio, in Zaw, a
writ which lies for the bringing thofe to reafon, or medio-
crity, who ufurp more of any thing than their fliare. This
writ lies in two cafes ; termed.

Admeasurement of doiuer, Admenfuratlo dotls, where
the widow of the deceafed holds more from the heir, or his
guardian, on account of her dower, than of right belongs
to her. And,

Admeasurement of pajlure, Admenfuratlo pajluris ; this
lies between thofe who have common of paftures appen-
dant to their freehold, or common by vicinage, in cafe any
of them furcharge the comnion with more cattle than they
ought.

This is one of thofe writs that are called vlcontlel, being
directed to the fheriff (I'lce-eomill), and not to be returned
to any fuperior court, till finally executed by him. It re-
cites a complaint, that the defendant hath furcharged the
common, and therefore commands the Ihenff to admeafure
and appertain it, tliat the defendant may not have more than
belongs to him, and that the planitiff may have his rightful
fliare.' Upon this luit, all the commoners ihall be adaieafur-
ed, thofe who have not, as well as thofe who have iurcharg-
ed the common; the plaintiff as well as the defendant.
The execution of this writ muft be by a jury of 1 2 men, who
were upon oath to afcertain, under the fuperintendance of
5, '^^

ADM

the (herifF, what and how many cattle each commoner ia
entitled to feed: and the rulefortlusadrneafurcmcntis gene-
l-ally underftood to be, that the commoner fhall not turn
more cattle upon the cop-iPiun, than are I'ufficieut to manure
and ftock the laiid to which his right of common ih annexed.
If, after the adjneaf.irjrnent has afcertained the right, the
fame defendant furcharges the common again, the plaintiff
may have a writ oi fccoiu! j'urcljar^ie, Blackll. Com. vol. iii.
p. 238. Svo.

ADMETE, one of the nymphs called Oceanides.
ADMINiCI^E, or AdminiC'Jlk, xVdminiculum, a
term, ufed in fome ancient ftafutes, for aid, help, or fup-
port. Stat. I Edvv. IV. cap. i.

In Scots \i\w, this term fignifies any writing or deed re-
ferred to by a party, in an aition ot law, for proving his
alle*-Tat!0'"ts.

ADMINICULATOR, in Erchfuijlkd fVriters, d<inoUs
an ancient officer of the church, whofe bufiuefs was to de-
fend the caufe of widows, or])hans, or otliers dellitute of
help. The adminiculator is the fame with what isotherwife
called ADiocATE of the poor. Du Cange.

ADMINICUI.es, Rmong Anlir^iaiies, are applied to
the attributes or ornaments wherewith Juno and fome other
figures are rcprefented on medals.

ADMINICULUJVI, in the Yvench Jurifpnidencc, fig-
nifies the beginning of a proof; an imperfect proof ; or a
circumilance or conjetlure, tending to fonii or fortify a
proof.

ADMINISTRATION imports the government or di-
rection of affairs ; and particularly the exercife of dillilbu-
tive juilice.

The t^vo criterions of a good acJmin'Jiral'ion in England,
according to Trenchard, aie, the keeping the nation out
of foreign broils, and paving off the public debts ; the lat-
ter of which depends on the former.

Adminmstration, in the Englifh Lnnv, fignifies the
aft or office of an adminiflralor, in managing and uilpofing
of a man's goods, or eftate, that died inteftate, or without
any will ; with an intent to give an account thereof. In
this cafe, inftruments, or powers, called letters of admhuj-
triit':oii, are taken out in the pi-erogative court.

Thefe letters mull be granted by the ordinary in purfu-
ance of the ilatutes 31 Edw. III. c. 11. and 21 Hen.
VIII. c. 5. I. to the hufband, or his reprefentatives, of
the wife's goods and chattels; 2. to the wife, of the huf-
band's goods and chattels; 3. if there be no hufband orv.'ife,
to the children, fons or daughters ; 4. if there be no chil-
dren alive, to the father orniolher ; 5. then to a brother or
filler of the whole blood, or of the half blood (who, for
this pu'pofe, arc of equal degree with the whole blood) ;
6. and if there be none fuch, to the next of kin, as grand-
father, uncle, nephew or coufin, snd the females of each
clafs refpeciivtly ; but of pcrfons in equal degree, the or-
<linai"y niay take which he pleafes, and the nearnefs of degree
Oiall be thus reckoned according to the computation of the
civilians, and not of the canonills ; 7. then, if none of the
kindred t;'ke cut adminillration, to a creditor of the de-
ctafed ; 8. if the executor refufes or dies inteftate, to the
reliduary legatee, in exclufion of the next of kin ; 9. and
for want of all thefe, to any other perfon, at the difcretion
of the ordinary ; or the ordinary may grant to a ilrangcr
ktters ad colligendum lona dcfunlii, to gather up the goods
of the deceafed ; or may take them into his own hands to
pay the deceafcd's debts, in fuch order as an executor or
adminiftrator ought to pay them. But it is faid he or the
ftranger, who hath letters ad colligendum, cannot fell them,
w.ithout making themfelves exetutors of their own wrong,

A D M

and action lies only againil the ordinary, &c. Wood's
lull. 333.

By Hat. 2 1 Hen. VIII. widows, and next of kin, arc to
be appointed adniiniiirators, and a mother is to have admi-
nillration of goods of a child, before a brother or filUr, &.C.
But an adminillration may be granted to the father before
the widow ; and a reliduiiy legatee ought to be preferred
before tlie v.'idow, in an adminillration cum l<Jhinunto annexe.
3 Salk. 21.

On granting adininiflrafion, bonds with furetics are to be
taken for the adniinlllrator, to make and exhibit an inven-
tory of the good;! of tlie deceafed, to render a jull account
tlienol, and to make a dlllribution of the furplulage after
the debts paid, according to law, &c. Slat. 22 and 23
Car. 11. cap. !o. SecAuMisisTRATOR, Executor, In--
TESTATE, Kindred.

Administration is fometimos alfo ufed for tlie direction
of the affairs of a minor, a pupil, a lunatic, or the like.

Administration is alfo uled in refpett of ecclefiallical
functions. — The parfon has the adminillration of tlie facra-
ments in his paridi. — Adminillration of the eiicliarill ii pro-
hibited to perlons cxcommunieate.

In beneficiary matters they dillingulfh two hind^of admi-
niilration; lempora!, which relates to the temporalities of a
benefice, diocefe, &c. and fpintiiul, to which belong the
power of excoinmnnieating, £<c.

Administration, in /Inalumy, is ufed for the manner
of difTeCling the parts of tlie body, particularly tlie mus-
cles. In wliich fenfc, adminillration is fynonymout! with •
cacheircjls, exu.ife, &c.

Anatomical admlnlHrations are not to be learned by oral
precept, but require ocular iufpec'uon. — Galen, Harvey,
and others, have dilcourfcs exprefj under the title ol tiie.
anatomical adminiitrations.

Administration, in Commerce, is alfo ufed for a Spa-
nifli Ihiple at Callao in Peru, a fmall town on the coalls of>
the South Sea, which is the port of Lima; where all fliips,
allowed to trade on the coaft, arc obliged to unload their
European goods, and pay certain duties: i.e. l^ per cirit..
of tlie piece for which they are fold, if the cargo be entire,
and if otherwife 16 per cent, befides which, they pay three
per 1000 duty, fur confullhip, and fume other fmall royal
rights and claims.

ADMINISTRATOR, in Law, he to whom the ordi--
nary commits the adminiflration of the goods of a peifon de-
ceafed, in default of an executor.

An aft'ou lies for or againil an adminifli-ator, as for or
againil an executor ; and he fhall be accountable to the va-
lue of the goods of the deceafed, and no fai-thei' :->— unlefs
there be walte, or other abufe chargeable on him. If the
adniinillrator die, his executors are not adminillrators ; but
the court is to grant a new adminilii-atlou. — if a ftrangci,.
who is neither adr,i:ni{lr;:tor, nor executor, take the goods
of the deceafed, and adminiller, he (liall be charged, and
fued as an executor, not as an adminiflrator.

The origin of adminiftrators is derived fnim the civil law.
By the old law, the king was intitlcd to feize U)ion the
goods of an inteftate, as the/>(7rfKj/.';/;v<e-andgeniral trufteCv
of the kingdom. This prerogative the king continued to
exercife for fome time, by his o\vn niiniilers of juftice, pro-
bably in the county court ; and it was gianted as a fraiichife
to many lords of manors, and others, who have to this day
a prefcriptive right to grant adminiflration to their inteftate
tenants and fuitors, in their own courts baron, and other
courts, or to have their wills there proved, in cafe they
made any difpofition. Afterwards the crown, in favour of
the church, iuveftidthe prelates with this brancii of the

prerogative i ■

ADM

ADM

■prerogative : and the goods cf the intcflatca were givf n to
the ordinary by tho crown, who might ici/e and keep them
^•ithoiit walling, and alio give, ahtne, or ftll them at his
will, and difpole of the money in pios ujhs. Tlie goods of
the intellate being thus vefted in the ordinaiy upon folemn
and confcientious triift, the reverond prelates were not ac-
countable to any, but to God and thcmftlvcs, for their con-
duct. The ordinary, however, negleftcd to difcharge his
truft ; and the abufe was carried to fuch a length of iniqui-
ty, that Innocent IV. in 1250, lays it down for eftahliflicd
canon law, that " in Bnlanira tcr/in pars l>onon/>:> (Iccedciiliiim
ab inlejlato in opus ecclefij el paupcrum clifpenfanda ejl." The
popil'U clergy therefore took to themfelves, under the name
of the church and poor, the whole refidue of the eftate of
the deceafed, after the partes rationaliks, or two-thirds, of
the wife and children were dedufted, without paying his
lawful debts or other charges thereon. For this reafon it
was enacled, as the firlt check on the exorbitant power of
ordinaries, by the Hat. of Wetlm. 2. 13 Edw. I. c. 19.
that the ordinary fhall be bound to pay the debts of the in-
tellate fo far as his goods will extend. And in order to
prevent the ordinaries from keeping any longer the adminif-
tration in their own hands, the llatute 31 Edw. III. c. 1 1,
provides that, in cafe of intellacr, the ordinary fcall de-
pute the neareft and moll lawful friends of the deceafed to
adminiller his goods ; which adminiilrators are put upon the
fame footing with regard to fuits and to accounting, as execu-
tors appointed by will. This is the original of adminiilrators,
as they at prefent ftand, who are only the officers of the
ordinary, appointed by him in purfuance of this ftatute.
Tiie ftatute 21 Hen. VIII. c. 5. enlarges a little more the
power of the ecclefiallical judge, and permits him to grant
adminiftration either to the widow, or the next of kin, or
to both of them, at his own difcretion ; and where two
or more perfons are in the fame degree of kindred, gives
the ordinary his eleftion to accept whicli ever he pleafcs.
Ulackft. Com. vol. ii. p. 434. 8vo.

There are divers forts of admimjlrators.

Adminijlrator durante minore aetale, is where an infant is
tntitled to adminiftration of the goods of an inteftate ; in
■which cafe adminiftration is granted to another, until he is
of the age of twenty-one years. Though where the infant
is made executor, fuch adminiftration, during his minority,
ceafes at his coming of the age of feventeen, 5 Rep. 29.
C Rep. 27.

^ Adnunijirator cum tejlamenlo onnexo, is one to whom admi-
niftration, with the will annexed, is granted upon an execu-
tor's refufal to prove the teftament, or upon his dying be-
fore the probate. I Inft. 113.

Admmjfirntor de bonis non, &c. is one to whom adminiftra-
tion is granted of the goods of a teftator remaining un-
adminiftered, by reafon of his executors dying inteftate.
This adminiftrator is the only legal reprefentative of the de-
ceafed in matters of perfonal property. But he may, as
■\vell as an original adminiftrator, have only a limited or fpe-
cial adminiftnition committed to his care, viz. of certain
fpecific effedls, fuch as a teim of y ears, or the like : tlie
left being committed to others, i Roll. Abr. 908. 2 Roll.
Abr. 907. There is alfo

Adminijlrator pendente lite; and durante aljentia extra
regnum.

If a woman have goods thus committed to her charge, or
adminiftration, flie is called adminijlratrix ; and is account-
able, &c. in like manner as an adminijlrator.

Administrator, in Scots La-w, a perfon legally im-
powered to aft for another, whom the law prefumes inca-
pable of ading for hirafclf. Thus tutors or curators are
6

fomctlmes ftyled adininj^rators in lanv, to pupils, minors, or
fatuous perfons. ]>ut more generally the term is u'td to
imply that power which is conferred by the law upon a
father, over the perions and eftates of his children during
their minority.

Administrator is alfo ufed for the advocate of a
church.

Administrator is alfo ufed for a perfon appointed to
receive, manage, and diltribute the revenues of an hofpital,
or religious houfe.

Administrator is alfo ufed for a prince who enjoys the
revenue of a fecularifed biiliiprick.

Yet this title does not hold univerfallv : the king of Eng-
land, as elector of Brunlwick-Lunenburgh, for inftance, is
not called adminijlrator, but duke of Bremen and \'erden ;
and the king of Pniffia is not adminijlrator, but duke of
Magdeburg, and prince of Plalberftadt.

Administrator is alfo ufed for the regent or protcftof
of a kingdom, during the minority of its proper prince,
or even a vacancy of the throne.

The pope pretends to the adminiftration of the empire,
during the vacancy, by cenfure, or fufpenfion.

Administrator is fometimes ufed for the prefident of a
province.

ADMINISTRATRIX, fee Administrator.

ADMIRAL, a great officer who commands the naval
forces of a kingdom or ftate, and takes cognizance by him-
felf, or officers appointed by him, of all maritime caules.

Authors are divided about the origin and denomination of
this important officer, -whom we find eftabliflied, with fome
variation, in moll kingdoms thit border on the fea. Spel-
man conceives, that the name and dignity were introduced
among us from the Saracens, by means of the Crufades :
and it is alledged, that there are no inftances of admirals in
this part of Europe before the year 1284, or 1286, ■v\-hen
Philip of France, who had attended St. Lewis in the wars
againft the Saracens, created an admiral. The name of
this officer once occurs in the hiftory of France, in the year
558. And. Com. vol. i. p. 29. Du-Cange aflures us,
that the Sicilians were the firft, and the Genoefe the next
after them, who gave the denomination admiral to the com-
manders of their naval armaments ; and that they took it
from the Saracen, or Arabic amir, or emir, a general name
for any commanding officer. — Some fay, that the firft
admiral mentioned in Englilh hiftory was in the reign of
Edward I. in 1 297 ; and that the firft title of admiral of
England confeiTed upon a fubjefl, was given by patent of
Rich. II. to the earl of Arundel and Surrv in 1387.

Spelman, however, 13 of opinion, that the title of admiral
was firft ufed in the reign of Henry III. becaufe it does
not occur in the laws of Oleron, enafted in 1266, nor is
mentioned by Brafton, who wrote about that time : and in
a charter, 8 Henry III. which granted the office to
Richard de Lacy, the title is not ufed ; but in the 56th year
of the fame reign, the hiftorians ufed the appellation ad-
miral, and it is found alfo in charters.

Three or four admirals were formerly appointed in the
Englilh feas ; thefe held their office durante bene p-acito,
and had particular limits from the mouth of the Thames,
to the north, fouth, or weft, fubjeft to their jurifdittion.
We had alfo admirals of the Cinque Ports as early as the
reign of Edward III. when William Latimer was called
Admiralis quinque portuum. But the title of Admirnlis
AngUic was not frequent till the reign of Henry IV. when
the title was given to the king's brother ; and after this
period it was granted in all commiffions to fucceeding
admirals.

The

ADM

ADM

The title of locum-tincns regis fuper mare, tlie king's lieu-
tenant-general of the fea, mentioned in the reign of Richard II:
was fupcrior to that of .;,'/w;;W of England. Before the ap-
pellation of admiral was introduced, the title of cujlos maris
was in ufe.

Admiral of England, the lord high, in fome ancient re-
cords called capitarnis nnirilimanim, is judge, or prefident,
of th:i COURT oi admiralty.

He takes cognizance, by himfclf, his lieutenant, or depu-
ties, &c. in his court, of all crimes committed on the fta, or
the coaft thereof; a:id all the civil and marine tranfaftions re-
lating thereto ; as alfo of what is done in all great (hips, riding
in any great river, beneath the bridges thereof next the fea.

Anciently, tlie admiral had alfo jurifdiftion in all caufes
of merchants and mariners ; not only on the fea, but in all
foreign parts. — To this great officer alfo belongs tlie go-
vernment of the nary : by him all vice-admirals, rear-admi-
rals, and fea-captains are commifTioned ; as well as all dep'.i-
ties for particular coafts, and coroners for viewing de:id
bodies found on the !ea-coafts, or at fea ; and he appoints
the judges for his court of admiralty, and courts martial
for the trial of offences againfl: the articles of war, and may
imprif.m, rtleafe, S:c. ; eveiy coKimander, officer, and foldier of
fhips of war (liall obferve the commands of the admiral, &c.
on pain of death, or other punilhment. Between high and
low-water mark, the common law and admiral bear jurif-
diftion by turns ; one upon the water, and the other upon
the land. He hath alfo power not only over the feamen
ferving in his (hips of war, but over other feamen, fo that he
may arreft them for the fervice of the ftate ; and if any of
them run away without leave, he may certify it to the
fherifFs, mayors, baihffs, &c. who fhall caufe them to be ap-
prehended and imprifoned. The admiral, of right, had
anciently a tenth part of all prize goods ; but this is taken
away by ftat. 13 Geo. II. c. 4. See Prize. This ftatute
alfo enables the admiralty to grant Letters of IMarque. —
'We have had no high admiral for fome years ; the office
being put in commijfion, or under the adminiflration of the
lords commijfioners of th' admir(,dty ; who, by W. and M.
ftat. ii. c. 2. are declared to have the fame authority,
jurifdiftion and power, as the lord high admiral.

Admiral of Scotland, tie lord high, one of the great
officers of the crown, and fupreme judge in all maritime
cafes within that part of Britain.

Admiral is alfo ufed for the commander in chief of a
{ingle fleet, or squadron ; and is diftinguiflied by a flag
difplayed at his main-top-maft-head.

Thus, we fay, the admiral of the red ; the admiral of
the 'whit^ ; and admiral of the blue. See Navy and
Squadrok.

The term admiral is alfo applied to all flag officers ; in
which fenfe it includes •vice-admirals and

rear-aamira'.s.

Admiral, Rear, is the admiral of the third, and lail
fquadron of the royal fleet, and carries his flag at the mizen-
top-maft-head.

Admiral, Fice, is one of the three principal officers of
the royal navy ; who commands the feeond fquadron, and
has his flag fet up at the fore-top-inaft-head.

Admiral, Flee, is alfo an officer appointed by the lord
high admiral, in divers parts of the kingdom, with judges and
marilials fubordinate to him ;■ for the exercifmg of jurlfdic-
tion in maritime affairs, within his refpe~live limits. From
their decifions and fentences, appeal lies to the court of
(idiiiiralty in London.

There are alfo admirals of the galleys.

Monllrelet makes mention of an admiral of the archers,
or crofs-bow-men. See Arb.\let.

Admiral is likewife the name of a principal vefTel of a
fleet of merchantmen, or of the velFcIs employed in the cod
and whale fifliery. That which airives firll, in any harbour
or creek of Newfoundland, ta'.es the title and quality of
admiral, which it retains during fhe whole fifliiiig-feafon.^
Such Ihip may fecure to hcrfelf, fo iv.ucii beech, or flakes,
or both, as are necclTary for the number of boats (lie flwll
ule, with an overplus of one boat only more than (he ufes —
The mafter of the feeond Ihip is vice-admiral ; and tlie
mader of the third, rear-admiral. See Fishfry.

Admiral's Court, or ilie High Court of yidmirally. See
Court of Admiralty.

Admiral, in Conchology, the name given by authors to a
very beautiful, and very precious fliell which fome refer to tlie
voluta, and others to the conus. See Tab. of Shells.

Ot the(e llie curious reckon feveral fpecies, or rather varie-
ties, of which the following have been particularly noticed.
I. The gvAnd-admiral. 2. The \\ce-admiral. 3. The
or^n^c-admiral. And, 4. The i:\trA-admiral.

The fird of theCe is tlie moil elleemed, and a fingle fliell
has been fold, in Holland, for (ive hundred florins. It is of
a very elegant and bright white enamel, and is variegated
with bands of yellow, repreienting in fome degree the co-
lours of the flags of a man of war at fea ; hence it obtained
its name. It is of a vei-y curious fliape, and formed with
particular elegance about the head ; the clavicle being ex-
erted. There runs along tlie centre of the large yellow
band in this (hell a fine denticulated line, which is its dif-
tinguidiing charaftcT.

The vice-admiral is an elegant fliell, but its head is lefs
beautifully wrought than in the admiral, and its broad band
wants the dentatcd line, fo remarkable in that.

The onnge-admiral has more yellow than either of the
others.

The e-Ktvi-admiral has the fame bands with thefe, but they
run one into another, and form a more mixed clouding.

Admiral's Cove, in Geography, Wcswhhin the harbour of
Fomiofa, on the call fide of Newfoundland illand, about
feven or eight leagues from Cape Race. It is on the (lar-
board fide of the harbour, and more wefterly than Clear's
cove. It has from feven to eight fathoms water, with goodi
anchorage, and well fccured.

Admiral's, Vice, Cove, is within the fame harbour of
Formofa, on the larboard fide ; v.hcre a fleet may ride in.
good ground, and land4ocked from all winds. There ia-
another cove on the fame fide tarther weil, with ail excel-
lent harbour for large (liips. Malham's Nav. GaZi

Admiralty, Caurt of. See Court.

Admiralty Say, in Geography, is a bay that lies in the
fouthern illand of New Zealand, on the well coadof Cook's
draits, and to the nortli-wed of Qiieen Charlotte's found,
near the wellern entrance of thofe (Iraits, Cape Stephen*
on the north-weft, and Cape Jack.'on on the foutii-cad, are
its limits. It is very (paeious, and h.as, in many parts, good
anchorage The Admiralty ijtands, which lie oft in the drait,
at fome didance from the entrance, will point out the bay.
It may alio be dillinguiflied by an illand two miles north-
ealt of Cape Stephens, in S. lat. 40° 37', and E. long.
I 74° 54'. Wood and walei- are caiily obtained in many
parts of the bay.

Admiralty Bay, is a name given by Mr. Dixon to
Beering's Bay.

Admiralty Bay, and Port Mulgrave, on the north-weft coaft
of America, llc'in N. lat. 59° 31', and \V. long. 140° 18'.

Admiralty /.-del, a name given by Mr. Vancouver to the
fuppofed draits of Inan de Fuca, on the weft coaft of New
Georgia ; the eutrance of which is about 4^^ 30' N. lat.

iind

AD M

and 124" 15' W. long. On each point of iIk' haibouv,
ciiUfd by Mr. Vancouver Pc/in's cove, was a dcfcrled village,
in which were found fcveia! fcptilchrcs in the form ot ccntrj'-
boxes, containins; fmull llcLlctons, and fniall bones, which
vvcrcfuppofed to be intended by the inhabitants for pointing
their arrows, fpear.s, and other weapons. The furrounding
country for fevcral miles prefented a delightful profpeA of
fpaeioiis meadows, adorned with clumps of trees, of which
tilt; oak, in fk^e from four to fix feet in circumference, was
the principal. The meadows were well ilocked willi deer.
The foil confifted chiefly of a rich black vegetable mould,
Ivirig on a fandy or clayey fubftiatum ; the grafs grew to
the height of about three feet, and the ferns vvere nearly
•twice as high. The natural productions of the country
were luxuriant ; and it was not ill fupplied with dreams of
water. The number of its inhabitants were ellimated at
about 600. Here, on June 4th, 1792, IVIr. Vancouver took
poflTeffion of the coall from that part of New Albion,
wliich lies in N. lat. 39° 20', and W. long. 123° 34' to the
entrance of this inlet of the fea, together with the coaft,
iflands, &c. This interior fea was called the Gulf of
Georgia ; and the continent binding the f;ud gulf, and ex-
tending S. to N. lat. 4J°, was called Netu Georgia, in ho-
nour of his prefent Majefty. This branch of Admiralty
inlet obtained the name of Pojfejfion Sound ; its weftern arm
was denominated Port Gardner, out of refpeft to Sir Alan
Gardner, and its fmaller or eaitem one was called Port
Siifan. Vancouver's Voyage, vol. i. p. 287, &c.

Admiralty Iflnnd, an idand fo called by Mr. Van-
couver, fituate within George the Third's archipelago, on
the north-weft coaft of new Norfolk in America, and between
N. lat. 57° and 58°, 30', and W. long. 134'' and 135'.
This ifland is about 60 leagues in circuit, affords many con-
venient bays, with fine ftreams of fredi water, and produces
an uninterrupted foreft of veiy fine timber-trees, chiefly of
•the pine tribe. Vane. Voyage, vol. iii. p. 277.

Admikalty's Ijland, an ifland that lies on the coaft of
Nova Zembla, in the northern ocean. N. lat. 75°, 5'.
E. long. 52°, 45'.

Admiralty IJlands, a clufter of between 20 and 30
illands lyi.ig to the north of New Britain, in about 2°. 18'
S. lat. and 146°, 41' E. long. The largeft of thefe is
1 8 leagues in length from eaft to weft. Thefe iflands were
rdifcovered by captain Carteret ; and he defcribes them as
clothed with a beautiful verdure of woods, lofty and luxu-
riant, interfperfed with fpots that have been cleared for
plantations, groves of cocoa-nut trees, and ha'oitations of
the natives, who feem to be vei-y numerous. He fuppofes
that thefe iflands produce fcveral valuable articles of trade,
particularly fpices, as they lie in the fame climate and lati-
tude as the Moluccas ; but he Was not in a condition to
examine them.

ADMIRATION, in Ethics, is that pafTion which is
excited by the contemplation of excellence, that is rare or
uncommon, either in kind or degree. The objeclive caufe
of this admiration is any thing that indicates a fuperior
d.'gree of wifdom, ingenuity, good fenfe, or benevolence.
Such are the qualities to which it is properly confined.
Power, abftraftedly confidered, is not the objeft of admira-
tion ; though the dignified or benevolent exertions of
power for the produftion of good, may excite the higheft
degree of admiration, and render it a very ftrong emotion.
It is obvious, fays an ingenious writer, that the range of
admiration is from the iimple approbation of the mind up to
the moft hvely fenfation, according to our conceptions of
the extent of excellence, and alfo the degrees of our intereft
in its effeds. It is alfo blended with various other emotions

ADM

accorduig to different circumftanccs attendant upon the paf-
fion. It is freqvicntly introduced by fiirpnjs ; when, for
example, the difcovery of thefe excellencies k-. fudden and
uuexpetied ; and then it becomes a vivid emotion. It is
generally connefled with foine degree of 'wonder ; as we
are frequently ignorant of the caufes which enabled any one
gi-eatly to excel ourfelve^ oi- others ; but as it is always
excited by the rc.il difcoveiy of fome qualities, it is not to
be confounded with an emotion thi'.t proceeds from igno-
rance and embarrafliiient, previous to the difcovery. When
the evidences of wifdom. or goodnefs exceed our utmoit
comprehenfion, or proceed far beyond the ufual extent of
excellence itfelf, they may excite iifioiii/l},!ient. Cogan's
Philofophical Treatife on the Pafiions.

Adjuration, in Crj.'/zmu;', a note or cliarafter, intimat-
ing fotnething worthy to be admired or wondered at. — It is
exprefled thus (!). See Character.

ADMISSION, in t'le Ecclejuijlkal Laiv, an aft whereby
a bifliop, upon examinati^>n, u'"-'tis or allows a el.rrk to be
alile or competently qualified for the ofBce ; which 13 done
by the formula, admillo te hahilem. All perfoi>s are to h'ave
cpifcopal ordination before they are admitted to any par-
fonage or benefice ; and if any fliall prefume to be admitted,
not having fuch ordination, &c. he iliall forfeit too/. Stat.
14 Car. II.

No perfon is to be admitted into a benefice with cure of 30/.
per an n. in the king's books, unlefs he is a bachelor in divinity
at leaft, or a preacher lawfully allowed by fome bh.np, &c.

ADMISSIONALES, m Jn-}quUy, officers, whofe bu-
finefs it was to introduce perfons to princes or to wealthy
citizens. The office belonged to freed men, and was much
defired. The principal, that prefided over each of the four
decuries into which they were diftributed, was called ma-
gifter admiflionum, and deemed highly hoi.jurable. Hif-
torians fay, that Vefpafian, Antonine, and Alexander Severus,
were fo eafy of accefs, that they needed no admlflionales.

ADMITTENDO Clerko, is a writ granted to him who
hath recovered his right of prefentation againft the bifliop
in the common pleas.

Adm iTTENDO In Socium, is a \\Tit for the aflbciation of cer-
tain perfons to justices of assise formerly appointed.

ADMONITION, in Ecclefiajkal AJfairs, a part of dif-
cipline much ufed in the ancient church. It was the firft
aft, or ftep, towards the punifliment or expulfion of delin-
quents. In cafe of private offences, it was performed ac-
cording to the evangelical rule, privately : in cafe of public
offence, openly before the church. If either of thefe took
effeft, for the recovery of the fallen perfon, all farther pro-
ceedings, in the way of cenfure, ceafed : if they did not, re-
courfe was had to excommunication. Bingh. Orig.
Ecclef. torn. ii. lib. 16. cap. 2. ^6. p. 31. Calv. Inll.
lib. iv. cap. 12. ^ 2.

By the ancient canons, nine monitories, or admonit'ionSf
at due diftance, are required before excommunication.

Admonition is alfo ufed, in writers of the barbarous age,
for the citation or fummoning a perfon to appear in a
court of juftice. See Summons, &c.

Admonitio Fujlium, a military punifhment, among the
Romans, refembling, in fome refpefts, our whipping, or
lafliing, but performed with a vine-branch. Schiterman
Diff. de Pcen. Mil. Rom. cap. 12.

ADMONT, in Geography, a town of Germany in Stiria,
on the river Ens ; two leagues north-eaft of Rottenmann.
It depends upon the archbilhoprick of Saltzburg, and has a
rich abbey of Benediftins in the high mountains.

ADMORTIZATION, among Feudal Writers, the aft
of reduciniT lands to mortmain.

ADNATA,

AD O

ADO

ADNATA, In ^natotuy. Sec Conjunctita.

Adnata, or Adnascentia, among Giirdcners, denote
thofc ofl"-fcts, wlr.ch, by a new germination under the earth,
proceed from the lily, narcilTiis, hyacinth, and other flowers,
and afterwards become true roots.

Adnata is alio a term ufed for fuch things as grow upon
animal or vegotaljle bodies, whether infeparr.bly, as hair,
wool, horns, Sec. or accidentally, as the feveral epillical
plants.

AUNATUM fol'iim, in Bolany, denotes the din< of the
leaf preiluig clofe to the ilein of the plant ; and m/rialiis, in
■a general fenfe, denotes councildJ.

"ADNOTATIO, in Ani'iquily, denoted the refcript of a
prince, figned by himC^rlf.

ADNOUN, Adnomen, or Adname, is ufed by fome
Grammar'mns to exprefs what we moil ufually call an
Adjective.

ADO, in Biography, archbidiop of Vienne in Dauphinc,
was born A, D. 860, and diftinguillted by his piety, indulhy,
and learning. His " Univerfal Chronology," comprehends
tlie whole extent of hiftory to the year 879. It was printed
in folio at Paris in 1512, in Gothic charafters, and reprinted
by Morel in 1567. A new edition of this valuable work, was
publillied in folio, at Rome, in 174J. Ado was alfo the
author of a Martyrology, publillied by Rofwcyde, a Jcfuit,
in 1(113. Gen. Biog.

AD OCTO, q. d. to the eighth number ; a term ufed
by fome ancient philofophers to denote the higheil or fuper-
lative degree ; beeaufe, in their way of dillinguifliing quali-
ties, they reckoned no degree above the eighth.

ADOD, in Jlfyl/:olrr^y, the name which the Phoenicians
gave to the king of their gods.

ADOLESCENS lignifies the iron bars that fupport the
fire, in a grate or furnace.

ADOLESCENCE, formed oi adolffcei-e, to grom, the
ftate of growing ydiith ; or that period of a perfon's age
toinraencing from his infancy, and terminating at his full
llature or manhood. The ftate of adolcfcence lalls fo long
as the fibres continue to grow, either in magnitude or firm-
nefs. It is commonly computed to be between 15 and 25,
or even 30 years of age ; though, in different conilitutions,
its terms are very different. — The Romans ufually reckoned
it from 12 to 25 in boys, and to 21 in girls, &c. And yet,
among their writers, juveuis and adokfcens are frequently
ufed indifTerently, for any perlon under 45 years. The
libres, being arrived at a degree of firmnefs and tenfion fuf-
iicient to iullain the parts, no longer yield and give w^y to
the efforts of the nutritious matter, to extend them : fo
that their farther accretion is Hopped from the very law of
their nutrition.

ADOLFSECK, in Geography, a town of Germany, in
the circle of the Upper Rhine j eight miles well of
Idllein.

ADOLIA, in Botany, a genus of plants dcferibed by
Rheede among the trees of Malabar, which bear a near re-
lation, fays M. La Marck, (Encycl. vol. i. p. 44.) to the
Rhamnus. The charntters are, that each flov/er is eom-
pofed of a calyx, divided to its middle in five equal notches ;
the corolla and llamina are unknown ; the pillillum is a
fmall ovary fituated at the center of the calyx, and which
becomes, when ripe, a roundifli berrv', containing five oblojig,
triangular, offeous feeds. There are two fpscics, viz. A. alba,
with white flowers, wliich grows to the height of fevcn teet,
and bears fruit twice a year ; the berries when ripe are of a
purplifli black colour ; and A. rubra, with red flowers,
which refembles the other ; but the berries of this fpecies,
vvlien ripe, arc of an orange colour ajid of aji acid taile.

"^'oi,. L

ADOLPHUS, Frederick II. of Holfttin-Gottorp,

king of Sweden, was born in 1710, and fucceeded hii father
Frederick in 1 75 1 . He married a filler of the king of Pruffia
in 1744. He faithfully purfued the good of liis coimt:-y,
and his reign war. upon the wliolc profpcrous. He reformed
the laws, cultivated fciencc, promoted commcix-e, and for
the moll part preferved peace ; though lie could i;ot pre-
vent Sweden from joining llie league againll Prufiia in I757t
a meafure that contributed very little to its repiitation. He
inllituted an academy of iiileriptions and belles lettres in
imitation of that of France, and creeled a pyramid at Tornco
in Lapland, to commemorate the labours of the French
academicians, who were fcnt thither to meafure a degree of
the meridian. He died much regretted in 1771 ; and \va»
fucceeded by his fon Gullavus III. Nouv. Diet. Hiil.

Adolphus, Christian Michai l, tlie fon of Balthazar
Adolpluis, merchant of Hirfchberg in Silelia, was born the
14th of AuguU 1676. After iludying tiie different branciie&
of medicine under the moll celebrated mailers of his time,
he graduated at Utrecht, then went to I.,cipfic, where he
acquired conliderable reputation as a teacher. In 174" he
publiflied, Diflertationes Phyfico-mediece fcleftx, 410.
The titles of the Dilfertations, which are very numerou.-",
may be feen in the 410. vouiiue of Hallcr's Bibhotli. Med.
PraCl.

ADOM, in Andcitt Geography. See Adam.

Adom, in Modern Geography, one of the llatej or princi-
palities, into which the maritime part of the gold cuajl i»
Africa is divided. It is bounded on the call by Manpa,
on the fouth by Guaffo, on the north by Vadabs, and eall-
north-eall by Abramboe. This country extends along the
river Schania, and has niany fine illands belonging to it,
which are covered with beautiful and populous villages ;
the government was formerly monarchical ; but the fupremc
authoilty is now lodged in a council of fix lords. Adom is
populous, fertile and rich ; abounding with corn, fruit, and
animals, both wild and tame : but the peace and profperity
of the country are often interrupted by civil dilcord. Tiie
Adomefe have it in their power to intercept the communica-
tion of the northern regions with the negroes of the coaft,
and oblige them to pay a duty whicli yields a large revenue.
If thefe people were united' and powerful within thcmfelvcsj
they would be the terror of furrounding nations. Adom
adjoins to Anta, which is often dillurhed by the incurfion*
of the Adomefe. Thefe people generally tiade with Axiiit
and Bourtry ; and fometimes with Little Commendo.
Mod. Un. Hiil. vol. iii. p. 454.

Adom, or Theten, a town of Hungary, fituatc on the
Danube ; four leagues fouth-well of Oflen.

ADOMER, one of the Hates of the Goi.n-(7o,7,'?, called
alfo Saku and Aviiia, adjoining to Adom and Axim ; and
differing little from them in produce, trade, laws and
cuilonis.

ADON, a large populous village of Hungaiy, fituate ia
the province of Stulil-VVeiffcmburg, or jUla rega/is, in a.
rich country on the banks of the Danube. E. long. 1 9*^ 20'.
N. lat. 47° 30'.

ADONAI, one of the names of God in fcripture.
This word projjerly fignifies my lords, in the plural number,
as Adoii':, fignifies my lord, in the fingular number. The
Jews, who, either out of rcfpeil or fuperilition, do not pro-
nounce the name of 'Jehovah, read Adwai in the loom of it,
as often as they meet with Jehovah in the Hebrew text.
But the ancient Jews were not fo ferupulous ; and there is
no law which forbids them to pronounce the name of God.
This fuperilition commenced among the latter Jews after
the Babyloaifli cajitivity ; at leall before the time of Jofe-

ADO

ADO

phus, who exprcfsly fays, that it was not lawful for liiiii to
fpeak of the name by which God had ivvealed hiiiifelf to
Mofes. See Geddcs's Critical Rcmark<, vol. i. p. 167.

ADONEA, in Mythology, the name of a divinity wliieh
prcfided over voyages.

ADONI, in Gngrnphy, a diftrid of Kiadollan, in the
country of Golconda. It is alfo the name of a town in
this diftrift, about 188 miles north of Seringapatam.
E. long. 77"' 18'. N. lat. 14" ;o'.

ADONIA, ill AiiUqii'ity, folcinn fcafts in honour of
Venus, and in raemor)- of her beloved Adonis, who is fup-
pofed to liave been killed by a wild boar in the fcreft of
mount Libanus, from which the river Adonis delcends.
Blfhop Patrick (Com. in Exod. xii. 30.) afcribes the origin
of thefe fealls among the Egyptians to the (laughter of the
fnft-born in the time of Mofes ; and he, adopting the con-
jeftureof Schaccus, an ancient writer, inclines to the opinion,
that Pharaoh's eldeft fon, who was now flain, had tlie name
of Ohris ; and that his fudden death on this occafion was
lamented by all pollerity in one night of tlie year, at the
time of full moon. Dr. Spencer, (De leg. Heb. 1. ii. c. 37.
^ I. vol. i. p. 575.) conjectures, that thele feafts bad their
origin with the Egyptians; but that the death of Ofiris or
Adonis, generally uuderftood to be the fun, being the god
that prefidtd over the fruits of the earth, or ufcd iymboli-
caily for the fruits themfelves, denoted their being cut off
er fepai"ated from the earth in the time of harveft ; which
event was celebrated «4th mourning and lamentation : and
as the Egyptians gath-ered the firft fruits of the earth with
this kind of unreafonable and excefiive forrow, he thus ac-
counts for the inftruftion recorded in Dcut. xxvi. 14. To
thefe feafts the prophet Ezekiel is fuppofed to refer," ch. viii.
14 ; and if Tammuz or Thamuz be the fame with Ofiris or
Adonis, as learned men generally fuppofc, the circnmilance
above-mentioned accounts for this folemnity being kept in
the month of Tammuz, anfwering to part of our June and
July, becaufe the harveft was finiflied in thofe hot countries
by or before that time. Sec Lowth's Com. in loe.

This idolatry, derived from the Egyptians, was aftenvards
adopted by other nations, as the Phoenicians, Lycians,
Syrians and Greeks, and improved bv the addition of a new
fable, viz. Venus's mourning for the death of Adonis.
The fcene of Adonis's hiftoi-y is faid to be at Cyblos in
Phanicia ; and the fignal for celebrating the Adonia was the
change of the water of the river Adonis into blood, which
liappened once a year. Lucian (De Syria Dea, apud oper,
torn. iii. p. 454. Ed. Reitzii) gives the following account of
thefe feafts. The Syrians affirm, that \\-hat the Ixiar is re-
ported to have done againft Adonis was tranfafted in their
country ; and, in remembrance of this calamity, they annu-
ally beat themfelvcs and wail, and celebrate frantic rites, and
great lamentations arc inllitutcd through the v.hole countiy.
W hen they have had enough of lamentation and tears, they
tirft perform funeral obfequles to Adonis, as to one that is
dead : and afterwards, on a following day, they feign that
he is ahve, and al'cendcd into the air or heaven, and fliave their
heads as the Egyptians do, on occafion of the death of
their apis. If any women will not confent to be ftiaved,
they are obliged to proftitute themfclves once to ftrangei-s,
and the money they thus earn is confecrated to Venus.
Some of the Byblians, continues Lucian, are of opinion,
that thefe orgies are performed in honour of Ofiris, the
Egyptian deity, and not of Adonis. The Egyptians, at
the time of thia feall, are faid to convey a box made of rufties
or papyrus, with an inclofed letter, informing the inha-
bitants of Byblos, about feven days journey from the coafts
cf Egypt, that thvir god Adonis, whom they apprehended

to be loft, is difcovercd. The veflel always arrives £ift? at
Byblos at the end of feven days. Lucian fays, he was a
witncfs of this event. The women, who are the priucipaE
adors on this occafion, expeft the arrival of the veifel with
impatience, and are frantic with joy when it arrives. Ac-
cording to Mei'.rhu;-., the two oflices of lamentation and
rejoicing made two diftinCt feafts, which were held at dif-
feren{ times of the year, the one fix months after the other ;
Adonis being fuppofed to pafs luJf the year with I'roferpliie,
and the other half with Venus. The lamentation they
called a*KviT/io?, or difappearance, and the rejoicing 'f'n.r, or
return. Thelc feaft:-. were obfer\-ed at Alexandria in tlie
time of St. Cyril, and at Anticch in the time of Julian the
apoftatc, who happened to enter the city during the folem-
nity, which was inteipreted as an ill omen.

Ovid refers to the Adonia in his Metamorph. (1. iv. v. 72?,.
toin. 2. p. 740. Ed. Burman).

" lufl'js m.onumenta manebunt.

Semper, Adoni, mei ; repctitaque mortis imago
Annua plangoris peraget fimulatnina nuibi.

At cruor in ftorem muCabitur.-

Procopius, St. Cyril, and lome other learned men are of-
opinion, tliat Ifaiah (ch.xviii. 2.) refers to the circumftance
abovemenlioncd of fending a letter by fea to communicate
the news of Adonis's refurreiSion ; whilft others, trandatinir-
the Hebrew t-zirim, ulvls, fuppofe that the paliage refers to-
the images of Ifis, which the Egyptians carried from place to
place in a fort of paper-vefTel, or ark of bulrufties. The rites
praftifed in the Adonia refcmble thofe of the Orphic Ar-
G0N'.tuTic.\, and probably have the fame origin and end»
Bryant. Mythol. vol. i. p. 3:71.

The Adonia were otherwife called Salambo. The Abbii
Banier has a memoir on the hiftory of the Adonia. Mem.
Acad. Infcript. torn. iv.

ADONIEUS, a name given by the Arabs to the fun,
under which appellation they worftiipped him, by daily
offering to him incenfe and perfumes.. This was alfo a name
given to Bacchus.

ADONIC, in Poetry, denotes a fhort kind of verfe, con-
fifting of a daftyl and a fpondee, or a trochee : as raraju-
•ven'.us. It takes its name from Adonis ; as- having been-
originally ufcd in the Threnre, or lamentations for that fa-
vourite. The chief ufe of the adonic verfe is at the end of
each ilroplie of fapphic verfe ; or among Ariftophanic
Anapifts in the ancient tragedy. But we meet with ado.
nics by themfclves without fapphics, as alfo fapphics with-
out adonics. Sec an inltauce of adonic verfes in Bocthius,
de Confol. Philof. lib. i. p. 24. Ed. Amftcl,. " Gaudia
pelle," &c.

ADONIDES, in Botany, are thofe writers, who have
given- hiftories, or catalogues of the plants cultivated in fome
particular place.

ADONION, a fpecies of fouthernr\'ood, according to
Gornrus, which ufed to be let in pots, and ferved as an
oi'nament for garden'^.

ADONIS, in Antiquity, a dance of the ancient Greeks^
which was a kind of ballet, in which a pantomime imitated
Adonis, and bewailed his misfortime.

Adon'is, jios Adonis, or PheafanCs Eye, in Botany, a.
genus oi \.\\t polyaiulr'ui polygynia clafs and order, and of the
natural order of mnlt'ijtliqu£ and the ranuncvlace£ of Juffieu.
Its charafters are, that the calyx is a five-leaved penauthium,
and the leaflets are obtufe, concave, a httle coloured and
deciduous ; the corolla has from five to fifteen, but moll
commonly eight, oblong, obtufe, (hining petals : the ftamina
confilt of very fliort, fubulate filaments, and the anthene
are oblong and infie;t ; the pillillum has numerous germs

collcdcj

ADO

tolli'AeJ in a head, no ftyles, ami acuto reflL-x fligmas : no
pericaipliim ;■ an oblong, ipikcd ivcxptacle : the- fcala are
linmerous, invgiilar, angular, gibbous at the bafc, reflex at
the top, a little pioniineiit and naked. To this genus be-
long fix Ipeeies ; vix. the tejik-.nlis, or tall, the aiilumtinlis,
or eonimon, the vfnialis, or fpring, the apemiitui, the nipcifis,
-ind the •vt-fuiltnria., or lilillev mluu'is. I'lie iirit is by Ibme
botanilb united to the feeond, although Dr. Smith ftpavatis
them ; it is a native ot the fouthein conntries of Europe,
where it grows among corn : and a variety of it is men-
tioned by tome authors. T-he fecond grows in Kent, near
the river Mcdway, between Rocheller and MaidlKine, in
iields town with wheat ; and the flowers aiv brought in
great quantities to London, where they are told under the
name ot lyd morocco. It is alfo found in Norfolk, Gloueef-
tcrfliire, about l^oiidon, and about Dublin. It is annual,
and flowers from May to Oi^tober. The fpring ttilunh,
whieh is near akin to the apennine, fo that La Marck
xonliden; it as a variety of the othei-, is a native of
Switzerland, Pruflia, and various parts of Germany, where
the root is often uled tor the true black hellebore. The fourth
is found wild in the Apennines, and in Siberia. The fifth
ifpecies is found wild near the Cape of Good Hope. The
'iixth is alio a Cape plant, and ui'ed by the Africans for
raifing blitUrs. There is another fpccies recorded in the
Supplement of the younger Linnaeus, there named Adunu
fd]a,z.\\^ eonhdered as the daughter of x\\ii Adonis capcnfis.

The two lirll fpecies are annual, and thrive bell in a light
foil : the feeds (liould be fowu in autumn, fome in a warm,
■Rud others in a fliady iltuation, that they may continue
longer in flower : they will not bear being tranfplantcd.
The third and fourth arc perennial, and the feeds fliould be
fown in Augull, foon after they ripen : the ground Ihould
be kept clear from weeds, and in diy weather, watered ;
and in the autumn of the fecond year they fliould be tranf-
jilanted into the fituation where they are to remain. Tliey
may be increafed by parting the roots, cither in autumn or
fpring. They are hardy and fliowy, and therefore defirable
plants for a garden. The Cape fpecies muft be managed as
other plants from that comitry. iSlartyn's Miller. Gmelin
^■eckons eight fpecies, adding to thofe already enumerated
the mhnata, which he fuggefl:s not to be dilHndl from the
mttumnal'is, and the Jliimmca, with oftopetalous flowers, haiiy
calyx, and cylindric fruit.

Adonis, in Entomology, a fpecies of papilio, with entire

cxrulean wings, a black marginal ridge, underneath clne-

- reous, with numerous ocelli ; of which the latter liave a

white central fpot. The larva is green, with dorfal lines of

yellow fpols. It is found in Auilria.

Adonis, in Ancient Geography, a river of Phanicia, rifing
ill Mount Libanus or Lebanon, and falling into the fea at
Bvblo..;, now Gibylf.. The Turks call this river Obrak'im
Biilfd. Maundrell, in his Journey, p. 34, 35, confirms the
opinion of Lueian (Oper. torn. iii. p. 456. Ed. Reitzii)
concerning the red colour of this river. At certain feafons
of the year, efpecially aliout the feall of Adonis, it is of a
bloody colour, which the heathens attributed to a kind of
fympathy in tlic river for the death of Adonis, who was
killed bv a wild boar in the mountain, out of which this
ftream rifes. The water was ftained, fays Maundrell, to a
fui-prihng rednels, and as we obferved in travelling had dit-
eoloured the fea for a eonfiderable diifance into a reddifli
h.ie, occafioncd, without doubt, by a fort of minium, or red
earth, waflied into the river by the violence of the rain, and
not by any llain from the blood of Adonis. This reddith
ringe of the ftreams of water is not a Angular phenomenon.
Pococke (voir. i. p. \<)'-)\ informs us, that when the i-iver

ADO

Nile I," riling, its waters become red, and fomrtimes green.
The lame fad is eontinned by Mailitt, and Volney (TraveU
in Syria, vol. ii. p. 203.) relat-.^ tiiat at Tyre there is a
well, whieh commonly alTords excellent water, but berinntJ
troubled in Scptemlnr, and continues for tome days tiiU of
reddifli clay. This iVafoiv is obferved as a feftival by the in-
habitants, who come in crouds to the well, and pour into it
a bucket of fea-water, which they fay, has tlie virtue of rc-
iloring the clearnefs of the fpring. An ingenious writer fuf;-
gells, that the magicians of Egypt (Exod. vii. 22.) might,
by their cncluuuuients, have repeated tome of the praciieei
to whieh thty were aceutloired at the folemnity of the
bleeding Adonis ; and if this war, done at tiie feall of Adonij,
they might perfuade Pharaoh, that the mir.icle was wroujrht
in favour of .\donis. Fragments in an Appendix to Calmct'*
Dift. vol. ii. pt. I. p. JO.

The river Adonis, according to Mr. Brj-ant (Myth.
vol. i. p. 36(').) is the fame with Eridanos \ and the oir-
cumllance of the change of the colour of its waters, and the
death of Adcmis or Thniuuz, which was fuppofed to be thi;
occaiiou of it, are pathetically defcribed by Milton in the
following lines of his Paradife loil, B. i. v. 445.

" Thamniu/ came next behind,

Whofe annual wound in Lebanon allur'd
The Syrian damfels to lumeiit his fate
In amorous ditties all a fummer's day :
AVhile fmooth Adorns from his native rock
Rau pui-ple to the fea ; luppos'd with blood
Of Thanimu'/. yearly wounded."

AoONis is the name of a river of Africa, which riles i)t
the mountains fouth-well of Tetuaii, and falls into the fea
between Arzilla and Tangier.

Adoxis, the name of a city iu Thrace, called Enosi?;.

Adonis, in Ichthyology, the name ot a fmall iilh of tlur
anguilliform kind, of a eylindric fliape, and about iix ii'ciies
long ; it is of a gold colour, mixed with a greenifli hue in
fome parts, and iu others with a ledditli. It has on each
fide a white llraight line running from the gills to the tail.
Its gills are remarkably fmall, and many have hence fup-
pofed that it had none. It is remarkable for fleeping oti
the furface of the water, and near the thores ; and Rondele-
tius affirms, that he has feen them fleeping upon diy rocks.
Mr. Ray fuipecls this fifli, which is alfo called exocoetus,
to be the fame with the rxocoKTus of BcUonius, or the
Gattorugine. The adonis of Bellonius is the Blennius
galerita of the Linnxan fyftem.

Adonis, in Mythology, -AhezwtMwl youth, the fon of Ciny-
ras, an Affyrian, who founded the city of Paphos, in the
ifland of Cyprus. Venus, it is faid, was enamoured of him
from his infancy, and conimitted the care of his education
to Proferpine, wlio ixTufed to deliver him when he was de-
manded by Venus. The dlfpute was decided by Jupiter*
by decreeing that he fliould be one third of the year with
Proferpine, another third with ^"enu9, and the laft third at
his own difpofal ; but Adonis, captivated by tiie charms of
Venus, fpent two-thirds of his time with Iki-. Diana, it is
faid, took oflence, and fent a wild boar to deftroy him.
Others fay, that Adonis was the fon of Cinyras by his
daughter Myrrha ; that he was difmiiTed for conceahsent
to the mountains, and nurfed by the nymphs; that Venu#
fell in love with him, and admitted him to her embraces ;
that Mars, being jealous, transformed himfdf into a wild
boar, and flew the beautiful youth : that \'enu5 followed
him to the (hades, and obtained the coufent of Profei-pine,
that he fliould be half the year with her, and half the year
with Proferpine ; and that Venus, triumphing in her fuc-
cefs, appointed a fellival to be celebrated ip commciBoration
Hht of

ADO

©f the event. This fable has been varioufly interpreted.
Adonis, as foinc f;iy, \v;is the fun, Venvis the upper htmil-
phtre of the earth, and Profci-pine the inferior ; and there-
fore, when he was in the fix interior tlgns he was with Pro-
fei-pine, and during the remaining time he refided with Ve-
nus. The boar which flew Adonis was the winter. Ma-
crob. Saturn. 1. i. c. ii. Others fiippofe that Adonis de-
noted the fruits of the earth ; and when tlie feed was fown
in the ground, Adonis was gone to Proferpinc : and that
when it had vegetated and fprung up to view, he revifited
V^cnus. Hence they fowcd corn, and made gardens for
Adonis, which were adapted more for pleafiire tlian profit.
Voir, de Idololat. 1. ii. c. 5. Theocritus, IdylL 1 11. Ac-
cording to Phitarch, (Sympofiacon, 1. iv. open torn. 2.
p. 671. Ed. Xylandr.) Adonis %vas the fame with Bac-
chus; and Ofiris was both the fun and Adonis. Some are
of opli'iion, tliat the Ammonites and Moabites called him
T).\.\L-Peor, and that he was the fame with the Hebrew
Thammuz. lir)-ant (Mythol. v. i. p. 371.) fiippofes, that
tlie Canaanites worlhipped their chief deity the fun, under
this title ; and he fays, that at Bybhis, Berytus, Sidon, and
afterwards at Tyre, tliey ufed particularly mournful dirges
for the lofs of Adonis or Thamuz, wlio was the fame as
Thamas, and Ofiris in Egv-pt. Hence the children of Ifrael
were forbidden to weep and make lamentation upon a fef-
tival. Nehem. viii. 9. 14. See Adonia.

The worrtilp of Adonis was eftablilhed by the emperor
Adrian in the grottoes of Bethlehem, where it was fuppofed
oiu' Saviour was born.

Adonis />otio, an ancient beverage or drink made of wine
mixed with flour of roafted aJor ; the fame with what was
otherwife called Cvceon.

ADONISTS, among i);ii;nfj and Critics, a feft or party,
who maintain, that the Hebrew points ordinarily annexed to
the confonants of the word yehovah, are not the natural
points belonging to that word, nor exprefs the true pronun-
ciation of it ; but that they are the vowel-points belonging
to the words Adonni atid Elohim, apphed to the confonants
dT the ineffable name Jehovah ; to warn the readers, that in-
ftead of the word Jehovah, which the Jews were forbidden
to pronounce, and the true pronunciation of which had been
long unknown to them, tiiey are always to read Adona'i.
Thefe were oppofed to Jehov'ijls ; of whom tlie principal
are Drufius, Capellus, Buxtorf, Alting, and Reland, who
has pubhfhed a coUettion of their writings on this fubjciit.
See Adonai and Jehovah.

ADOPISSUS, in Aiicknt Geography, a town of Afia
Minor, which Ptolemy places in Lvcaonia.

ADOPTER, in Cheiinjlry, a vefi"el with two necks
placed between a retort and a receiver, and ferving to increnfe
t!ie length of the neck of the fonner. They differ from
ALUDELS, which were formerly ufed in the fublim.ation of
feveral fubftances, both in tlieir figure and in their fituation.
The adopters are tubes which become narrower at one end,
from half a foot to three feet long, and are open at both
ends. They are joined in a collateral oblique fituation ;
whereas the aludels were fet upright. Chemiftry, plate I.
fig. I. See Distillation ;tnd Receiter.

ADOPTIANI, in Church ////?«ry, a fea in the eighth
centur)-, which fprung up under Charlemagne, about the
year 783, in confequer.ee of the concurring opinion of Eli-
pand, archbifhop of Toledo, and Felix, bifhop of Urge! ;
whofe diftinguiihing tenet was, that Chrift, as to his human
nature, was not the proper or natural, but oidy the adoptive
fon of God. Their doftrine was condemned by a council at
Frankfort in 794, ar.d afterwards th a council at Rome
ucder pope Leo III.

ADO

Adoption, an ad by v.liich any one takes another into
his family, owns him for his fon, and appoints him for his
heir. The word is derived from iiJoptarc ; whence the Latin
barbarous nunbore, to wake a iiiight.

The cuftom of adopting was veiy familiar among the
ancient Romans, who had an exprefs formula for it. They
firll learned it from the Greeks, among whom it was called
u'/l>i,-, fiUathn ; and it was tranlniited to them fi'om the an-
cient Hebrews, Egyptians, and Aifyrians, among whom it
prevailed.

As adoption was a fort of imitation of nature, intended
for the comfort of thofe who had no children ; eunuchs
were therefore not allowed to adopt, as being under an
attual impotency of begetting children. Neither was it
lawful for a young man to adopt an elder, becaufe that
would have been contrary to the order of nature ; but it
was even recpiired, that the perfon who adopted (liould be
eit;hteen years older than his adoptive fon, that there might
appear at leall a probability of his being the natural fa-
ther.

The Romans had two forms of adoption ; the one be-
fore the prnetor ; the other at an aflembly of the people, in
the times of the commonwealth, and aftei wards by a refcript
of the emperor. In the firft, the natural father addreffed
himfclf to the praetor, declaring that he emancipated his fon,
refigned all his authority over him, and confented that he
fiiovdd be tranflated into the family of the adopter. The
latter manner of adoption was praftifed, where the party to
be adopted was already free ; and tlus was called adrogation.
Tlie perfon adopted changed all his names ; affuming the
prename, name and funiame of the perlon who adopted
him. When Auguftus adopted his grand-children, the
two fons of Agrippa and Julia, he adhered clofely to
the moll folemn fjrmularies of the Roman law, and in-
filled on their fathers making over to him, by a kind of
fale, his right to the children ; and he gave them his
name, fo that they called them Caius Cxfar, and Lucius
Ca;f;!r. In the reign of Nero, the fenate pafTed a decree,
ordaining that fraudulent adoptions lliould not avail fuch
as made them, either to quahfy themfelves for honours,,
or to receive tlie whole of any inheritance that might
fall to them.

Befides the fonnalities prefcribed by the Roman law,
divers other methods have taken place ; which have grven
denominations to various fpecies of adoptions among the
Gothic nations, in different ages.

Adoption by arms, was when a prince made a prefcnt
of arms to a perfon, in confideration of his merit and va-
lour.— Thus it wiis that the king of the Heruh was adopted
by Theodoric ; Athalaric, by the emperor Juilinian ; and
Cofroes, nephew of the king of Perf.a, by the emperor
Juftln.

This method of adoption, praiSifed in Germany, was
called larlarou!, by way of oppofition to- the Roman,
cuftom.

The obligation here laid on the adoptive fon wac, to pro-
teft and defend the father from injuries, affronts, &c. — and
hence the ceremony of dubbing knights took its origin jis
well as name. Selden, Tit. of Hon. p. 865.

Adoption by baptifm, is that fpiritual alEjiity which is
contrafted by god-fatliers. and god-children in the ceremony
of baptifm.

This kind of adoption wa* introduced into the Greek
church, and came after^vards into ufe among the ancient
Franks, as appears by the Capitulars of Charlemagne.

In, reality, the god-father was fo far confidered as adop-
tive father, that liis god-children were fuppofed to be.

entitled

ADO

ADO

entitled to a iTiare in the iniieritance of hir cftatc, Dii-
Caiige.

An OPTION by hair, aclcplio per cap'iUnm, or crineni, was
pcrfoniiL'd by cuLting oft the hair of a pcrfoir, and ;;iviiig it
to the adoptive fatht'-. It was tluis that pope Johji V'llf.
adopted Bofon kin^ of Arlcr! ; which, perhaps, is tlie only
ir.llance in hillory, of adoption in the order of eccltlialUcs ;
a law that profelfes to imitate nature, not daring to give
children to thofe in whom it would be thought a crime to
beget any.

Adoption /y ntalrimony, is the taking the children of a
wife or hufhand, by a former marriage, into the condition
of proper or natural children ; and admitting them to in-
herit on the fame footing with thofe of the prefent marri-
age. This is a praftice peculiar to the Germans ; among
whom it is more particularly known by the name of einkin/lf-
chaft ; among their writers in Latin, by that of vn'in prol'iiim.
Or union ofi[jiics. But the more accurate writers obierve,
that this is no adoption. See Adfii.iation.

Adoption by SithJIititle. See Levirate.

Adoption by tejlament, that performed by adopting a
perfon heir by will, on condition of his afl'uming the name,
arms, &;c. of the adopter.

Of which kind, we meet with divers inftances in the Ro-
tnan hillory.

Adoption was allowed among the Greeks to fuch as had
no ifl'ue of their own ; excepting thofe who were not
xufioj lavTjiv, their own mafters, e. gr. flaves, women, mad-
men, infants, or perfons under twenty years of age ; who
being incapable of making wills, or managing their own
ellates, were not allowed to adopt heirs to them. Fo-
reigners being incapable of inheriting at Athens, if any
fuch were adopted, it was neceffary firft to make them free
of the city. The ceremony of adoption being over, the
adopted had his name inrolled in the tribe and ward of his
new father ; for which cntiy a pecuhar time was allotted,
viz. the feftival SxpynAia.

To prevent radi and inconfiderate adoptions the Laccdx-
monians had a law, that adoptions fliould be traiifacted, or
at leaft confirmed, in the prefenee of their kings. The
children adopted were inverted with all the privileges, and
obliged to perform all the duties, of natural children ; and
being thus provided for in another family, ceafed to have
any claim of inheritance, or kindred, in the family which
they had left, unlefs they firft renounced their adoption ;
which, by the laws of Solon, they were not allowed to
do, unleis they had firil begotten children, to bear the
name of the perfon who had adopted them : thus provid-
ing againft the ruin of families, which woidd otfierwife
liave been extinguifhcd by the defeition of thofe who had
been adopted to preferve them. If the children adopted
happen to die without children, the inheritance could not
be alienated from the family into which they had been
adopted, but returned to the relations of the adopter.
It (hould feem that by the Athenian law, a perfon,
after having adopted another, w;is not allowed to marry,
without permilfion from the magiftrate : in elfeft, there are
inftances of perfons, who being ill ufed by their adop-
tive children, petitioned for fuch leave. However this
be, it is certain fome men married after they had adopted
fons ; in which cafe, if they begat legitimate children,
their eftates were equally fliared between the begotten
and adopted.

Among the Turks, by the law of Mahomet, adoption is
no impediment of marriage. The ceremony of adoption is
performed by obliging the perfon adopted to pafs through

tlie lliirt of the adopter. Hence, among that people, to
adopt is cx|>rened by the phral'e, to Jraiu another through
my Jbirl.

Du-Cange fnppofcs . that the adoption of Godfrey of
Bouillon by Alexius, who iiamid him champion of the
empire, and dignified his homage with the filial name and
rites of adoption, was of this kind.

It is faid that fomething hke this has alfo been obfervcd
among the Hebrews ; where the prophet Eli'jah adopted
Elilha for his foil and fuceeffor, and communicated to him
the gift of prophecy, by letting fall his cloak, or mantle, on
him. I Kings xix. 19. 2 Kings ii. 15. But adoption,
properly fo called, does not appear to liavc been praclifed
among the ancient Jews. Tilofes fays nothing of it in liis
laws ; and Jacob's adoption of his two gnuidfons, Ephraiin
and ManafTch (Gen. xlviii. i.) is rather a kind of fubftltu-
tion, by which he intended that the two fons of Jofepli
fliould liave each his lot in Ifrael, as if they h<.d been liis
own fons. Calmet.

In the Eaft, the praftice of adoption is ftiU continued.
Pitts (Account of the Religion and Manners of the Ma-
hometans, p. 217. 225) informs us, tliat his patron, who
was an old bachelor, being taken ill and likely to die in his
pilgrimage to Mecca, took off his own girdle and put it on
him, and at the fame time put on himfelf tlie girdle of
Pitts. In fpeaking of him afterwards, his patron called
him his fon ; and occafionally faid to him, though I never
•was married myfelf, yet yoiijliall be marriee/, in a little time,
and then your children Jl^all be ?nine. Lady Montague (Let-
ter xhi. vol. ii. p. 189.) fays, that adoption is very common
amongft the Turks, and yet more common amongft the
Greeks and Armenians. With this view, and in order to
prevent their eftates from faUing into the Grand Signior's
treafuiy, they chufe a child of either fex, among the meant ft
people, and caiTy the child and its parents before the Cadi,
and there declare they receive it for their heir. The pa-
rents, at the fame time, renounce all future claim to it ; a
writing is drav.n and witnefled, and a child, thus adopted,
cannot be difinherited.

By the Genloo laws (Halhed's, p. 2C>^.) information
muft be given to the magiftrate, by the perfon who ii de-
firous of adopting a child, and a ;//^^ or facvifice performed ;
and he is alfo to give gold and rice to the father of the
child. A woman is not allowed to adopt a child witiiout
her hufband's order : and he who has no fon, or grandfon,
or great grandfon, has liberty to adopt a fon ; but while
he has one adopted fon, he is not permitted to adopt a
fecond.

Adoption is alfo ufed, in Theology,, for a federal aft of
God's free grace ; whereby thofe that are regenerate by
faith, are admitted into his houlhold, and entitled to a fhare
in the inheritance of the kingdom of heaven.

Adoption, in the more general fcripture fenfe of the
term, denotes that aft of divine grace or favour, by which
fome of the human race are introduced into a peculiar rela-
tion to God, as his children and people. In this fenfe the
privilege of adoption belonged only to the Ifraelites or
Jews, before the coming of the Meffiah. See Exod. iv.
22. Jer. xxxi. 9. Luke i. 54. Rom. ix. 4, But tlie
Jews forfeited this honourable diftinftion, and were deprived
of the national privilege they had long enjoyed : and God
determined to admit the Gentiles into the ftate of fondiip
or adoption independently of any legal obfervances, and
merely on the condition of faith in Jelus Chrift. It has,
however, been a fubjeft of debate among divines whether
adoption bekmgs to Chriftiaos in general, in confequcncc of

their

ADO

their faith in Chrift, and outward profefiion of his reVi-
pioii ; or is appropriate to thofc ChrilHans in particular who
conform in their difpofition and prartice to the precepts of
the ffofpel, and arc the fpeclal objefto of divine favour.
According to the ftheinc of Dr. Taylor, in his Key to the
Apoilolical Writings, prefixed to his Paniphrafe, &c. on the
Epiftle to the Romans, (chap. xii. p. 91.) adoption, as well
as deftion, voeaiion, jullification, &c. bch)ng to the clafs of
antecedent blefiings, which, in a fenfe, belong at prcfcnt to
all Chriftians, even thofe, who for their wickeduefs (hall
perifh eternally ; and that they do not import an abfolute,
final ftate of favour and happincfs ; bvit are to be confidercd
as principles or motives to engage us to holincfs and obedi-
ence. He allows that fonie of the exprcfiions, whcrcb)- the
«ntecedent bleffings arc fignified, may be ufcd in a double
fenfe ; either, as they are applied to all Oirillians in generxil
in relation to their being tranflatcd into the kingdom of
God, and made his peculiar people, enjoying the privileges
of tlie gofptl ; or, as they fignify the effefts of thofe privi-
leges, viz. either that excellent difpofition and character
which they arc intended to produce, or that final ilatc of
happincfs, which is the reward of it. See Locke'a Works,
, vol. iii. p. 31 2- 570.

Adoption has a particular refpeft to that future refur-
reftion and immortality to the hope of which Chriftians
were begotten again by the doClrine and refurreclion of
Chrili. 'Sec Whitby Comment, vol. ii. p. 44. 324. 339.
full edition,

AnoPTiON is fometimes alio nfed, in fpeaking of the p.n-
eient clergy, who had a cuftoin of taking a maid or widow
into their houfes, under the denomination of an adoptive or
fpiritual filler, or niece. Du-Cangc.

Adoption is alfo ufed in fpeaking of the adniiffion of
perfons into certain hofpitals, particularly that of Lyons ;
the adminitlrators whereof have all the power and rights of
■ parents over the children admitted.

Adoption is alfo ufed for the reception of a new acade-
my into the body of an old one.

In which fenfe, adoption amounts to much the fame with
htcorporvtion.

The French academy of Marfeilles was adopted by that
«f Paris ; on which account, we find a volume of fpeeches
extant, made by feveral members of the academy of Mar-
feilles, deputed to return thanks to that of Paris, for the
honour.

In a fenfe not unlike this, adoption is alfo applied by the
Greeks, to the admitting a monk or brother, into a monalUc
community ; fometimes called fpiritual adoption.

ADOPTIVE, Adoptivus, or Adoptitius, denotes a
perfop adopted by another.

Adopted children, among the Romans, were on the fame
footing with natural ones ; for which reafon, they were either
to be inftituted heirs, or exprefsly difmherited ; otiienvile
the teftament was null.

The emperor Adrian preferred adoptive children to natu-
ral ones ; bccaufe we choofe the former, but are obliged to
take the latter at random.

M. Menage has publiflied a book of eloges, or verfes ad-
dreffed to him ; which he calls Liber Adopliinis, an adoptive
booh ; and adds it to his other works. — Heinfius, and Furf-
ttemburg of Munller, have hkewife publifhed adoptive
books. In Ecchjtajlical IVriurs we find adoptive women or
fillers, adopii-vx famimt, or forores, ufed for thofe hand-
maids of the ancient clergy, otlierwife called fuhintro-

Adoptive erms are ihofc witich a perfon enjoys by the

ADO

gift or coiieelTion of another, and to which he wns fioT:
otherwife entitled. They Hand contradiltinguillicd from
arms of alliance.

Adoptive is alfo ufed to exptefs a thing borrowed of
taken from another. In v.hich fenfe we ibnittimcs meet
with ndoptive hair, by way of oppolkion to natural hair ;
and adoptive gods, by way of contr?,dillin<ftion to domcilic
ones. The Romans, notwithilanding the nunibcr of tlieir
domeftic, had their adoptive gods, taken chiefly from the
Egyptians : fuch were Ifis, Ofiris, Anubis, Apis, Harpo-
cratcs, and Canopus.

ADOPTIVl, in Chunh Hifrcry. See Adoptiant.

ADOR fignifies a fpecies of corn called spelta and
zr.A.

ADORA, or Adoraim, in Aiuimt Gei)grapl<v, a citv
belonging to the tribe of Judah, not far from Marefa in
the fouthern part of Judah, on the confines of Idumaia.
Thefe two cities were taken by Hyrcanus in his expedition
into Syria, when he delboyed the Samaritan temple on
Mount Garizim. Joitpli. Antiq- apud op. tom. i. p. 659.
ed. Havevc.

ADORATION, the aft of rendering divine honours ;
or of p.ddrefiing God or a being, as fuppofing it a god.
See Worship. The word is compounded oi ad, to; and
OS, !iio!/th ; and literally fignifies to apply the hands to the
mouth ; rmirum od os admove/'c, q. d. to iifs the hand ; this
being, in tiie ealleni conutrles, -one of the great marks of
leipccl and fubmiffiuu ; and fecming, from the firlt books of
Herodotus, to be ot PerfiaB origin. To tliis mode of ido-
latrous worlhip Job refers, chap. xxxi. 26, 27. — See alfa
I Kin<rs xix. jy.

riie ceremony of adoration among the ancient Roman*
was thus: the devotee Iraving his head covered, applied his
right hand to his lips, the fore-finger rcfting on the thumb,
which was erett, and thus bowing his head, tunied himfelf
round from left to right. The kifs thus given was called
ofiidnm lahralum ; for ordinarily they Avere afraid to touch
the images of their gods themielves with their profane lips.
Sometimes, however, they would kifs their feet and even
knees, it beiiig held an incivihty to touch their mouths ;
fo that the affair pafl'ed at fome diftance. Others pretend,
that they firft ftretclied out the hand, and afterward*
drew it back to their lips ; but it rather appears that
the contraiy order was obferved. Saturn, however, and
Hercules, were adored with the head bare ; whence the
worfliip of the lafl was called in/Iitntiim pcregrinum, and
rilus Gr<fcai:iciis, as departing from the Roman cuftomary
method, which was to facrifice and adore, with the face
veiled, and the clothes drawn up to the ears, to prevent
any interruption in the cei-emony, by the fight of unlucky
objefts.

Sometimes alfo proflration, or fall'ng on the face, and
fometimes kneeling, were practiled ; fometimes thev turned
towards the fun, and fometimes to the eaft.

Other circumllances of adoration were the putting crowns,
garlands, and the like, on the ftatues or images adored ; fit-
ting down by them, praying to them in foft trembling imir-
mu/s, to be favourable, fux'eas mihi.

The Romans pracliitd adoration at facrifiees, and other
folemnities; in paffmg by temples, altars, groves, S;c. at the
fight of ftatues, images, or the like, whether of ilone or
wood, wherein any thing of divinity was luppofedlo refide.
Ufually there were images ot the gods placed at tlie gates
of cities, for thofe \vho went in, or out, to pay their
refpefts to.

The Cauls, inilead of turning about to the right hand,
5 after

ADO

!^ei- the Roman manner, thought it more rdigious to turn
to the left.

In the fymbols of Pythagoras, adoration is enjoined to be

pertormcd in alitting pollure, genuflexion bcingthcn unknown.

Thtf'Jewilh manner of adoration \\i\a by prolb-atiou, bow-
ing, and kneeling. Pinelion has a dileourfc exprcf::ly on
the form of the Jcwiih adoiatiou. The ChiilUund adopted
Uie Grecian rather than the Roman nietliod, and adored al-
ways uncovered. The ordinary pollure of the ancient
Cliriiliano was kneeling, but on Sundays, Handing. In this
they conformed to the heatlieiis, that a peculiar regard was
had to the eaft, to which point they ordinarily diretled
tlicir prayers ; which occalioncd a belief among tlie heathens
that they adored the fun. Something of this ufage is Hill
retained, as appears by the polition of our churches. A
modern author has dilcovered an error of the builders iu this
Kfpett ; many of our ancient cluirches being found to vai-j-
leveral degrees from the true call: and well. Plott's Hill.
Staff, chap. ix. fed. ;;. p. 362. In the eafl it is ilill con-
Cdered as a mark of the highell rcfpeit, to pull off one's
fhoes, and approach bare-footed to pay adorations. See
Exod. chap. hi. 5. The Eg)-ptian3 were hngularly atten-
tive to this pradlice : and the Mahometans take off their
Ihoes before they cuter the mofques. A fimilar pradtice
is obferved by the Roman Cathohca, at the adoration of tlie
crofs on Good Friday, although n.ot obferved in this coun-
try. When Mr. Wilkins wifhed to enter the inner hall of
tlie College of Seeis, at Patna, he was told it was a place
of worfhip, open to him and to all men ; but at the fame
time it was intimated, that he mull take off his Ihoes.
Afiat. Refcarches, vol. i. p. 289.

Adoration isalfo ufed for certain extraordinary civil ho-
nours or refpeils, which refcmble thofe paid to the Deity,
yet are given to men.

V/e read of adorations paid to kings, pi-inccs, emperors,
popes, bilhops, abbots, &;c. Adorations paid to the purple,
to the perfon. Adoration by kneeling, by falling prollrate,
kifhng feet, hand, garment, Sec.

Tlie Pcriian manner of adoration, introduced by Cyrus,
was by bending the knee, and falling on the face at the
prince's feet, ilriking the earth with the forehead, and
killing the ground. This was an indifpenhble condition on
the part of foreign minifters and ambafladors, as well as the
king's own vafTr.ls,. of being admitted to audience,, and of
obtaining any favour. This token of reverence was ordered
to be paid to their favourites, as well as to themfelves, as
we learn trom the hiftory of Haman and Mordecai, in tiie
Book of Ellher ; and even to their flatues and images ; for
Philollratus informs us, that, in the time of ApoUonius, a
golden llatue of the king was expofed to all who entered
Babylon, and none but thofe who adored it were admitted
within the gates. The ceremony, which the Greeks called
•t^foo-KVj-M, Conon refufed to perform to Artaxerxes, and
CaUillhenes to Alexander the Great, as reputing it impious
and unlawful.

Tlie adoration performed to the Roman and Grecian em-
perors, confifted in bowing or kneehng at the prince's feet,
laying hold ot his purple robe, and prefently withdrawing
tlie hand, and clapping it to the hps. Some attribute the
origin of this praclice tu Conllantius. They were only
perlons of fome rank or dignity that were entitled to the
Honour. Bare kneehng before the emperor to dehver a pe-
tition, was alio called adoration.

It is particularly faid of Dioclefian, that he had gems
failened to his fhoes, that divine honours might be more
willingly paid him, by kiffmg his feet. And this mode of

ADO

adoration was continued, and aggi-avatcd tilt the laft age of
the Greek moiurehy. See Gibbon's Decline and Fall of
the Roman Empire, vol. x. p. 124, 8vo. Wiieii any one
pays liis refpeCls to the king of Achen in Sumatra, he full
ta.kes of his ihoes and lloekiugs, and leaves ihciii at the
door.

Tiic praAice of adoration may be faid to be ftill fubfift-
ing in England, in the ceremony of kilfing the king's or
queen's hand, and in fei"5iiig tliem at table, both being per.
formed kneeling.

Adoration is alfo ufed ia the court of Rome, for the
ceremony of killing the pcipe's feet. *

It is not certain at what period this ceremony was intro-
duced into tlie church : but it was probably hoiTowed from
the Byzantine court, and aeeompanied the temporal power.
Dr. Maelaiue, in the chronological table which he has fub-
joined to his tranllalion of Mollieim's Eceleliatlical Ilillory,
places its introduction iu tlie eighth century imnicdiately
after the grant of Pepin and Charlemagne. Baronius iraees
it to a much higher antiq^uily, and pretends that examples
of this homage to the vicar of Chiiil occur fo eaily as the
year 204.

Thefe prelates finding a vehement difpofition in the peo-
ple to fall down before them, and kifs their feet, procured
crucifixes to be failened on their flippers ; by which llrata-
gem, the adoration intended for the pope's perlon, is fup-
pofed to be transferred to Chrilt. Divers acts of this ado--
ration we find offered even by princes to the pope : and
Gregory XIII. claims this aft of homage as a duty. Wc
are told, that in the ancient church the fame ceremony wa»
praftifed to all bilhops ; people kiifed their feet, and faluted
them with the plirale ^^ "'''"'" "■-> ^ adore ihce.

Adoration is alfo particularly ufed for the ceremony of
owning, or paying homage to a new elefted pope. The
firil elcclion at which tlie ceremony is exprefsly recorded to
have taken place, is that of Valentine, A. D. 827. Tlie
feeond is that of Leo IV. A. D. S47. Anallahus in Va-
lentin, cap. 653. hi Leon. iv. cap. 697.

Stephen II. being cliofen pope, A. D. 752, in the church
of St. Maiy ad Prsftpe, was tai-ried u\\ men's flioulders
from thence to the Lateran ; and Polydore Virgil ob-
ferves, that this is the liril inllance of this ceremony, which-
occurs in the hiftory of the popes. See Bower, vol. iii.

P- 343-

Adoration properly is paid only to the pope, when

placed on the altar, iu which pollure the cardinals, eoncla-

vifts alone, are admitted to kifs his feet. The people are

hfterwavds admitted to do the like at St. Peter's church ;

the ceremony is defcribed at large by Guieciardin.

Adoration is alfo ufed for a nietliod of elefting a pope
without fcrutiny, or voting. — In the ekftion by adoration,
the cardinals rulh hallily, as if agitated by fome fpirit, and.
fall immediately to the adoration of fome one among them,
and proclaim him pope.

In the eleftion by fcrutiny, adoration is the lafl'thuig, and'
follows the eleftion ; as i;i the other it is the eleftion itfelf,
or rather fuperfedes the eleftion.

Adoration is more particularly ufed for kifling one's
hand in prefence of another as a U)keii of reverence.

The Jews adored by kifling their hands, and bowing down
their heads ; whence in their language kifling is properly
ufed for adoration. Calmet.

Adoration is alfo ul'ed, among Roman writers, for
a high fpecies of applaufe given to perfons who had fpokeii
or performed well in public. The method of exprelhng it
was, by riling, putting both hands lo their mouth, and then

retuimng

ADO

rftumin;:; tlicm towards the perfon intended to be honoured.

See AciLAMATION.

Adoratios is of divers kinds and qualities ; fupreme and
fuionliiitile ; iiifdhtle a.aA imtuf,!iat: ; ahj'olute -sxiA. relative •, in-
tfniiil and external ; fecret and open.

AnoaATioN, e.sternal, coincides with what is other^vife
<*alk"d ritual ailorat'wn.

Adoration, inlenial, coincides with fpiritual adoration,
called alfo adoration in fpirit and in truth.

AnORATiON/o/cwn, that performed in public, with flated
ceremonies prcfcribed by authority : in oppolition to private,
or tacit, or implicit adoration.

\v>OK.\r\os, fupreme, the highcfl; degree of religious ho-
nour or v.orlhip rendered to a being, as fuppofing him the
fupreme God ; in oppolition to fnbordinate worihip given
to inf'.rior beings.

Adoration, alifuliite, that rendered immediately to a
being, in confidcration of his own eiTential perfecT^ions, and
tt-niiinating in himfclf. This coincides with immediate
adoration, and Hands oppofed to relative or mediate adora-
tion. Olearlus has an exprefs diflertalion on the adoration
of the Fallier by the Son.

Adoration, relative, is tliat worfliip paid to an objeft,
as belonging to, or reprcientative of another.

In which fenfe the llomanifts profefs to adore the crofs,
not fimply or immediately, which they allow would be ido-
latry, but in refpecl of Jefns Chrift, whom they fuppofe to
be on it. The Jefuits in China cany an image of Chrift
under their clothes, and to this refer mentally the public
adorations they oifer to Chacinchoan. Vide Pafcal. Lettr.
Provinc. 5.

Adoration, perpetual, is a kind of fociety or afTociation
of devout perfons ellabliflied in Romilh countries, who
take their turns to pray before the eucharifts, regularly
relieving each other, fo that the Xenice. never ceafes day nor
night.

The members of the perpetual adoration anfwer to the
AcoEMiTi in the eaftern church.

We find focieties under this denomination in France,
Germany, Italy, &c.

Adoration, barbarous, is a term uf-'d in the laws of
Tiing Canute, for that performed after the manner of the
heathens, who adored idols.

The Phoenicians adored the winds, on account of the
terrible effefts produced by them ; the fame praftice was
adopted by moll of the other nations, Perllans, Greeks,
Romans, &c.

The Troglodytes adored tortoifes, as fomething peculi-
arly facred ; ieveral people adored weapons, and inftruments
of war. The Scythians, S:c. adored fwonls, the Romans
axes, and the Arabs ftoncs, the Indians adored vipers, the
Bengalefe and Canadefe the fun ; the latter of which nations
is alfo faid to adore the crofs. The Manta, a Peruvian
people in the ifland of Puna, anciently adored a huge eme-
rald, of the bignefs of an oftrlch's egg, by offering to it other
emeralds of a leffer fize. All which the priell kept for their
own life ; the doiilrine, as GarcilafTo obferves, being founded
on their avarice.

The Perfians chiefly paid their adorations to the fun and
fu-e, fome fay alfo to rivers, the wind, &c. The motive of
adoring the Uui was the bi-ncfits they received from that
glorious lumiuai-y, which of all creatures has doubtlefs the
bed pretenfions to fuch homage ; the inllitution of the fire ■
worlhlp is ufiidly referred to Zoroafter. The retainers to it
are called ign' i col^ ; by the Perfians, Ghebr, Arefch, Perelh.
Dr. Hyde reduces the Perfian fiie-worfhip to a fubordi-

ADO

nate kind of honour, or fervice, which he calls f>yrodulia,
defending that people from any charge of pyrolatnn, or ido-
latiy of iiie. A traveller into tlicfc parts, GcmcUi Careri,
does the fame.

The Greeks and Romans alfo adored fire under the name
of Vesta. Pliny mentions the method of adoring lightning,
which was by poppifms, or gentle clappings of tiie hands.

The Jews have been charged by heathens with ado-
ring the vine, an afs's head, &c. By Chriftians, with ado-
ring the book of the law ; a charge which one of their
rabbins, Manaff. Ben Ifrael, has been at the pains to re-
move. The adoration of the _fo/.7t'« CALF, into which they
fell in the wildernefs, feems to have been borrovved, like'
many other of their ceremonies, trom the Egyptians.

The Egyptians are faid to have paid adoration to divers
animals, plants, filhes, &c. the crocodile, the ibis, onions,
&c. But thofe were only fymbolical, or relative ails of
homage ; they adored the fun in a more peculiar manner,-
under the name of Osiais.

It is difputed whether the Chinefe pay divine or onlr
civil honours to the ftatues of Confucius, and their anccftors.-
That people, however, appear to adore heaven ; whence the
infcription in all their temples, and which even the Chriili-
nns are faid to have retained in their churches, king tier/,
L e. adore heaven.

The Indians are faid to adore the devil. Some charge,
the fame on the Bramins.

ADOREA, in Roman Antiquity, a word ufed in differ-
ent fenfes ; fometimes for all manner of grain, foinetim.es for
a kind of cakes made of fine flour, and offered in facrifice ;
and finally, for a dole or diftribution of com, as a reward for
fome fervice ; whence by metonymy it is put for praife or
rewards in general.

ADOREUS Mons, in Antienl Geography, a mountain of
Afia Minor, n^entioncd by Livy (t. v. p. 190.) and placed
by M. d'Anville in Galatia, fouth eail of Amorium.

AUORIAN, in Geography, a fmall town of Upper
Hungaiy, near the river Eer, north weft of Varadin, in a
fine country. N. lat. 47°. 18'. E. long. 26''. 55'.

ADORSI, a people of the North, mentioned by Tacitus,
(1. xii. c. 15. t. I. p. 723.) whofe fituation is not afcertained.
Cellarius fuppofes that they Were the fame with the Aorii,
whom Strabo ranks in the number of Scythian Nomades ;
and who probably inhabited the country which extended
from Mount Hoemus fouthward to the liler northward.

ADOSCUI.ATION is ufed, by fome NaturaUfls, for a
fpecles of copulation, or impregnation, by mere external con-
taft between the genital part of the two fexes, without in-
tromifTion,

Such is that of plants, by the falling oi l\\c farina facun'
dans, on the piftil, or uterus.

Divers kinds of birds and fifties are alfo impregnated by
adofculdtion. Grew. Anat. of Plants, chap. v. § 9.

ADOSSE'E is ufed, in Heraldry, to denote tv.o figures
or bearings, placed back to back.

The arms of the duchy of Bar are two bars adojfee.
ADOUR,in Geography, a river of France which rifes in the
m.ountains of Bigorre, in the department or the Upper Pyren-
nees, and running by Tavbes and Dax or Acqs, falls into the
Bay of Bifcay, through an outlet called Boacault, near the
walls of Bayonne, where it forms a bay, fometimes called
Bayonne Bay. The fands in this Bay are often flitted by the
frefhes, which come dov.m from the mountains. The bar
has not fometimes three feet at low water. It begins to be
navigable about two leagues below Saint Sever.

ADOWA, the capital of Tigre in Abyffmia, is fituated

A D P

ADR

on the declivity of a hill, on the weft fide of a fmall plain,
fnrrounded evt;ry where by mountains. Its name llg-
nifying /><?/" or pqffhge, is derived from its fituation, on tlie
flnl f^round inimedip.tely bt'low the river Ribieraiiii, by
which every body mull pafs in their way from Gondar to
the Red Sea. This plain is watered by three rivnlets,
which are never dry, viz. the AfTa, Mai Cogue, and Ri-
hieraini, which joins the other two, and falls into the river
JMiueb, about twenty-two miles below Adowa. This town,
ivhich js now the capital and rclideuce of the governor,
ronliils of about 300 hcufes, each of which has an inclo-
fure round it of hedges and trees. The manfion o'f llie
jfovernor is fituated upon the top of a hill, and is a kind of
prifon, inhabited by about 300 perfons who arc detained in
irons, and in cages like wild beafts, fome of whom have
been confined for more than twenty years, with a view of
extorting money from them, .and who do not obtain libera-
tion, even when the money is paid. There are two
churches in the vicinity of this town, viz. Mariam and Ke-
dus Michael, and alfo a monallen-, called Bet Abba Gari-
ma, one of the moil celebrated in Abylllnia, which was once
a rcfidence of one of their kings, whence fome travellers
have reported that the metropohs of Abyifiuia was called
Gernic. Adowa is the feat of a tery valuable manufa£lorj'
of coarfe cotton cloth, wh.ich circulates through Abyfllnia
inllead of filver money: each web is 16 peek long, and
1 1 wide, and their value is a pataka, ;'. c. ten for the
ounce of gold. The houfes in this toavn a-re all built with
rough ftone, cemented with mud inllead of mortar ; their
roufs are of a conical form and thatched with a reedy fort of

frals. Tlie bufmefs of thatching belongs exclufively to the
'alalha or Jews. The vicinity of Adowa is the only part
of Tigrc which has foil fufficient to yield corn, the whole
of the provir.ce belldes being one entire rock. Tliey have
here three harvells annually, which eolls no fallowing, weed-
ing, manure, or other expenfive procefs ; and yet the tarmer
in Abyfhnia is always poor and miferable. N. lat. 14^. 7'.
57". E. long. 38^^. 50'. Bruce's Travels, vol. iii. p. iiS.
&c.

ADOXA, formed of « pr'n<. and cfo|« gloria, q. d.
ign'.ik, or of no Jhozv, in Bolniiy, a genus of the vclanjria
te/ragyiiia clafs and order, and of the natural order of J'uc-
culenU, and fuxlfragre of JulTieu ; the charaCteis of whicli
are, that the calyx is an inferior, bifid or trifid, flat and
permanent perianthium ( the corolla is ir.onopetalous, flat and
divided into four or five fegmcnts, with clef.s ovate, acute
and longer than the calyx ; the ftamina are fubulate fila-
ments, of the length of the calyx, and the anthers roundifll ;
the pifl;ilh!m has a germ below the receptacle of the co-
rolla ; the ilylcs are fnnple, ereift, of the length of the fta-
mina, and permanent, and equal in numbcT to the clefts of
the corolla ; the fligmas are Jhnple ; tlie perieai-piimi is a
globofe be;!T, between the calyx and corolla, the calyx
being united below with liie berry, umbilicate and four or
live celled ; the feeds are folitai-y and comprefTcd. There
is one fpecies, viz. the A. uwfchatcUina, bulbous fumitory,
hollow root or tuberous mofcliatell, which grows naturally
hi ihady places and woods, as in Hampftead and Charl-
ton woods ; it is perennial, flowers in April and May,
and the feeds ripen in TvTay. The leaves vv'hich foon after
decay and tlie flowers fmell like muflc, on which account
it has heen fometimes called muji croiufoot. The roots
muft he planted after the leaves are decayed, under ihxubs,
for if they are expofed to the fun, they wiU not thrive.
Martyn's Miller's Dictionaiy. Smith's Flor. Urit. vol. i.

P-432-

ADPERCEPTION, ir. the Lcibniti^ian (lyle, denotes
Vol.. L

the aft whereby the mind becomes confciovs to itfelf of a

perception.

AD PONDUS Om«/f/w,to the weight of the whole ; an

abbreviation among Phyficinns, &c. fignifying, that the Lilt
prefcribed ingredient is to weigh as much as all the othei»
put together.

ADPORINA, a furnanieof C^bele, under which fhe wat
acknowledged in one of her temples, creeled on a mountain
of difficult acerls, near JVrgamus.

ADPRESSUS, in Botany, denotes contiguous, prcflcd
to, or laid to.

ADPREST I-TAF. Sec Leaf.

ADQjmSlTUS, in Uymc /IncienI I. aim ll'iilcrs of Mufu;
is ufed for the note, or chord, which the Greeks called
^^f03■^Kfir!X>out>5.;. See DlAGR.\M.

AD QL^OD Damnum, in Laiv, a writ directed to the
(lieriff, commanding him to inquire what hurt may bcfal
the king by granting a fair, or market, in any town or
place.

The fame writ alfo ilTues for an inquiry to be made of
what the king, or other perfon, may f.ifler, by granting lands
in fee fimple to a convent, chapter, or other body politic ;
by rcafon fuch lands fall into mortmain.

The writ yld quod ihimnum is alfo had for the turning and
changing of ancient highways ; wliich may not be done
without the king's licence obtained by this writ, or inqui-
filion found that Inch change will net be detrimental to the
public. Vaugh. Rep. 341. Ways turned without this
authority are not elleemed highways, fo as to oblige liic in-
habitants of the hundred to wake amends for robberies;
nor have the fubjefts an interell therein to juftify going
there. 3 Cro. 267. If any one change a highway with-
out this autliority, he may Hop the way at his plcafurc.
But fee the ilatute 8 and 9 \V. IIL cap. 16. for enlarging
of highways by order of jullice. of peace, Src. Where any
common way Ihall be enclofed after a writ of ylil quod diim-
mini executed, any perfon aggiieved by fuch enclofure,
may complain to the jullices at the next quarter fefTions ;
but if no fuch complaint or appeal be made, then the in-
quifition and return, recorded by the clerk of the peace,
Ihall be for ever binding. 8 and 9 W. III.

ADRA, or Adraa, in jlncient Geography, an cpifcopal
fee in the northern part of Arabia Petnea, over which Pro-
clus prehded at the council of Chalcedon. Adra, though
referred by Ptolemy to Arabia, which was confiderably ex-
tended northward, was really fituated in a fniall pro\ince of
Palelline, called Batanoca, near the river Hieroniax, fouth-
eall of Capitolias. When it became an cpifcopal fee, it held
the thiixi rank under the metropolis Balra. It was alfo
called Adraon and Adratum.

Adka, or Hadrach, was, according to Ptolemy, a town
of Cselo-Syria.

Adra is alfo the name of a town, placed by Ptolemy in
Liburnia ; and this was the Adra of Illyria.

Adra, in Gcogrnphv, a fea-port town of Granada, in
Spain, forty-fcven miles fo'.'.th-eall of Granada. W. long.
2^ 37'. N. lat. 36^ 42'.

ADRA Bill Cainpi, in Ancicr.t Geography, a canton of
Germany, mentioned by Ptolemy, and now called, accord-
ing to Martinicre, Marchfcld, and fituated in Upper Auftria,
uorth-eail of Vienna.

ADRABON, a fmall diftria of Gaul belonging
to the Veneti, over againft BeUeifle, on the coall of
Brittany.

ADRACHNE, in Bolany, the llrawbeny-tree. See
Arjivtus. It is alio called Adrada.

ADRAGA, in Ancient Geography, hy fome called
T i DragH.

ADR

Dragtt, a place of Arabia, fituate, according to Ptolemy, in
lon-j. •79'' 10'. aiicllat. 15° 15'.

ADRAGANTH, the fame as gum drag as t. See
Tracac.anth.

ADRAGNO, in Geography, a town of Sicily, twenty
miles c;;(l-north-eall of Mazaro.

ADRAISTjE, in /incient Geography, the inhabitants of
a diftriift of India, which lay to the- eail of the rivers Ace-
lines and Hrdraotcs.

ADRAMIT/iL, a people placed by Ptolemy in Arabia
Felix.

ADRAMMEI.ECH, in Mythol'gy, one of the gods
adored by the inhabitants of Sephai vaim, who were fettled
in Samaria in the room of thofe li'raclites that removed be-
yond the Euplirates. The people of Sepharvaim made
their children pafs through the fne in honour of tliis falfe
deity, and another called ylnamcLrh. Jclrammelcch, i. e.
the magnificent king, is fuppofed to have rcprefented the
fun, and Anamrlech, i. e. the gentle king, the moon. Calmct.

ADRAMYTTIS, in Ancient Geography, an ifland of
Afia Minor, on the coaft of Lycia.

ADRAMYTTIUM, a famous city of Myfia Major,
called alfo Pedofus, which, according to Strabo, (lib. xiii.
torn. 2. p. 904.) was an Athenian colony, witli a harbour
and dock, fituate at the foot of mount Ida, near the
Caicus. It was fo called, fays Stephanus (de Urb. torn. i.
p. 22.) from Adir.mytus, the brother of Crocfus, by whom
it was built. Others fay, that it was founded by the
Lydians, and derived its name from Hermon, one of their
tings, who, in the Phr)-gian language, was called Adramys.
This is the Adramyttium mentioned Afts xxvii. 2. and not
as St. Jerome and others fuppofe, a city of Egj'pt built by
Alexander the Great, at the Canobic mouth of the Nile,
and which has been fuppofed to be the fame with Thebes.
Whitby Com. vol. ii. p. 751- Imperial Greek medals have
been ftruck in this city in honour of leveral ot the Roman
emperors. The medals are bronze, gold and filver. This
i:ity was formerly famous for trade and fliipping ; but is now
called La Andram'iti, and inhabited only by a few Greek
iifliermen. The Adramyttian-hay was a part of the jEgean
fea, on the coail of Mylia : the towns on the north-eall of
this bay are now in ruins. The Con-ventu! Adramyltetnis
T,-as the eighth in order of the convcntus juridici of Afia.

ADRANA, a river of Germany, now the Eder, rifes
in Upper HelTe, waters the county of Waldeck and Lower
Hefle, and falls into the Fulda about two miles from Caffel.
When Germanicus, at the head of the Roman legions,
ravaged the country of the Catti, moft of their youth
eicaped by fwimming over this river ; and attempted,
though without fuccefs, to prevent the Romans from lay-
ing a bridge over it. Tacitus Annal. i. c. 55. vol. i. p. 105.
Ed. Gronov.

ADRANA, or AdrenA, (Polybius, lib. xiii. p. 983.
Ed. Cafaub.) a city of Tlirace, fituate a little above Be-
renice.

Adrana was alfo a town of Afia Minor, in the Lower
Myfia.

AURAND, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the pro-
vince of Irak ; ten leagues eaft of Amadan.

ADRANIS, Adrantis, or Adrans, in Ancient Geo-
graphy, a town of Pannonia, in the more extended applica-
tion of the term, fituate in Noricum, north-eaft of ^mona,
in the limits of Carnia and Noricum.

ADRANUM, now Aderno, a town of Sicily at the
foot of Mount jEtna, towards the north-eaft, near a river
formerly bearing the name, which forae now afcribe to it,
Fiume d' Aderno. This city was built, fays Diodorus Sicu-

ADR

lus (lib. xiv. c. 37. torn. i. p. 671. Ed. Weflcl.) by Diony-
fius the elder, and fo called from the Temple of Adranus,
the tutelary god of the Sicihans, and faid by Hei'ychius to
be the father of the Dii patricii. This temple was a place
of great refort at ftatcd feafons of the year by the worlliip-
pers of this deity ; and jElian (de Nat. Anim. lib. xi. c. 3.
tom. ii. p. 632. Ed. Gronov,) lays, that a thoufand dogs
were kept here, who fawned on tliole who brouglit prefents
to t!ie temple, and conducted drunken perfons to tlieir own
houi'es, whilft they fell furioufiy on tliieves, and tore them,
in pieces. The medals of this city are bronze, gold and
filver.

ADRAPSA, a town of Baftria, mentioned by Strabo,
(lib. X'V. tom. 2. p. 105 J.) but placed by Ptolemy in Hyr-
cania, beyond the river Maxera. It is alfo called Darapfay
and feeins to be that mentioned by Arrian (hb. iii. c. 29.)
under the name of Drapfac,?. ''

ADRASDII, an epifcopal fee in the patriarchate of
Antioch, and the eighteenth under the metropolis of Se-
leucia.

ADRASTE, in Mythology, the daughter of Jupiter and
Necefhty, who, according to Plutarch, was the only fury
that exercifed the vengeance of the gods. The name is
fuppofed to be derived either from an opa», alivays aSive, or
from a priv. and Ifxa, I Jt\'. The Egyptian priefts placed
Adralle above the moon, where (he obferved the whole
world, fo that no guilty perfon efcaped. See Nemesis.
Adrafle, or Andrajle, was the goddefs of war and viftory,
among the ancient Britons ; and as fuch invoked and ac-
knowledged. This deity was probably the fame with the
Astarte of the Phoenicians. Dion. Caff. tom. ii. p. 1007.
Ed. Reimari.

Adraste was alfo one of the nymphs who nurfed Jupi-
ter in the cave of Difte.

ADRASTIA, or Adrastea, an epithet given to the
goddefs Nemefis, or Revenge. It is faid to be taken from
king Adrastus, who firfl erefted a temple to that deity.

Adrastia, in Ancient Geography, the name of a town
of ACa, in the Troade, fituate between Priapus and Pari-
um, in a diilrift of the fame name, in which was an oracle
of Apollo A£la;us, and of Diana. It was built by king.
Adrallus. Strabo Geog. lib. xiii. tom. 2. p. S48.

Adrastia Certamina, in Antiquity, a kind of Pythian
games, inftituted by Adi-aftus, king of Argos, A. M.
2700, in honour of Apollo at Sicyon. Thefe are to be
diftinguiOied from the Pythian games celebrated at Delphi.

^ADRASTUS, in Ancient Hijlory, a king of Argos,
wl'.o diltinguilhed himfelf in the famous war of Thebes, was
the fon of Talaus and Lyfianaffa, daughter of Polybus ki' g
of Sicyon. He reigned firft ia Sicyon, as fucceffor to his
father-in-law, and afterwards at Argos. Here he married
his two daughters to Polynices and Tydeus, who took re-
fuge in his couit ; the former of whom had been deprived
by his brother Eteocles of his fliare of the fovereignty at
Thebes. For the purpofe of relloring him, this king, with
fix others, chiefly of his kinfmen, marched againft Thebes ;
and this was called the expedition of the Itven worthies,
which is placed about 1 225 years before Chrift, and hr.s been
celebi'ated by the poets. Adraftus alone efcaped, being
prcferved by his horfe Arion. See Statins Theb. lib. iv.
V. 40, &c. p. 412. Ed. Varior. This war was revived
within ten years by the fons of the deceafed worthies, and
called the war of the Epigones. It terminated with the
taking of Thebes. Adraftus on this occafion loft h;s fon
jEgialeus, and was fo diftreffed by the event, that he died
of grief at Megara, as he was condutling home his viclorious
army. His memory was much honoured at Megara and at
6 Sicyon,

ADR

Sicyon, at which phicc he had inftitnted the Pj-thian games.
Paiifaiiias, Hb. ix. p. 286. Pindnr. Pyth. OJ. viii.

There was anotlit.rv'A/ra/?;//, inPhrygia, at the time of the
ficge of Tioy, who is faid to have built a templo on tlie
river iEfepus, in Phrygia, in honour of Ncmcfis, the god-
defs of Revenge, hence called Adrajlca.

Herodotus (lib. i. c. 35.) mentions an /Idrnjlm, who
fled for refuge to the court of Crcefus, king of Lydia, and
inadvertently killed his fon.

ADRASUS, or Adjasson, in /tnclent Geography, be-
longed to Ifauria, and the metropolis of Selcucia.
ADRAZZO. See Ajaccio.

ADRESTES, a people of India, fubducd by Alexan-
der. See Quintus Curtius, iib. viii. n. 9.

ADRIA, or Hadria, in jincient Gec^riiphy, the name
of two towns in Italy ; one of them was htuated in the
country of the Veneti, on the river Tartarus, or Adria, be-
tween the Padus and the Athefis, and was called Atrius by
. Ptolemy, and alfo by Phny, (lib. iii. c. 16. torn. i. p. 173.
J^d. Hard.) but denominated Mnu by Strabo (lib. i. p. 82.
— hb. ii. p. 168. — lib. V. p. 328.): the other was in the
country of the Piceni, on the river Vomanus, to which An-
tonine's Itinerary from Rome is direfted, and which was the
country of the anccltors of the emperor Adrian. This is
now the dukedom of Atri, in Abruzzo. It has been a fub-
jeft of difpute which of theie two places gives its name to
the Adriatic fea. The etymology is generally deduced
from the Venetian Adr'ia ; and it is alleged, that the name
is retained in the fmall town, that was deftroyed by inun-
ditions and other calamities, now called Adr'ni, which is a
bi (hop's fee, twenty-five miles fouth fouth-weft of Venice.
N. hit. 45° 8'. E. long. 12° 5'. Aurelius Viftor deduces
the name from the Hadria of the Piceni. If this be the
true derivation, the appellation {hould be Hadnattc, bccaufe
the name of the emperor is infcribed on coins and ftonea
Hadriamis. But if the origin of the name is traced to the
Venetian y/^//7«, which is the mod ancient, and of which
the other is merely a colony, the ufual appellation is the
7noft correct. Euftathius in Dionyf. v. 92. traces it to
Adrias, the fon of Jaon.

Adria, an archi-epifcopal city, in the patriarchate of Je-
rufalem. St. Jerome mentions a fmall illand of this name.

Adria, Jean Jacqiies, of Mazara, in Sicily, graduated
at Salernum, in icio, and acquired fuch reputation for his
flcill in medicine, that he was made phyfician to the em-
peror Charles the Fifth, and appointed proto-medicus of
Sicily. He kft in manufcript tb.e fcjllowing : " De prefer-
vatione peftilenti;E." " De medicinis ad varios morbos."
" De phlebotomia, dedicated to the emperor." " De
Bahiei? Siculis."

ADRIAN, or Hadrian, Publius ^Elius, the
Roman emperor, was born, according to Spartian, (in
Adr. p. I — 3.) in Rome, 'an the 24th of January, in the
y^th year of the Chriftian aera, A. U. C. 829. His ancef-
tovs lived at Italica, in Spain, which was the native city of
Trajan, whom he fucceeded in the empire, and whofe name
on that occafion he affumcd in addition to his own. At the
death of his father, when he was ten years of age, he was
left under the guardianfhip of Trajan and Cielius Tatianus,
or Attianus, a Roman knight. His proficiency in the
Greek language was fo confiderable, that, at the age of
fifteen, he was coifimonly called the young Grecian. When
Trajan was adopted by Nerva, Adrian f^rved as a tribune
in the army in Lower Mccfia, and v/as deputed to congra-
tulate his guardian on the event ; and wlicn Nerva died, he
was the firfl that communicated the news to Trajan, who was
tlien in Lower Germany, and that fuluted, him as emperor.

ADR

Trajan, however, conceived prejudices apaiiift hiits on ac-
count of the levity of his mind, the fufpicion and jcaloiify
of his temper, and the extravagance to which he was ad-
ditled : and though he manifeltcd a ftudious difpofition, and
made great acquirements in Greek and Latin, in philofopliy
and the law, Trajan had not been accuftomed to eftimatc
thefe endowments very lughly, nor did lie form any flatter-
ing expeftation of the advantages that were likely to .accrue
from them in the military profeifion, and in the extenfion of
empire, to which he was devoted. Adrian pei-ccived that
he was no favourite ; and therefore endeavoured to conci-
liate the favour of the etnprcfs Plotina, by an afllduity of
attention, which, as Dion Caflius intimates, bv the exprcf-
fion i| i^uWKr.i (fiAir-f, (torn. ii. p. 1 149. Ed. Reimari) feenis
to have tranfgre(red the bounds of virtue. However,
Adrian fucceeded in fecuring the intereft of the emprefs, and
by her means, in obtaining the emperor's grand-niece, and
next heirefs, Sabina, for his wife. This was the firft ftep
to his future advancement, and facilitated his afcent to the
throne, much more than the aliurance of the Mocfian aftro-
loger, th.at the fovcreign power was deflined to bin by the
fates, or the prediiftion to the fame purpofe of his great
uncle ^lius Adrianus. Soon after his marriage he wag ap-
pointed qua-ftor j and at the expiration of this office, he
wi3 employed in digefting tlie deliberations of the fenate ;
but he foon furrendered this occupation, and followed Tra-
jan to the war againil the Dacjans. Trajan having left his
army in Syria, and propofing to return to Rome, after a
variety of extenfive and rapid conquefts, gave the command
of it to Adrian ; but he had neither capacity nor zeal for re-
taining, much lefs lor enlarging, the emperor's conquefi •,
The conqueror's abfence was the lofs of all the advantages
he had gained. His death at the fame time was gradually
approaching, and opened profpefts of ambition to Adrian, of
which he wasdefirous of availing himfclf. He had already
been quceftor, in the year of Rome 852, tribune of the people
in 856, pr^tor in 858, fubitituted conful in 860, and con-
ful in ordinary and commander in chief in the laft year of
Trajan's reign, pie bad alio accompanied Trajan in moil
of his expeditions, had the command of a legion in the fecond
Daoian war, and obtained for his valiant conduft a prcfent
from the emperor of the diamond v.'hich Ntn'a had given
him, which he confidered as a pledge oi his future adoption. .
In the interval between his prajtorfiiip and confulfliip, he
had been governor of Lower Paivonia, and difcharged the
duties of his various offices with univerfal fatisfaction. Tra-
jan, however, never loved Adrian, nor did he intend to
adopt him. Accordingly, Dion Caflius affirms, (torn. ii.
p. 1 149.) that he never was adopted. Neverthelefs he fuc-
ceeds him in virtue of a feigned adoption. Upon the em-
peror's death at Selinontum, in Cdicia, in his way to Rome,
Plotina, affiiled by Tatian, who had been preceptor to
Adrian in his vouth, contrived to fend notice to the Senate,
that Trajan, whom (lie had attended at the time of his
death, had adopted Adrian : and, it is faid, that (lie con-
cealed a man, who perfonated the dying emperor, and who
with a feeble voice, declared that he adopted Adrian. This
is certain, that Adrian, who was then at Antioch, received
the news of his adoption on the 9th of Auguit, and that of
Trajan's death on the I ith. On this day, in the year 117,
( A. U. C. 870, or according to Crevicr, who follows Tille-
mont, 868.) he was proclaimed emperor by the legions of
Syria, and immediately wrote to the Senate to rcqueft a
confinnation of the act of the foldiers ; apologizing, at the
fame time, for tlie impatience of the legions, forbidding
them to beftow upon him any titles of honour without his
previous coafctit, promifmg that he would direit his govern-

I i 2 meat

ADR

ment to the public good, and binding himfcir by an oalli,
never to put a fenator to dcalb. Tlic Senate very readily
acceded to his recincft, and confirmed him in the empire to
■which he was elecled. Adrian had now an opportunity of
indulging that love of peace to which he was naturally in-
clined. Accordingly he abandoned the conquefts of his
predecefibr in the tail, and having withdrawn his troops from
Armenia, Afiyni, and Mefopotamia, he agreed that the Eu-
phrates (houlil again be the boundary and barrier of the
Roman empire. He determined alfo to furrender Dacia,
but his friends prevailed with him to retain it for the fake
of thofe Roman citizens who had fettled in it. However,
he demoliflied the bridges which Trajan had erected over
the Danube, under the pretence of guarding the Roman
territories from the incurllons of t!ie barbariariS. In order
to reduce the Jews to abfolute fubjedion, he removed Lu-
iius Qiiietus, whom Trajan had commiflloned for this p\ir-
pofc, and whom he liad made governor of Paleftine, from
his government, and appointed his friend Martins Turbo to
fucceed him ; and he was alfo employed to quell the dilhirb-
auces in Mauritania, which the removal of Lufius had pro-
bably occafioned. After having fecurcd the tranquillity of
Dacia, by making peace with the Sarmatians and RoMolani,
which he endeavoured to render permanent in the following
year by pecuniary donations, granted alfo as the purchaie
of peace to other barbarous nations, he haftencd to return
to Rome; but did not arrive there till the year 1 1 8. Dur-
ing his voyage from Illyria, a confpiracy was form.ed againll
his life by four perfons of conlular dignity, viz. Domitius
Nigrinus, Lufius Quietus, Palma, and Celfus, wlio were
put to death by order of the Senate. This aft, however,
excited the public hatred againft Adrian. It was different
from the conduft of his predeceffor ; and it was confidered
as a violation of the oath which he had made on his accef-
fion to the empire. To remove thefe ill impreffions from
the public mind, he was liberal in his donatives to the
people. He remitted the debt due from cities and indivi-
duals to the imperial revenue, and to the public treafuiy,
which is faid to have amounted to feven millions of our
money, and burnt all the records which might afterwards
ferve to revive thefe claims. With a reference to this aft
cf generofity, Adrian is reprefented on one of the medals,
which lias reached our times, with a torch in his hand fctting
fire to the bonds, with a legend, fignifying, " He enriches the
whole world." He difcharged Italy from the tax paid to
viftoriouG emperors for decorating their triumphs, and re-
duced the amount of it in the provinces : and befides mak-
ing ranny prefents of money, and various articles of fubfift-
ence and luxuiy to the Roman citizens, he increafed the
funds, appointed by Trajan, for the fubliftence and educa-
tion of children of both fexes. The fum appropriated by
Adrian to thefe feveral purpofes was inimenfc ; and liis li-
berality was honoured with a monument, confeciated to his
memoi-y, and with an infcription which celebrated him, as
having thus exhibited a fmgular example of goodnefs to the
people. He was likewife affiduous in his attention to the
Senate, and treated this body with a degree of deference
and refpeft, which tended to remove the prejudices that
had been conceived agaiuil him, and to engage their affec-
tionate attachment. He affifted thofe fenalors who were
poor ; he enabled others to defray the charge of their offices ;
and he granted the honour of a third confulate to thofe
who delircd it. Upon his return to Rome, he was re-
ceived by all ranks of people with extraordinary demonftra-
tions of joy ; but he declined accepting the triumph which
had been prepared for Trajan, and which was now decreed
by tlie Senate to the new emperor. He had already on his

3

ADR

acccfTion rcfufed the offer that had been made to him of tht
title oi fdtlnr of his ccuntiy, and deferred the acceptance of
it, after the example of Augullus, who had not taken it tiU-
lie had governed a certain number of years.

In the following year Adrian was conful a third tim.e, but
he refigned tiie fafces after four months, and never ..Fter-
waids refumed them. Having taken lueafures for eftabliili-
ing his power at home, he was under a neCeflity of leaviing
Rome, in order to check the incurfions of the barbarians*,
who invaded Illyrieura. The war was foon terminated ; and
Martius "^rurbo, who was recalled from Mauritania, wag
appointed governor of Pannonia and Dacia. Towards the
clofe of this year the emperor went into Campania, where
he gcneroully relieved the poor inhabitants of all the citlys
through which he paffcd. About this time he conceived
a deiign of vifiting all the provinces of the empire, and exa-
mining for himfelf the itate of each country fubjeft to
Rome, that he might not be obliged to depend entirely on
the reports of his mimfterG and governors; alleging,, that an
emperor ought to relemble the lun, which extends illumina-
tion to all the regions of the earth. Accordingly he bcgau
his travels in the third or fourth year of his reign; that is, in
the i2oth or 12 ill year of the Chriftian a;ra, A. U. C. 871,
according to Tillemont. He firft vilitcd Gaul, where he
difplayed great liberahty ; and from thence he went into
GeiTnaiiy, where the chief army of the empire was ftationcd,
and the difeipline of which he revived and eilablillied. In the
following year he paifcd over into Britain, where he re-
formed many abufes. Although the greateft part of the
idand was fubjeft to Rome, the northern nations, after the
departure of Agricola, had revolted, and recovered their
ancient liberty. Adrian, without entering into any new
contell, propofed merely to fecure the fouthern part, wliich
belonged to the Romann, againil the incurfions of tlie war-
hke Caledonians, and, with this view, he caufed a rampart, or
WALL, to be raifed, extending from the Solway Firth on the
weft, to the mouth of the river Tyne, near Newcaftle, on
the eart, about eighty miles in length. In other places he
fupplied the dcfeft of natural barriers by mounds of earth
ftrengthcncd by flakes driven into the ground. Here he
alfo difgi-aced and difcharged his fecretary, Suetonius Tran-
•quiUus, the hillorian, and Septicius Clarus, captain of the
pr;ctorian guards, for their difreipcftful behaviour to the
emprefs Subina. Upon his return to Gaul, he built at
Nifmes a magnificent palace in honour of Plotina, the widow
of Trajan. From Gaul he proceeded to Spain, and win-
tered at Tan-agona, where he rebuilt the temple of
Auguftus, founded by Tiberius, and held a general affem-
bly of the ftates, in order to compofe the differences occa-
fioned by raifing levies for the Roman armies. Here a
flave, in a fit of infanity, attempted to kill him ; but he
happily efcaped, and committing the unhappy mauiac to
medical care, took no farther notice of the affault. From
Spain the emperor returned to Rome in April ; and towards
the end of this year, or the beginning of the i-ext, he went,
as fome fay, to Mauritania, and afterwards to Athens,
where he built a bridge over the Cephifus ; from Athens he
proceeded to the extremities of the Roman empire in .the
call ; and after having quieted the commotions of the Par-
thians, he returned through Afia, vifiting the feveral pro-
vinces, and erefting edifices in feveral of their chief cities ;
and having paffed through the iflands of the Archipelago,
he fettled at Athens during the winter, and was there ini-
tiated into the Eleufinian myilerics. From Athens he
went into Sicily to vifit the top of Mount jEtna, that he
miglit obferve the rifing fun, which was faid there to exhibit
all the colours of the rainbow ; and returned to Rome in the

beginning

A D R ^

beginning of the following year, cr the f<;venth year after
his departure. The nth and 12th years of Adrian's reign
are quite barren of events. In the year 129 or 130, the
cities of iN'icomedia, Cxfarea, and Nicxa, in IJithynia, were
ahiioft demolilhed by an earthquake, and they were rebuilt
at the expenee of the emperor, who was on this account de-
nominated the reltorer of Bitiiynia. In the couvfe of
this year he again departed for Africa ; where, after a
d^-ought of five years, it rained upon his arrival, and the in-
habitants, who received many favours from the emperor,
aferibed the bleffing to his prefence. From Africa, he re-
turned in the fame year to Rome, where he eaufed the ob-
fequies of Plotina to be performed with extraordinary mag-
nificence. He lamented her death with great forrow, com-
pofed verfcs in her praife, and cauf<_d her to be ranked amoucr
the gods. In the ye;'r 131, he left Rome with a d^'fign to
revifit the provinces uf the call, and paifnig througli Athens,
purfued his journey into Afia, where he confecrated feva'al
temples. From Afia he paifed into Syria, from thence into
Paleftine and Arabia, and afterwards into Egypt, in the
fourteenth year of his reign, when the famous eololTus of
Rhodes fliouk, according to the Alexandrian chronicle.
During this, and the foliovving year, he continued in Egypt.
At Pelufium he vifited the tomb of Pompey the Great,
which he repaired ; he alfo repaired the city of Alexandria,
and reftored their ancient privileges to the Alexandrians,
vvhofe dilpofition and charatter he difliked, and who recom-
penled his kindncis witli violent himpoons after his de-
parture. From Egypt he pafiTed into Libya Cyrenaica,
where he killed a lion of enormous fizc, tliat had com-
mitted many depredations in the country. During his Hay
in Egypt, the youth Antinous, to whom Adrian was crimi-
nally attached, fell into the Nile, and was drowned. Dion
Caffius lays, (torn. ii. p. 1160. Ed. Reim.) that he was
facriiiced by Adrian, who being addicted to magic, con-
ceived that he ihould prolong his life by facrificing a human
viftim to the infernal gods. In the following year Adrian
returned to Syria, and having pafled through Thrace and
MaceJon, he continued for lome time at Athens. Dur-
ing his refidencc at Athens, the Jews revolted on occaiion
of the emperor's fending a Roman colony to Jerufalem,
calling the city jEIia Capitolina, after the name of his fa-
mily, and eredling a temple to Jupiter Capitolinus in the
place where the ancient temple itood. The war with the
Jews was attended by the invafion of the provinces of
the empire by the Alani, or Maflageta:, a people of
Sarmatia. At Athens Adrian was muA pleafed with
the cuftoms and learning of the people. Here he af-
fumed the habit peculiar to the dignity of Archon, cele-
brated die grand fcilival of Bacchus, and embellifhed it with
many (lately buildings, and particularly with a libraiy of
aftoni(liiT;g ilrufture ; infomueh, that he was revered as the
fecond founder of the city, and one quarter of it was from
him called \,'hlr'ianctpoUs. In the year 135, the emperor left
Athens and returned to Rome. Here he fell into a linger-
ing difeafe, attended with a bleeding at the nofe, which termi-
nated in a dropfy. Adrian, contrary to the univerfal expefta-
tion, and the renionftrance of his friends, adopted Commodus
Verus, who was created prretor, appointed governor of
Pannonia, and in the following year advanced to the conful-
(hip. The emperor retired to Tibur, now Tivoli, where
he erefted a magnificent villa ; but his diforder increafing,
and being aggravated by his licentious mode of living, he
indulged his natural cruelty, and eaufed many illuilnaus
perfons to be arraigned and executed, and u.hers to be pri-
vately murdered. In the beginning of the year 138, Verus
died, and was ranked by Adrian among the gods, and

ADR

temples were built and ftatucs crcdlcd to liis memory hj
the orders of the emperor. Upon his death, Titus Anto-
niiuis was adopted ; and after his adoption the empref*
Sabina died, iuppofed to be poiloned by Adrian, or fo ill
ufed, th:it (he laid violent hands on herfclf. Adrian, how-
ever, eaufed her to be ranked among tlie gods. The em-
peror's impatience increafed with his diforder, and having
put feveral fenators to death, and ordered others for execu-
tion, whom Antoninus prefeiTed, he attempted to dellroy
himfelf, but was prevented by Antoninus from executing
his purpofe. At length he removed from Rome to Baix,
in Campania, where he hadened his dcalli by liis intem-
perance ; and here he died, on the lOth of July, in the year
139, after having lived 62 years, 5 months, and 17 day., and
having reigned 2i years and 1 1 months. His body was burnt
at Puteoli, and his allies were conveyed to Rome, where
they were depohted in the niagnirieent mRufolcum, whiel»
he had conilrucled for himfelf near the Tiber. 'I'he Senate
intended to annul all his atls, but Antoninus oppoftd ihu
meafure ; cauied him to br deified, built a temple al Puteoh,
and inlUtuted annual fports to his honour, with priefts, fra-
ternilics, and viiftims. No prince ever erected fo many
public aud private edifices as Adrian. The regulations
which he elbiblifiied for the maintenance of diicipline among
the troops were afterwards regarded as the military laws of
the Romans, and many of the laws which he enafted were
obferved till the end uf the fourth centuiy. He prohi-
bited all thofe private work-hou!es, which were habitations-
of llavery and wretehednefs ; and he was not only a man of
learning himfelf, but he encouraged literature and fciencci
Many of his works, both in profe and verfe, were publiHied
under his own name, and the names of other diftinguhhed
perfons. His Greek poem, called the Alexandriad, has
been quoted by fome of the ancients. In his Catacriani,
mentioned by Spartian, he pretended to imitate Antima-
chus, whom he prefeiTed to Homer. He was fo ambitious
of fame, that he wrote his own Lfe in feveral books, fomc
fragments of which are ftill extant. His reign was dilHn-
guilhed in the hillory of literature, by a very conliderable num-
ber of learned men, among whom we may reckon Phlegon,
F"avorinus, Epiftctus, Arrian, Plutarch, Dionyfius of Ilali-
carnaffus, Philo of Byblos, Suetonius, and Floras.

Adrian's reputation for talents and learning has been uni-
verfally allowed. His memory was fo retentive, that he
could repeat a whole book, after having once perufed it ;
and he knew the name of every foldier in his ai-my. He ex-
celled in evei'y branch of learning, :ujd was, without doubt,
the bell orator, poet, "grammarian, philofoplK-r, and mathe-
matician of his time. He was eminent for drawing and
painting, and for his Ikill in the theory and praflice of
mufic. Fie ufed at the fame time to write, didlate to fevc-
ral fecretaries, give audience to his minillcrs, and difcourfe
with them about affairs of the grcatell importance : and his
court was crouded with men dillinguilhed in every branch
of literature and feience. In his natural difpofition he was
fufpicious, envious, lafcivious, and cruel ; and his general
character exhibited a itrange compofition of virtues and
vices. To his friends he was courteous and affable, and his
liberality v/as unbounded. But he was ever ready to give
ear to flandercrs, and to believe every tale that was whif-
pered againft him, fo that thofe who were once mod dillin-
guilhed by his favour were difgraced, banifhed, and put to
death. Capricious and unlleady in his attachment, and
violent in his refentment, he was dillrulted by his friends,
and dreaded by his enemies. Neverthelefs, the great and
the rich did not fuffer under his government from unjuil
condemnations and forfeitures. He knew how to pardon

offcncet ;

ADR

ADR

oiTcncos ; and tliofc who had been liii cncmiis when he was
in a private" ilatioii, l>ad no occafioii to fear him when
he was an emperor. When he arrived at tiic fovereign
j>owcr, he faul to one of thofe from whom lie had re-
fei%ed the moll convincing proofs of his hatred, " Behold
yourfelf in perfcA fal'cty." His vanity, however, was
■ always predominant ; and he v:as often induced, by the fear
of infamy, or the defire of applaufe, to preiene at lead the
appearances of virtue. In his plans of pu^ilic improvement,
he was comprehenlive and liberal, even to the extreme of
iicedlefs mavjnilicence and ciil])able profufion. There was
fca/ce a province, or a city, in which he did not leave fub-
flantial proofs of his attention to the benefit and convenience
-of its inhabitants. lie repaired old edifices, and built new
ones, baths, aquednfts, and harbours : and he expended
large fums in einbelliniing the monuments of thofe whp had
diilinguilhcd themfelves in former times, as in the cafe of
Epaminondas's tomb at Mantinea, and in the honour he
paid to Pompey's remains. To Greece he was particularly
favowable ; and from the Greeks he received many expref-
fions of gratitude. And yet diilipated and extravagant as
he was in his private expences, and in his public ditburfe-
ments, he is faid never to have unjuftly feized any man's
property, nor did he ever receive legacies from perfons who
were not known to him, or from any of his friends who had
children.

In his vo) ages, when he w<?s at any city, he adminiftered
juftice to all who applied to him, or fought the afTiftance
of the ableft lawyers. Adrian, indeed, dcfcn-es to be par-
ticularly recornizcd for the adminiilration of juftice, and
the wifdom of his laws, for eiVablidiing and maintaining
peace among the citizens. He confidered the termination
of difputes, by equitable decifions, as one of tlie principal
duties of a fovereign, and he was affiduous in difcharging it.
His zeal for juftice and good order led him to keep a ftrift
eye over thole who governed provinces under his authority;
and he knew how to difcover truth through all the afts of
diflimulation. At Rome he made a very important reforma-
tion in the adminiftration of juftice. See J'eif:'lual Edict.

He foftentd the rigour of fervitude, and deprived maf-
ters of the arbitrary power of life and death over their
flaves : he prohibited the fale of them, and their beino-
rendered, according to their fex, viclims of proftitntion, or
gladiators, without tiie authority of the judge ; and he for-
bade the ufe of private prifons. From an attention to de-
cency, he likewife prohibited the promifcuous ufe of baths
for both fexes. He is aUb faid tohave renewed the an-
cient fumptuaiy laws enafted by Auguftus ; and he forbade
the abominable cuftom of human facrifices, thonrh in the
cafe of Antinons he feems to have violated his own law. He
punilhcd fraudulent bankrupts with feverity, and ordered
them to be whipped. He reformed the police in many in-
ftances witii judgment ; and the alterations he introduced
in the general conduft of the em.pire, in the fervice of the
palace, in the militan/ difeipline, and in the government of
the empire, was confirmed by pradlice, and continued even
to the reign of Conftantine. To his foldiers he fet an ex-
ample of fimplicity and felf-denial ; and by his attention to
them in various refpefts, he gained their love and confi-
dence. He preferred none but men of courage, ftrength,
and good charader, faying, " fuch as the officers are, fuch
will the foldiers foon be." Thus 'he revived the ancient
militarj' difeipline, which, by the negligence of many
princes, had been decaying fince the time of Auguftus.
It may be obferved in general, that the Roman empire was
happy under his government. The maxim which he in-
£ulcated in the ailembly of the people, and in the fenate, de-

feiTCs to be recorded. " I propofe to myfelf (fays he) fo
to govern the commonwealth, as to fhev7 1 never forget it is
not my own property, and that I am no more than admi-
niftratorfor tlie public." A<irian'8 government would have
been praifed, if he had fucceeded Domitian, but it was liis
misfortune to have Nerva and Trajan for his predeccffors, and
for his fueceflbrs Antoninus and Marcus Anrclius.

Adrian appears to have been too much addicled to every
kind of fuperftition. He was fond i>f the Greek worfhip,
and paid little attention to the religion of Ir.jfe nations
wliom the Romans and Greeks confidered as barbarians ;
and therefore the templei, which he is faid to have ercdled
in honour oi Jefus Chrift, were intended cnl-.^-r for himfelf,
and for his own proper worfhip, or in conformity to the
dodrine of Numa and Pythagoras, as places wh.re the gods
might be worlhlppcd without images. The Chriftians he
confidered as enemies to the idolatrous worlliip ot his gods ;
yet it is thought, that upon the whole he was moderate to
them, more efpecially when it is confidered how much the
populace, inftigated by the priefts, wiihed and endeavoured
to deftroy them. Eufebiiis has pielerved a refcript, which
orders that they ftiould be regularly profecuted, and con-
demned if convifted of a breach of the law ; but, on the
other hand, if the charge brought againft them fliould not
be proved, their accufers fhotild be punifhed. The modera-
tion of this edift has been afcribed by fome to the admirable
apologies of Qiiadratus and Ariftides in favour of the Chrif-
tians. Adrian's conduft to the Jews was very rigorous,
though their repeated infurreftions and rebellion might fur-
nlfii lome apology for his feverity. He forbade them even
the fight of Jerufalem, into which they were not permitted
to enter, except in one day of the year, which was the an-
niverfaiy of the deftruilion of the city. He fent a Roman
colony into the holy city, and called it ./Elia Cap'tlolina,
that it might bear his family name, and that of Jupiter, to
whom he had erefted a temple in the place where that of
the true God ftood. He ftudioufly profaned all the places
which had been moft revere 1 by tiie Jews, with buildings
fet apart for the worfiiip of idols : he placed a hog of
marble upon the gate of the city which led towards Bethle-
hem'; he erefted in the place where Jefus was crucified, a
ftatue of Venus ; and in that where he arofe from the dead,
a ftatue of Jupiter ; and in the grottos at Bethlehem,
where our Saviour was born, he eftablilhed the worfliip of
Adonis.

In this prince, fnys Crevier, there centered veiy oppofite
qualities : he was gay and grave, haughty and i'lflable, im-
petuous and circumfpeft, frugal even to avarice and liberal,
cruel and merciful. It is diflicult to make an entire piece
of fuch difcnrdant parts ; but we fliall not be niiftaken, if
we confider his vices as real, his virtues as fiftitious. Politi-
cal intereft and vanity were the principles of all the good
he did ; and thefe motives, affilted with an uncommon
genius, improved with the moft ufcful parts of knowledge,
were fnfficient to render him a prince whofe government was
for the good of the people in general, whilft hisperfonal con-
duct made him a fco\irge to thofe who were near him.

Tlie following verfes adureded to his foul, \\hich he com-
pofed, and uttered not long before he expired, exprefs,
amidll great doubts and uncertainty, fome general appre-
henfions concerning a future ftate. ,

Animula, vagula, blandula,
Holpes, comefque corporis,
Qiia; nunc abibis in loca
Palliduhi, rigida, nudula ?
Nee, ut foles, dabis jocos.

Poor

ADR

ADR

Poor little, pretty fluttering thing,

Mu't we no longer live togctiier ?

And doft tliou prune thy Irembhng wing.

To take thy flight thou know'ft not whither?

Thy humorous vein, thy plcafuig folly,

Lies all negle(^ed, all forgot :

And penfive, wav'ring, melancholy,

Thou dread'ft and hop'il, thou know'ft not what.

Prior.

Ah ! fleeting fpirit ! wand'ring fire,

That long hall warm'd my tender hreaft.

Mull thou no more this frame infpire ?

No more a pleafing chearful gucll !

Whither, ah, whither art thou flying ?

To what dark undifcover'd fliore ?

Thou feem'll all trembling, lliiv'ring, dying,

And wit and humour are no more !

Pope's Works, vol. vii. p. lS6.
"ec Spartian in Adrian. Dion. Cafl". Hiil. Rom. torn. ii.
p. 1 149 — 1170. Ed. Reimari. Anc. Un. Hi.i. vol. xiii.
p. 265 — 293. Crevier's Rom. Emp. vol. vii. b. 19. p. 129
— 222.

Adrian I. Pope, fucceeded Stephen III. in the papal
chair, A. D. 772. He was the fon of Theodore, a Roman
nobleman, and poffefled conl'iderable talents for bulincfs.
He maintained a fteady attachment to Charlemagne, which
provoked Defiderius, king of the Lombards, to invade the
ilate of Ravenna, and to threaten Rome itfelf. Charlemagne
recompenfed his attachment, by inarching with a large
army to his fuccour ; and having gained many confici^rable
advantages over Defiderius, and recovered the cities which
he had taken, he vifited the pope at Rome, confirming the
grants made by his father Pepin, to which he added new
donations, and formed a perpetuiil league of friendlliip be-
tAveen the growing power of France and the efiablilhed fu-
premacy of the Wellern Church. On this occafion he ex-
prefied his piety, by the humiliating ceremony of kifling
each of the ileps, as he afcended to the church of St. Peter.
Pavia, during this vifit, had been left in a ftate of fiege ;
on his return it furrendercd, and the dynafty of the Lom-
bard princes, which had lalled 206 years, was terminated in
the year 776. When frefli diilurbances occurred by the in-
terference of the bifliop of Ravenna, who claimed and
feized the exarchate and the dukedom of Feriara, which
Charlemagne had reftored to the pope ; this prince renev/ed
liis vifit, and fettled the affairs of Italy. In return for
thefe fervices, he obtained the title of king of the Lombards,
and the rights of temporal fovereignty in the territory of the
Roman fee. Adrian now directed his attention to the aflairs
of the church : and as Irene, who, in 780, affumed the re-
gency at Conllantinople, during the minority of her fon
Conliantine, wiflied to rellore and ellabHfh the worfliip of
images, (he applied to Adrian for his concurrence. The
pontifl' readily aequiefced in her propofal for callinjif a coun-
cil, and commiiTiontd two legates to attend it. The coun-
cil, however, which held its firfl meeting in 786, was dif-
perfed by an infurreftion of the citizens. At the next
meeting in the city of Nice, in 787, which v^as protetled
by a military force, a decree was pafied for reftoring the
•worfliip of images. Adrian approved the decree, but in the
wellern church it was deemed heretical and dangerous. C':ar-
lemagne condemned the innovation, and the French and
Englifli clergy concurred in oppofing it. A trcatife, con-
taining 120 heads of refutation, was circulated, as the
work of Charlemagne, under the title of " The Caroline
Books," in oppofition to the decree of the council. Tiiis
work was prefeuted to the pope by the king's ambaflador,

and the pope wrote a letter to Charlemagne by way of re-
ply. The king, and alfo the Gallicaii and Englifh chuiclies,
retained tiicir fentiments ; and, in 794, a council was iicld
at Frankfort on tiie Maine, coiifilling of about 300 weftcm
bilhops, by which every kind of imagc-worfliip was con-
demned. Adrian did not live to fee a termination of
tliis conteil ; for after a pontificate of nearly twenty-four
years, he died in 795. Tiiis pope dcjes not iqjpear to have
polTcfled any confidtrable erudition, ana few examples occur,
during his pontificate, of ecclefiaflical reformation. He
feems to have diretled his chief attention to the embellifh*
nient of the churches, and tlic improvement of the city of
Rome ; and he was probably furniflied by Charlemagne,
out of the plunder of his conquells, with ample mcani for
this pni-pofe. The king was much attached to him, and is
faid to have flied tears on occafion of his death. He wrote his
epitaph, which is flill fcen in St. Peter's at Rome, in thirty-
ciijht Latin verfes. Dupin. vol. v. p. 113. Bower. Gen.
Biog.
, Adri'\n II. Pope, fucceeded Nicholas I. A. D. 867.

Ha

twice refulcd the dignity, he accepted it in the 76th

year ol his age, at the united requell of the clergy, nobility,
and people. Tlie conteil for power between the Greek and
Latin churches had been very violent lome years before his
acceflion to the papal chair. Photius, who, in 858, had
been appointed patriarch of Conllantinople by the emperor
Michael, had been exeommunieated bv pope Nicholas I. in
a council ailembled at Rome in 862 : and the pope himfelf
had been, in 866, excommunicated by Photius. The pope,
in order to avenge the injuries which Ignatius, who had
been deprived of the patriarchate and exiled, demanded the
rellitution of feveral Greek provinces, which the patriarch
of Conftantinople had fepaiated from the jurifdiftion of the
Roman pontilT. Bafil, the new emperor, recalled Ignatius
to the dignity of patriarch, and confined Photius in a mo-
nadery. The relloration of Ignatius was approved by a
council held at Conftantinople, in 869 ; and by tlie decrees
of this council, the difputes between the Greek and Latin
churches were fufpended. But circumftances occurred
whicii fei-vcd to revive them. The Bulgarians had applied
to this council for information, whether they fliould be fub-
jecl to the church of Rome, or that of Conllantinople. The
conteil whicli this cjuellion produced, terminated in lavoiir of
the patriarchate ; and Ignatius expelled the Latin mif-
fionaries from Bulgaria, and appointed Greeks in their
room.

Adrian, during this conteft for power with the eaftem
patriarch, was extending his authority over the kings and
princes of the weft. He employed his whole intereft to in-
duce Charles the Bald, who had taken pofleflion of the
kingdom of Lorrain, and who had been crowned at Rheims
by the archbifliop Hincmar, to relinquifli it in favour of the
emperor ; and he even fcnt legates to the king, after having
attempted to engage Hincmar, the clergy, and the nobility
to defert him, ordering him to furrender to the emperor's
right. The king was invincible ; and the pope was obliged
to give up the conteil. He alfo farther interfered in the
concerns of princes, by taking Charles's rebellious foa
Carloman, and the younger Hincmar, bifliop of Laon, un-
der the pro'.e6lion of the Roman fee. He proceeded in this
bufinefs fo far, that he was under a ncceflity of fubmitting
without gaining his point. Bulgaria again claimed his
attention, and he wiflied to rellore the jurifdidlion of it
to the fee of Rome. But death terminated h.s ambitious
projefts and his life of inquietude, A.D. 872. after a pon-
tificate of five years. Dupin's Ninth Centar)-, vol. vii.
p. 179. Moflieim's Eccl. Hift.. vol. ii. p. 351, &c. 8vo.

Adrian

ADR

ADR

Adrian III. Pope, fucceeded Marinus, A. D. R?^.
This pope, dcfirous of emancipating Italy and tiic papal fee
from their dependence upon tlie emperor of Gernianv, pafied
?. decree, that, if Charles IhoulJ die without male ilYue, the
title of emperor fhould he beftowcd only on natives of Italv,
and that the authonty of the emperor (hould be dilregarded
in the creation of a pope. Bal'il attempted to perfuade
Adrian to annul the excommimicatiou of liis predeeefTor
againll Photius, but did not fucceed. The pope died in his
way to the diet at Worms, in 8Sy. Bower.

Adrias IV. Pope, the 0!ily Engliflmian who ever had
the honour to fit in St. Peter's chair. His name was A7-
colat Brelfjxre or lireed/pettr ; and he was born towards
the clofc of the eleventh ccntuiy, at Langley, U'.ar St.
Alban's, in Hertfordfliire, Mis father, being poor, and
having aflfumed the habit of the monaftcry of St. Alban's,
was unable to provide for him. I'eing refnfed the habit for
which he applied, he went to Paris, where he was d'llin-
giiiflied both by his application and proficiency. Prom
Paris he removed to the monalleiy of St. Rufus, in Pro-
vence ; here he became a regular clerk ; and upon the death
of the abbot in 1137, he was chofeTi iupcrior of tliat houie,
vhich he rebuilt. Of this dignity he was depiived in con-
fequence of the comphiiiits and accufations ot the monks,
who were dillatistied with the government of a foreigner :
hut pope Eugenius III. having heard their charges, and
.his defence, declared hiin innocent, and advanced him, in
1 146, to the higher ilation of cardinal bifliop of Alba. In
1 148 he was fent as apoftolical legate, to Denmark and
Nonvay, where, by his ddigent iullruetion, he converted
thofe barbarous nations to the Chriftian faith ; and it is
faid that he erecled the church at Upfal into an arcUi-epifco-
■pal fee. Upon his retiu-n to Rome, he was niuch honoured
.by the pope and cardinals ; and on the death of pope
Anaftafius, who had fucceeded Eugenius, he was unani-
jnoufiy chofen to the papal chair in November 1 154, and
atlumed the name of Adrian. As foon as the news of his
promotion reachad England, Henrj' II. fent a deputation
of an abbot and three billiops to congratulate him on his
.cletlion ; and upon this occafion he granted confiderable
privileges to the nionaftery of St. Albans. But he refufcd
the valuable prefents which they offered him, faying jocofely,
" I will not accept your gihs, becaufe, when I wifiicd to
take the habit of your monallery, you refuicd me." To
•which the abbot pertinentlv and fmartly replied ; " It was
not for us to oppofe the will of Providence, which jiad
ideftined you for greater things." In the next year he gave
Heni-y leave to undertake the conqueil of Ireland, and fent
him a bull for that purpole, in which he teilifies his appro-
bation of the ob'jccl of the expedition, and the enlargement
•of the boundaries of tlie Chrillian church, and commands
the people of that country to acknowledge him as their fo-
vereign lord. He reminds the king, at the fame time, of
the rights of the Chrillian church ; claiming all the iflands
which embraced Chriflianlty, as St. Peter's right, and be-
longing to the holy Roman church ; and exhorting to the
regular payment of the Peter pence which he had promifed.
He admonilhes him alfo to ufe his endeavours for rcform-
ang the manners of the people, and to commit the govern-
ment of the churches to able and virtuous perfons, fo that
he might thus deferve an evtrlafting reward in heaven, and
tranfmit a glorious name to poittrity. Adrian's indul-
^gence to this prince was fo great, that he confented to ab-
folve him from the oath he had taken, not to fet afide any
^art of liis father's vill.

In the beginning of his pontificate he conftrained the
magiflrates of Rome to abdicate the authority they bad af-

fumed In their efforts to recover the ancient liberty of the
people under the coufuls, and to leave the government of
the city to the pope. In 1155 he drove the heretic Ar-
nold of Iireftia, and his followers, from Rome. He alfo
excommunicated William king of Sicily, wI;o ravaged the
territories of the church, and abiolvtd his lubjects from
their allegiance. . In his inteniew with Frederick king of
the Romans, with whom he concluded a peace when he hi-
v.ided Italy, this prince condcfcendcd to hold his lliiTup
wliilll he mounted his horfe ; in confequence of which
Adrian condncled him to Rome, and placed the imperial
crown on his head in St. Peter's chvirch, to the great mor-
tification of the Roman people, who aflembled tumultuoufly
and kilkd feveral of tlse im.perialills. The Sicilian king,
having taken an oath, not to prejudice the ctiurch, was ho-
noured by Adrian, in 1 \ ^G, with the title of the A7nf cf
thf T1L0 S'uitics. Till,; pope built and fortified feveral
caiUes, and left the papal dcminiouj m a m.orc powerful and
flomifning condition than he found them. However, 1. •.
complained of the diiquietudes attendant on his high fta-
tion ; and in a letter to his old friend John of Salifbuiy, he
fays, that St. Peter's chaii- was the moll uneafy feat in the
world, and that his ciuwn feemed to be clapped burning on
his he;id. He died, September I, 1159, in the fourth year
and tenth month of his pontificate, and was buried in St.
Peter's chmch, near the tomb ot liis predecefTor Eugenius.
Dr. Cave informs us, that he allowed his mother to be
maintained by the alms of the church of Canterbury. Tliere
are extant feveral letters written by pope Adrian, and fom^
homilies. Biog. Brit.

Adrian V. Pope, a Genoefe, whofe name was Otto-
boni Ficfci, fucceeded Innocent V. A. D. 1276. He was
created by his uncle Innocent IV. cardinal deacotv of St.
Adrian, and in 1294 fent by him to England, to fcttle tlK
difputes between Henry HI. and his barons; and he was
employed again for the fame purpofc, by Clement III.
when he ifTued a fentence of excommunication againll the
king's enemies. To thofe who congratulated him on his
acceffion to the papal chair, he replied, " I xvifli you had
found me a healthy cardinal, rather than a dying pope."
Immediately after his eleftion he went to Vittrbo to meet
the emperor Rodolphus, for the purpofe of oppofmg tlie
ufurpation of Charles, king of the Two Sicilies ; but died
foon after his arrival, having enjoved his dignity only thirty-
eight days. He zealouOy encouraged the crufade to the
Holy Land, and upon his election fent a large fum to
Conltantinoplii towards building galleys ; and he alfo fur-
nilhed further lupplies. Bower.

Adrian \T. Pope, was a native of Utrecht, the fon
of a tapelliy weaver, or, as fome fa^', of a brewer's fervant.
He fucceeded Leo X. A. D. 1522. He was educated
gratuitoufly at Louvam, and dillinguidied liimfelf by his ap-
plication and proficiency. Through the intercft of Margaret,
widow of the duke of Burgundy, and fifter of Edward IV.
of England, he obtained the profcfibrfliip of divinity ia
Louvain, the deanery of the cathedral, and the vice-chan-
cellorlhip of the univerfity. Having been appointed tutor
to Charles, tlie grandfon of Maximilian, and the young
prince preferring arms to letters, Adrian was employed by
the emperor on an embaffy to Ferdinand king of Spain, in
confequence of which he obtained the bilh.upric ot 1'or-
tofa. When Charles was left fole heir to the dominions
of Ferdinand, he appointed Adrian regent during his
minority : but as Cardinal Ximents had been named
for this office l."- Ferdinand, they both united, in the go-
vernment of the countiy. Xuncnts, however, was the real,
and Adrian merclv nominal regent. In 15 17 the emperor

Jilaximilian

ADR

Maximilian recommcnJtil Adiian to Leo X. and lie wn«
preferred by that pontiiT to the dignity of cardinal. In a
conteft with the Caililiaiis, when lie fulhiincd the ofBec of
regent during tlie emperor's abfcnce in 1520, he attempted
to enforce fubmiffion, by miUtary power, bnt faikd in the
attempt ; and he was under a neceirity of withdrawing his
forces, and to content himfelf with tlie mere (hadow of au-
thority. He was in a little time, and ina manner veiy unex-
pefted, removed from this unpleafant fitiuition, and ad-
vanced to the highell dignity of the church. Upon the
death of Leo X, m 1521, the conclave was divided about
the choice of a fucctffor. The yoimger members were at-
tached to Julio, Cardinal dc Medici, the nephew of Leo ;
but the old cardinals were avcrfe from chuling a pontifl" out
of the powerful family of the Medici, and yet they were
not agreed in their views with relpecl to any other perfon.
By a manoeuvre, which was merely defigncd to gain time,
the party of Julio voted for Cardinal Adrian in the pre-
paratory fcrutiny. The other party clofed with them ;
and thus a ilranger to Italy, and a man unquaUfied for the
office, was elefted, no lefs to tlieir own furprife than to the
aftoniftiment of Europe. The election was probably the
effect of intrigue, and of the fecret interference of the im-
perial ambaffador, John Manuel, who willied to obtain a
pope devoted to his mailer's intcrclt. See Robcrtfon's Hill.
Charles V. vol. ii. p. 210, &c. 8vo.

Adrian's difpofition and views, as well as his principles
and manners, were ill adapted to the office, that had been
thus devolved upon him. At the time of his eleftion Rome
was afflicted wiih a peililence, its linances were exhaufted,
and literature and the arts required hberal and judicious
patronage. In thefe difadvantageous circumilanccs did
Adrian afcend the papal chair. However he entered on
his office with the bell intentions. He began by avoiding
every kind of expenlive parade, and by exhibiting an ex
ample of moderation and temperance, which tended to cor-
\x&. and reform the diffolute manners of the court and city.
He difcouraged the ambitious and felliih expectations of
liis own relations, he annulled many ordinances which the
cardinals had enafted for their own benefit, and he abohllied
many offices which Leo had created for the gratification of
his favourites. With this pope it was a ruling maxim, that
men were made for places, and not places for men. He re-
ftored the duchy of Urbino to its lawful proprietor, and
funendered to the Duke of Ferrara feveral places of
which he had been unjuiUy deprived. He alfo ilTued a
bull, requiring Chriftian princes to confent to a truce for
three years, fo that the Imperial, French, and Enghib am-
baffadors at Rome might deliberate on terms of pacifica-
tion. Whilil he demanded a zealous execution of the im-
perial edift againft Luther and his followers ; he declared a
difpofition to exercife his fpiritual autliority for the refonna-
tion of the church. Notwithftanding the juft claims on re-
fpeft which refulted from the pontitPs general conduft, his
beft aftions were mifmterpreted ; his ceconomy was called
parfimony, his plans of reform were imputed to unnecef-
iaiy aullerity, and his difuiterefted conduft to weaknefs
and inexperience. His unpopularity was partly owing to
liis being a ftranger in Italy, and to the attention which he
paid to fome of his former friends, whilil; lie declined repo-
ilng confidence in his brethren of the conclave. He \^as
alfo too much under the influence of Charles, and fuffered
liis attachment to his former mailer to miflead his judg-
ment. This led him to relinquifli his plan of a general pa-
cification, and to form an alliance with the emperor and the
king of England againll France. On the day when this
confederacy was figned, Adrian was ftized with a flow

Vol. L

ADR

fever, wliich terminated his life and the anxieties of his cle.
vated llalion in December 15231 after he had pufTelTtd the
papal dignity one year and ten months. He v.-a.i buried i«
the cluircli of tit. Peter, and on his toinb was inleribcd the
following cjiitaph, which informs polleiity, that the grcatcd
misfortune which he had experienced in life, wa-., that he
had been called to govern.

•' Adriamis Papa VI. hie fitus eft,
Qi^ii nihil fibi infehciui

In vita,

Qiiam quod imperarct,

duxlt."

Notwithftanding many excellencies that dillinguidied ti-.e
charafter of Adrian, he was dellitute of that fjrmnefn and
energy of mind, which the duties of his high and ardiioui
iUition required. Few men that have been fo i\xe from
faults, incurred fuch unpopularity, and became obnoxious
to fo many calumnies. The door of his phyfician, in the
night after his deceafe, was ailorned with garlands, and
marked with this infeription ; " To the deliverer of hi» '
country." However fuch kind of reproach, on tiie part
of the dilTulute and licentious, redounds to his honour.
The piety of Adrian, it has been obferved, was jnore dif-
tinguithed than his talle for the fine arts. From the llatuc
of Laocoon, he turned away his head in token of liis dif-
like of pagan images, and he exprefled his contempt of
poets, by calling them Terenlians. With theology and
fcholallic philofophy he was well acquainted. Whilft he
was profeffor of divinity at Louvain he wrote " a Commen-
tary upon the Book of Sentences, by Peter Lombard."
" Epillles," and " Qiixftiones Qiiodlibetica:," printed at
Louvain in 1515, and at Paris in ijiGand 1531. Dupin's
Hift. of the 1 6th century. Bower's Popes. Robertlbn'*
Charles V. vol. ii. b. i. p. 2. Gen. Biog.

ADRIAN, (De Cailello) bifliop of Bath and Wells;
in the reigns of Henry VII. and VIII. and cardinal prieil
of the Roman church, was defccnded of an obfcure family,
and born at Cornelto, a fmall town in Tufcany. Having
diftinguillied himfelf by his parts and learning, he obtained
feveral employments at the court of Rome. In 1488, he was
fent by pope Innocent VIII. as his Nuncio extraordlnaiy,
to appeafe the troubles in Scotland, and to exercife the of-
fice of quseftor or treafurer to his hollnefs, in collefting his
tribute or Peter pence. He was alfo agent for tlie Englirti
affairs at the court of Rome, and in recompence of his fer-
vices, was promoted firft to the fee of Heniford in 1 504,
and afterwards to that of Bath and Wells. He farmed out
his bifliopric and refided at Rome, in a magnificent palace
which he erected, and which he bequeathed to Henry V II.
whofe name was infcrlbed upon the front of it, and to his
fucceffors. He was fecretary and vicar-general to pope
Alexander VI. and created by him in 1503, a cardii..il pricll,
under the title of St. Chryfogonus ; foon after which erent
he narrowly efcaped being poifoned at a feall, to which he
was invited by the pope and his fon Ctcfar Borgia. In the
pontificate of Julius II. he baniilied himfelf from Rome ;
nor did he return till a conclave was held for the eledion of
a new pope. Soon after the elevation of Leo X. he con-
curred in a confpira-cy againll his hfe ; and being unable to
pay the fine of 12,500 ducats, which was the penally in.
flifted upon him, lie w-ithdrew fom Rome, av.d was ex.
communicated, and deprived of his benefices and ecclcfiatli-
cal orders, July 6th, 15 18. Four vchrs before this period,
he had been removed from his office of the pope's colkflor
in England by Henry VIII. at th.e iniligation of cardinal
Wolley, who employed lum us his folicitor at Roirx, ar.d wa»
betrayed by him in his attempts to obtain the dignity of
K k ctudinuk

ADR

cardinal. After his condemnation, it is faid that he took
refuge amonoll the Turks in Afia. Polydore Virgil extols
his talents and learning, and fays that he was the firft fince the
age of Cicero, who revived the purity of the Latin language,
and taught men to draw their knowled<i;e from the lources
of the bed and mod learned authors. Biog. Brit.

Adrian, a learned Carlhufian, who wrote a treatife in-
titled Dc Renicdiis utriufque fortune;, the firft edition of
which wa5 publiilud at Cologn in 147 1, 4L0. The book
is fcarce and much efiecmed.

ADRIANA, in ylnchnt Geography, an epifcopal city
of the Hellefpont, under the metropolis of Cyzicus.

ADRIANKUM, MrAes ILnlrhmi, the magnificent Mau-
foleum erefted by Adrian in the lefler field of lylars at
Rome, over againft that of AuguHus, and conneftcd with
it by a bridge. It is of a fquare form, and in the midlt of
it there is a lofty round tower. It ferved as a citadel when
Rome was bcfieged by Viliges, king of the Goths, and
the Romans defended themfelves by carting fragments of
the Ilatues upon their enemies. Here Adrian was buried
and all the Antonines.

ADRIANI, JoANNi Ballista, in Biography, was
born of a Patrician family, at Florence, in 1 5 1 1 . He wrote
a hiilory of his own times in Italian, beginning in 1536,
and terminating in 1574, and defigned as a continuation of
Guicciardini, to which Thuanus (Hift. 1. 68.) acknowledges
Jiimfelf much indebted. He alfo compofed fix funeral ora-
tions, and is thought to have been the author of a long let-
ter on ancient painters and fculptors, prefixed to the third
volume of Vafari. He died at Florence, in 1579. Biog.
Did.

Adriani, m yfiiclenl Geography, furaamed Ad olymphim,
a city of Afia Minor, in Bithynia.

ADRIANIDjE, in An-ient Hijlory, a new tribe efta-
b'.iihed by the Athenians in honour of Adrian, after the
example of thrit which was formed in honour of Attains,
king of Pergamos, and comprehending the villages of Ele-
onfa, Oa, and Pifigaia.

ADRIANISTS, in Ecchf,.iJ}-\cal Hifory, a branch of
Anabaptifts, the dilciples of Adrian Hamitedius, in the i6th
centur)', who taught firft: in Zealand, and afterwards in
England. The Adrianifts, befides tlie common dogma of
anabaptifm, are iaid to have had fomepecuhar notions relat-
ing to the perfon of Chrift.

Theodoret mentions a more ancient fed. of this name,
who were followers of Simon Magus.

ADRIANO-A-SIERRA, in Geography, a mountain of
Guipufcoa, in Bifcay, one of the higlieil of the Pyrennees.
It is crofTed in the way from Bifcay to Old Caftile.

ADRIANOPLE, or Andrinople, in Geography, a
city of Turkey in Europe, in the province of Romania,
called anciently Orejlci, and now Etirerie by the Turks, but
deriving its name from the emperor Adrian, who founded or
re.lored it. It is fituated on the Hebrus or Marifs, at the
confluence of the I'unfa and the Harda, and rifes gently on
the fide of a fmall hill. It is about five miles in circumfe-
rence, fays ChifliuU in his travels, p. 63. The form of it
is circular, and it is furrounded with decayed walls and
towers. The houfes are generally built of mud and clay,
and fome of them of brick ; and the ftreets are dirty and
narrow. The bazar or market place, called Alt Bnjfa, is
an arched building about half a mile long, with fix gates,
and a great number of (hops that are occupied by Turks,
Armenians and Jews. There is alfo another bazar of meaner
ftrufture, about a mile long, containing many (hops, and
well ftored with various commodities. And in another part
-of ths tewn, there is a third mai-ket place, called iKeJlc'w,

ADR

covered like the former, and provided with a number of
(hops, in which are fold the manufaftures of gold and filver,
jewels, piftoh, &c. There are four mofques, the principal
of which is that of Sultan Selim, built by him of materials
brought from the ruins of Famagufta, in the ifland of Cy-
prus. It is conftrufted like a theatre with one ftately room,
terminating upwards in a cupola, and it is beautifully
fituated on the fide of a hill, in the midllof the city. The
emperor's feraglio Hands in a plain near the river Tunfa or
Tungia. The grand vizier's palace is only a common
houfc, after the Turkidi manner of building, which is two
miles in compafs, and has fevcn gates befides thofe of the
gardens, which are feveral miles in circumference. The
objeils moil worthy of attention are, the mofques, the
roofs of which are covered with copper, having alfo lofty
Jleeples and colonnades, with pedtftals and chapiters of call
brafs, beautiful marble gates of exquifite fculpture, de-
lightful fountains, itately porticos with gilded balls on the
top, and curious tapeiliy ; all which ex'nibit a very grand
appearance. The city, which is faid to contain about 100,000
inhabitants, is under the government of a Mullah Cadi,
who has an abfolute authority in all civil and criminal mat-
ters. The commerce of this place, favoured by the river
that waters it, has drawn hither people from all nations.
It is now the refidence of a Greek bifiiop, and the grand
fignior fometimes vifits this city, either for pleafure or fafety,
when the plague or war makes it neceffary for him to leave
Conllantinople. In i 350 Sultan Amurath firft took it from
the Chriftians, from which time it became the feat of the
Turkifli emperor, till Conllantinople was reduced in 1458.
In 1 754, it fufFered greatly by fire. The adjacent country is
vei-y fertile, and fupplies the town with all kinds of necefla-
ries ; and the wine in particular, is reckoned the beft in
Turkey. Chifiiull takes it to be that mentioned by Hefiod,
in his Oper. and Dies. 1. 2. v. 107. where he fays.

This is a fee of a Greek archbifhop under the patriarch of
Conftantinople. N. lat. 41° 41'. E. long. 26° 27'.

ADRIANOPOLIS, in Ancient Geography, i. e. the
city of Adrian, a name given to various cities in difi'erent
countries, that were either built or repaired by the em-
peror Adrian. The number of thefe cities is not lefs than
nine. The city of Thrace ftill retains its name.

Adrianopolis, was a city of Epirus, fouth of Apol-
lonia. This affumed the appellation Juftinianopolis, after the
emperor Juilinian.

Adrianopolis of Bithynia, in Afia Minor, called .So//,
was fituated upon the Billsus, weft of Cratia.

ADRIANOTHERA, Ajpiav™ 9r,f«.;, Adrian's chace,
or hunt, a city of Myfia, which retained its name in the
fifth centuiy, and which was founded by Adrian in a dif-
trift of Myfia, whither he reforted for the pleafures of the
chace. His fondnefs for thefe fports was fo great, that he
erefted monuments for his dogs and horfes ; and he com-
pofed an epitaph for his horfe Bdrifthenes, which he had
often ufed in hunting. Dion. Caff. tom. ii. p. 1159. Ed.
Reim. This is probably the fame city with Adrlanl,
which was the birth-place of Ariftides the Sophitl. There
was another Ariadne or Adrianopolis, in Lybia C)Te-
naica.

ADRIANSEN, Alexander, in Biography, a painter
who excelled in painting fruit, flowers, fifii, and ftill-life,
was born at Antwerp, about the year 1625. All his objefts
are well coloured, with an agreeable effeft, from the judi-
cious management of the chiaro fcuro, and with a remark-
able tranl'parence. Pilkington's Dift.

ADRIANUM or Adriaticum Mare, now the gulf

of

ADR

ADS

of Venict, in /Indent Geogniphy, is a large bay in the Me-
<31teiTaneaii, between Dalniatia, Sclavoiiia, Greece, and
Italy, and extending from louth-eail to north-weft, be-
tween 40° and 45° 55' N. lat. about 2Co leag-uts long, and
50 broad. Its enlraike between Ctnina and Otrantc,
is about 14 leagues wide. It is called by the Greeks
I Aifi:/.: xoX-TO;-, Adr'ia J<mis ; by the Latins varioully, a-s
Adria, by Horace, (lib. i. od. 3.) " Arbiter Adri.e no-
t\is :" by Silius, (lib. i. v. 54. p. 6. Ed. Drakenb.)
" Hadrlacum pontum ;" by Cicero, (in Pifon. c. xxxviii.
and lib. 10. Attic. Ep. 7.) " Hadrianum mare;" by Vir-
gil, (jEn. xi. V. 405.) " Hadriacas iHidas." The Adria-
tic fea, fays Hefychius, is the fame with the Ionian fea ;
and in order to foU-e a difficulty in the interpretation of
Afts xxvii. 7. and to anfwer the queftion, how St. Paul's
fliip, which was near Malta, and, therefore, in the Lybian
or Sicilian fea, could be in the Adriatic ; it is alleged, that
not only the Ionian, but even the Sicilian fea, was called
the Adriatic. Strabo (lib. vii. torn. 2. p. 488.) informs
us, that the Ionian gulf is a pait of that which in his time
was called the Adriatic fea. Whitby Com. vol. ii. p. 751.
The principal rivers that ran into the Adriatic were the
Panyasus,Apsus, the Laous, or^As, andtheCtLVD-
.Nus. The State of Venice claims excluiive dominion over
the Adriatic fea, in confequence of a circumilance men-
tioned under Doge ; and the ceremony of wedding it is
annually praftifed in evidence of this claim, on Afccnfion-
day. Mr. Kirwan, in his ellimate of the temperature of
different latitudes, p. 53. obferves, that the Adriatic,
though warmer in the fummer than the Mediterranean, is fo
cold in winter, as to have been frequently frozen over in the
neighbourhood of Venice.

ADRICHOMIUS, Christian, in Biography, was
born at Delft, in Holland, in 15:53 ; and having affiduoully
applied to iludy, he became director of the nuns of St.
Bai'bara : but when the civil war broke out on account of
religion, he withdrciv firfl; to Brabant, and then to Cologne,
•where he began his work, intitled, " Theatrum Terrae
Sanfta;," which was printed with maps at Cologne, in 159^.
This work, belides a defcription of the Holy Land and
of Jerufalem, contains a chronicle of the Old and New
Tcilament, under the« name of Chrillianus Crucius ; and
under this title, he publifhed at Antwerp the Life of Chriil,
and an oration, " Dc Chrilliana Beatitudine." Adrichomius
died at Cologne, in P585, and was buried in the convent of
the canoneffes of Nazareth, where he had been for fome
years director. Biog, Ditt.

ADRIEN, in Geography, a fmall town of the Low
Country, in Flanders, on the river Dendre, two leagues
from AloU, and four from Gand.

ADRIFT, in Sea-language, denotes the (late of a vefTel
broken from her moprings, and driven by the wind or waves.

ADRIN, in Geography, a fmall town of Upper Hun-
gai-y, upon the river Sebelkeres, at the foot of the mountains
of Vedra, and north-well of the great Waradin. E. long.
37° 39. N. lat. 47° 9'.

ADR IS, in Ancient Geography., the name of a river in
India, according to Ptolemy.

ADRIUS Mons, a cham of mountains which, accord-
ding to Strabo, extended along Dalmatia, and divided it
into the Mediterranean and Maritime,

ADROBICUM, a fmall place in Spain, on the bay
called Magnus Portus.

ADROGATION, \\\ Antiquity, a fpecies of ADOPTION,
whereby a perfon, who was capable of choofing for himfelf,
was admitted by another into the relation of a fon. The
word is compounded of ad, to, and rogare, to cji ; on ac-

count of a queftion put in the ceremony of it, whether the
adopter would take fuch a perfon for liis fon ? and another
to the adoptive, whether he confented to become fuch a per-
fon's fon ?

ADRON, in Andenl Geography, a city of Arabia
Petriea.

ADROTTA, a maritime town of Lydia, in Afia
Minor.

ADRU, or Adrou, m Ancient Geography, a town of
Arabia Petiu-a, which Ptolemy places in long. 67^', and lat.

29° 55'-

ADRUMETUM, or Hadrumetum, the capital of
Byzacium, in Africa, was a very ancient and famous city.
It had a variety of jrames, being called by Strabo and Stc-
phanus, Adrume ; by Plutareli and Ptolemy, Adrumetas
or Adrumettus ; by Appian, Adrymcttus ; by Cxfar, Hir-
tliis ; by Pliny, Adrumetuni ; by Mela, Hadrumdum ; and
in Peutinger's table, Hadrito. It was the 'Jujhniana of
the middle empire, and the Heraclea of the lower. This
city was large and populous, and built upon an hemifpheri-
cal promontoiy, at the dillance of two leagues to the fouth-
eall of the morafs, which was the boundary, as Dr. Shaw
fuppofes, betwixt the Zeugitana and By/.acium. It had at
a fmall diilance a cothen, /. e. a port, or little idand, re-
fembling that of Carthage. From its prcfent fituation and
ruins, it feems to have been fomeuJ\at more than a mile ia
circuit, and a place of importance rather than of extent.
That it was founded by the Phccnicians is alferted by Sallull
(in Bell. Jugurth. oper. tom. i. p. 88. Ed. Ilaverc.) and
others ; and Buchart (Geog. fac. lib. i. c. 24. Oper. tom. i.
col. -;-78. Ed. Villcm.) deduced its name from two Syriac,
or Piiocnician words, importing the land or countiy yielding
an hundred-fold, ;'. c. of corn or grain. Diodorus Slcuhis
(Bibl. Hill. tom. ii. p. 4 1 8. Ed. Weffcling.) reprefents it
as a fortified city, when it was befieged by Agathocles, in
the third year of the 1 1 7th olympiad. At prefent it is a bar-
ren and uncultivated tract, of a fandy foil, and incommoded
with moraffes. Dr. Shaw has taken pains to prove, that
its fituation is that of the prefent Herkla. Travels,
p. lofi, 4to.

ADSCENDENS Caulis, in Botany, denotes a ftalk of
branch inclining upwards. The term is fynonymous with
inciiritKS.

ADSCRIPTS, a term ufed by fome Mathematicians fof
the natural tangents, called alfo by Vieta/ro/inw.

ADSENTIRI, in Antiquity, a term ufed to exprefs the
affent of the Roman foldiers to ajiy propofitions that were
made to them by their commanders, which they did by lift-
ing up their hands with acclamation, and linking their
bucklers upon their knees. Lucan, in his Pharfalia, (hb. L
386.) refers to this pratlice.

ADSERERE, Adsertio, Adsertor manu in liherla'
tern, are terms that relate to one of the modes by which a
flave was emancipated : he was taken by the hand, and
this formula was pronounced : " Hunc liberaU caufa manu
adfero."

ADSIDELA, a table at which the flamens fat, when
they oh'ered lacrifice.

ADSIGNIFICATION, among Schoolmen, the ad of
noting or fignifylng a thing, with the addition of the time
\vhen it liapiiened.

AD son's Town, in Geography, lies near the north-call
line of New Jerfey, and fouth-eall of the Drowned I^ands f
twenty-fevcn liiiles north-weil of Morriftown, and twenty-
four north-weft of Patterfon.

ADSTRICTION, among Phyfcians, is ufed to denote

the too great rigidity and elofenefs of the cuiuuAoriea ol

Kk 2 the

A D V

the body, paiticiilaily the pores of the fliin ; and alfo to
li^nifv the ftyptic quality of medicines. See Astrin-

GKSTS.

AD TERMINUM qui fintteriit, is a writ of entry,
which lies where a man hiiving leafed lands or tenement; for
tcnns of life, or years, is, alter the time expired, held
from them by the tenant, or other ftranger, who enjoys the
fame, and dcforceth the lefTor. The fame wrif alfo lies for
the lefr.)r's heir.

Al)\J ACA T(iiij;rorum, in /liic'ient Geography, Tenure,
« city (if Ganl, the capital of the Tungri. It was called
t)y Cacfai- Atualuca, and by Ptolemy /itnatucum. It became
«ii epifcopal fee ; but after its deftruftion by Attila, in
4P, the ice was ttansfencd firft to Tvajedum Mof,f, i. e.
Mallricht, and afterwards to Liege.

ADVANCE, in Commerci, denotes money paid before
goods are dcUvered, work done, or bidinefs pei-ior;ned. To
tiav a note of hand or bill by advance, is to pay the value
before it becomes due ; in which cafe, it is ufual to allow a
difcouiit for the lime it is pre-advanctd.

Advancf. Bay, in Geography, lies on the eaft ftde of
Hndfon's Bay, in that part called " the new difcovered
fca," into which is alfo a paiTage to the fouth-weft from
Rcfolution idands, at the fouth-eaft end of Hudfon's ftraits.

An\- AS CE-Fofi, or Ditch, in Fort'ificoUon, denotes a
ditch of water round the efplanade, or glacis of a place,
to prevent its being furpriled by the befiegers. The name
is alio given to that part of the lines or retrenchment neareft
the enemy, to prevent him from attacking them. The ad-
vance-folTe fliould be always fiJl of water, or elfe it will
ferve to cover the enemy from the fire of the place, if he
Ihould become mafler of the fofTe. Beyond this fofle, it
is ufual to conflruft lunettes, redouts, &c. See Fossn.

Advance-Guard, or Van-guard, in the Military art,
is the firft line, or divifion of an army, ranged or marching
in battle ana}', or that part of it which is next tlie enemy,
or which marches firft towards them. The whole body
of an army is divided into ad'oance-guard, rear-guard, and
Viain-body.

The word is alfo fomctimes applied to a fmall party of
horfe, viz. fifteen or twenty, commanded by a lieutenant,
beyond, and in fight of the main-guard.

ADVANCER, among Sportfmcn, is one of the flarts,
or branches on a buck's attire, between the back-antler and
the palm.

ADUAR, a kind of ainbulaton' village, which Arab
families inliabit, in a fort of tents, moveable on occafion as
forage and provifions fuit. Some alfo write the word adouar
and adouard. There ai-e reckoned 30,000 aduars in the
kingdom of Algiers.

ADVATICI, in Anciinl Hiftory, were the remains of
thole Cim.bri and Teutones whom Marins had defeated in
Italy. They had been left to the number of about 600,
on the banks of the Rhine, to guard the baggage and
booty of their countrymeuj and had fettled there after the
defeat of the Cimbi-i. In lefs than fifty years they were
in a condition to furniih 9COO fighting men for their contin-
gent to the league of the Belga-, when they were attacked
by Csfar, in the year before Chrift 57. When Ca:far ad-
vanced againlt the Advatici, they pretended to give up
their a^-ms, and fubmit ; but treacheroufly concealed a third
part of them, and made an attack on the Romans in the
night. This fo provoked the general, tliat he broke down
the gates of their city, fuppofed to have been Namur, put a
preat nr.r.iber to the fword, and fold the reft, to the number
•f about 53,coofor flaves. Cnef. de Bell. Gall. lib. ii. c. 29
— 3i. torn, 1. p. 9c. Ed. Gra;v.

A D V

ADVENT, Advfstus, in the Cahndar, the time hw
mediately preceding Chriilmas ; anciently employed in pious-
preparation for the advciitus, or coming on, of the feaft of
the Nativity.

Advent includes four fnndays, or weeks ; commencing'
either from the Sunday which falls on St. Andrew's day,
or that next before or after it, /. e. from the Sunday which
falls between the 27th of November, and the third of De-
cem.ber inclufive. — But it is to be noted, this rule has not
always obtained. — In the Ambrofian office, there are fix
weeks marked for Advent ; and St. Gregory in his Sacra-
mentaiy allows five.

The firft v,-eck of Advent, in our way of reckoning, is
that wherein it begins ; but it was anciently otherwife ; the
week next Chriilmas being reputed the firft ; and the nume-
ration carried backwards.

Great auiierity was praftifcd in the ancient church during
this feafon. — At firft they fafted three days a week ; but
tiiey were afier-.vavds obliged to faft every day, whence the
feafon is frequently called in ancient writers, Lent, and ^iii^
dnrgejjiiia S. Jllarlim,

The courts of juitice were at one time all ftiut.

Advent is alfo one of the times, from the beginning
whereof, to the end of the octaves of the Epiphany, tlie
folcmnizing of marriage is forbid, without cxprefs licence.

ADVENTITIA /:ccna, in yJnfiqiiily, an entertainment
made by the friends of a perion who had been travelling, by
way of welcome at his return. This was otherwife called^
cccna advcnioritu Pitifcus.

ADVENTITIOUS, fomethincf accruinsr or befallincr a
perfon, or thing, from without.

Thus, advrnlilioiis matter is fuch matter as doth not pro-
perly- belong to any body, but is cafuaOy joined to it.

Adventitious, in the Civil La'w, is appHed to fuch
goods as fall to a man, either by mere fortune, or by the li^
berality ot a ftranger, or by collateral, not direcl, fuc-
cefiion.

In this fenfe the v.'ord ftands oppofed to profecfitious ; by
which are fignified fuch goods as defcend in a diretl line,_
from father to fon.

AnvENTiTiotJS foffils, are foreign or extraneous one?,
found incorporated with oth.ers, to v.-hicli they do not pro-
perly belong. Such are fea-ftiells, &c,

AD VENTREM infpicieudum, \\\ Law. See Ventre'
infpiciendo.

ADVENTURE, an extraordinary and furprifing enter-
prize or accident, either real or fictitious.

The Viord is French, and literally denotes an event, or
accident.

Novels, romances, &c. are chiefly taken up in relating the
adventures of cavaliers, lovers, &c.

Adventure, Bill of, in Commerce, is a writing figned
by a merchant, attefting that the property of goods ihipped,
or fent away in his name, belongs to another, the adventure
or chance whereof the faid perfon is to ftand with a cove-
nant to account to him for the produce of it.

Adventure Bay, in Geography, a name given by cap-
tain Cook to a bay in v,-hich he anchored, in the fouthei-a
part of New Holland, called Van Diemen's land, and on
the ftiores of w-hich they vvcre fupplied with wood and wa-
ter in great abundance. The bottom of this bay was found
to lie in S. lat. 43"^ 23'. and E. long. 147° 30'. It is an
excellent harbour, having through the bay from 18 to 5 fa-
thoms water, which gradually decreafes towards the fiiore.
The road alfo is fafe, and fiieltercd from the north-eaft by
Maria's iilands. The vanation of the compafs, in 1778, wa»
5° 15' E.

AcvEi^TVRa

A D V

A D V

Adventure JJlan^, nii iflaiid in the Pacific Ocean, dif-
eoveied by captain Cook, in the run from New Zealand to
Otahcite, iind io called from the Ihip yldiicnliiiY, in which
captain Furueaux failed in this voyage. He fuppofed it to
be one of the dullei- of illands defcrihed by M. Bougainville,
under the appellation of the Dangerous Archipelago.- S. lat.
XT'- 5' 15". W. long. 144- 1 7' 45".

AD\ ENTITR Lll, in a general fenfc, a prrfon who
engages in any undertaking with fome ridv or ha/.ard.

Adventurers more particularly denote an ancient
eompany of merchants and traders, cllablilhed for the dif-
coveiy of lands, territories, trades, &c. unknown. Sec
R'.iffia Company.

The fociety of merchant-adventurers, fo called, bccaufe
tliey adventured their merchandifc into foreign parts, which
was inilituted for the improvement of the woollen manufac-
ture, and the vending of the cloth abroad, particularly at Ant-
werp, is faid to have fprnng out of the guild of mercers of
the city of London ; and their origin in this country is
traced to the clofe of the reign of king Edward \. when
they attempted the commencement of a woollen manufaclure
in England. In the year 1296, they obtained privileges of
John duke of Brabant, and ilapled themfelves at Antwci-p,
joining in fociety with tliemfelves all other Englifli merchants
reforting thither. But this fociety had not the name of Mtr-
chaiit-Ad'ucntnrets as a company, till the reign of king Henry
VH. Some writers trace the rife of this fociety to an atTo-
ciation of merchants, which was formed in 135(5, under the
appellation of the Brotherhood of St. Thomas a Bechct.;
though a fociety of this name is known to have cxilled in
the year 1248, and to have given rife to the merchants of
tlie Staple of England. The privileges of the fociety of
merchant-adventurers were fucceflivelv confirmed by Edward
III. and IV. Richard III. Henry' IV. V. VI. who, in
1430, gave them a charter; and Henry VII. who, in 1505,
gave them the appellation ol Murchnnl-Ad-centurers ; byHenry
VIII. Edward VI. and queen Elizabeth, who, in 1564,
formed the company into an Englifh corporation ; and, in
1586, confirmed all former charters; by James I. in 1604
and 161 7, who gave it new charters ; by Charles I. in 1639,
and their fucceffors.

In the reign of Henry VII. there was a contell between
tT.vo companies of JlTiirhanl-Au-veiiturers, viz. thofe who
called themfelves the company of Merchaiit-Adveuturt-rs of
Jjondon, and the merchants who refided in other cities and
towns, and who were diftinguilhed by the title of the I\ln--
thciut- Adventurers of England. The London company had
been longaccullomed to impofe a kind of tax on the Englifli
merchants rcfiding in other places, for liberty to buy and fell
in the great fairs of Flanders, Brabant, and other countries
on the continent. This tax was at firft only an old noble,
(6s. 8d.) and was demanded by the London merchants,
who called themfelves the fiaternity of St. Thoiiias Becket
on a religious pretence, to enable them to do honour to
their favourite iaint, and thus gain his protection. But
this impofition had gradually increafed, and it amounted at
the period to which we refer to 40 1. to the great difcou-
ragement of trade. The Merchant-Adventurers, rcfident in
the out-ports, applied to parliament for a redrefs of this
grievance, and an att was made A. D. 1497, reducing that
fine to ten marks, or 6 1. 13 s. 4d. flerhng. Stat. 12 Hen.
VII. c. 6. The company of Merchant-Adventurers of
England were much injured in their commerce by the Ger-
man merchants of Steelyard, who formed a rich and powerful
fociety, compofed almoft wholly of foreigners. Their com-
plaints, however, drn-ing the whole reign of Henry VI 11.
were unavailing ; but iu the fc.ccetding reign tlicy obtjuned

redrefs, when the privileges enjoyed by tlic niercliants of
the Stkelyari) were revoked, and their corporation abo-
liflied by the privy council.

Such was the influence of the Englilli Merchant-Adven-
turers, that they prevented the emperi>r Chailes V. fron\ in-
frodncing the inqnilition into Antwerp in the year 1550,
when it was eftablifiied in other parts of the Nttlicrlandi>.
See Hiimhiirgh CoMrrfNY.

By oiu- llatutes, adveiiturers making fettlements in any
part of America, belonging to the enemy, may obtain a
charter from the king. 13 Geo II. c. 4. § 13.
Anvrs ruRER, Mine. See MiKf.-Ai/venliirer.
ADVERB, Advkrbium, in Grammar, a particle joined
to a verb, adjeftive, »r particljjle, to explain their maimer
of acting or fufiering ; or to mark fomc circumllancc or
quality fignilied by them.

The word is formed from the prepofilion ad, fo, and
verbum, a verb ; and fignifies literally a word joined to a
verb, to (liow how, when, or where, one is, does, or fuffers ;
as, the bov paints neatly, writes ;//; the lioufe Hands ihere^.
&c.

Not that the adverb is confined purely to the verbs ; but
becaafe that is its mofl ordinary ufc ; whence it becomcj
fo denominated xj^t' cJo;^w'. We frequently Ihid it joined
to adjeftives; and fometimes even to fubitantives, particu-
larly where thofe fubllantives fignify an attribute, or quality
of the thing fpokcn of ; v. gr. he is very lick ; he is truly
king.

An adverb is likewife joined fometimes to another adverb,
to modify its meaning ; v. gr. very dei'oully, &c. Whence
fome grammarians chule rather to call adverbs modilicativcs:
comprlfing under this one general term, adverbs, conjunc-
tions, prepofitions, and even adjectives.

Adverbs are very numerous ; but they may be reduced
under the general claffes of adverbs of time, place, order,
diftance, motion, relation, quantity, both continuous and
difcrete, quality, manner, affirmation, negation, demonllra-
tion, interrogation, diminution, doubting, exception and
coir.parifon.

In Englifli, fays Dr. Lowth(Gram. p. 1 12.), they admit
of no variation, except fome few of them, which have the
degrees of comparifon, as focm, fooner, foonell ; and thofe
irregulars, derived from adjeftives in this rtfpecl likewife ir--
regular, as very muc.i, not very prudently. He obferves,
however, that the formation of adverbs in general with the
comparative and fuperlative terminatims feenis to be impro-
per ; at leai} that it is now become ^hnofl obfolete, as eiif-
lier, Jlronglier, hardlieft, highliejl, righlefi, though ufed by
Hooker, Raleigh, liobbes and Shaftefbury. In poetry,
compai-ative adverbs are fometimes allowable.

Adverbs are denominated by Mr. Harris attributes of at-
tributes, or attributives of the fecond order : and he defines
an adverb, a part of fpeech, the natural appendage of verbs,
extending the fignification of the word verb properly fo
called, to participles and adjectives. After explaining the
general nature of adverbs as attributes of attributes, and enu-
merating their principal forms, amongfl which he reckons
intenfion and remiifion, he fliews that adverbs may be de-
rived from alnioll evciy part of fpeech, from prepofitions as
aftevwards, from participles, as knotvingly, from adjectives,
as virtiioiijly, from fubllantives, as apijhly, and from proper
names, s-i Socratically. Adverbs, according to Gaza in
his grammar, may be found in every one of the prediea-
ments, and he thinks that the readitll way to reduce their
inilnitude, is to refer them by clafles to thofe tcrv univcrfal
genera. The Stoics called the adverb by the name of
1 1 »vu :.".>,■, with a view to its multiform . nature. Hermes,

p. Iy2.

ADD

ADD

p. 192. 210. Mr. Home Tooke, after noticing the con-
iiiliim tliat has pi-rplexcd gmniiiiarians with regard to the
clairilication of adverbs, and cxchiding them, as well as
PARTicuES, from the- rank of feparate parts of fpeech,
has with great iiigeiniity invelligated the origin of many of
the Englilh adverbs in the aneient Saxon and other northern
tongues, and evinced them to be cither corruptions of otlier
Words, or abridgments of fqntenccs. The termination "/)■"
is cafily difcovered in the corruption of " lite ;" t\\\xs honejlly
is honejl-lile, / He alfo refolves adrift into tlie pad participle
ailiifed, of adritan ; aghnjl, into the participle amazed ; ago,
into agone or gone ; a/under, into afimdrcd or feparated.
^ 0 wit, ho deduces from •tvillan to know ; as •videlicet and
fiiltcel in Latin are abbreviations of •vidcre-Ucet znAfcire-Hcet.
Needt is rcfolved by this very fagacious writer into need is ;
anon into in one : i. e. inllant; alone and only into all-one and one
Hie ; alive into on-live or in life ; awhile into the noun while
and the article a i. e. a while or a lime ; whiljl \. e. whiles,
into the Saxon Hwile-es, lime ihal ; alofl or on loft into on-
hfl, lyft in the Anglo-Saxon lignifying the air, fo that aloft
denotes up in the air. L,o ! is tlie imperative oi look, and
licf\% the adjeClive leof, dear, ^^''ith relpeft to the adverbs
of affirmation and negation, he obfers'es, that aye or yea
is the imperative of a verb of northern extraftion, viz. of the
Daiiifli ejer, fignif)-ing have, poJTifs, or enjoy ; yes is a contrac-
tion of ay-es q. d. have or pnjjefs that ; in Danifll, iger is to pof-
Icfs, aiidf/V?, denotes aye or yea. In Swedilh the fame verb is
rga and tlie imperativey^?, aye or yea. In German, ja figni-
hes aye or yea. lu Dutch, rigcnen is io pojfefs, andj^'a ii, yea.
As to the negative not, and its abbreviation no, they are de-
rived, by, Greenwood, from the Latin, by Minfhew from
the Hebrew, and by Junius from the Greek. But Mr.
Tooke difcovers them in the Danifh or Sweciilh nodig, and
in the Dutch nnode, node and no, which fignify a-verfe or un-
willing. The adverbs once, twice, thrice, fajs Mr. Tooke,
are merely the genitives of one, two, three, the fubftantive
time or turn being omitted; and were 'formerly written ones,
Iwies.

An ingenious .writsr fuggefts that adverbs feem to be
principally produced from three fources ; firft, from a fpe-
cies of interjedion, denoting an impulfe of the mind, as
now, then, not, &c. ; fecondly, from a compofition of two
or three words into one, as always, altogether, &c. ; and
thirdly, from adjeftives, by adding a fyllable void of figni-
iieation itfclf, but which feems to denote that the word has
changed its ftate into that of an adverb, as greatly, &c.
This argumentive fyllable was originally a contraction of
fome word that denoted fimilltude or participation. Gre-
goiy's Effays, Hilloricaland Moral. EITEA IITtPOENTA.
or, Diveriicns of Purley, p. 494, &c.
\ In the Hebrev/ language, mod adverbs, and particularly

thofe of quality, are exprelfed by nouns, both fubftantives
and adjeftives, either fimply or connefted with a prepo-
fition: as ^IJfl bene, -\'p^^ falfo, fl'^N'l -vere. Thus,
alfo in the Chaldee language, ^7313^ denotes dnpliciter,
and Ti'mi*? conf denier. In the Syriac, adverbs of quality
are formed of adjeclives, and terminate in p^i)^, asJI'f^'Uj;
Helraice ;' znA frequently of nouns v.'ith a prepofition ad-
jonied, as ^^^^ petfede, and fometimes adjeflives are fub-
llituted for adverbs, as -ilj-|» magis. In Hebrew the repetition
of one adverb, or another of the fame meaning, denotes
the fuperlative, as nbVSD T\bVf2 f"j"-" f"P>-a, i- e. valdi .
fupra, Deut. xxvni. 43: and n"in,!D "^p "'» vehciter. If. I
v. 26. This form of expreflion is ufcd diftributively, as
1p2^ 1p33 """""> mane, Exod. xvi. 21. Adverbs of
place repeated, fignify dlverfity of place, nDI HD hue £3"
tllnc, Exod. xii. 2. The adverbs \^ tunc and 0"TJ antc-

1

qnjm often cliange the future into the preterite, both perfeA
and imperfed : as Deut. iv. 41. E>:od. xii. 34. Adverbj
of time, that are definite, are ufed indefinitely: as "^I'jrt
heri,yeflcrdL'y, for pail time in general. 2 Sam. xv. 2. If.
XXX. 33. — DVn hodie, this day, for the prefent time : as
Pf. xcv. 7. '"inti '■'■'^•fj to-morrow, for future time, indeter-
minately : as Gen. xxx. 33. Hence Matt. vi. 34. The
adverb TOD f'^per is ufed for quotidie, quolies and fiepc.
Exod. vii. 20. xxviii. 30. Hence Travlol-, always, Luke xviii.
1. denotes very often. See John xviii. 20. The adverb ly,
fignifying donee, does not always exclude the time that foU
lows the aftion which is fpoken of. Pf. ex. i. cxxiii. 2.
If. xlvi. 4. &c. Hence, are derived the Hebraifms that
occur. Matt. i. 25. xxviii. 20. Afts, iii. 21. Rom. v. 13.

1 Tim. iv. 13. Adverbs of negation prefixed to verbs are
ufed in the fame fenfe with the privative alpha of the Greeks:
^s n2£i" ii'^ "on l^etabitur, i.e. dohhit. Prov. x. i. Hence,
John xiv. 18. Rom. iv. 19. Heb. xi. 16. Rev. xi. 12.
Adverbs of this kind prefixed to nouns have the fame mean-
ing, as Q3n N*'^ """ fip'^'i^t i- e- infipiens ; |y J^*^ non

fortis, i. e. inftrniiis. Prov. xxx. 25. Hence Matt. ii. 6.
Rev. xi. 7. Abfolute adverbs are ufed comparatively, ai
Joel. ii. 13. Prov. viii. 10. Hof. vi. 6. I Sam. viii. 7.
Gen. xxxii. 28. Hence are derived the Hebraifms that
occur in Matt. X. 20. Mark ix. 36. Luke xiv. 12. Johr»
vi. 27. Ads V. 4. I Cor. i. 17. * Ephef. vi. 12. On the
other hand, comparatives are ufed for negative adverbs.
Hof. vi. ft. — Luke xviii. 14. i Pet. iii. 17. The adverbs
of negation {^^^ and V}^ joined to the nouns ^^ omnis,
\*}'i^ vir, "JHw^ ""'•'■'' '""'^ univerfal negatives, fo that noa
omnis is fynonymous with rwllus, &c. Pf. cxhii. 2. xlix. i8.
Prov. xiii. 7. Eccl. i. 9. Num. xxxi. 49. Gen. xiv. i.

2 Sam. xiii. 30. Dan. xi. 37. Hence Matt. xxiv. 22.
Luke i. 37. Rom. iii. 20. Rev. ix. 4. The adverb of
interrogation J^ an, anfwers the purpofe of a negative iu
affirmative interrogations, and of an affirmative in thofe that
are negative. 2 Sam. vii. 5. I Chron. xxi. 17. This
interrogation ^ is fometimes omitted : as Gen. xxvii. 24.
Job. ii. to. The adverb of fimilitude ^ prefixed to a word
is fometimes doubled, and the one is fupplied by the con-
jundion T. Prov. x. 25. xvii. 3. If. liii. 7, compared with
Ads viii. 32. I ISam. xii. 15. Hence Matt. vi. 10. Mark
iii. 26. John xx. 21. Ads vii. 51. This adverb is very
frequently omitted, as Nab. iii. 12. Gen.xhx. 9. Pf. xii. 7.
Sec alfo Exod. xix. 4. I Sam. xiii. i. Pf. cxxv, 2. Jer.
xvii. n. Job xxiv. 19. Hence John v. 17. xiv. i. James i. 1 1.
It is a'fo fometimes redundant, as Pf. xhx. 13. Job xxx. 19.
Num. xi. I. Hof. iv. 4. Plence Matt. xiv. 5. John i. 14.
Rom. ix. 29. Adverbs are fometimes ufed for adjedives.
The biblical critic may find much more on this fubjed in
the learned Mafclef's Heb, Gram. vol. i. p. 352 — 365.

ADVERBIAL, fomething relating to adverbs. We
fay an adverbial phrafe, adverbial cxpreffion, &c.

Adverbial numbers are fometimes ufed to denote once,
twice, thrice, &c.

ADVERSARIA, among the Jr.cients, was ufed for a
book of accounts, like our journal or day-book.

Hence, adverfaria is fometimes alfo ufed among us for a
common place boot.

Adverfaria amounts to the fame with ophijlographia,
L'ffopvMjuaTa, or memoriale, and ftands oppofed to codex : the
former being for occafional matters which were taken down
'laflily, from which they were afterwards tranferibed into
the latter, in a fair regular manner, for Handing ufe. Mor-
hof, Polyhift. lib. iii. cap. i.

Adversaria is alfo a title given to divers books, con-
taining coUedtions of mifcellaneous obfervations, remarks, &c.

In

A n V

A D V

In which fcnfc, advorfaria amounts to much the fame
with vuri.e hSioiics, vcirhc ohferviiticna, iomiiu'txtarii, kiliones
onl'iquit, loci communes, geniales dies, ve/pcrx, fekcia, vnfcd-
lanea, &c.

Adversaria is alfo ufcd for a commentary on feme text
or writing.

This was fo called, becaufe the notes were written on the
advi-rje or oppollte page.

ADVERSARY, /omied of the Latin prepofition nd-
ivr/iis, <-yv;/>//, nnd -v-r/or, to l:ini. tiee Antagonist.

ADVERSATIVE, in Gmmmar, a word or particle
that exprefTesnot only fome difference, but fome oppofition, .
bet\\-ecn what goes before and what follows.

Adverfative disjunrtives are diilinguiflied from thofe that
are denominated fimple in this refpecl ; as the latter merely
di. join or exprefs a divtrfity, whereas the former disjoin with
a concomitant oppufition, e. g. The propoiition, " cit/j-r
it is dr.y, or it is tiight," is a iimple disjunctive; <.nd an ad-
verfative is wlien we fay, " ;V is not day, but it is night."
Befides, the adverfativcs are definite ; and the fiinple, inde-
finite. Thus, when we fay, " the luiinber nf three is vot an
even number, but an odd,'^ we nut only disjoin two oppofite
attributes, but we definitely afRrm one, and deny the other.
But when we fay, " the number of the JIars is either even or
odd," though we affert one attribute to be, and the other not
to be, yet the alternative is left indefinite. With refpeft to
ad-verfative disjunftives, it may be obferved, that, though
they imply oppofition, there can be no oppofition of the
fame attribute in the fame fubjeifl ; but the oppofition mufl
be cither of the fame attribute in different fubjei?ts, as
" Brutus ivns a patriot, nuT Cmfar ivas not •" or of different
attributes in the fame fubjeft, as, " Gorgias ivas a fopliijl,
BUT not a philofopher ;" or of different attributes in dif-
ferent fubjefts, as, " Plato mas a philofopher, but Hippiiis
•was a J'oph'i/l." The conjundfions ufed for all thefe pur-
pofes may be called alj'uhite adverfativcs : but befides thefe,
there are feveral others, recited by Mr. Harris, fuch as ad-
verfativcs of comparifon, expreffed by the words than and as,
which mark not only oppofition, but that equality or excefs,
which arifes among fubjefts from their being compared.
Such alfo are adverfativcs adequate and inadequate, of
which the principal are unless and although, e.g.
" Troy 'will be taken, unless the Palladium be prefcrvcd."
" Troy ivill be taken, although Hedor defend it" Every
caufe, (fays Mr. Harris) is either adequate, or inadequate,
when it endeavours witliout being cffeftual, and fo in like
manner is every preventive. Adequate preventives are ex-
preffed by fuch adverfativcs as unless : the inadequate are
cxprelfedby although. Hermes, p. 251 — 257.

On this fubjeft, Mr. Home Tooke, in his Diverfions of
Purley, has enabled us to form more clear, determinate and
fatisfaftory ideas than thofe which were furniflied by former
grammarians. The oppofition in adverfative disjunftives,
that has been ufually refeiTed to the conjunftion but, is fup-
pofed to be marked by the words or fentences which are
thus connefted, and which have oppofite meanings. Ac-
cordingly the ingenious writer abovementioned affixes two
different acceptations to the word but in the beginning and
in the middle of a fentenee. In the former cafe it is a cor-
ruption of lot, the imperative of the Saxon verb botan, to'
loot, fuperadd, or fipply ; and in the latter it is a contraftion
of be-utan, the imperative of benoiitan, to be out. This dif-
tinftion is evinced by examples from ancient writers, one of
which it will be fuflicient to mention, taken from Gawin
Douglas.

" But thy work (hall endure in laude and glorie,
But fpot or faulte condigne eterne memorie."

The meaning of this couplet is " fuperadd (to fomclhinjf
faid, or fuppofed to be faid before) thy work fliall endure
in laude and glorie, be out, (i. e without) fpot or fault."
Thus, in the definite adverfative, " the number three is not an
even number but an odd, the oppofition is not marked, at
lead direClly, by the woid ^///, but by the adjectives civ r(
and odd, which denote altributes in their own nature oppo-
fite ; and the prepofition, according to the fiill fenfe of the
word /////, will be fynonymous witli this, vi/.. " the number
three is not i.n even number, fuperadd fit is J an odd number.
In the indefinite adverfative, " the number of the flars it
either even or odd, the word either is a dillributivc pronoun,
and or is a conlniClion of the Saxon oder q. d. other, i.e.
fomething different, and often contrary. As to the adver-
fativcs denominated by Mr. Harris adecjiiate and inadequate,
and marked by the conjundions unlef and althoti;-h. In. Icada
us to conceive that the whole difference between thim con-
fills in this, tliat tiie exprcffion of the one is more forcible
than that of the other. Whereas, the meaning of unleis
is direClly oppofite to that of although. They are both
verbs in the imperative mood : the former fignifying lake
atvay or dfmifs ; and the latter alloiv, permit, grant, yield,
afTent." Accordingly the fentenee, " Troy luill be talin

unless the palladium be preferved," is equivalent to " Re-

vtadium be prej
be preferved as an abltraCl noun, the prefervation of the

move the palladium be preferved, i. e. taking the palladium

palladium Troy will be taken. Again, " Troy tuill be taLn
although Hector dfnd it," is the fame as " Troy tuill be
taken allow HcSlor (to) defend it," The idea, therefore,
expreffed by unless is that of the removal of one thing to
make way for another; and the idea expreffed by al-
though is that of alloiving one thing to co-exifl with
another, with which it is apparently incompatible. The
conjunftion unless (fays Mr. Tooke) even in the reign
of queen Elizabeth was written onelefs or oneleffe, and more
anciently onles and otdeffc : and onlcs is the imperative of the
Anglo-Saxon verb oidefan, to dfmifs or remove, les the im-
perative of lefan, which is fynonymous with onlefin, is alfi)
ufed by fome old writers, inflead of unhfs. And this im-
perative les has given to our language the adjeftives hopelefs,
refllefs, &c, i. e. difmifs hope, reft, &c. The conjunction
although (fays the fame writer) is compounded of «/ or
all, and //'&', though, ihah, or, in the vulgar pronunciation,
thaf, ihauf, and thof. This is evidently the imperative thaf
or thajig of the verb thnfan or thafgan, to alloiv, permit, &c.
and thafig becomes tl.'ah, though, thoug in a tranfition of the
fame kind, and as eafy as that by which hafic becomes
hand-. This etymology is confirmed by confidering, that
anciently they often ufed all be, albeit, all had, all lucre, and
all give, inflead of although.

ADVERSATOR, in Antiquity, a fei-vant fent to wait
his mafler's returning from fupper, and attend him home.
The rich had fervants of this quality, to apprife them of
any danger. Plautus, (Mort. iv. 424.), and Terence,
(Adclph. i. 12.) refer to fuch perfons.

ADVERSE Leaf. See Leaf.

ADVERTISEMENT, foi-med from adverlere, to con-
fidcr, in a general fenfe, an intelligence or information gireu
to perfons interefted in an affair.

Advertisement is more particularly ufed for the brief
account of articles of private or public concern, inferted in
the daily, or otlier public papers.

By the ftatute of 25 (]eo. II. cap. 36. and 28 Geo. II.
cap. 19. the penalty of 50/. is inflicted on perfons advcr-
tifing a reward with no quetlions to be afked, for the return
of things loil or flolen ; and likewife on the printer.

By 21 Geo. III. c. 4^. any perfou advcrtiling any pub-
lic

A D U

lie meeting for debate on tho Lord's Jay, to w!<.!>.h p;rfcni
ai-e to be admitted by money or tickets fold, the printer (hall
foifeit 50/. for each oflcnce. See LontRY.
« ADVICE-Boa/, a fmall vcficl employed to carry ex-

prcfiVs or orders with dil'patch.

AD VITAM n:it ail/am, denotes an ofTice to be luld fo
as to detennine only by tiie death or delinquency of the
pofTclTor ; or in other words, to be held qiiam diu ft- bene
S^JJlrii. Stat. 2?. Geo. II. c. 7.

ADUGAl^ in Geography, one of the Fox iflands in the
northern Archipelago.

ADULA, in Jlncienl Geojrn^by, a mountain of Rha^lia,
or the country of the Grifons, being a part of the Alps,
in which are the fountains of the Rhine, Rhone, Nantz,
Tcfni and Aar, and from which flows the Adda or Addua.
:J.t is now called St. Gothard, and it is faid to be the liighclt
point of Europe. Strabo, Geog. torn. i. p. 293.

M:i/a gives name to a country of the Alps between the
Grifons, Swifs, ViUaifons, and Milanefe. It is the higheit
part of the Alps, and comprehends the Crifpalt, Vogellberg,
Gothard, Foinche and Grinmch

Adula, in M'jdaii Gcnrrnphy, a mountain of Navarre in
Spain, betwixt Poniphma and St. Jean de Piz de port.

ADULARIA. See Felspar..

ADULE or Ad'JLIs, in j^ncisnt Geography, a town of
Ethiopia, built according to Pliny (1. vi. c. 34. torn. 4.
p. 342.) by fugitive flaves ot Egypt, and dittant from its^
port on the' Red Sea 30 iuidia : and from the royal city of
Axum about 50 leagues. Pliny calls it Opp'uliim JHiiliton,
and the inhabitants Adiil'its. He reprcfents it as the prin-
cipal emporium of the Ethiopians, whence they exported
ivoiy, the horns of the rhinoceros, the flcins of the hippopo-
tamus, and other articles of commerce. The monumcntum
adulltanum, or the pompous infcription of the ftatue of
Ptolemy Euergetes belonged to the city. The bay adjacent
to it in the Red Sea was called Sinus Adulicus. It is now
ErcQCca on the coail of Abex. The port of Aduli, accord-
ing to Dr. Vincent, in his Periplus of the Erythrean Sea,
can be no other than the celebrated harbour and city of
MafTuah, fo well known by the accounts of the Jefuits and
pf Bruce, as the only proper entrance into Abyflinia.
Two iflands are alfo mentioned in the bay of Aduli, which
are thofe now called Sheikh Sidda and Toalhout, abounding
in fifli.

ADULI, a village of the ifland of Orine in the Red Sea.

ADULLAM, in Scripture Geography, a city belonging
to the tribe of Judah, in the fouthern part of this tribe,
towards the Dead Sea. Eufebius fays it was a large to\vn
10 miles from Eleulhercpolis, eaftward. Jofli. xv. 35.
2 Chron. xi. 7, S. Jofli. xii. 15. 1 Sam. xxii. I, 2.

ADULT, Adult us, formed from the verb adulffccre,
to grc-vj up, an appellation dillinguidiing any thing that is
arrived at maturity ; and applied to plants as well as to per-
fons. An adult perfon is one who is arrived at years of
difcretion, and entered upon manhood, or the age of ado-
lescence ; and is old enough to have underllanding and
difcernment.

Among Civilians, the appellation adult is applied to a
youth between fourteen and twenty-five years of age.

In which fenle adultus is fynonymous with juvenis ado-
lejcens.

Adult, in Mythology, was an epithet applied both to
Jup:ter and Juno : the former being called Jupiter adtdtus,
and the latter Juno adulia.

ADULTERATION, in a general fenfe, the aft of
jC irrupting, or debafing a thing tfiat was pure, by fome im-
proper admixture.

A D IT

T!ic t^■ord 13 Latin, formed of the verb acMterare, to rc/v
riipl, by mingling funKthing foreign to any fubilanec. We
have laws againll the adulteration of coffee, tea, tobacro,
fnuff, wine, beer, bread, wax, hair-pov.dcr, 5cc. See Stat-
1:5 W. III. cap. 5. — II Geo. I. cap. 30. — I Geo. I.
cap. 46. — I W. S; M. cap. 34. — 23 Eliz. cap. 8. — 10 Anne
cap. 26. — 3 Geo. III. cap. 11.

For the method of detefting adulteration of liquors, fee
Essay, Proof, &c.

Adulteration of coin properly imports the making oi-
carting of a wrong metal, or with too bafe or too much
alloy.

Adulterations of coins are effected divers ways, as by forg-
ing another (lamp, or infcription ; by mixing impurer metah
witli the gold or (liver: moft properly, by making ufc of a
wrong metal, or an undue alloy, or too great an admixture
of the bafer metals, with gold or fdver. Counterfeiting the
(lamp, or chpplng and leifening the weight, do not fo pro-
perly come under the denomination of adulterating.

Evelyn gives rules and methods, both of adulterating and
detetling adulterating metals, &c.

Adulterating is fomewhat lefs extenfive than deLiJiug,
which includes diminiihing, clipping, &c.

To adulterate or debafe the current coin, is a capital
crime in all nations. — The ancients puni(hed it with great
feverity : among the Egyptians both hands were cut oft ;
and by the civil law, the offender was thrown to wild beafts.
The emperor Tacitus enabled that counterftiting the coin
(liould be capital ; and under Conftantine it was made
treafon, as it is alfo among us. The adulterations of gems
is a curious art, and the methods of deteiling it no lefs
ufeful. Nichols, Lapid. p. iS.

Adulteration, in Pharmacy, denotes a fraudulent cor-
ruption of drugs, or medicines, by fubllituting ingredients
of lefs value, for the fake of greater gain.

This praftlce the dealers in all the parts of medicine are
but too well acquainted with. Pharmaceutical authors
give numerous inftances of adulterations, both in fimple and
compound medicints.

Adulteration o/'w/'ni'. See Wine.

ADUI-.TERESS, a woman who commits Adultery.

ADULTERINE, in a general fenfe, denotes any thing
whicli has been adulterated, or that is fpurious, or counter-
feited ; and it is thus applied to a fraudulent balance, to
debafed and counterfeit coins, to a falfe key, and to fuppo-
fititious writings.

Adulterine, in the Civil Latu, is particularly applied
to a child iffued from an adulterous amour, or commerce.

Adulterine children are more odious than the illegitimate
offspring of fingle perfons. The Roman law even refufes
them the title of natural children ; as if nature difowned
them. Adulterine children are not eafi'y difpenfed with for
admilTion to orders. Tiiole are not deemed adulterine, who
are begotten of a woman openly married, through ignorance
of a former wife being alive. By a decree of the parlia-
ment of Paris, adulterine children are declared not legiti-
mated by tlie fubfequent marriage of the parties, even
though a papal difpenfation be had for fuch marriage,
wherein is a claufe of legitimation.

Adulterine guilds, in Britijli Hijlory, denoted thofe
guilds or corporations that were fet up wit'iout warrant from
the king, in oppolltion to warranted or lawful guilds, and
under this' denomination they were amerced to the king in
1 180. 26 Heniy II. See Gild.

Adulterine marriages, in St. Auguftine's fenfe, denote
fecond marriages, contraiAed after a divorce.

ADULTERY, Adulter.ium, {yn Ancient Law Boohs
5 called

A D U

csUcd Advowtrv) a crime committed by marrltd peiToni,
againft the faltli pledged to tiich otl c/ in maniaj^t, by
having cainnl commerce with fomc other; or even bv a
perfon not mnrricd, who has the fame iiitcrcourle willi
another tliat is.

Morahlls, and canonills, and divines, have diilinguiflicd
fevcral fpecies of adultery ; as,

Adultery, mamfjl^ that wherein the parties arc caught
E» £,iyi', tn the fail, or, as loine exprcLs it, i\s in re.

On fr.ch occafions, ftraijfrers, or people nut intcrcfted in
the family, have been allowed to accule, and profcciite women
for adultery, either if committed during a huiband's long
abfence, or through his connivance.

Adultery, occult or pcret, that kept concealed from
the knowledge of the world, and only dlvulgrd to a con-
feflbr, or tb.e lijce. — In the canon law this is moll favourably
dealt with ; perfons were admitted to penance for this,
and abfolved, who were refufed it for the open kind. Du-
Cange.

A.DVhTtti'i , prefumptlve, that which is only difcovered or
infened from certain figns, or indications. Such are the
parties being foimd in bed together, nudus cum nuda.

Adultery, interpretr.the, or reputed, denotes an aft
which though not properly included under the denomina-
tion, yet is reputed as equivalent to it, and punilhed as fuch.
Thus mixed marriages between Chriilians and Jews, e. gr.
between a Chrillian man and a Jewilh woman, arc put by
the laws of Arcadius and Honorius, on the footing of
adultery.

So alfo fecond marriages are called by fome, as Athena-
goras, and St. Ambrofe, an honourable or better fort of
adulteries.

Adultery, improper, includes other extraordinar)' cafes
and fpecies ; fuch are the commerce with a woman only
efpoufcd, not aftually married ; with a married woman,
who lives as a common whore ; \vith a married vvomas,
taking her for fmgle ; with a putative wife, or concubine,
taking her for a real wife ; and with a nun, who by her
vovts \i deemed efpoufed.

Ar)V\.riK'^,Jigurative, that intended only to reprefent, or
prefigure another faft, or convey forae other inllruftion.
This coincides with typical, or allegorical adultery, and
Hands oppofed to aftual. So the adultery of Mars and
Venus is turned into an allegor)' by naturahfts, moralifts,
alchemills, &c.

AdulterVj^w^A', is that where only one of the parties
is married, in contradiftintlion from double adultery, which
is, where both parties are married. This diftinftion is fa-
miliar and important in the canon law ; but was unknown
to the jurifprudence of the Code and Pandefts.

Adultery, incejluous, that wherein the parties are re-
lated within the third degree of confanguinity.

Adultery, licit, that not prohibited by any exprefs or
known law.

It has been dlfputcd whether adultery be malum in fc, or
only malum prohibitum, i. e. evil in itfelf, or only rendered
evil, by virtue of pofitive laws and prohibitions. St. Am-
brofe and fome others have maintained, that adultery was
rot criminal before the Mofaic law. Hobbes de Civ. cap, 6.
§ 1 6. Budd. Ifag. lib. ii. cap. 4. See the clofe of this
article.

It has been controverted, whether adultery may be law-
fully committed in war, with the enemies' wives ? The
anfwer is in the negative, and the authorifed praftice of
civilifed nations is agreeable to this. It has alfo been a
famous queftion, whether it be lawful for a woman to com-
mit adultery with the confent of her hufband, and for the

Vol.. I.'^

A D tr

procuring fome great good to him ? St. Auftin apparently
allows of it ; at leail, does not cond. nui it. l)e Serm.
Dom. in Mont. lib. i. cap. 16. j> 49. & Dc Civ. Dei. lil>.
xvi. cip. 2 J.

It has likcwlfc been a difjiute, nhetlicr it be lawful for
one of the panics married to comi,iit adultery, with the con-
fent of the other, for the i;\\:^ ot having. children ? C'f
which we have iultances in Abniham, who, on this account,
convirfed with Hagar ; and likcwife among the Greeks and
Romans.

Pullman, a German profefTor, has a dilTertation on the
hufband's right to alienate his wife's body to anotlier's ufe.

Adultery, iUici!, that which i-. exprcfsly contrarj- to
fome obligatory law : fuch, according to the generality of
cafuills, is all adultery, proper, improper, fmgle, double,
open, and occult ; becaufe of a natural bafeneis or turpi-
tude in the thing, as well as its being a violation of con-
jugal failh, and injury to our neighbour.

Accordingly, punilhments have been annexed to adultery
in moll ages and nation;, though of differe nt degrees of
fevcrity. In many it hath been capital, in others venial,
and attended only with flight pecuniary multts. Some of
the penalties are ferious, and even cruel ; others of a jocofe
and humorous kind.

Among the ancient Egyptians, adultery by confent, wag
puniflied in the man by a thoufand ladies, given with rods j
and in the woman, with the lofs of her nofe. Neverthelef*
adulteries were not unfrequent among the Egyptians.

The Grecian laws exprefs great indignation againft adul-
tery. In the earher times of Athens, the punifhmcnt of
adultery fcems to have been arbitrary. In other parts of
Greece, adultery was feverely punifhcd.

Rich adulterers were fometimes allowed to redeem them-
felves with money, and the fine, called /^cixayfia, was paid
to the injured hufljand : and it was cuftomary for the father
of the adulterefs to return the whole dowry which he had
received of her huftand. Homer Odyff. 1. 9. v. 317. 329.

In the later times of Greece it was ordered by Draco*
that he who catched an adulterer in the faft might impofe
on him any arbitrary punifliment ; and this law was con-
firmed by Solon. Neverthelcfs it appeared to have been
highly impolitic, as it gave full fcope to private revenge,
inftead of leaving the punifhment to the (late.

It was by the Grecian law farther ordered, that if any
one was ihjurioudy confined upon fufpicion of adulter)-, he
(hoidd make his complaint by appeal to the Thefmnthets^
which if they found juftifiable, he Ihould be acquitted, and
his fureties difcharged from their bail ; but in cafe he were
found guilty, the judges were to inflidl on him what pu-
nifhment they would, death only excepted ; and the offender
was obliged to procure friends to be refponfible for his fu-
ture challity.

The Spartans, indeed, may in one fenfc be faid to havf
tolerated adultery, fince they laughed at thofe who thought
the violation of the marriage-bed an infupportablt affront :
they allowed other men the liberty of embi. icing their wives,
which freedom they took with others in their turn. Nay,
even llrangers, as well as citizens of Sparta, were allowed
the fame freedom with their wives. Yet wc find that their
kings were exempt from tliis cuilom, that the royal blood
might be preferved unmixed, and the government remain io
the fame lineal defcent.

But notwithftanding this liberty, which was founded on
mutual confent, they accounted all other adulteries the
moll heinous crime in the world ; and while they adhered
to their ancient laws they were wholly ftrangers to them,
AlDong tlK ancient Spartans the idea of infidelity on the
L I part

A D U

part of the women to their hu(bands would have appeared
as ftrange as that of difpla)-ing the leaft regard to lludied
ornaments in their drefs. And Lycurgus, it is faid, did not
enact any law agaiiift adultery, becaufe no fuch crime tx-
ifted in Sparta. See Plut. Oper. torn. i. p. 49. torn 2.
p. 289. Ed. Xylandr. Potter's Arch. lib. iv. cap. 12.

Plutarch telU us, that if any pcrfon difcovered his filler or
daughter, while unmarried, in this crime, he was allowed by
Solon's laws to fell her for a flave. If a hulband furprifed
his rival in the aft of dilhonouring him, he might put him
to death, or oblige him by torments to ranfom his life ; but
if the wife had only yielded to force, he could demand no
more than a pecuniar)- fine at the difcretion of the judges, as
violence in fuch cafes was Icfs to be dreaded than feduction.
Ill t'.ie heroic ages, adulterers were Honed to death ; and
the punilhment was called xiivo; x't^'i a Jlone coat. Homer
Iliad, 1. ■)'• Adulterelfes were never after pemiitted to adorn
themfelves with line cloaths ; and in cafe they appeared fo
to do, were liable to have them torn off by any that met
them, and likewife be beaten. The fame li'oerty was per-
mitted to any that found them in the temples, which were
thought to be polluted by the admiflion of pcrfons fo in-
famous and deteflable. Laftly, their hufbands, though
wiUing, were forbidden to cohabit any longer with them,
upon pain of ignominy, at^Liy. ; but perfons who proftituted
women, were adjudged to die.

There were other remarkable punifhments for adulterers
among the Grecians ; fucli, particularly, as putting out
their eyes. And the Locrians obferved this cuftora in later
ages, being compelled to the obfervance of it by Zaleucus,
their lawgiver, whofe rigour in executing this law is very
remarkable ; for having caught his fon in adultery, he re-
folved to deprive him of his fight, and remained a long time
inexorable, notwithlfanding the whole city was willing to
remit the puniihment, and reqiiefted him to fpare the youth.
At length, unable to refift the people's importunity, he
mitigated his fentence, and redeemed one of his fon's eyes,
by caufmg one of his own to be put out ; by this glorious
aft fetting a memorable example both of j'ljlice and of
mercy. Valer. Maxim. 1. vi. c. 5.

At Goityn in Crete, they punifhed adulterers after an-
other manner ; they were covered v\'ith wool, an emblem
of the foftnefs and effeminacy of their difpofition, and in
that drefs they were carried through the city to the magif-
trate's houfe, who impofed a fine and fentcnced them to
ignominy, whereby they were in a manner deprived of all
their privileges, and their fhare in adminiftering the public
bufmefs. iElian. Var. Hift. 1. xii. c. 12. not. Perizon.
torn. 2. p. 736. Ed. Gronov. For other punifliments, fee
Qnobatis and Paratilmus.

There are various conjeftures concerning the ancient pu-
niihment of adultery among the Romans.

By a law of Romulus, of which Plutarch makes men-
tion, a man had the liberty of turning away his wife, either
for poifoning his children, counterfeiting his private keys,
or for adultery. Though fome maintain that it was made
capital, by a law of Romulus, and again by the Twelve
Tables. Others, that it was firfl made capital by Auguftus;
and others, not before the emperor Conftantine. The
truth is, the punirtiment in ancient time was veiy various,
much being left to the difcretion of the hufband and pa-
rents of the adulterous wife, who exercifed it ditferently,
rather with the filence and countenance of the magiilrate,
than any fonrial authority from him. Thus we are told,
the wife's father was allowed to kill both parties, when
caught in the faft, provided he did it immediately, kiUed
botli together, andj as it were, with one tlow. The lame

3

A D U

power ordinarily was not indulged the hufband, except the
crime were committed with fome mean or infamous pcrlon ;
though, in other cafes, if his rage carried him to put them
to death, he was not punifhed as a murderer. On many
occafions, however, revenge was not carried fo far, but mu-
tilating, caftrating, cutting off the ears, nofes, &c. were
deemed fufficient. The puniihment allotted by thr/f.v jfulia
was not, as many have imagined, death ; but rather banifh-
ment, or reh^atio, with the lofs, on the part of the wife, of
half her dowry, and a third part of her other goods ; and
on the part of the liulband, of half his goods : though Ofta-
vius appears, in feveral inllances, to have gone beyond his
ov.-n law, and to Irave put adulterers to death. But though
the Julian law left the accufation of adultery open to everf
bodv, yet fl;ra!>gers were feldom fuffered to profecute, where
the hulhand made no complaint ; but where the hufband
made a trade of his wife's infamy, or having feen her
(hame with his own eyes, patiently fufFered the affront : in
thefe cafes, adultery became a crime of public concern ; and
the Julian law provides a puniflrment for fuch hufbands as
well as for their wives.

Under Auguftus, the guilty parties, after the payment of
heavy forfeitures and fines, were condemned to long or per-
petual exile in two feparate iflands.

Under Macrinus, adulterers were burnt at a flake. Con-
ftantine, it is faid by Noodt and others, firft by law made
the crime capital. Under Conilantius and Conllans, adul-
terers were burnt, or fewed in facks, and thrown into the
fea. Under Leo and Marcian, the penalty was abated to
perpetual banifhment, or cutting off the nofe.

By the civil law, as altered by Juftinian, who, at the in-
ftance of his wife Theodora, mitigated the feverity of the
lex Julia, adulter)' is punilhed with whipping, and fliutting
up in a convent for two years : during which time, if the
hufband do not confent to take her 'oack again, file is fhaven,
and fliut up for life. — This is called autheniLating, as having
been eftablifhed by an authentic.

In France, however, the whipping is omitted, that the
hufband may be the lefs averfe to the taking lier back within
the two years.

Under Tlieodofius, women convifted of this crime were
punifhed after a veiy lingular manner, viz. by a public con-
ftupration ; being locked up in a narrow cell, and forced
to admit all the men to their embraces that would offer them-
felves. This cuftom was again abohfhed by the fame prince.

It was controverted whether, among the Romans, adul-
tery was allowed to be compounded ?

Bv an edift of the emperor Antoninus, the hufband was
not allowed to bring an aftion of adulteiy againll his wife,
unlefs he himfelf were innocent ; the reafou given for it is
veiy natural, per i>::^uu?n emm •i>'tdetur cffe ttt pudicttiam vir CJ
uxore exlgat, qiiam ipfe uon exhibeat.

Bv the Jewifh law, adulteiy was puniflied by death in both
parties, where they are both married, or only the woman.
The Jews had a particular method of trying, or rather
purging an adulterefs, or a woman fufpcfted of the crime, by
making her drink the bitter water of jealoufy ; which, if fhc
were guilty, made her fwell.

In Arabia Felix the punifhment of adultery was death.
Strabo Geog. torn. ii. p. 1 130.

By the laws of Jenghiz Ivlian, founder of the Mogul em-
pire, adulterers were condemned to dealli ; and a man was
permitted to kill them., when furprifed in the aft. Some
of the people, however, difliked this law, becaufe it was a
culiom with thtm to offer their wives and daughters tq
their friends who vilited them, in token of refpeft and af-
ftftion : and thev petitioned to be continued in the exercife

A D U

of this privilege, which was allowed. But ihey were re-
garded as depraved and infamous.

Among the Miiigrelians, adiilteiy is puiiiflKd witli the
forfeiture of a hog, wliich h ufualiy eaten in good friend-
(Iiip between the gallant, the adulterefs, and tiic cuckold.
Cliardin. Voy. torn. i. p. 47.

In fome parts of tlie Indies, it is faid, any man's wife is
pciniitted to prollitute herfelf to him who will give an
c-ltphant for tlie ufe of her ; and it is reputed no fmall
glory to' her, to have been rated fo high. Montaigne's
liir. lib. iii. cap. 4.

Adultei-y is faid to be fo frequent at Ceylon, that not a
woman hut praillfes it, notwithllnnding its being puniihable
T.'itii death. Bibl. Univ. torn, xxiii. p. 337.

Among the Japancfe, and divers other nations, adultery
is only penal in the woman. Among the Abyflinians, the
crime of the hufliand is faid to he only punilhed on tlic in-
nocent wife. In the Marian lilands, on the contrary, the
woman is not punilhable tor adultery ; but if the man go
allray, he pays feverely ; the wife and her relations walie
his lands, turn him out of his houfe, &:c. Amo'.ig the Chi-
nefe there is reafon to conclude, that adultery is not capi-
tal ; for it is faid that fond parents will make a contracl;
with the future hufbands of their daughters to allow
them the gratification of a gallant. But without fuch pre-
caution, tlie hulband has power to inflidl corporal punilh-
ment on a wife who tranfgreffes, or to divorce her. Such,
however, is tht conjugal fidelity of the Chinefe women, and
fo ftridlly are they guarded, that cafes of this kind feldom
happen. The Koran annexes the pen;Uty of 100 ftripes to
the crime of fornication, in either fex ; and in cafe of adul-
tery, female flaves, whofe punilhment was halt that of free
women, received lifty llripes, and the latter \s-cre iloned. But
in order to convift a woman of adultery, the commentators
on the Koran fay, that the charge mull be fupported by four
male witnelfes, and a falfe acculer was puniflied with eiglity
ftripes, and his tellimony was deemed fur the future invalid.

in the kir.gdom of Benin, the punilhment of adulterers
among the lower clades, is the forfeiture of the perfonal and
real etlate of the gallant, which the hufband feizes and enjoys ;
and he is therefore anxious to detect the intrigue, as foon
as he has occafion to fufpett it. The offending wife is
driven out of the hdufe with a cudgel, and deemed infam-
ous. Among perfons of fuperior condition, the crime is
atoned by a turn of money, which the relations of the wife
ndvance, to prevent the Icandal annexed to adultery. —
Among the governors and magiilratcs, the crime is punilhed
with greater feverity. The woman and her gallant are
immediately put to death, if detefted in the fadl ; and their
bodies are thrown on the dunghills as a prey to the birds
and beafts, without procefs of law, or form of trial. Hence
it is faid, the violation of the marriage bed is lefs known in
Benin than in any other couutiy.

In Spain, they puniflied adultery in men by cutting off
that part which had been the inllrument of the crime.

In Poland, before Chrillianity was eflablifhed, they pu-
rlthed adukeiy and fornication in a very particular manner :
the criminal they carried to the market-place, and there
faftened him by the tefticles with a nail ; laying a razor
within his reach, and leaving him under a neceffity either of
doing juHice upon hiinfelf, or of perifhing in tliat condition.

By the law of Scotland, fimple adultery is dillinguiflicd
from that which is notorious and manifell. Open and
manifell adulterers, who continue incorrigible, notwithfland-
ing the cenfures of the church, are punilhed capitally. The
puuiftituent of iiaiple adultery, not Ixing defined by ftatute,

A D U

is left to the difcretion of the judge ; but cuftom hai rnnAe
the f<dling of the fingle cfciieat one of its penaUics.

The Saxons formerly burnt the adultrrcls, and over her
allies cretled a gibbet, whereon the adulterer was hanged.
In this kingdom, likewife, adultery by the ancient laws wag
feverely puiilfhed. By the laws of Ethelbert, any one who
committed adultery with his neighbour's wife was obliged
to pay him a line, and buy him another wife. King Ed-
mund the Saxon, ordered adultery to be puniflied in the
fame manner as homicide ; and Cajiutc the Dane, ordered
that a man who committed adulteiy fliould he baiiiflied, and
tliat the woman fliould have her nofe and ears cut oil'. In
the time of Henry I. it was punilhed with the lofs of eyes
and genitals. Lib. Hen. I. cap. 12. Doomfday, tit. Ceftre.
Civit.

Adultery at prcfent is only punilhed by fine and penancf
in the fpiiitual court ; or by an action at common law of
dim. con. as it is commonly called, for damages ; which
are aflefled by the jur)', under the diredtion of the court, in
proportion to the hcinoufnefs of the crime and the circum-
ilances of the oflender : though fome of our law-book*
fpeak of adultery as a thing temporal againll the peace. If
a man takes another in the act of adulter)- with his wife,
and kills him directly upon the fpot, though this was al-
lowed by the laws of Solon, as likewife by the Roman civil
law (if the adulterer was found in the hulhand's own
houfe), and alfo among tlie ancient Goths ; yet in England
it is not abfolutcly ranked in the clafs of jullifiable homicide,
but it is manllaughtcr. It is, however, the lowell degree of
it ; and therefore the court in fuch a cafe direfted the
burning in the hand to be gently inflicted, bceaufe there
could not be a greater provocation. Blackll. Com. vol. iv.
p. 192, 8vo. As to the adulterefs, by our law, Ihe under-
goes no temporal punifliment whatever, except the lofs of
her dower ; and flie does not even lofe that, if her hufband
is weak enough to be reconciled to her, and cohabit with
her after the offence committed. 13 Ed. I. cap. ^4.

It is to be obferved, that adultereffes are fuch either by
the Ctitio/1 or CiviJ Laiu.

According to the former, a woman is an adulterefs, wh»
either being herfelf mamed, converfcs carnally with another
man, or being fingle herfelf, converfes with a man that it
married.

According to the latter, flie is not an adulterefs, if fhe be not
herfelf in the manned flate, though flic converfes with a maa
that is. The crime, in this cafe, was more properly called
Jluprum than aduUer'mm.

Hence, among the Romans, the word aJtillcra, adulterefs,
difl'ered irom pcl'ix, which denoted a fingle woman, who co-
habited with a married man : and yir/Zcv differed from concu-
Una, which fignified her who had only intercourfe with an
unmarried man. The former was reputed infamous, and the
latter innocent.

It is much difputed, whether adultery diflblvcs the bond
of matrimony, and be a fufficient caufe of divorce, fo that the
parties may marry again. This was allowed in the ancient
church, and is flill continued in the Greek, as well as the
Lutheran and Calvinill churches. Romanills, however, dif-
allov.' of it, and the council of Trent even anathematized
tiiofe who maintain it ; though the canon of anathematixa-
tion was mitigated in deference to the republic of Venice,
in fome of whofe dominions, as Zant, Cephalouia, &c. the
contrary ufage obtains.

The eccleilaftical courts in England fo far agree with the

papiils, that they only grant a divorce a men/a £3" tkoro, in

cafe of adultery ; fo that a complete divorce, a vinculo main-

Im 1 2 nionit.

A D U

A D U

monii, to enable the parties to many again, cannot be had
without an act of parhamcnt.

Bv a council of Na'.ites, marriage was declared diffolvcd
by adulter)', but the in.iocent party was not aUou-ed fecond
marriage. In after-times, leave was given to the innocent
party alone ; and afterwards the fame was allowed to the
criminal party.

Adulter)-, in a moral view, is unqueftionably a crime of an
atrocious nature, and produdive of very injurious conlc-
quenccs. On the part of the man who folicits the chaflity
of a married woman, it includes the crime of seduction,
and is attended with the fame mifchief. The infidelity of
the woman is aggravated by cnielty to her children, who are
involved in her ihame and made unhappy by the difcord and
reparation of their parents. Should it be faid that the
pernicious confequences refult from the difeover^', and not
from the crime, it may be replied that the commiffion is
never fecure from difcovery ; and that if undetefted con-
nexions of this nature be allowed, the hufljand can have no
fccurity for his wife's chaflity, independently of her prin-
ciples and difpofition, befides her want of opportunity or
temptation ; which would deter men from marrj-ing, defeat
the purpofes of the conjugal conneftion, with reipeft to do-
meftic order and happinefs, and render marriage fuch a ftate
of jealoufy and alarm to the hufband, as muft end in the
flavcry and confinement of the wife. Bcfides, the vow by
which married perfons engage their mutual fidelity is wit-
celTed before God, and accompanied with circumftances of
religious folemnity, which approach to the nature of an
oath. The crime is therefore little fhort of perjury on the
part of the offenders ; and the feduftion of a married wo-
man is little lefs than fubomation of perjury : and this
guilt is altogether independent of a difcover)'. The ufual
and only apology for adultery is the prior tranfgreflion of
the other party. This is a circumftance which can merely
extenuate, but cannot juflify the crime ; unlefs it could be
pleaded, that the obligation of the marriage vow depends
upon the condition of reciprocal fidelity, for which plea
there is no foundation. The way of considering the offence
cf one party as a provocation to the other, and the other as
only retaliating the injury by repeating the crime, is a
childifh trifling with woids.

" Thou (halt not commit adultery," was an interdift de-
livered by God himfelf: and in both the Old and New
Teflament the crime of adultery is reprefented as diftinft
from, and accumulated upon that of fornication.

Some have been of opinion, that the hiftory of the wo-
man taken in adultery, recorded in the eighth chapter of
St. John's Gofpel, gives countenance to this crime. When
Chrift told the woman, " Neither do I condemn thee;" we
muft believe, it is faid, that he deemed her conduct either
not criminal, or not a crime, however, of a very heinous
r.ature. A more attentive examination of this cafe (fays
-Aj-chdeacon Paley) will convince us that nothing can be
concluded from It, as to Chrifl's opinion concerning adul-
tery, either one way or the other. The defign of the per-
fons, whofe conduft on this occafion is recorded, and who
arc faid to have tempted Chrift, " that they might have to
accufe him," was to draw him into an exercife of judicial
authority, that they might be empowered to accufe him
before the Roman governor of ufui-ping or intermeddling
with the civil govemment. Chrift knew this to be their
defign, and determined to defeat it. When he allied the
woman, " hath no man condemned thee ?" he fpoke, and
■was underftood by her to fpeak of a legal and judicial con-
Meranation j otherwife her anfwer, " No man, Lord !" was

not tnie. In the fame fenfc he ufcs the word condemn in
his reply " Neither do I con /einn thee ;" i. c. I preteiid to
no judicial character or authority over thee ; it it no oince
or bufmefs of mine to prov.ouiice or execute the lentence
of the law. When Chrift adds, " go and lin no mere," he
in eifcft ttlls htr, that (lie had liiMcd already ; but as to the
degree or quality of the fm, or Chrili's opinion concerning-
it, nothing is declared, or can be interred in thia v,-ay. — Paley'i
Principles of Moral and Political Philofopliv, vol. i. p. 309-3.
Elfner (Obferv. vol. i. 318.) and Suicer (Tiicfaur. vol. i.
p. 205.) have lliewn, that the word ocfj.xfix.x, to fin, is ufed
by the moft elegant Greek claffics (as the currefpondlng-
word feccare is by the Latin) to fignify the commiHion of
adultery ; and this ftrongly intimates, that even the light of
nature taught many of the heathens the exceeding finful-
nefs of it.

If Chrift had undertaken the decifion of the cafe recorded
in this hiftory, he muft, iji/o faille, have rendered himfelf
obnoxious to the Romans, as well as to the Sanhedrim ;
and if he had condemned her, a new occafion of offence muit
have arifen, in confcquence of that, to Pilate, if execution
had been ordered without an application to him ; and to
the Jews, if Chrift had direfted fuch an application to be
made. See Doddridge and other Commentators In loc. — and
Lardner's Works, vol. i. p. 41, 8vo.

It is therefore needlefs to recur to the folution of the dif-
ficulty adopted by fomc biblical critics, who have difputed
the genuinenefs of this palTagc. By fuch, however, it has
been urged, that this hiftory is wanting in the Syriac ver-
fion, as well as in the Alexandrian and Bodleian copies, wnd.
indeed in moft of the oldeft MSS, and that it was not ac-
knowledged by feveral of the Greek fathers, which induced
Beza to queftion, and Le Clerc, with many others, to rejeft
its authority. In favour of this hiftory appeal is made to
fixteen copies ufed by R. Stephens, to moft of thofc con-
fulted by Mills and Beza, to the Harmonics of Tatian and
Ammonius, to the apoftohcal conftitutions and the Synopfis.
of Athanafius, to many of the Latin fathers, to feveral an-
cient Syriac MSS. to the Greek and Latin printed copies,
&c. Mill and Wetftein in loc. Whitby in lor. Fabricius's
Codex Apocr. New Teft. tom. i. p. 35 j, &c. See alTo
Lardner's Works, vol. v. p. 67, S:c. &c.

Adultery is alfo ufed in Ancient Cu/loms, for the pu-
nifhment or fine impofed for that offence, or the privilege of
profecuting for it.

In which fenfe, adulierium amounts to the fame with what
the Saxons called le^ertuita.

Adultery is fometimes iifed, in a more extenfive fenfe,
for any fpecies of impurity, or crime, again ft the virtue of
chaftity : and in this feufe divines underftand the feventh
commandment.

Adultery is alfo ufed, efpecially in Scripture, for idola-
try, or departing from the true God, to the worfhip of a
lalfe one.

Adultery is alfo ufed in Ecclejiaftical Writers, for a per-
fon's invading, or intruding into a bilhoprick, during the
former biiliop's hfe. The reason of the appellation is, that
a bifhop is fuppofed to contratt a kind of ipiritual marriage-
^v^th his church.

The tranilation of a bifliop from one fee to another was-
alfo reputed a fpecies of adultery ; on the fuppofition of its
being a kind of fecond marriage, which, in thofe days, was
efteemed a degree of adultery. This conclufio.i was founded
on that text of St. Paul, het a lifiop be the hiijband of one
•zi'ife, by a forced conftruclion of church for wife, and of
biihop for hufband. jDu-Cange.

ACULTER*

A D V

A D V

Advitfr V is alfo ufed, by Ancient l^a'.ural^Jls, for the aft

of iii^^rjitiiig one plant upon another.

lii which fenfe, Plliiy fpcaks of the -.luultcrics of trees,
urhornDi aJultcriti, which he reprcfei.ts as coiilraiy to nature,
and a piece of hixur^s or needlefs refinement.

Adultery is nlfo ufed by fome fanciful yl/lioiiin-.as and
Ajlrcht^cfi, for an cclipfe of the fun, or moon, happenij;;;
in an unufiial, and, as tliey fuppofe, in-egular manner : as in
the cafe cf horizontal eclipfes, where, tliough tlie fun and
moon be diametrically u])pofite, yet they appear as if above
the hori/.oti at the f imc time.

ADUMBRATION, in Hcrahhy, denotes the niadow
of any beaft or cliarge, outlined, and painted of a darker
colour than the field. There is perhaps no inftance of this
bearing in any Englidi coat ; but it is often mentioned by
French and German authors.

ADUMiVIIM, in Scriphire Geography, a town and moun-
tain in the tribe cf Benjami'i, which fome place fouth and
others north of Jericho. If, as fome fay, the road from
Jerufalem to Jericho pad'cd through this town, it ijiull
have been weft of Jericiio. Jofh. xv. 7. — xviii. 17. The
mountain of Adt/mmim, which Dr. Shaw afllgus to the tribe
of Judah, joins to flie mountain of Qiiarantania, and
through it, he fays, is cut the road that leads from Jeru-
falem to Jericho ; a difiicult pafs, the motmtmn of blood, or
the bloody road, as the name may import : where probably
it was, from the nature of the lituation, that the man fell
among thieves, mentioned in Luke x. 30. Sliaw's Trav.
vol. ii. 276.

ADUNA, a river of Sufiana, mentioned by Pliny, torn.

I- P- 334-

ADUNICATI, a people of Gaul, in that part which
was called the Roman Province.

ADVOCARIA, in Middle Age Writers, a tax paid
the lord for his protetlion ; fometimes alfo called falva-
mentum.

ADVOCATE, Advocatus, compounded of ad, to,
and vocare, to call, q. d. / call to my aid or defence, among
the Romans, a perfon {killed in their law, and who under-
took the defence of caufes at the bar. The Roman advo-
cates anivvered to one part of the office of a barrifter among
us, viz. the pleading part ; for they never gave counfcl, that
being the bufinefs of the jarifonfidti.

The Romans, in the firll ages of their (late, held the pro-
fcflion of an advocate in great honour ; and the feats of
their bar were crouded with fenators and confuls : they,
whofe voices coiTjiianded the people, thinking it an honour
to be employed in defending them.

They were ilyled comites, honcrnti, clarijfmi, and even ^a-
ironi ; as if their clients were not lefs obliged to them,
than freed-men to their mailers. See Patron.

The bar was not at that time venal. — Tliofe who afpired
to honours and offices, took this way of gaining an intereft
in the people, and always pleaded gratis.

But no iooner were Inxaiy and corruption brought into
the commonwealth, than the bar became a Iharer in them.
— The-.i it was that the fenators let out their voices for pay,
and zeal and eloquence were fold to llie higheil bidder. —
To put a flop to this abufe, the tribune Cineius procured
a law to be pafTed, called from him Z,c.v Cincia, whereby
the advocates were forbid to take any money of tlieir clients.
— Fred. Bruner.is has publilhed an ample comment upon
this law.

It had before this been prohibited the advocates to take
any prefent or gratuities for their pleading. — The emperor
Auguftus added a penalty to it, fubjetling thofe who
took jnoney to the forfeiture of four times the funi they

received : notwithllanding which, the advocates played their
jjart fo well, that the emperor Claudiur. thought it an
cxtraordluar/ circumllance, when he obliged ll'.em not to
tike above as many iellerces as arc equivalent to eighty
pounds ileriing, or upwards, for pleading each caufe.

On occafion of Suilius's receiving four hundred thoufand
fefterees, or about 7200/. from an illitllrious knight, ai.d
afterwariio betraying him, the /t-r Wnr.'.;, recivid by Auguf-
tus, which proiiibited advocates from receiving cillier money
or prefents from their clients, was enforced ; and Claudius,
it is faid, allowed advocates to take as mixh as ten thoufand
fefterces, or about fo/. ; but if thev took more tliev v/cie to
be profecuted for extortion. This regulation pulled into a
law. Nero, in his fnlt Ipccch to the Senate, declared his
pi'.rpofe of revifing and enforcing the ancient laws, by which
advocates were foibidden to receive fees. It was an
apophthegm of Tlirafea, who fulfcred death under this Em-
peror, A. D. 66, that advocates fhould undertake only the
caufes of their friends, of people in dillrels, and fuch a;
might tend to fct good examples and purify the moral?.
Pliny, Ep. vi. 29. Alexander Sevei-us gave llipeiids to the
advocates in the provinces, provided he was well alTured that
they pleaded without being feed bv their clients. But the in-
jundlion which difallowed advocates from receiving any thinp-
of their clients was found to be iinprctlicabie in its utmr/ll
rigour. Accordingly, Conftantine did not attempt to revive
it ; but he pronounces thofe advocates, who rAhged their
chents to make over to them by deeds the bell part of their
property in land, cattle, or flaves, or who proftituted their
talents in this odious traffic, unworthy to be admuttd into
the company of honell men, and he excluded them fiom tJie
bar. Cod. Theod. tit. 10. kg. I.

Advocate is flill ufed in countries, and courts, where
the civil law obtains, for thofe who plead and defend the
caufes of clients trulled to them.

In the Englifh courts, advocates are more generally called

COUNSEL.

In Scotland they have a college, or Faei/l/y of A'JvccaleSy
about 200 in number, appointed to plead in all caufes before
the Courts of Seflion, Jufticiary, and Extiiequer. They are
alfo intitled to plead in the Houfe of Peers, and other fupreme
courts in England. A candidate for the office of advocate un-
dergoes three fucceffivc trials ; the lirlt in Latin, upon the civil
law, and Greek and Roman antiquities ; the fecond in Englifli»
upon the municipal law of Scotland ; and in the third, lie
defends a I^atiu thefis, which is impugned by three members
of the faculty. Before he puts on the gown, he makes a
(hort fpeech in Latin to the lords, and then takes the oaths
to the government, and dejideli. From this refpedlablc body
all vacancies on the bench are generally fupplied. In 1660,
the fac'ilty fornded a libran- upon a very extcnfive plan,
fuggeilcd by Sir George M'Kenzie, advocate to king
Charles II., who enriched it with many valuable books.
The colleft'on has been gradually incrcaiing, and it now
confills of many valuable books on law and other fubjefts j
feveral original MSS. and a gi'eat variety of Jev,-iih, Grecian,
Roman, Scots, and Englifli coins and medals.

By the articles of the U.ion, rone are to he named ordi.
nar)' lords of leffion, except thofe who have been rdvccates,
or principal ekrks of {J}'.on for five years, 5.e.

In Fi-nnce, they had alfo two kinds of advocates, viz.
pleading advi cates, ar.'jcats l>laid.ints ; and counfel advocates,
avocals confultar:ts. This diilinftion was formed with a view
to the two brai.ehcs among the Romans, admic.tti, A-^Ajurif-
conjulii. — Vet there is this diilerenee, that the function of
the Jill ifcorfiiiti, who only gave tlieir advice, was of a differ-
ent kiid from that of the advocatii being a fort of private

an<i.

A D V

A D V

and pfqiftual magiftrature, principally under the firft empe-
rora ; and ihc niJvoir(7li ncvzv hicamc jiirij'ccnfult:. Whereas,
on the otlicr hand, in France, after the advocates have at-
tained to reputation and experience enough at the bar, they
quit fo bufy a province, and become a kind of chambcr-
counfel. — 1 hey had alfo their advocate general, and king's
advocate, avocat du rcy.

Advocate, Lord, or Klrs;'s, in Scotland, one of the eight
great office! s of ftate, whofe bullnefs is to give his advice
about the making and executing of laws ; to defend the
king's right and interell in all public meetings ; to profecute
all capital crimes before the julliciary ; and to concur in all
purfuits before fovereign courts for breaches of the peace ;
and alfo in all matters wherein the king, or his donator,
has intercft. — He intents no procelTes of trcafon, except by
warrant of privy-couiieil.

1'\\e lord aik'c^ate i^ fometimes an ordinar}- lord of feflion ;
in which cafe he only pleads in the king's caufes ; othenvile,
he is at liberty to plead in all cauies.

He is the principal crown-lawyer in Scotland, and has the
privilege of wearing his hat when he pleafes in court. The
ffffice of iiii^'s advocate is not veiy ancient ; having been
cftabllfhed about the beginning of the 1 6th centui-y. He
had not originally the power of profeciiting crimes without
the concurrence of a private party; but in 1597, he was
authorifed to profecute crimes at his own inilance.

Advocate of a city, or lo'zvn, is a magilhate eftabUflied
in feveral places of Germany, for the adminiHration of juf-
tice in that city, in the emperor's name. See Advowee.

Advocate is more particularly ufed, in Church H'ljlory,
for a perfon appointed to defend the rights and revenues of a
church or religious houfc.

The word advocalus, or adviwee, is iliU retained, for wTiat
we ufually call the patron, or him who has the advowfon,
or right of prefentation, in his own name.

The abbeys and monafteries had alfo all their advocates,
or advoivees . See Adminicvlator.

There are feveral other kinds of advocates ; as

Advocate, corijijlor'wl, is an officer of the court of
Rome, whofe bufmefs it is to plead on the oppofitions made
to the PROVISIONS of benefices in that court. There are
ten of thefe in number.

Advocates, eh-cfivc, thofe chofen by the abbot, bifhop,
or chapter, a particular licence being had from the kinjr,
or prince, for that purpofe. The elections were originally
made in the prefence of the count of the province.

Advocates, feudal, were of the militai-y kind, who,
to make them more zealous for the interell of the church,
had lands granted them in fee, which they held of the
■church, and did homage, and took an oath of fidelity to
the bifhop or abbot. Thefe were to lead the vafTals of the
church to war, not only in private quarrels of the church
itfelf, but in military expeditions for the king's fervice, in
which they were the ftandard-bearers of their churches.

Au\ oc AT E, ffcal, f/ci Advocatus, was an officer in-
ftituted by the emperor Adrian, to defend the caufe and
interefts of the riscus, or private treafury, in the feveral
tribunals where that might be concerned.

Advocates, juridical, in the Middle Age, were thofe who
from attending caufes in the court of the comes, or count of
the province, became judges themfelves, and held courts of
their vaffals thrice a year, under the name of the triaplaclta
^eneralia.

In confideration of this farther fervice, they had a parti-
cular allowance of one third part of all fines, or mulfts,
impofed on defaulters, &c. which was called tertia lanmrum
^arj, tirtiiu denarius, iertia pars compofitiomim, tertia pars

hgum, or emendarum, &c. ; befides a proportion of diet fov
themfelves and fervants.

Advocates, matricular, were the advocates of the mo-
ther or cathedral churches.

Advocates, military, thofe appointed for the defenctf
of the church, rather by arms and authority, than by plead-
ing and eloquence.

Thefe were ii.troduced in the times of confufion, when
evciy pcrion was obliged to maintain their own property by
force; bifiiops and abbots not being pennitttd to bear arms,
and the fcholaftic or gowned advocates being equally unac-
quainted with them, rtcourfe was had to knights, noblemen,
foldiers, or even to princes.

Advocates, nominative, thofe appointed by a king, or
pope. Sometimes the churches petitioned kings, &;c. to
appoint them an advocate ; at other times this was done of
tlieir own accord. By fome regulations, no perfon was ca-
pable of being elected advocate, unlefs he had an eftate in
land in the fam.e county.

Advocates, regular, thofe duly formed and qualified for
their piotefTion, by a proper courie of Itudy, the rcquiiite
oath, tfibfcription, licence, &c.

Advocates, fulordinate, thofe appointed by other fupe-
rior ones, acting under them, and accountable to them.

Theiv were divers reafons for the creation of thefe fub-
ordiuatc advocates : as, the fuperior quality of the principal
advocate, his being detained in war, or being involved in
other affairs ; but chiefly the too great dlftance of fome of
the church lands, and their lying in the dominions of foreign
princes.

A.'OvocxTT.s, fupreme, or fovereign, were thofe who had
the authority in chief, but acted by deputies, or fubordinate
advocates. Thefe were alfo called principal, greater, and
fometimes general advocates. — Such in many cafes were
kings, &c. when either they had been chofen advocates, or
became fuch by being founders, or cndowers of churches.
Princes had alfo another title to advocatefhip, fome of them
pretending to be advocali i:ati of the churches within their
dominions.

ADVOCATIA, in the Feudal Laiv, the procuration
of fome pubUc bufinefs, committed by a fuperior to his
fubftitute.

Advocatia is alfo ufed for the patronage and proteftion
of a church, college, raonatlery, and the like, in which
fenfe it amounts to the fame with advowson.

Advocatia is alfo ufed for the protedlion and defence
of lay perfons, eftates, ixc.

ADVOCATION, Advocatio, in the Civil Law, the
aft of calling another to our aid, relief, or defence.

Advocation, ii/l of, in Scots lazu, a WTiting drawn up
in the form of a petition ; whereby a part)', in an aftica
before an inferior court, applies to the lupreme court, or
Court of Seffion, for calling the aftion from the inferior court
before iti'elf.

Advocation, letters of, in Scots laiv, the decree or war-
rant of the Court of Seffion, upon cognizance of the fafts
fet forth in the bill, drawn up in the fonn of a fummons,
and paffing under the fignet, difcharging the inferior judge,
and aU others from farther procedure in the caufe, and advo-
cating it to itfelf.

The grounds upon which thefe letters may be fought, are
incompetency, comprehending defeft of jurifdiftion, and
reafons for dechiiing competent jurifdiftion, arifing from fuf-
picion of the judge, or privilege in the parties ; and iniquitj-,
which happens when the judge delays juilice, or pronounces
fentence contrary to law. No cauie for a fam below twelve
pounds can be advocated from an inferior court to the Court

cf

A D V

of Sc-flion, iinlefs th« inferior jud;:;e he incompetent, In which
cafe the cavife may be removed from him by advocation,
however inconfjderable the fiibjeiil.

If after letters of advocation are intimated to the judge, he
yet proceeds, his decree will be null, as '^Ivcn fpirto mandala.
Mackenzie, Inll.

ADVOCATIONE Decimarum, a writ which lies for
the cb.im of the fourth part, or upwards, of the titlies tliat
beloii'^ to any church. Rep-. Orig. 29.

ADVOCATURA, /« //^W,V/t of the MMk and Bar-
larous Age, denotes an inferior kind of jurifdiCtion, excrcifed
by advocates within the dillricts of their refpective churches,
&c. The word is fometimes uled as fynonymous with
ADvocATiA. Du-Cange.

ADVOWEE, in ylnc'u-nt Cttjloms, and I^a'-.u Booh, de-
notes tlie advocate of a church, religious houfe, or the like.

The word is othervi'iie written avnvn; ai/iiouee, and
avoiuee; fometimes advouer ; being der:ved from avoiier, to
own, or at-hwifledge.

There are advowees of cathedrals, abbeys, monalferies,
&c. Thus Cliarlemagne had the title of advowee of St.
Peter's, and he is faid to have been the firll on whom this
title of advowee was conferred by the pope, for having pro-
tefted Italy and the church againft the Lombards ; king
Hugh, of St. Riquicr ; and Bolandus mentions fome letters
of pope Nicholas, for which he conftituted king Edward
the Confeflbr, and his fuccefTors, advowees of the monalleiy
at Weftminller, and of all the churches in England.

Thefe advowees were the guardians, proteftors, and ad-
miniftrators of the temporal concerns of the churches, &c.
and under their authority were pafled all coutrafts which
related to them.

It appears alfo, from the mod ancient charters, that the
donations made to churches were confen'ed on the perfons
of the advowees. They always pleaded the caufes of the
churches in court, and diilributtd juftice for them, in the
places under their jurifdidtion. They alfo commanded the
forces furniihed by their monafterles, &c. for the v.'ar ; and
even were their champions, and fometimes maintained duels
for them.

This office is faid to have been firft introduced in the
fourth century, in the time of StiUico; though the Bene-
diftines do not fix its origin before the eighth centur)-.

By degrees, men of the firft rank were brought into it,
as it was found neceffar)', either to defend with arms, or to
protect with power and authority. In fome monaftcries tlicy
were only called Ct-n/er-va/ors ; but thele without the name
had all the funclions of advowees. The imperial advowee
was amagiilrate fonnerly cilabliihed by the emperors to ad-
minifter juftice, in their name, in the cities of the empire.

There were alfo fometimes feveral fuh-advoiuces, or fub-
advocates, in each monailerj', who officiated inilead of the
advowees themfelves ; which, however, proved the ruin of
moisafteries ; thofe inferior otTicers running into great abufes.

Hence alfo, hulhands, tutors, and eve:y perfon in gene-
ral, who took upon him the defence of another, were deno-
minated advowees, or advocates. Hence feveral cities had
their advowees ; which were eftablilhed long after the eccle-
fiaftical ones, and doubtlefs from their example. Thus, we
read in hiftoiy of the advowees of Auglburg, of Arras, &c.

The viDAMEs atfumed the quality of advowees; and
hence it is, that feveral hillorians of the eighth cenluiy
confounded the tv;o fun<3ions together.

Hence alfo it is, that feveral fteular lords in Germany
bear niiti'es for ttieir creils, as having anciently been ad-
vowees of the great churciies.

A D V

Kpclman didinguiflics two kinds of ecclefiaftical advowees.
— The one, of caufes, or procefTes, advocati caufarum ; the
other, of territoi-y, or lands, nd-Mcnti fuli.

The former were nominated by t!ie king, and were ufu-
ally lawyers, who undertook to plead the caufes of the loo-
nafterles.

The other, which Hill fubfift, and are fometimes called
by tlicir primitive name, advowees, though more ufually
PATRONS, were hereditary ; as being the founders and en-
dowers of churches, &e. or their heirs.

Women were I'ometimcs advowees, advocaliff. And, in
efFett, the canon law mentions fome who had this title, and
who had the fame right of prefentations, &c. in their
churches, which the advowees themfelves had.

In a flat. 25 I'.d. HI. we meet with advowee paramount,
forthchigheft patron ; that is, the king.

There are alfo advowees of countries and provinces.

In a charter of the year 1 1H7, Berthold duke of Zeringhen
is called advowee of Thuringia ; and in the Notitia of the
Belgic churches, publilhed by Mirx-us, the count of Lou-
vain is ftyled count and advowee of Brabant. In the nth
and 1 2th centuries we alfo meet with the advowees of Alfa-
tia, of Suabia, &c.

ADVO\VING, or Avowing, Advocare, in Zaw, fee
Avowry.

ADVOWSON. See Advocatia.

Advowson, or Advouzen, in Common Law, fignifics
a right to prefent to a vacant benefice.

Advowfon is fo called, becaufe the right of prcfenting t»
the church was firll gained by fuch as were founders, bene-
faiilors, or maintainers of the church, viz. ratkne funda- .
lionis, as where the anceftor was founder of the church ; or
ratione donathms, where he endowed the chinch ; or ratkne
fundi, as where he gave the foil whereupon the church wa'
built : and therefore they were called advoial'i. They were
alfo c-a\\iiA patron}, and thereupon the advowfon is called jits
patronatus ; and he who has the right of advowfon is called
the patron of the church. An advowfon is, ftriftly fpeak-
ing, an incorporeal hereditament : for it is not itfelf the bo-
dily poficflion of the church and its appendages, but a right
of giving to fome other perfon a title to fuch bodily poflcf-
fion. The patronage can only be conveyed by operation of
law, by verbal grant, either oral or written, which is a kind
of invifible, mental transfer; and being fo veiled it lies
dormant and unnoticed, till occafion call it forth : when it
produces a viilble, corporeal fruit, by entitling fome clerk,
whom the patron fliall pleafe to nominate, to enter and re-
ceive bodily poneffioii of the lands and tenements of the
church. 1 Inll. 119. Fleta, lib. v. cap. 14.

Though the nomination of fit pevlons to officiate in every
dioeele was originally in the bidiop, yet they were content
to let the founders of churches have the nomination of the
perfons to the churches fo founded, referving to themfelves
a right to judge of the fitnefs of the' perfons fo nomi-
nated. Gibf. ii. ed. 756.

Advowfons are of two kinds, i, ytdi'Otvfin in grofs, or
a right fubiifting in itfelf, belonging to a perfon, and not
adhering to any manor or lands as parcels thereof. 7.Ad-
•voivjon appendant, which depends on a manor, as appurte-
nant to it. This will pafs, or be conveyed, together with
the manor, as incident anj appendant thereto, by a grant
of the manor only, without adding any other words.

Advowions formerly were moll of them appendant to
manors, and the patrons were pai ocbial barons : the lordfhip
of the manor, and patronage of the church, were feldom
in different hands, until advowfons were given to religious

Loufee.

A D V

hcuffs. But of late times the lordlViip cf the manor, snA
advowson of the church, have been divided.

Advuwfons arc alio piffenlative, colLitlv^, or t/oKal:ve : pre-
JenttUive, where tlic patron prtfents or offers his clerk to the
birticp of the dioctle, to be inltituted in his church, if
he be found canonieally qualified : collnlive, where the be-
nefice is given by the bilhop, as original ji itron thereof, or
by means of a right he has acquired by Inpfe, in which cale
the bifliop cannot prefent toliimfelf; but he does by the
one act of collation or conferring the benefice, the whole
that is done in common cafes, by both prefeiitation and
iiillitution ; tlondhve, as where the king, or any fuojccl by
his licence, founds u church or chapel, and ordains that it
fliail be merely in the gift or difpoi'al of the patron, fubjeft
to his vlfitation only, and not to that of the ordinary,
and vi'fted nbfolutely in the clerk by the patron's deed of
donation without prefeiitation, inllitution, or induction.
This is fiid to have been anciently the only way of confer-
ring eeelefiafticalbeneticesin England. See Institution.
If, as the law now Hands, the true patron once waives this
privilege of donation, and prcfents to the bifhop, and his clerk
is admitted and inftitnted, the advov.fon is now become for
cytT prefc-ntalivf, and Ihall never be donative any more.

Sometimes, anciently, the patron had the i'ole nomina-
tion of the prelate, abbot, or prior ; either by invefliture
(i. e. delivery of a paftoral ftaff,) or by direct prefentation to
the diocefan ; and if a free election was left to the religious,
yet a conge (Telire, or licence of elettion, was firft to be ob-
tained of the patron, and the pcrfon elefted was confirmed
by him.

If the founder's family became extindt, the patronage of
the convent went to the lord of the manor. Unlefs the
feveral colleges in the univerfities be reftrained in the number
of advowfons they may receive ; it is argued they will in
time acquire fuch a ftock as to fruftrate the defign of their
foundation, (which is the education of youth), by creating
too quick a fucceflion of fellows ; fo that there will not be
in the colleges a fufficient number of perfons of compe-
tent age, knowledge, and experience to inftruft and form
the minds of the youth. In fome colleges the number of
advowfons is faid to be already two-thirds, or more, of the
number of fellows. It is objefted, on the other fide, that
the fucceflion of felloes may be too flow, as well as too
quick ; whereby perfons well qxialified may be detained fo
long in colleges, as not to have ftrength or aiSlivity enough
left for the difcharge of parochial functions.

Colleges holding more advowfons in number than a moiety
cf the fellows, are not capable of purchafing more. Grants
of advowfons by papifts are void. 9 Geo. II. c. 36. § 5.
1 1 Geo. II. c. 17. ^ 5.

Advowfons are temporal inheritances, and lay fees ; they
may be granted by deed or will, and are alfcts in the hands
of heirs or executors. The recovery of advowfons, as tem-
poral rights, was effectually provided for by one of the ex-
cellent regulations of Edward I. Before his time the law,
in this refpeft, was extremely deficient.

Prefentations to advowfons, for money or other reward,
are void. 13 Ehz. cap. 6. See Burn's Eccl. Law, vol, i.

Advowson of the Moiety of the Church, is where there
are tv/o feveral patrons and two feveral incumbents in the
fame church, the one of the one moiety and the other of the
other moiety. A moiety of the advowfon is where two
mull join in the prefentation and there is but one incumbent.
See Stat. 7 Anne c. 18. Itr Scotland the right ©f ad-
vowfon is called Patronage.

ADVOWTRY. See Adultery*

A D Y

ADUR, in Gco^njphy, a river of SulTex that falls into
th.e 1,M at Shoreham, and admits fhlps of burden to go up to
the town.

ADUST, Adustus, formed of adurere, to iani, RTnor.g
Phvficians, &c. is applied to fuch humours, as by long heat
become of a hot aid iiery nature.

Such is choler fuppofed to be. Melancholy 15 ufuatiy
confidcrtd as black and aduft bile.

Blood ii faid to be aduft, when, by reafon of fome extra-
ordinary heat, its more fubtile parts are all evaporated, leaving
the groffer, with all the impurities therein, half torrified.

ADUSTION, in Sti~^'cry, is the fame as Caiiterifitior,
a'ld fignilies the application of any fubflance to the
inii.iv.'.l body, which acts like fire. See Cautery and
Caustic The ancient furgtons, efpecially the Arabians,
were remarkably fond of ha'^'iiig recourie to aduflion in local
difeafes ; but the ufe of actual heat is veiy rarely admitted
by the moderns. See Moxa.

ADUSTION, among Pi:jf:ciar:s,\a ufed for an inflamma-
tion of the parts about the brain, and its m.embranes, at-
tended with a hollowncfs of the firciput and eyes, a pale
colour, and dn.'nLfs of the body ; in which cafe the yolk of
an egg, with oil of rofes, applied by way of cataplafm ii
recommended ; as arc the leaves of tunifol, the parings of a
gourd, the pulp of a pompion, applied in the fame mannci*
with oil of rofes.

AD Y, in Natural Hijlory, a name given to the palm-tree of
the ifland of St. Thomas. It is a tall tree witii a thick,
bare, upright Hem, growing fuigle on its root, of a thin
light timber, and full of juice. The head of this tree fhoots
into a vail number of branches, which being cut oft, or an
incifion being made therein, afford a great quantity of fweet
juice, which, fermenting, fupplies the pbce of wine, among
the Indians.

The fruit of this tree is called by the Portuguefe caryoces,
and carioffee ; and by the black natives A bang A. This fruit
is of the fize and ihape of a lemon, and contains a kenicl,
which is good to tat. The fruit ilftlf is eat roafted,
and the raw kernels are often mixed with mandioc meaU
Thefe kernels are Uippofed very cordial. An oil is alfo pre-
pared from the fruit, which anfwers the purpofe of oil, or
butter, in Europe.

This oil is alfo ufed for anointing ftiffand contrafted parts
of the body. Ray.

ADYLISUS, in ylncient Geography, a mountain which
Phny places in Boeotia.

ADYNAMIA, in Medicine, formed of the primitive a,
and ivvajxi;, Jlrenglh, debility or weaknefs from ficknefs.
Accordingly ^dynamin, denote thofe affedtions of the hu-
man body which form the fecond order of the fecond clafs
in the arrangement of Dr. CuUen, and which he defines to
be a diminution of the involuntary motions, whether vital or
natural. This is a diilinft clafs in the diftribution of Vo-
gel. It comprehends the genera of fyncope, dyfpepfia, hypo-
chondriafts, and chlorofts. Some naturalifts place thefe under
debilitates, and Linnxus calls them quietaks. See Nosology.

ADYNAMON, among Ancient Phyficians, a kind of
weak fa£titious wine, prepared from mult boiled down with
water ; to be given to patients, to whom genuine wine
might be hurtful.

ADYRMACHIDjE, or Adyrmachit/t:, in Ancient
Geography, a people of Libya, inhabiting the fea-coaft,
near the Canopic mouth of the Nile. Herodotus (1. iv.
c. i68.) defcribes them as refembling the Egyptians in their
cuftoras and manners, Silius Italicus refers to them, lib. iii.
V. 278. p. 149. Ed. Drakenb,

8 »»Verfi.

M A

MAS

*' VeiTicolor contra extra, et falcatiis ab arte
Enfis Adynnachidis, ac la;vo tegmina crurc."

ADYTUM, a fccret or retired place in the Pa>:;a:i tem-
ples, where oracles were given, and into which none but the
pricfts were admitted. Thus Seneca in his tragedy of Thy-
elle8 (iv. I. 679.)

" Hinc orantibus

Refponfa dantur certa, cum ingenti fono
Laxantur adyto fata."

The word originally fignifies inaccelTible ; being com-
pounded of «, not, and .Suj;, or lvvj>, to enter.

The Scntltim Sanelorum, or Holj of Holies, of the temple of
Solomon wai of the nature of the Pagan ii^lyttim, none but
the high-priell being admitted into it, and he but once a year,
on the great day of expiation. After the Babylonilh captnity
this place wanted the ark, the inercy-feat, tiie fcheehniah of
the divine prefence, and the Urim and Thummini ; the defeiil
of thele cauling an impcrteition in the Jewiih worfiiip, com-
pared with the former Hate of it, a rcftoration of lliem is
devoutly iupplicated in the Jewifh liturgy ; particularly in
the molt folemn part of it which they call Sljemorich EJhreh,
or the eighteen prjyers.

ADZE, or Addice, a cutting tool, of the axe kind;
having its blade made thin, and arching, and its edge at
right angles to the handle; chiefly ufed for taking thin chips
off timber or boards, and tor paring away certain irregula-
rities which the axe cannot come at.

The adze is ufed by carpenters, but more by coopers, as
being convenient for cutting the holhnv fides of boards, &c.
It is ground from a bafe on its infide to its o\iter edge ; fo
that when it is blunt they cannot conveniently grind it,
without taking its helve out of the eye.

ADZ EL, in Geography, a mean place in the government
of Riga, fubjeft to Ruffia. N. lat. 56°. 30'. E. long. 38°.

5''

ADZENETA, a fmall town of Valencia, in Spain, feated

on the mountain Pegna Golofa, in which grow multitudes of
efculent plants. N. lat. 40°. 30'. W. long. 0°. 16'.

ADZUD, a town of Moldavia in European Turkey,
nine miles weft-fouth-weft of Birlat.

AE, or jE, a diphthong, or double vowel, compounded of
A and E.

Authors are by no means agreed as to the ufe of the as in
Englifh words. — Some out of regard to etymology, infill on
its being retained in all words, particularly technical ones,
borrowed from the Greek and Latm ; while others, from a
confideration that it is no proper diphthong in our language,
its found being no other than that of the fimple e, contend
that it ought to be entirely difufed ; and, in facl, the. fimple
e has of late been adopted inftead of the Roman s ; as in the
word equator, Sec.

^A, in Ancient Geography, a confiderable and celebrated
city and port of Colchis, near the river Phafi?., and dillant
from the fea, according to Pliny, (H. N. 1. vi. c. 4. t. i. p.
304.) Ijiniles, but according to Stephanus (de Urb. p. 30.)
more than 37 miles. It was encompaffed by the rivers Hip-
pos, fo called from its rapidity, and Cyaneos, io denominated
from its colour, neai- their confluence in the Phafis, and th\is
formed into a kind of peninfula. Some have conjeftured
that it was the fame with the JEapolis of Ptolemy ; and
that it derived its name either from the Greek aia,
earth, or from the Hebrew 1^, iJLirul. The Circe
obtained the appellation of JEaa from this city. See
Homer's Odyff. 1. ix. v. 32. and Virgil 1. iii. v. 386. It
is alfo repeatedly mentioned by Apollonius Rhodius, as a
place to which the river was navigable. Argonautic 1. ii. v.
424. — 1096. pp. 188. 250. Ed. Hoelzhn. Ovid likewife (in

Vol. I.

his Mefam. I. vii. v. 9. torn. ii. p. 446. Ed. Burman.) fpeaks
of tile

• Validos .Delias ignes."

Tradition afcribes its origin to the famous Sefoftris, king of
r^KVPt' ^^■''"> <>ft<^'' having traverfed the whole of Afia
with his army, left a colony in Colchis, and there created
pillars of (tone upon which were mgraven, according to
Apollonius, the names and pofition of the countries through
which lie had padui. Pliny and Strabo alfo reprefent it as
the abode of king iEeta, and the theatre of the adventures
of his daughter Medea. It had a temple dedicated to the
god Mars, and another to Phi^xus. It was anciently fa-
mous for its gold and filvcr, and other metals, which might
have given occafion to the Argonautic expedition, firll by
Phryxus and afterwards by Jaton. Strabo. Geog. torn. i.
p. 38. &c. It is now T.ippopotamo.

Til ere was another town called /Ea, in ThelTaly ; and a
fountain of this name in Macedon.

AEtEA, the name of an idand, which Mela (1. ii. c. 7.)
fuppofes to have bccii fituated in the bay of Sicily, and to
have been the habitation of Calypfo. But he has probably
confounded the name of this idand with that of JEa
above mentioned ; as both the ifland of Calypfo, or Ogy-
gia, and that of Circe, or jEa, are far dillant from the
coail of Sicily.

jEACEA, in yfntiquity, folemn feafts and combats, cele-
brated in jEgina, in honour of jEacus, who had been their
king, and who, on account of his fingular juftice upon
earth, was fuppufed to have a commidion given him to be a
prince or judge, whole office it was to prefide over Elyfium,
©r the region of blifs. This .£acus, it is faid, was the foil
of Jupiter and /Egina ; and when his country was depopu-
lated by a plague, he is reported to have obtained of Jupi-
ter a fupply of inhabitants, who, at his requcit, converted
ants into men ; whence they were called Myrmidons, from
ixvfij.r,x.=..:, ants. The meaning of the fable feems to be that
he drew them out of their caves into which they had re-
tired tor fecurity, when they were invaded by pirates, and
encouraged them to apply to agriculture and commerce ; fo
that by their iudultry they recovered what they had lolt. —
See TEgima.

jEACUS, in Entomology, a fpecies of the sphinx, having
fix yellow points on the fore wings, and the latter yellow,
with the margin of an a/ure colour. It is found in Auilria.

^AMENE, in Ancient Geography, a country of the Na-
bath-.cans, in Arabia.

iEANA, a city of Macedonia, founded by jEanus, fon
of Elymus, king of the Tyrrhenians, who, leaving his own
country, inhabited Macedonia.

jEANIS, a fountain of Locris, fituated in the facred grove
called JEaneius lucus, fo called, according to Strabo, from a
Greek named jEanes, who was killed there by Patroclus.

jEANITIS, a country of the Nabathaeans.

iEANTIDES, a tribe of Attica, which comprehended
fix different people, viz. thofe of Marathon, iEnonc, Pfa-
phidn?, Rhamnus, Titacidoe and Tricorythus.

^ANTIUM, or y\jACiuM, a fmall place in Afia, upon
a promontory north-well of Rhatheum. Here, it is laid,
Ajax was buried. His itatue found in this place, was taken
away by Marc Antony, and reftored by Auguftus.

iEANTIUM was alfo a town and promontory' of Thef-
faly, in the extremity of the peninfula, which contained
Magnefia, oppofite to Thebes of Thcffidy, and at the en-
trance of the Pelafgic giilph.

./EAS, a river of Greece, which fprangfrom Mount Pinduf,
and flowed into the Adriatic fea, about 10 ftadia from the
city of ApoUonia. This is fuppofed to have been the fame
with the river Aqus. Strabo. torn. i. p. 486.

M m Mm^

M C I

JE D I

^AS, or AiAS, a mountain of Eg>pt upon the Red Sea.

iEBUDjE, a name given by ancient Geographers to the
Wcftcni ifles of Scotland.

itBURA, a town of Spain near the Tagus, in the pro-
vinceof Callile ; now '7'alai>aa la Reyna.
MCJE, a town of Iti\ly, in Magna Gixcia.
j^';CCANI, a people of Tufcany, near the city, for-
merly called A'lcas, to the So\ith of Luccria, and now
Troia. Flin. H. K. toni. i. p. l6f>.

.fliCHILENSd, a people, who lived, according to Ro-
leniy, in the northern parts of SarJinin.

uECHMALOTARCHA, in Jm'iji/ily, a Greek term,
fignifying the chief or leader of the Jewilli captives in BaLy-
loliia. 'I'lie Jews who refufed to follow Zeriihbabel, and
return with him to Jenifalem, after the Babylonilh captivity,
created an jEchmalolarch to govern thein. The Jews, in-
deed, did not call him by this name, as fome authors have
nfTerti-d, for that people fpoke Hebrew, .or Chaldee, and
not Greik. But Origen, and others who wrote in the
Greek tongue, rendered the Hebrew name n"l7j ti'K'l
ra/c/j ga/uth, q. d. rbief of tie captivity, by a Greek name of
the like import, 5'<;)^i/.aXi1xfX''^'i formed from oAx^taxAc, captive
of aix;-"'> fpcar or war, and afX^'i commandcy or chiej.
However, the Je.vs fecm to have had officers ot this kind
before the return from Babylon, as we may infer from the
hirtor)' of Sufannah ; the two ciders who condemned her
being fuppofed to have been ^chmalotarchse that year.
The Jewiih writers ail'ure us that the iEehmalotarchx were
only to be chofen out of the tribe of Jndah.

The eafttrn Jews had their princes of the Captivity, as
the welkrn Jews liad their patriarchs. The Jews are faid
IHII to have an xchmalotarcha at Babylon, but without
the authority of the ancient ones. One perion of this de-
fcription, felefted from the houfe of David, was fonuerly
acknowledged and honoured as a prince ajnong the Jews,
and had fome fort of jurifdiftion, as far as it was confillent
with the government to which they were fubjeft ; and it
vas fometimes allowed and ratiiied by the reigning princes.
But if fuch an officer now exift at Babylon or elfewhere, he
is merely the head of the feft in that place, without fword
or fceptre, or any power of coercion, or authority of jurif-
diftion, befides what he derives from the voluntary fub-
miffion of the Jews, who inhabit fuch places. Nothing,
therefore, can be more vain than the pretence of the Jews,
that by this xchmalotarcha, the fceptre and law-giver are
prtferved in the tribe of Judah ; and that the prophecy of
Jacob (Gen. xlix. lo.) is not yet fulfilled by the advent of
the Mefiiah. Bafnage's Hift. Jews. Fridcaux's Conn,
vol. i. p. 153. vol. ii. p. 934.

jECIDIUM, in Botany, ■& gen\i% oi t\\t cryptogamia fur.<ri
cldfs and order ; its charafters are, that it has a membrana-
ceous fheath, fmooth on both fides, and full of naked feparate
feeds. Gmelin enumerates 1 8 fpceies, fome of which belong
to the LYCOPERDON of Other authors. Several of thefe are
found on the leaves of other plants ; and one of them is
known to agricukurills by the name of the Red Gum. This
fpecies ufuaTly grows upon the infide of the glumes of the
calyx, and of the exterior valvule of the corolla, under their
epidermis ; which, when the plant is ripe, burth, and emits
a povi-der of a bright orange colour. This httle plant, fays
an ingenious obferver, (Linnxan Tranf. vol. v. p. 122) does
not appear to be materially injurious to the grain, if at all.
He has feen ears full of it, with very plump kernels ; and
has alfo found it upon branded ears. Before the cuticle,
which covers the feed of this fungus, burfts, it has very- much
the appearance of a puftule upon the human body. Other
fpecies grow on decaying wood and moffes, and in the leaves
of tuffilago farfara and pctafitcs, Bartila vifcofa, A|ic.

monc nemorofa, Adoxa mofchatellina, Carduus arvcnfis,
and Betonica officinalis, &c.

tECLUS, in Entomology, a fpecies of Papilio, with the
wings black above, cinereous beneath, waved with black,
and with a yellow ocelluted fpot. It is found in Arjiboyna.

jECULANUM, or jEclanum, in ylncient Geography, a
town of the Hii-pini in Italy, fituate between Beneventuni
and Tarentum. The inhabitants are called by Pliny (torn. i.
p. I')';.) TEculani, and in an ancient infcription of Gruccr
jTlelunenfe.";. The town, according to Cluvcrius, is now
called Fricerito.

jl'^DEAjin Eittnmology, a fpecies of Papilio, with v/ings
fpotted with wliite, the aiiterior greenifli, the pofterior
marki.d with a yellow band ; found in South Amciica.

^EDELITE. See Zeolite.

iEDEPSl Therms, hath rf JEdtpfuu in Ancient Geography,
the name of a city in the ifland of Eubcca upon the welleni
coaft. The baths were confecrated to Hercules.

./EDES, in jlnii'inity, a chapel, or inferior kind of temple,
diftinguifhed by this, that it was not confecrated by the
Augurs, as thofe properly called Temples were. Such
was the xrariuni, or treafuiy ; called JEJes Saturni.

JEDY.Sl\JS, in Biograph, tlie difciplc and fucceffor of
Jamblichus, lived in Cappadocia, and, after the example of
his mafter, pretended to fupcrnatural communications with
the Deity, and prailifed theurgic arts. Of the events that
occurred to him the moll ludicrous is this : viz. That, in
anfwer to his prayers, his future fate was revealed to him in
hexameter verfes, which fuddenly appeared upon the palm
of his left hand. Towards the dole of his life, he com-
mitted his fchool at Cappadocia to the care of his difciple
and friend Euftathius, and removed to Pergainus. where he
had a numerous train of followers. Brucker's Hill. Phil.
by Enfield, vol. ii. p. 75.

.(EDICULA, in Anliquity,s. term, denoting the inner part
of the xdes or temple, in which the altar and ftatue of the
deity were placed ; but the term had various acceptations.
It fometimes denoted a low fmall building, or xdes parva,
confecrated to fome divinity : it often fignified a niche in the
wall for receiving a ftatue, and thofe efpecially of the Lares
or Penates ; and fometimes the reprefentations of temple:,
which were offered and fufpended in the temples of the gods,
and more efpecially in tlrat of Diana of Ephelus.

iEDICULUS, in Roman Mythology, the deity who pre-
fided over the conftruftion and confervatlon of buildings.

iEDILATE, in Antiquity, the dignity or magittracy of
the Roman iEoiLrs. This is othei-\\'iie called .^(/iAV(7j. In
inferiptions we find it reprefented by the abbreviature. iED.

.^DILE, jEdilis, in Antiquity, a Roman magiftrate,
vefted with divers funftions, chiefly that of fuperintending
the buildings both public and private ; as baths, aquedu<3s,
roads, bridges, caufeways, &c. The word is formed of
ades, temple, or houfe, on account of their having the care of
temples, houfes, <^c.

The xdiles at Rome correfponded to what the Greeks call-
ed agcranomi, and aP.ynomi ; they differed from oeccnomi and
arcarii, who were rather receivers of the revenues ; alfo from
logijltr, curator es is^ pal res civiiatis.

To the xdiles belonged the infpeftion of the weights and
meafures. They fixed the rate of provifions, and took care
the people fuffered no exaftions. The inquir}- and cog-
nizance of debauchees, and diforders in public houfes,
likewife belonged to them : they were alfo to revife come-
dies ; and it belonged to them to treat the people with grand
games and fpeftacles, at their own exp-ence. They were
likewife to attend on the tribunes of the people.

To the t diles alfo belonged the cuftody of the plebifcita,
-and the cenfure and examination of. books. They had the

po-^-cr,

m D I

JE D U

power, on eertain occafions, of ifTuing eiiifts ; and, by de-
gf-ees, they procured to themfelvesaconfidcrablc jurifdidion,
the cogni/.aiicc of various caufes, &c. — This office ruined
numbers by its expenfivenefs ; fo that in Augullus's time,
even many fenators declined it, on that account.

All tliefe funftiuns, which rendered the xdiles fo confi-
derable, belonged at firfl to the xdiles of the people, ttcHles
plebc-ii, or muiores : thefe were only two in number, and
were tirll created in the lame year as the tribunes : for the
tribune-;, finding tliemfelves opprelfed with the multiplicity
ot aflairs, demanded of the fenate to iiave officers, with
whom they might intrull matters of lefs importance, and
accordingly two tcdiles were created : and hence it was, that
the xdiles were elefted every year, at the fame aflcmbly as
the tribunes. Thefe plebeian xdiles continued in the iole pof-
felfion of the office during the fpace of 127 )»ears, from tiie
year of Rome 261, when they were appointed, to the
year 388. But thefe xdiles having refufed to celebrate
the gre.it games, on bccafion of the reconciliation that took
place between the fenate and people in confequence of the
grant that one of their order fliould be conful, becaufe
the celebration was attended with an expence which they
were unable to fupport, the Patricians oftered to undertake
the charge, upon condition that they fhould obtain the ho-
noin-s of the xdileffiip. Their offer was accepted with gra-
titude ; and the fenate palfed a decree for the election of
two xdiles annually out of the order of the patricians.
From this time there were two kinds of xdiles at Rome ; the
one were called Plehe'mn JEdiles ; the otb.er were called
JEd'tles Ctiiiiles, or Majores, i. e. Curule jEJiks, becaufe they
had the right of fitting in a Curule chair, adorned with
ivory, when they gave audience ; whereas the plebeian
lediles fat on benches : and this chair was placed in the cha-
riot in which they were carried ; a diftinftion annexed to
the great offices of the commonwealth.

It is not eafy to defcribe exaftly the different funftions of
thefe two kinds of xdiles. It is probable, however, that
the curule xdiles Ihared all the ordinary funftions witli the
plebeian ; but their principal and diftinguiihing office per-
tained, according to Cicero, in the lal of his orations
againll Verres, (Oper. t. 4. p. ^24. Ed. Olivet) to their
prefiding in the games celebrated in honour of different di-
vinities, to the care of the facred edif;cei, and to tlie civil
government of Rome in general. They were alfo appointed
judrres in all cafes relatingf to the felling; or exchan<rincr of
eftates. The dillinftions which thefe xdiles enjoyed were
the right of giving their opinion in the fenate, not according
to the date of their admiffion into that body, but a more
lionourahle rank, the robe called lo^a pricU-^^ta, the curule
chair, and the right of having images, whi-.-h were fet up
in their halls and carried in pomp at their funerals ; all of
which were privileges that were annexed to the great offices
of ftate.

The hrll curule dignity held at Rome was the xdilefliip, and
the age for entering into that office was 37. In two years it
was fuceeeded by the prxtorlhip, and after the like interval,
by the office of conful. The manner in which the office
of xJile was fulfained, and particularly in the exhibition of
games, very much contributed cither to gain or alienate the
attachment of the people with refpect to tlie other dignities.
The expence attending the games and fhews v.-as, in foine
cafes, enormous. Cicero was moderate, as he informs us in
bis Offices, 1. 3. apud oper. torn. 3. p. 353. Ed. Olivet.
But the expences of otliers in that department of their office
■which refpeftcd the games were fo exorbitant, as to give
Livy rcafon for obferving, that the revenues of the moH
opulent princes would hardly luffice to fupport them. Of

this fa^ft we have a memorable example in the stdilefliip oF
M. Scaurus, in the 6(;4lh year of Rome; fo tliat Pliny,
(1. 3^1. c. 15.) from the ahnofl in'-rcdible profufioH which
this xdile bellowed upon the theatre which he creftcd, took
occalion to exclaim, that the xdilelhip of Scaurus finally
mined and fubverted the manners of the public.

Augulhis transferred the care of the piibhc flicws and
fports to the prxtors, and would not allow them to be exhi-
bited at their own charge ; but obliged tlie people to con-
tribute a part, and paid the rell out of the public treafury.

To eafe thefe four tirll xdiles Cxiar created a new kind,
called xdiles cereales, as being deputed ciiiefly to take care
ot the corn, which was called ilnnum Ceierii ; foi- the heathens
honoured Ceres as the goddefs who prelided over corn, and
attributed to her tlie invention of agi icultnrc. Thefe xdiles
cereales were alfo taken out of the order of patricians. In
the municipal cities there were xdiles, v.'ith the fame autho-
rity as at Rome.

We alfo read of an trdU'u nihncn'.ari.u, expretfed in abbrevia-
ture by JEdil. iil'im. whofe bulinefs fecms to have been to pro-
vide diet for thofe who were maintained at the public charge,
though others affign him a different office.

In ancient infcriptions we alfo meet withxdiles of the carrp^
ttdil'u ciijlrorum.

^DiLis, in Entomology, a fpeciesof the Ceramdyx with a
fpinofe thorax, marked with four yellow fpots, with obtnle
nebulous elytra and very long antennx. It is found in the
trunks of trees in Europe ; and is alfo called Caprkornus
Rujfiats.

jEDILITIUM ed'iSwn, among the Romans, was that
whereby a remedy was given a buyer, in cafe a vicious,
or unfound beaft, or flave, vras fold him. It was called
ipdiliiiiim, becaufe the preventing frauds in fales and coniracls
belonged efpecially to the curule xdiles.

tEDITUUS, in Antiquity, the keeper of a facred man-
fion, wlio had tlie care of the offerings and ornaments of
the deity to whom it was peculiarly devoted.

The word is compounded of fdcs, and tueor, I dtfcnJx
q. d. a tnendis tcdibus ; originally it was written aditimuj.

The xdituus is the lame with what Scxvola calls /liem-
phylax, the Latins fometimcs adilis, and the Greeks yijivfc;,
anfwering to the fexton among us.

The xditui, among the Romans, were officers of d.llinc-
tion, being the depoiitaries nit only of the treafure, but
of the public afts, or records. — The xditui had their fevc-
ral cells, near the temples, the cullody of which was com-
mitted to them. Struv. Ant. Rom.

The female deities had a female officer of the tune kind,
imder the denomination nditiin.

.^DiTuus, Martin, in Jiiograp/.y, born at Amfterdam,
was firrt phyfician to Frederic II. king of Denmark. Adrieii
Jonghe, dedicated his trcatife " De Coma" to him, pub-
litlied at Bafle in 1558, whence it appears that he was then
in high repute.

jEDOIA, the fame a-s Pudenda.

jEDON, in Ancient Geography, an iHand of Marraarica,
on the borders of Egypt.

jEdon, in Onihh'ilngy, a fpecies of Mi'scicapa.
iEDUI, in Ancient Hjjlory, a denomination given to the
moft ancient and powerfid people of Gaul, who were fitu-
ated betv.'cen the rivers Seine, I^oire and Saonc, within the
4')th and 47itli degree of latitude ; and who were tlic only
allies Cxfar had at the time of his invading GauL

Their countiy was fruitfiJ, and furnilhed abundance of

corn. Their principal city v.as Bibrafte or Augullodu-

num, now Autiin. The form of their government was

arillocratic ; and they chofe their chief magillrate annually.

M m 2 ThiK

^ G A

This government only laded till the eflablirtiment of the
Romaiu in Gaul. The ALdui then occupied the countries
comprehended in the dioceLs of Autuu, Chalons, Macon,
and part of that of Dijon. Their alhci and their tubjec.ls
comprehended the rtil of La 15ourgogne, La Brcfic, Le
Lyonnois, Le Bcaujolois, Le Forez, Le Bourbonnois, and
Le Nivernois.

.^DUSII, allies of the Romans, bordering upon Celtic
Gaul.

jEGA, in /Incient Geo^rnphy, a river of Phocis : — a town
of TEnionia ; — an iiland between Teiiedos and Chios : — and
a promontorN- of Alia Minor in jliolis.

^EGiVDES, N-<:,\JT1, or ^tLcus*: InfuU, three iflands
h'^ng north of Cape Lilybxuin, or on the well iide of
Sicily oppofite to the main land between Maifella and Tra-
pani ; viz. Phorbantia, or Buccina, as Phiy calls it,
yEjjufa or Capraria, and Hiera, called alfo Maritima.
The fird is now called Lavcnzo, the fecond Favignana,
which is very fruitful, and the third Marctamo. In thefe
idands the Romans under the Conful L. Catulus obtained a
lignal vidor)- over the Carthaginians, which tenuinatcd the
firll Punic war.

iEGjE, or jEc.tAN, is derived, as fome have fuppofed,
from the genitive A170; of AiJ, a goat. See tEgf.a. But
feveral ingenious modems, and particularly the Abbe Ber-
gier and M. Gobelin, tracing the origin of the name to its
primitive roots a^, aig, have found that thele words, in
the Pelafgic and Celtic languages, denote waters or maritime
countries ; and they have concluded, that the appellation
jEg;e is derived from the vicinity of the places to which it is
applied to waters, or from their being better adapted to
maritime commerce than other places. Accordingly they
add, that Neptune was particularly honoured in the .£gean
cities.

jEg;e was a city of Cilicia on a promontory- in the gulf
of Ifhcus, having Ilfus to the north-ealt, and Ivlallos to the
north-weft ; — it was alfo a town of Macedonia, called
^GEA and Edessa : — a town of the Thracian Cherfonefus,
probably jEgos Potamos : — a town in the Myrrhina, a
country- of jEolis, fouth of Cuma and eaft of Phocxa, on the
border of the gulf, which town, as Tacitus infonns us, was
overwhelmed by an earthquake : — a town of Lydia : — an-
other of Locris : — another of TEtolla : — another of the
ifland of Eubcea, where they had a temple of Neptune : —
and another of Achaia, on the gulf of Corinth, at the mouth
of the river Crathis, (fee Homer II. 1. viii. v. 208.) In
jEgx of Cilicia there were medals of gold, bronze, and filver.
The fymbol was half a horfe ; and rich imperial medals were
Ilruck here in honour of feveral of the Roman emperors.
In jEgs of Macedonia, the medals were filver, gold, and
bronze ; and the common type was a goat. In jEga; of
jEolia, which was governed by praetors, there were ftnick
Greek imperial medals in honour of fome of the Roman
emperors.

iEGiEUS, the name of a river, mentioned by Siiidas,
in the ifland of Corcyra. Stephanus Byzantinus, and Eufta-
thius fpeak of a canton in Phocis, under the name of Cam-
pus jEgaeus, (rsJiov aiyxioi') taken from a river iEgas which
runs there.

jEGAGROPILA or jEgagropilus, in Natural
Ht/lory, and in Veterinary Mejicine, is a ball generated in
the ftomaehs of fome animals. There are t«o fpecies of
inteftinal colleclions that have this appellation, but which
are entirely dilUmilar. The one is compofcd of hair, and
is very ufually found in the ftomach of the nipicapra, or
chamois goat. The other fpecies is truly a calculous con-
cretion, which is found more frequently in the inteftines of

iE G E

different animals, particularly of horl'es. It is this kind that
is fometimes called bezoar Germanicum, or the German
BEZOAR. The word is Greek, from ar/ayjo;, the rupicapm
or rock goat; and ■ra-iXc;, a ball. See Balls, and Haip.-
Balls.

yEcAGROpiLA, in Botany, a fpecies of Conferva, with
veiT nimofe filaments clofely united from the centre, and
conftituting a globe.

jEGAGRUS, in Zoology. See Goat and Ibex.

iEGAI^EUS Mons, in Ancieut Geography, 11 mountain of
Attica, near the ifle of .Salamine : — ^a mountain alfo of Mef-
fenia bears the fame name.

iEGARA, a town of Lydia, according to Ptolemy.

yECJAS, a river of Phocis.

jEGEA, a town of Mauritania Cxfarienfis, according to
Ptolemy, who places it in long. 26^^, and lat. 27'' 10'.

^GEA or Edessa, now Vudena, was the ancient capital
of Macedonia, the refidence of Caranus, the fait king of
Macedon, ;.Md the burial-place of the kings of his line to the
time of Alexander the Great. It derived its appellation,
as it is pretended, from the following circumllance. Caranus,
who was by birth an Argive, leaving his native countr)- at
the head of a conhderable body ot Greeks, was undeter-
mined where they fliould fettle. But upon confulting tlie
oracle, he was inllructed to eftablilh his empire according to
the dirccHon of the goats. Ignorant of its meaning, he
purfued his courie to the country, afterwards called Mace-
donia, and approached EdefTa the capital of the fniall king-
dom TEmaihia, governed by king Midas. The fl<y was
overcaft, and a ftomi fucceeded ; upon which Caranus ob-
ferved a herd of goats running for flielter into the city.
This circumllance reminded him of the refponfe of the
oracle ; and, commanding his men to follow him, he en-
tered the city by furprife, and thus polFefliid himfelf of it
and of the whole kingdom. In gratitude to his conductors
he changed the name of the place into iEgea, and called his
people ^geates or ^geadoe ; and introduced a goat into
his Ilandard in commemoration of tlie event. In the book
of Daniel, the he-goat is the fymbol of Macedon. PUny,
1. iv. c. 10. tom. I. p. 200. Ed. Hard. Mede's Works,
B. iii. Comment. Apocal. p. 473.

^EGEAN Sea, a name given by the ancients to that por-
tion of the Mediterranean, which extends from the promon-
tory of Sunium and the ifland of Crete, as far as the Hel-
lefpont. It is now the Archipelago, feparating Europe from
Alia, wafhing on one fide Greece and Macedon, and on the
other Caria, Ionia and Phr)-gia. The origin of the appel-
lation jEgean has been varioufly afligned. Feftus has re-
corded three etymologies ; one that is derived from the
numerous iflands that are fcattered over this fea, and which
appear at a diilance like a herd of goats ; another, becaufe
the queen of the Amazons perifhed in it ; and a third, be-
caufe iEgeus the father of Thefeus threw himfelf headlong
into it. V'offius, however, and many other learned perfons,
are not fatisfied with either of thefe etymologies ; but con-
ceive it to be derived from aiys; Doricc jludus ; and that
the waves are denominated aiy;;, i. e. goals, on account of
the leaping motion of thefe animals. See iEgae.

The navigation of this fea, which abounds with iflands to
the number of 53, from Tcnedos to Crete, according to the
enumeration of ancient geographers, and which are com-
prehended under the two general denominations of Cy-
CLADEs and Sporades, is both difficult and dangerous;
whence proceeds the proverb, he fails on the jEgean fea,
or Aiyxtx-/ cr?.!i ; applied to a perfon who engages in a
hazardous undertaking. The jEgean fea is ufually divided
into feven parts, viz. i. The fea of Crete, between that

ifland

J£ G I

Ifljiid and the Pcloponnefui, 2. The Myitoan fta, before
Poloponnefus and Attica. 3. The fea of Greece, alonfr
the conft of Greece. 4. The fca of Macedonia, on the coails
of that kingdom and of Tiirace. 5. The iEgean fca, pro-
perly fo called, between Eubcca and Lemnos. 6. The
Icarian fca, towards the hland of Icarus. 7. The Car-
pathian fea and that of Rhodes, lying between this ifiand
aad that ot Crete. The principal rivers ruiniini; into this
fta are the Aliacmon, Erigon, Axius, Strvmon and
Nestos. The ^gcaii fca was peculiarly favourable to
ootnnierce by means of the fp:'.(:ioiis bays that were formed
by it on the Afian coaft, of which tlic moll remarkable were
the Strymon'ic, SiNCiTic, Tokonaic and Tni:KM;t;AN.

^GEIS or ALcis, a tribe of Attica, fo called from
JF.gcv.i the fon of Pandion, contained 16 boroughs or
towns.

jEGELETHRON, in Botany, a name ufcd by fome
aulhors for the common mcrcurialis, or Eiighih mercury,
an eatable wild herb.

jEGELI, in Ancknt Gfography, a people of Media in Afia,
fi'-ppofed by fame to be the fame with the JV.g\i mentioned
by Herodotus.

jTiGELICA, a town of Macedonia, which, as Livy in-
forms us, was furprifcd by Attains.

^"EGEON, In Entomology, a fpccies of Scarab.'Eus, of
a red colour, with the horn of the thorax fliort and incurvated
and bearded beneath ; and that of the head recurved and
fubnlate. It is found in South America and India.

^'EGEONIS Promontorium, a promontoiy of the Euxine
.Sea, at the mouth of the river Rhyndachus, or on the con-
fines of Myfia and Bithynia.

iEGERI, or EcERi, in Geography, a community of
Su itzerland, which forms with the town of Zug, and the
community of Menfengen and Bar, the fovereignty of the
canton of Zug. It is divided into two pariflies ; the higher
-ffigeri, where the council of the community is held, and
lower iEgcri or Wilxgeri near the lake jEgcri, which is a
league is length and veiy deep, and abounds with filli. The
river Loretz runs into it.

iEGERIA, in Entomohgy, a fpecies of Papilio, with
dentated brown wings, fpotted with yellow, and with an
ocellus on both fides of the anterior wings, and four ocelli
on the upper fide of the pofterior wings, and four points
under them. It is found on the grafs in Europe.

jEGESTA, u town of Sicily, called alfo Segesta. It
is now Barbara.

^GETA, Ageta, or Egeta, a town of Upper Mxfia
on the Danub?, probably the Eteta of Ptolemy, is placed
by M. d'Anville near Trajan's Bridge, fouth-well of
Zernes.

^GEUS, in Fabulous Hl/lory, washing of Athens, and
father of Thefeus. Minos kinaf of Crete, havincf fubdued the
Athenians, in a war occafioned by their murder oi his ion,
inflicted upon them this penalty ; that they (houid annually
fend into Crete feven of the nobleft of the Athenian youths
to be devoured by the Minotaur. After three years The-
feus was fcnt ; the young prince killed the Minotaur ; but
having forgotten to change the black fails into white upon
his return, according to the inftrnftions given him by his
father, jEgeus conceiving him to be dead, call himfelf
headlong into the fea, which, from this circunillance, fays
the fable, obtained the name of the jEgean fea. The Athe-
nians decreed divine honours to Tligeus, and facrificed to
Kim as a marine deity, the adopted ion of Neptune.

iEGIACUS, or ^GiocHus, in Mythology, a name given
to Jupiter, on account of the goat Amaltha-a, by which he
was fuckled.

m G I

vEGIiE, in /Indent Geography, a town of Laconia, fouth-
well of Crocea : — and a town alfo of iEtolia, which, ac-
cording to Diofeorides, aflbrdcd faffron.

^GIALA, a name anciently given to Achaia pro-
pria, or the kingdom of Sicyon, and derived from ^giu-
leus, the fuppofed founder and lirll monarch.

7EGIALE, in Jllythrihgy, one of the three graces.

7EGIALUS, in /Indent Geography, a fniall town of Afia
Minor upon the Euxine, in the dillritl belonging totlie Hencti
in Paphlagonia ; — a place in Peloponnefus, between Sicyonc
and Buprafium : — atownof Thraee,nearSlrimon : — a town of
^Ethiopia, near the Nile: — a town in the illand of Amorgos;
— and a town of Sicyone, afterwards called Mccone. Ira
^Egialus of the Peloponnefus, Greek imperial metals were
ilruek under the authority of the archons, in lionour of
Caraealla and Domna.

iEGIAS, among the /Indent Greek Phyftdans, denotes a
white Ipeck on the pupil of the eye, ocealioning a dimnefs
of fight, either ariling from an excrementitious humour,
or from the relifts of the dcatrkula of an ulcer on the
part.

This is the fame witli what others write agh and aglia.

.fllGICERAS, formed ot ai|, vt goal, and xffa;, a ^0;//,
in Botany, a genus of the clafs and order of pentandr'ia mo-
nogynia ; the characters of which are, that the calyx is a
one-leafed, bell-lhaped, half-five-cleft, coriaceous, perma-
nent periantliium ; the corolla has five petals ; the hamin:i
are live filaments ; the pillillum is an oblong gcrmcn with
a fiugle llyle ; the periearpium is a bowed, coriaceous, one-
celled, one-valved capfule, gaping on the convex fide ; and
the feed is fingle. There are two fpecies ; one, a native of
the fvlolucca illands, the rh'rzophoru eornhu/ata of Linn;tu>. ;
the other a native of Ceylon. Martyn.

.iEGICOREOS, in /Indent Geography, was one of the
four firll tribes of Attica.

-•EGIDA, the principal town on the north of the terri-
tory of Iftria in Italy, fituated in a fmall illand, joined t*
the land by a bridge. Pliny has preferved the ancient name,
and in an infcription of Gruter, it is csihd A'^gie/is in/ii/a-s
It was afterwards called Jullinopolis, after the emperor
Juflinian ; and it is now Capo ile IJlria. N. lat. 45^ 5c'-.
E. long. 14° 20'.

jEGIDES, in Surgery, is a teirn employed by IIipp<">»
crates (Praedift. L. ii. aiyiJ-i,-) to denote an opacity uf the
cornea, which intercepts the rays of light pafling through
the pupil. See Albugo, Leucoma, and Ophthal-
mia.

iEGIDION, a name given to a coUyrlum for inflamnta-
tions and defluxions of the eyes. It is alfo called itgopro*
fopon.

jEgidion Infula, in Ane'ient Geography, a name given by
Arrian to an illand in the Indian Sea.

jEGIDIUS, Pltrus Albiensis, in Biography, was
deputed by Francis I. to vifit the celebrated places in the
Eail, and to learn their ftate. He was taken by pirateSi
but made his efcape, and died of a furfcit in 1555, at the
age of 65 yejirs. His works are " Dilcriplio Bofphoii
Thracix," " Defcriptio Urbis Conllanlinopolitana"," " De
Pifcium Maffilienfium nominibus Gallieis et I.utinis," " De
Elephanto." He likewife tranflated into Latin Thcodo-
ret's Commentary upon the twelve minor prophets, and
.Elian's fixteen books of the liillory of animals.

^GiDius, funiamed ylthenienfts, was a Greek, phyfi-
cian and philofopher under the emperor Tiberius II, in the
eighth century. He became a Bene.liftinc, and wrote fc-
veral tratts, of which the principal are thoh- ; " Dc I'ulfi-
bus et de Venenis," Being accidentally wounded by an
4. arrow,

IE G I

JE G I

arrow, he -wouid r.ot fuffer the wound to b« dreffed, that
he might exercife his fortitude in bearing pain.

jEgidius dc CoLUMNA, a Roman monk of the Au-
fjuftinc order, was preceptor to the fons of Philip III. of
FraDce, and tancjht philofophy and theology in the univer-
fity of Paris with fo much reputation, that he was ho-
noured with the appellation of " The mod profound Dot-
tor." After being advanced to the rich biihopric of Berri,
he died in 1316 ; leaving behind him on his monument the
charader of " Lux in hicem reducens dubia ;" ;. e. the
luminary that brought dark things to hght ; a charaftcr
tvhich his writings, on account of their profound and un-
fathomable obfcurity, do not jullify. Brucker's Hiit.
Philof. by EnSeld, vol. ii. p. 379. His " Lucubrations on
the Sentences of Lombard," were printed at Balil, in 1623.
His work " On original Sin," in 410. at Oxford, in 1479 ;
and his " Quxftiones Motaphyfica; and Quodlibetici," at
Venice in 150 1.

.^GiDius Corbclenjis, or Gilks dc Coriei!, Cd:\on of Paris,
was phyfician to Philip Auguftus, king of France, and
lived about the end of the twelfth ccntuiy ; " ex Salerni-
tana Schola, Haller fays, Mcdicus et Poeta." He \vrote a
treatife, " On Compound Medicines," in Latin verfe, which
has not been printed ; alfo " Liber unus de Urinarum judi-
ciis, et de Pulfibus liber unus, Venetiis imprefs. 1494, cum
Expofitione et Commento M. GentiHs de Fulgineo :"
reprinted at Lyons 1505, and at Bafil 1 5 79.

jEGILA, in jlncisnt Geo^niphy, a borough of Laconia,
in the Peloponnefus. Paufanias (p. 320.) informs us, that
it had a temple of Ceres, in which Ariftomenes, a general
of the Mefl'enians, furpriftd an afTembly of women, who
were celebrating a feaft in it ; and that the women not
only defended themfelves, but repulfed him, without any
arms befides the knives which they ufed for their facritices ;
and that he efcaped merely by favour of Arcliidama, a
MeiTenian female, whofe affeclion he had engaged.

jEGILA. See ^Egyla.

^GILIA, one of the boroughs of the tribe of Antio-
«liides in Attica.

JECILIOM, an ifland, called alfo Capraria, now
Carigotto.

.^GII^IPSA, a place of Greece in the vicinity of Itha-
ca, fituate near Crocyiia of Epirus. Homer's II. ii. v. 633.

^GILIUM. SeelciLiuM.

^GILOPS, formed ofaiyo^ u^,goat'tface,(yn account of
its roughnefs, "xild Fejlnc, in Botany, a genus of the moncfri.i
order, and J>oi'v^'irr:la clafs, and of ihe natural order oi gramina
or nrajjts : the charafters are, that the hermaphrodite calyx is
a large bivalvular glume, fuitaining three flowers, and that
the valves are ovate, truncate, ftreaked with various awns ;
the corolla is a bivalvular glume, the outer valve ovate, ter-
minated bv a double or triple awn, the inner lanceolate,
«reft, awnlefs, with the edge bent in longitudinally ; the
neftary two-leaved, with ovate, flat, tranfparent, very fmall
leaflets ; the fl;amina have three capillary filaments, with
oblong anthers ; the piftillum is a turbinate germen, tlie
ilyles are two and reflex, with haiiy fligmas ; no pericar-
pium ; and the feeds are oblong, convex on one fide,
grooved on the other, with the inner valve of the corolla
adhering to it, and not opening. There are four fpecier. ;
Tiz. ovata, caudata, triunciaiu, 2LnA fqiiarrofa ; to wliich
Gmehn adds the aroma'.ka and faccharma ; and he ranks
this genus imder the iriandria digynia clafs and order. The
Krft; of thefe grafles is wild in the foutheni countries of
Europe, and was cultivated in 1683, by Mr. James Suther-
land ; the fecond was found by M. Tournefort in Crete ;
JiiK third grows about Montpelier, Marfeilles, Nice, and

Smyrna, and was introduced in 1776 by M. Thouin ; and
the fourth was found by Tournefort in the Levant, and
by Cavanilles in Spain. They all feem to be annual. —
Martyn's Miller's Did.

tEgiuops is alfo a name given to the holm-OAK, a fpecies of
the tiUERCus ; to the ludd oat, a fpecies of the a yen a ;
to a fpecies of the andropogon, and to a fpecies of the
BROMus. A^gilops incurvata is a fpecies of the rotbol-

LIA.

vEgilops, or ^GVLOPS, in Swgety, an Abscess
feated near the inner angle of the eye, which is fo called
from its giving a call of that organ refembling a goat's eye,
(from aij, a goat, and u-i- the eye. J It has been noticed
by Virgil, " Tranfverfa tuentibus Hircis." The finuofity,
which we now indifcriminately call fiftula lachrymahs, in
its incipient Hate, was named Anchilops by fome of
the ancients ; but, in its llage of fuppuration, it was termed
agilops. For the defcription and treatment of this diforder,

fee FISTULA 6ACHRVMALIS.

iEGIMURUS, in Ancient Geography, a fmall ifland in
the Gulph of Carthage, about thirty miles from that capi-
tal. Phny, (H.N. torn. i. 251.) informs us, that there
were two rocks near this ifland, called the ara agimuri, or
trgimori, which, according to Servius, were the remains of
an ifland, fome ages before his time, abforbed by the fea»
This author likewife informs us, that they were called ara,
becaufe on them the Rom.ans and Carthaginians con-
cluded a treaty, and made them the hmits of their re-
fpedtive dominions. Virgil refers to thefe in his jEneicL
I. i. V.I 13.

" Saxa vocant Itali, mediis quse in fludibus arx."

The modem Xo'jjamoore, or the Zimbra of our fea-charts,
lying betwixt Cape Zibeeb and Cape Bon or Ras-addar, is
the JEgimurus of the ancient. The gulph in which this
ifland lies, is remarkable for its great depth as well as
breadth, and on this account was jufl.ly named by Virgil,
iEneid, i. i. v. id"!,. JeccJJus long'us, a long recefs. Shaw's
Trav. p. 76. 4to.

iEGINA, an ifland in the Saronic gulph, or bay of
Engia. It was more anciently known by the names of
Ocnone or Ocnopia, (Plin. torn. i. 209.) and Myrmidonia,
from its inhabitants the Myrmidons, fo famous among the
poets. It was called jEgina by ^acus, who reigned in
this ifland, from the name of his mother, the daughter of
^fopus, king of EcEotia, who being debauched by Jupiter,
as fabulous hiftorj- reports, in the fimihtudt of a lambent
flame, was removed f:-om Epidaiinis to this defart ifland.
It is now called Egina, and is one of the iflands of the
Arcliipelago. It lies between the territory of Athens, and
that of Epidaurus, eighteen miles diftant from the coail of
Athens, and fourteen from Peloponnefus. It is about
twenty-fix miles in circuit, and had anciently a city of its
own name, which being deftroyed by an earthquake, the
inhabitants were exempted by Tiberius, for the fpace of
three years, from paying any kind of tribute. Paufanias
(in Corinth, c. 12.) fpeaks of two magnificent templea.
in this ifland, the one confecrated to Venus, the other ta
Jupiter. The latter was built upon the fumm.it of a moun-
tain called PanbcUen'ius by ^acus, in order to propitiate
Jupiter in a time of drought ; who was fr.pplicated under
this epithet, and granted to his votaries rain. The temple
was of the Doric order, and had fix columns in front, and
claims a very remote antiquity : its remains, in a very ruined
ilate, mdicate its original magnificence. The foil of this
ifland was at firil very ftony and barren ; but being culti-
vated by the inhabitants, it became very fruitful ; and hence,,
lays Strabo, (torn. i. p. J76.) the iuhabitazits were called

Myrmidons,

M G I

Ivlyi-midons, i. e. eintmls, from their induftiy. This il]and
was firft peopled by the Epidaurians, wlio were originally
Dorians, and afterwards by colonies from Crete and Argos.
Thcfe were, in procefs of time, driven out by the Athenians,
and the Athenians by the Laccdxmoiiians, who rellored
the ifland to the ancient proprietors. The ^Igineans ap-
plied theinfelves, in a very early period, to trade and naviga-
tion, and fent colonics into the nei^hbonrin^ iilands of
Inibros and Crete, in the latter of which (lays Strabo)
they built and peopled the city of Cydon. The firll
money, according to the fame writer, was coined in
TEgina by one Phiden. Plmy (toni. ii. p. 640.) com-
mends t!ie brafs of this ifland, and afferts that the famous
ftatuc of this metal, reprefe'iting an ox, which Hood in the
forum boarium at Rome, was carried from hence to ad(n'n
that capital. The jEgiiiians were originally governed by
kings ; but afterwavd;i introduced the republican fylleni,
which became lo powerful as to vie even with Ath.ens.
jEacur., from whom fprung the yEacidx, who reigned in
diderent countries with reputation and power, was the fe-
cond king of this ifland ; and, according to Macrobius ( Ad-
verfus Gentes, 1. vi. p. i;^i.), he lived about two genera-
tions before the Trojan war, and was the firlt who built a
temple in Greece. Upon the dilfolution of this monarchy,
the ^gineans became fubjeft to the Epidaurians ; but ap-
plymg themfelves to navigation, they became powerful by
lea, and revolted from their mailers, ravaged their territory,
and carried away the two famous ftatues of Damias and
Auxetias. This occafioned an irreconcileable enmity be-
tv.een the vEgineans, and Atli«nians. This ifland was at
lall reduced by the Athenians, and continued fubjecl to
them, till, at the end of the Macedonian war, it was de-
clared free by the Romans : but in the reign of Vefpalian
it underwent the fame fate as the other Hates of Greece.
In the year 1536 it was fubdued by the Turks, after an
obftinate refiftance : tlie capital was plundered and burnt ;
«nd after a gi-eat flaughter of the inhabitants, the reft were
carried away into flaver)'. The population of this, as well
as of other little Hates, in the times of their fplendour, was
immenfe. jEgina had once 420,000 flaves, the proportion
of whom to freemen was, in ancient republics, accorduig
to the monopoly of wealth. In Greece it is fuppofcd to
liave been about twenty to one. The moft rem.arkable
circumllance related by modern travellers concerning this
ifland is, that it fwarms with partridges, and that for pre-
venting their increafe the people go out every year to break
their eggs : fearing, left, by decreafmg their corn, theie
birds fliould produce a famine. They have no hares, foxes,
or wolves in this ifland. In fummer the rivers are dry.
The waiwode or governor farms the revenue of the Grand
Seignor for twelve purfes, or 6000 piaftres. About half
this fum is repaid annually by the caratch-money, or poll-
tax.

The town of Eng'ta, fo called by corruption from JE/ma,
■49 faid to conUft of about 800 troops, and has a caftle, and
near it m.ay be feen the remains of a magnificent ftrufture,
which was probably one of the celebrated te.mples which for-
ir.erly graced this ifland.

Imperial Greek medals were ftruck in this ifland, in ho-
aour of Elagabalus and Plautilla.

jEGINETA, Paul'js, m Biography, a celebrated fur-
jegn of the ifland of jEgina, from which he derived his
name. He is placed by Le Clerc in the fourth century,
but by AbulpharagTus in the feventh. He was eminently
ikilled in furgery, and his v/orks are frequently cited by Fa-
fcriciKS ab Aqiiapendentp, and indeed form the bafis of this

m G I

author's valuable treatife. He is the firft author that take«
notice of the cathartic quality of rhubarb. He begins lii«
book with the defcription of women's difeafco, and he is
faid to be the iirft perfon among the ancients that dcfcrvc»
the appellation of a man-niid\vir"e. Hi? v.-orks are Libri vii.
de Re Medica, feu opera omnia GiTCce, W-netiis 1^2"^,
fol. — Idem ex interpret. & cur.i Annot. I. Guiiilerii
Andernaci Vcnet. 1542, 8vo. — it), cum Annot. Jac.
Goupyh. ex ed. & cum Schol. J. Bapt. Camotii Veiiet.
1 55 -i/Svo.

iEciNETPS, in yfncicnf Geography, a fmall town r,f Papli.
lagonia, and alfo a fniall river of the faine province in Alia
Minor.

iEGTNETIA, in Ijoimr:, a fpecies of Op.obanciif,
wilh a fingle-flowered ftalk, and a fubfpathaceous flower.

yEGINHARU, in Bw^iaphy, a native of Gcmjany,
who was educated by the munilicence of Chailemagnc, and
who afterwai-ds became his fecretaiy, and as fome fup-
pofe his ion-in-law, by marrjing his daughter Imma ; but it
has been lately proved that (he was not the daughter of
Charlemagne. He is faid to have been carried through tin-
fnow on the flioulders of the allVcIionate Imma, tiiat his
footfteps might not be traced from her apartments by tht
emperor her father. This ftory was copied by Addifon frois
an old German Chronicle, and admirably embclliflied by thii
elegant writer in the third volume of the Spectator. iEgiii-
hard, after the death of his wife, which he deplores in a
letter ftill extant, is fuppofed to have pafled the remainder
of iiis days in religious retirement, and to have died foon
after the year S40. His life of Charlemagne, his Ann.ils
from 741 to 889, and his letters, are inferted in the fecond
volume of Duchefne's Scriptores Francorum. An improved
edition, with the Annotations of Hermann Schmincke, was
printed in 410. in 171 1.

jEGINIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Greece,
in Theflaly, on the frontiers of the Tymphsean mountains
near the fource of the Ion, which here forms a fmall lake,
and fouth-weft of Azoras.

^.GIOCHUS, a fmall place in the ifland of Crete,
where Jupiter was nouriflicd by a goat, according to Dio-
dorus. See jEgiacus.

iEGIPA, a town of ^Ethiopia, near the Nile.

yEGIPAN, in Ant'iqutty, a denomination given to Pan,
and the Panes.

The ancients alfo give the name trglpatis to a fort of
monders mentioned by Pliny, Solinus, and Pomp. Mela.
Salmafuis, in his notes on Solinus, takes tegipan to have
fignified the fame, in Lybia, with fylvanus among the
Romans.

Voflius rejefts the opinion, and flicws that the n?gipans
had not faces like men, as the fylvans had ; but like goats.
In efleft, the whole upper part of the body rtfembled that
animal ; and as to the lower, they painted it with a ftfli's
tail. The monfter rtprefented on ib-re medals of Auguf-
tus by antiquaries, called Capri:orniis, appears to bo the
true xgipan.

The word is derived from k.|, a goat ; Pan being rcpre-
fented with the horns, feet, and legs of that animal.

jEGIPHILA, formed from a.ii, and (faXtu.; Goat's friend^
a genus of the tclrnndrhi monogynia clafsand order, and the
natural order of Fhue: ; the chaiaftcrs arc, that the calyx
is a one-leafed, bell-ftiapcd, four-toothed, loofe, very fliort,
permanent perianthium ; that the corolla is one-petalled,
falver-fliaped, with a cylindric tube, narrower and longer than
the calyx, border quadrified, flat, equal, and clefts oblong i

JE G I

the flamina are capillary filaments infertcd into the mouth
of the tube, ercd, and anthers roiindifh ; the piftillum is a
ruundilh fiiperior germ, ftyle capillary deeply bifid, and
ftigmas fimple : the pencarpium is a roundilli two-celled
bcrr)', furroiinded with the permanent calyx ; and the feed
is either in pairs or folitary. There are fonr fpecics, viz.
martinicenf.i, elata or the liioxia of Brovm, fu/lt/a, and Irifitii,
to which are added in the laft edition of Linnxus's fylleni,
the villofa, arbori/rtns and l.wii. The firft is a fhiub about
fix feet high with white flowers, which appear in Novem-
ber, a native of Martinico, and was introduced in 17S0, by
Mr. Francis Maffon. La Marck thinks this fpecies oiigrht to
be clafTed with the Verbena. The other fpecies are natives
of Jamaica.

JEGIPIUS, a river of Afia, wliich dilcharges itfelf into
the Euxine, above Diofcurios.

iEGlPLANETUM, in jlncunt Geography, a mountain
of Greece, mentioned by jEfehylus in his Agamemnon, and
fuppofed to be in the vicinilv of Corinth.

^EGIRA, a town of Achaia, fuppofed to be founded
by Egirus the fixth king of Sicyon, and Ihuatc, according
to Polybius (I. iv. c. 57. p. 322. D. Ed. Cafaub. ) in that
part of Peloponnefus that is wafhed by the Corinthian bay,
between iEgiuni and Sicyon, oppolite to Parnaffus, and at
the dillance of feven ftadia from the fea. It was covered
with fteep and almoit inacceffiblc hills ; and adorned with
feveral temples, one of which was appropriate to Venus
coelefti?, into which no men were allowed to enter, and
alio with feveral pictures and llatucs. Paufanias (p. 593.)
fpeaks of one of thefe pictures, which exhibited an aged
man, who had received a mortal wound, and who was
placed between three brothers and three fillers. The ex-
prcffion of concern and grief was fo livelv, that the picture
was denominated Tx'iija cvf^rt^^r.. It is now a finall village
called Xslocajlro or Hylocaftro.

^GiRA was alfoone of the names which the ancients gave
to the ifland of Ledjos.

jEGIRCIUS, Gers, a river of Gaul, which rofe in the
Pyrenees, paffed to Aufci or Aufch, and difcharged itfelf
into the Garumna.

.^GIRUM, or jEGiRt;s, a town of the ifle of Lefbos,
on the eail fide between Mitylene and Methymna.

^GIRUSA, a town of jEolis ; and alfo of Megaris.

jEGIS, in the Annent Mythology, a name given to the
Ihield or buckler of Jupiter and Pallas.

The goat Amalthea, which had fuckled Jove, being dead,
that god is faid to have covered his buckler with the llcin
thereof; whence the appellation ^rj/j', from <u\, ai'^n:, Jhc-

Jupiter afterwards reRoring the beafl to life again, co-
vered it with a new Ikin, and placed it among the ftars. As
to his buckler, he made a prefent of it to Minerva ; whence
that goddefs's buckler is alfo called itgu.

Minen.-a, having killed the Gorgon Medufa, nailed her
head in the middle of the aegis, which henceforth had the
faculty of converting into ftone all thofe who looked there-
on ; as Medufa herfelf had done during her life.

Others take the segis, not to have been a buckler, but a
cuirafs, or breaft-plate ; and it is certain the xgis of Pallas,
defcribed by Virgil, ^n. lib. viii. ver. 435. mull have been
a cuirafs ; fince that poet fays exprefsly, that Medufa's head
was on the breaft of the goddefs. But the aegis of Jupiter,
mentioned a httle higher, ver. 354, feems to have been a
buckler : the words

" Cum faepe nigrantem
.ffgida concuteret dextra,"

iE G L

agreeing vtxy well to a buckler ; but not at all to a cuirafs,
or breaft-plate.

Servius makes the fame diftinftion on the two paffageG of
Virgil ; for on verfe 354, he takes the Kgis for the buckler
of Jupiter, made, as above-mentioned, of the (Icin of the
goat Amalthea ; and on verfe 435, he dcfcribcsthe aegis, as
the armour which covers the breall ; and wliich, in fpeak-
ing of men, is called cuirafs ; and aegis, in fpeaking of the
gods. Many authors have overlooked thefe diftindtions for
want of going to the fources.

jEGI6SUS, or jEgyptus, in Ant'tent Geography. See
iEcvpsus.

jEGI.STjE, a town of Italy in Brutium, eaftof Confentia,
called by Pliny Apntjlum.

TEgisth-e, a town which Ptolemy places in Arabia Felix;
long. ^3^ 30' lat. 11° 45'.

jfeGlSTHUS, in Entomology, a fpecies of Papilio, with
brown wings, fpolted with a light green, found in China,
and refembling the fpecies called Agamemnon.

JE.CISTHVS, in Ancient hi/lory, the fon of Thyeftes by
his daughter Pelopeia, who, in order to conceal the incelt,
expofed tlic child in the woods ; where he was found by' a
lliepherd and nurfcd with goat's milk, from which circum-
ftance he derived his name. In mature life he killed his
uncle Atreus, and kept Clytemneftra, the wife of Aga-
memnon, dining the abfence of her hufband at the fiege of
Troy, and at his return murdered him ; but was at laft him-
felf (lain by Oreftes in revenge of his father's death. Ovid's
Ep. viii. 53.

jEGITHALLUS, in Ancient Gengraphv, a promontory"
and citadel of Sicily, between Drepanum and the Emporium
iEgiftanum ; afterwards called AceUus, corruptly written
TEgitharfon in Ptolemy, fituate near mount Er\'x, and now
called Capo di Santo Tcodoro.

uEGlTlUM, a town of iCtolia in Greece.

jEGITNA, a town of Gaul, belonging, according to Po-
lybius (p. 962) to the Oxybii. The Romans bcficged and
took the town, and made (laves of the inhabitants ; and on
this account Q. Opimius the coaful obtained a triumph,
A. U. C. 599.

jEGIUM, a confiderable town of Achaia Propria, 40 ftadia
from the place where Helice ftood, and famous for the council
of the Achaeans, who affembled there, either on account of
the dignity of the place or the convenience of its iitnation, as
we learn from Paufanias (1. 7. c. 24. p. 5S4. Ed. Kuhnii.)
and from Livy (1. 3S. c. 30. t. 5. p. 216. Ed. Drakenb.)
It was alfo famous for the worftiip of the conventional Ju-
piter, (oixayupia Aio,-), of thePanaclioean Ceres, of jEfculapius,
Lucina, Juno, and other deities. In this place there was a
kind of chapel, in which were preferved the ftatues of Her-
culee, Jupiter and Minerva, called the Argian gods. Venus
had ahb a temple in jEgium near the fea, and in it was a
ftatue of Jupiter Homagyrius. The territory of jEgium
was watered by two rivers, viz. Phoenix and Mcganites.
The epithet derived from it is JEgienfts. There is a coin,
fays Cellarius (t. i. p. 757) in the cabinet of the king of
Pruflia, with the infcription, Airr, and the figure of a tor-
toife, which is the fymbol of Peloponnefus, and afccrtaina
the place where it was ftruck. Greek imperial medals were
ftruck in this city in honour of Piautilla, Commodus and
Elagabalus.

jEGLE, in Entomology, a fpecies of Papilio, with black
wngs ; the anterior and the difc of the pofterior marked
with greenilli fpots ; found in India.

^GLE, in Mythology, the mother of the Graces ; alfo,
one of them : and according to Virgil (Eclog. vi. 21.) the
moil beautiful of the Naiades.

uEGLEFINUS,

JE G O

^GLEFINUS, in Ichthyoloay,-^ name givcnby authors to
the Haddock.

/EGLETE, in ylncimt Geegraphy, a pUicc in tho ide of
Anapha, whence Apollo obtained the furname of ^Eglctc.

jEGLESTAAVICK, in Ccogrii[>hy, a goodhahour, half a
mile from SodertleGe, a town ot Sudeitorn iu Sweden.
E. long. l8° 40'. N.lat. 59° 20'.

tEGLEUS, in Botany, a term derived fi-om the Greek
rtiyXiw;, and nfed by Galen to diiUnguifli the white chamx-
leon thiftle, whieh was an efculent and medicinal plant, from
the erebennus, spspsnos,-, which was what we call the blaeli
chama;leon thiille, and was elleemed poifonous.

7EGOBOL1UM, in ^ntiyul.'y, the faerilice of a goat of-
fered to Cybele. This was an expiatory facrifiee, whieh nearly
refemblcd the tcnrolulhim and crioboHitm, and fcems to have
been fometimes joined with them.

jEGOBOLLfS, a furname given to Bacclius, becaufe
inftead of a young man who was facriiiced to him, he con-
tented himfelf with a goat.

VEGOCEPHALUS, in Ormthology, the name by which
authors call the bird, known in England by the name of
the GoDwiT, or in forae places the yarwhep or yarwhip.

jEGOCERAS, in Botany, a name given to Fenugreek,
on account of its corniculatcd fruit ; the word fignifying
^Cell's horn.

yEGOCERATOS. See Hugonia.

yEGOCEROS, formed of aij, goat, in AJlronomy, a name
given to the conllellation Capricorn. Thus, Luean, 1. 9.
V. 537, and 1. I®. V. 213.

" Varii mutator circulus anni

iEgoceron, cancrumque tenet."
Pan, dignified by the poets and elevated to the ilars, trans-
formed himfelf into a goat, and was called jEgoceros.

.EGOLETHRON, in Botany, a plant defcribcd by
Pliny ; which appears to be the fame with what Tournefort
defcribes under the name ot chamserodendros pontica maxima
niefpili folio, flore luteo. The ancients attribute dangerous
tjuaiitics to it.

iEGOMANTIA, in Antiquity, a fpecies of divination
perfonried by means of a goat.

iEGON, in Entomology, a fpecies of Papilio, with
brown wings and fpolted yellow fafcis ; found in Jamaica,
.^gon is alfo a name given by fome writers to the Argus.

AGONES, in Ancient Geography, a people of Gaul,
tranfported according to Polybius (p. 105) into that part of
Italy called Cifpadana, and placed between the Senonta and
13oii,

iEGONICHUS, in Botany, a name mentioned by Pliny,
as a lynonym of the lithofpemium or gromwell, and formed of
«i>of owj|, the c/aw, ox hoof of a goat. The ancients alfo
called it exonychon .; and by thefc terms cxprefled its being
like the exterior part ot th.e huniun nails on the fingers,
and deduced the refemblance from the hardnefs and fcaly
nature of the feeds.

^SGOPH AG A, in Mythology, a furname of Jimo, becaufe
goats were facrificed to her.

^EGOPHTHALMUS, iU goat's-eyijone, in Natural
Hiftory, a name given by fom.e authors, to thoft ])ieces of agat,
or othiT femi-pellucid gems, which have circular fpots re-
fembhng the eyes of that animal in colour, and in their
round figure.

^GOPHTHALMUs, in thc Linnjpan Syftem by Gmelin, is
a {peciesof Helix, with an umbilicated Ihell of a grcenirti
colour without fpots ; and Itaving fcvcn fpiral turns. It is
fuimd in India, Barbary and tjoiith America,

j£GOP< jDJ UM, fonned from aijf, a^'Ofl/, and s-cJioy, a di-
Vol, j.

iE G O

•ffenii

minutivc of ttv,-, a foot, in Botany, »genu9 of \iii pentan'
dria Sgynia clafs and order, and of the natural order of urn-
bellalis or uinbilUferie : the characters OB^ which are, that die
univerfal umbel of the calyx is maij[ifold and convex, thc
partial fimilar, but fl;it ; without ii^hicre, and the proper
periantiiium fcarcc obfervabk : thc"iiviverlal corolla is uni-
form, with every flofcule fertile ; the particular has five obo-
vatc, concave petals, index at the top and equal : thc fta-
mina confill of fimple filaments, twice as long as the corolla,
with roundidi anthers ; thc pilHllum has an inferior germ,
fiir.plc ue6t ilylts of the length of the corolla, with headed
lli^^na.; ; no pcricarpium; thc fruit ovate-oblong, ftreaked
andbipanilc; the feeds are two, ovate, oblong, concave, and
llreaked on one fide, and flat on the other. There is one
fpecies, viz. jE. pofi^igraria. Herb Gerard, gout-weed, or
achcweed, which is a perennial, creeping weed, with white-
flowers, that appear in May or June. It is aromatic, but
not ufed in n\edicine. Thc Germans formerly recurred to
it for alTuaging the pains of the gout and piles, w h.ence
its name gout-weed. Li^na'us fays, that when it is tender
in the fpring, it is boiled for greens and eaten in Sweden.
Cows fhecp and goats cat it ; but horfes are not fond of it.
It is found amongll rubbilh in Ihady places, in cultivated,
grounds, and in the hedges.

.<£GOPODIUM. See CicuTA and Smyrnium.

^GOPOGON, a name ufed by Tragus, and fome
others, for the coiftmon meadow-fweet or ulmaria. Sec

SplRJEA.

^GOPRICON, formed from ai| and ff^iw, to fatu or
fiijlen, but without any alccrtained meaning ; in Botany, a
genus of the monuecia inonandria clafs and order : the cha-
rarters are, that the male flowers are im;ill, in an ovate
ament; their calyx one-leafed, tubulous or trifid : no corplla;
the ftamina of one filament, longer than the calyx, ereft,
with an ovate anther : the female flowers are on the fame
plant and folitary ; the calyx and corolla are the fame as the
male : the piilillum has an ovate fuperior germ, three diva-
ricate ftyles, with fimple permanent ftigmas : th? pericac--
pium is a globular berry, tricoccous and trilocular witliin,
with a bifid point: the feeds are folitar^', and angular on one
fide. There is one fpecies, viz. M.. Bctulinvni, which is a
tree very much branched, with wrinkled bark, and alternate
leaves refembling thofe of myrtle. Dalberg noticed it in
Surinam, and Aublet in Guiana. Martyn. Gmelin in thc
laft edition of Einnxus, refers this genus to the monandria
trigynia clafs and order.

^GOSPOTAMOS, q. d. Goat's river, in Ancient Geo-
graphy and Hijlory, a river of the Thracian Cherfonefus, fall-
ing with a north-call eoui-fe into the Hellefpont, to the north
of Seftos. There v^•as alfo a town, called JEgos, and a naval
flation, at the mouth of this river, nearly oppofite to Lamp-
facus. At this place, the Laccd-.cmonians under Lyfander,
obtained a complete viAoiy over tlit Athenians, commanded
by Conon ; and this victor)', which was foon followed by
the capture of Athens, put an end to the Peloponnefiati
war, and to the nraritiine power of the Athenians. The
Athenian fieet, after the lofs of Lampfacus, retired to this
ilation, and here tiiey h.alted over againll thc enemy, who
were then at anchor liefore Eampiacus. The Hellefpont in
this part of it is not above two thouland paces broad ; and
therefore the two armies, being fo near each other, expeftcd
to come to an immediate battle. Lyfander, however, was
cautious and wary ; and determined, notwithflaiiding re-
peated infults on the part of the Athenians, to wait till the
Athenians had debarked their forces. Alcibiadcs rcprc-
fented to the Athenian generals thc inconveniences and dan-
Nn gee

JE G Y

iE G Y

per of their fitiiaticft, and offered to attack the cncm)' by
Ia!id and force them to battle ; but jealoufy prevented their
prolitiajj by his advice, and he therefore withdrew. On the
5th dny the Athenians offered battle ; but Lyfandcr chofe
rather to fiibmit to renewed infiilts than to hazard the event
of a battle, b.forc he h;'.d completed his previous arrange-
inents. At length, however, the admiral's galley gave the
figntHiy the found of trumpet, and the whole fleet advanced
in good order. The land army alfo haftentd to the top of
ihe promontory to ohfenc the conteil. The ilrait that fc-
par.ites the two continents in this place is about 15 lladia,
1875 paces, or i of a league in breadth, and this fpace
was prclently cleared by the ac\;vitv and diligence of the
rowers. Conon, the Athenian r^eneral, perceiving from the
ihore the order and progrefs of the I-acedimonian fleet, was
alarmed, and gave immediate orders for the troops to em-
bark. But for want of vigilance and due difcipline on the
part of the generals, the troops were difperfed, and were
indulging themfelves in a variety of ways, under an appre-
henficn of perfect fecurity. Uflon the firft onfet of the
enemy, Conon perceived that all was loft, and difengaging
himfelf with nine gallies, of which number was the facred
fhip called the Parallan, fled to Cyprus, where he took re-
fuge with Evagoras. The reft of the fleet and aniiy was
either captured or deftroyed. I^yfander, after having plun-
dered the camp, and faftened the enemy's gallies to the
ilems of his own, returned to Lampfacus, amidil the found
of flutes and fongs of triumph. It was his glon- to have
atchieved one of tlie greatell mihtaiy exploits recorded
in hiftor)-, with httle or no lofs, and to have terminated a
war in the fpace of an hour, which had lafted 27 years, and
which perhaps, without him, had been of much longer con-
tinuance. The Athenians, fome time before this event, had
at the inftigation of Philocles, one of their generals, paffed
a decree for cutting off the thumb of the right hand of all
the prifoners of war, that, being unable to handle the pike,
they might be only fit to ferve at the oar. On this occa-
fion Lyfandcr aiked Philocles what punilhment he thought
fuel) a decree merited, and wifhed him to pafs fentence upon
himfelf. Philocles, notwithftanding his danger, haughtily and
inagnanimou!ly rephed : " Accuie not people of crimes who
have no judges ; but as you are victor, ufe your right, and
do by us as we had done by you if we had conquered."
Having faid this, he inilantly prepared for execution, with-
■ out betraying the leal't timidity. All the other prifoners, in
number abi,i:t 3000, were put to the fword, except Ada-
mantus, who had oppofed the above-mentioned decree. Af-
ter this expedition all the Athenians were ordered, on pain
cf death, to repair to Athens, which was foon befieged,
and which capitulated and furrendered, A. M. 3600. Ant.
I. C. 404. Diod. Sic. 1. xiii. c. 105. IC7. tom. i. p. 627,
630. Ed. Weffcling. Phit. in Alclb. oper. tom. i. p. 212,
in Lyfand. p. 438. Ed. Xyland. RoUin's Ant. Hift. vol. iii.
p. 284, 288, 8va.

iEGOSTENA, or .<Egisthexa, a town of Greece,,
north-weft of Megara, near the fea of Alcione : celebrated
for a temple of Melampus, fon of Amytheon, to whom they
offered annual facrifices.

iEGOSTHENIA, a town of Greece in the Locris.

.^GUA, a town of BiEtica in Spain.

.(EGUSA, or JEthv%.\, a fmall ifland on the coaft of
Africa Propria, mentioned by Pliny and Ptolemy, being
one of the clufter called the yEc ade s.

-^GYLA, jEgilia, or .(Egialia, one of the Greek
iflands mentioned by Stephanus, (De Urb. p. 35,) fituate
between Crete and Peloponnefus : the fame with that

mentioned by Pliny (H. N. t. i. p. 209), 15 miles from
Cythera.

./^GYPSITS orjEcissus, a town of Moefia near th»
river Ifter. M. d'Anville refers it to the vicinity of the
place on the Danube, where Darius Hyftafpis conftruded
a bridge, when he was engaged in a war with the Scythians.
Ovid. Epift. ex. Pont. 1. i. ep. 8. tom. iii. p. 732. Ed.
liurni.

^iGYPT. See Egypt.

yEGYPTIAC^, in Boinny, fignifies the Papyrus.

jEGYPTIACUi'T, in Pharmacy, a name given to divers
UNGUENTS of the detergent, or corrofive kind.

We meet with a bhich, a red, a -zvLnte, ■i.fimpk, a compound,
and a ma^il'md /E^ypUacum.

'L'hcjimp/t JE^yptincvm, which is that ufually found in
our ihops, is a compulition of verdegrife, vinegar, and honey,
boiled to a coiififtence : the prefcription is Mefue's. — It is
ufually fuppofed to take its name from its dulky colour,
wherein it refcmbles that of the natives of ^gypt. — It is
improperly called an unguent ; as there is no oil, or rather
fat, in it. Some chufe to call it Mel JEgyptiacum, and Oxy-
mtl JErug'mh. It is chiefly ufed in eating off rotten flelh,
and cleanfing foul ulcers ; particularly venereal ones in the
throat, &c. It alfo dcftroys thofe cancerous erofions apt to
grow in children's mouths. Gmelin's App. Med. vol. i.

34'^-

The German difpenfaries have another compofition called
JE.^i!pt\acnm compofitum magijlrale, or Hildani, wherein treacle,
mithridate, camphor, S:c. are ingredients.

White jEgyptiacum is a compofition of hly roots mixed up
with aromatics ; it is mentioned by Hippocrates, and is the
fame with what other ancients call cicinum. It was ufed by
the ladies of thofe days to fmear over their faces, to prefervc
their complexions.

Hippocrates alfo fpeaks of another unguent under the
fame name, compofed of the flowers of the Egyptian thorn.
Farriers make a red, as well as a black kind, of much the
fame ingredients, only with fome difterence in the propor-
tions ; ufed efpecially to foften the hoofs of a horfe, when
too hard.

^EGYPTIAN Pebble. See Jasper.
^GYPTILLA, in Natural Hijlory, the name of a ftone
defcribed by the ancients, and faid, by fome authors, to have
the remarkable but imaginary quality of giving water the
colour and tafte of wine.

This ftone was variegated with veins of black and white,
or black and bluifh, with a plate or vein of whitifti red, and
feems to have been of the onyx, fardonyx, or camea kind,
none of which poflefs the property which fome fanciful
writers have afcribed to it.

^GYPTION, the name of a topic ufed by the ancients
in uterine dilorders.

K^GYV'YXi'hlpharmacum ad aurcs. Aetius (Tetrab. ii.
Serm. 2. c. 83.) fpeaks of this as excellent for deterging
ftetid ulcers of the ears, which he fays it cures, though the
patient were born with them.

jEGYPTUS, in Fabulous H'ljlory, the fon of Bclus and
brother of Danaus, who, having fifty fons, married them to
the fifty daughters of his brother ; and by their father's
order, each of them, except one, flew her hulband the firft
night. Lynceus, who efcaped, difpofTefled his father Da-
naus ot the kingdom, and reigned oyer the Argives for lixty-
nine years.

jEGYPTUS, in Ancient Geography, a name given by
Homer to the Nile, and by which it was very anciently dif-
tinguifhed in Ethiopia. It has been commonly fuppofed,

that

JF. L F

IE L I

that tKis nanifwas given to it on account of its black Colour;
bat Mr. Bruce (Tnivtl'!, vol. iii. p. 65.) conceives, that as
Egrpt in the I'.tliiopic language is called }'j;yj>/, and an
inliabitant of the country' (jyp/, wiiieh means the country of
ditches or canals, drawn from the Nile on both lidos at right
angles with the river, nothing is more obvio\i3 than to write
3' f \'/>/, whence Egypt, and witli its termination ;/,r or ou:,
JEf^yptus. See Nile. Plutarch (tom. ii. p. i 157.) fays, it
was firll called Mclas, from Melas the fon of Neptune, and
that it was afterwards called vEgyptus front ^gyptus the fon
of Vulcan and Leucip])e who governed Egypt ; and who
■was fo diilreiied by the facrifiee of his daughter Aganippe in
obedience to the Pythian oracle, as a means of fecuring the
fertility of the country by the retreat of the Nile, that he
threw himfelf into the river ; and from this ciicumilauce it
obtained the appellation.

yEGYS, a town of Laconia, uhich, according to Paufa-
nias was deilroyed by the Laccd;rmonians in tlie reign of
Archelaus, whole reign commenced 957 years before Chrill,
and lalled forty years, bccaufe its inhabitants took part with
the Arcadians.

uEHOlTlTELA, in Zoology. See Ah;T.tuli.a.
yEICHRYSON, in BoUmy, a name given to the Sedum
majiis ; called alio vEithales.

iEINAUT.Ii, in yJnfiqtii/y, fenators of Miletus, who
held their deliberations on board a Ihip, far from (liore, and
till matters were refolved upon, never returned to land.
The greek word antuxTiut iignilies nliueiys mariners. Phit.
in QiiiEtl. Rom.

/EiZOON, aiii^aov, from an always, and iicri life, fevApir-
wvum is a name given to Sedum or Houseleek.

iELANA, or Elana, in Ancient Geoyraphy, a city of
Arabia Petr.xa on the Red Sea, at the north end of the
jtlanitic gulf. It is now called Aihith.

^LANITIC, ^i-ANTic, or Elanitic _5-H^, a bay of
the Red Sea, verging towards the north-eaft, and belonging
to Arabia ; i"o called from the city ^Elana, fituated near it.
yELEA, a fmall plaee of Dardania, fouth-vveft of Sardica.
^LEN, Ei.en, Ala, Aiit'iLECiA or Halcvdes, in
Geo'^raph'j, a large market town in the canton of Bern in
Switzerland, which was greatly damaged by an inundation
in 1740. It gives name to one of the four niandements
into which the government, lordfliip or county of Aelen is
divided. This diftritt, wliich was for fome time fubjeft to
Savoy, was afterwards given to the landholders of the
Valais, who in 15^6 exchanged it with the city of Bern for
another diftrift called Gundis. This lordfhip itfelf, wliich
is now managed by a governor refidiug in a leat on an emi-
nence in the town of Aelen, conlills of a trart of fertile
hills and vales, producing fine fruits and excellent wines ;
and the richnefs of its pallures is mauifeited by its large
breeds of cattle.

iELFREl), in Biography. See Alfred.
iELFRIC, an eminent ecclefiaftic of the tenth century,
who was the fon of an earl of Kent, and who, after fonic
imperfeft iuilructions, received from an ignorant fecular
prieft, alTumed the habit of the Benediftine order of monks
ki the monaftery of Abingdon, over which Athelvrold pre-
fidcd. When Athelwold was created bifnop of Wincheilcr
hi 963, Allfric among other Abingdon monks was fettled
in his cathedral ; and, in order to tellify his gratitude, for
the advantages which he had enjoyed under the tuition of
Athelwold, he conformed to the wifhes of his benefaftor in
communicating inftruclion to the youth of his diocefe.
With this view, he compiled his Latin Saxon vocabulary,
2nd fome liutin Colloquies. The fonner woi-k was pub-

liflicd by fmmrier, under the title of a gloffaiy, at Oxford ii\
1659. yilfric alfo tranflated fiom the Latin into the Saxoa
language, inoll of thf hillorical books of the Old 'I'efla-
nicnt, part of which was printed at Oxford in 1698. At
Wiueheller he aifo drew up his canons, a kind of charge to
be delivered by the bifhops to their clergy, which are pre-
fer\'ed in the fnlf vc.lumc of Spelman's Councils, and were
compofed, fays his biographer, (vli infra J between the yeaiv
980 and 987. Upon his removal aV-out the year laft-mcn-
tioned to Cerne Abbey, he tranflated from the l^atin
fathers, the firll volume of his liomiHes. In 988 he was
made abbot of St. Alban's, and compofed a lituigy for the
fcrvice of his abbey j and about the latter end of the year
991, when he was hilhcp of Wilton, he tranflated a
Iccond volume of Homilies. Here he alfo wrote hit
Latin-Saxon grammar, a fupplcmeiit to his Homilies, a
Traft dedicated to Sigward or Sigefcrth, containing
two epilUcs on the Old and New Tcllaments, which
his biographer fuppofes to have been written between the
years 987 anti 991. In 994 /Elfric was tranflated to the
fee of Canterbury, where, after exerting hin-.felf with laud-
able fpirit and prudence for fome years, in defending his
diocelc againit the incurfions of the Danes, he <lied
Nov. 16th, in the year looj. He wasljuiied at Abingdon,
but his remains were transferred to Canterbury in tlie reign
of Canute. He is reprefcnted as the greatell prelate the
Saxon church ever had fince the days of St. Aullin ; and as
our firll reformer next to king Alfred, by introducing the
knowledge of the fcriptures among the laity. For the times,
it mull be allowed, he was a man of confiderable learn-
ing ; his morals were in-cproachable, and his faith was
free from many of the corruptions which have dif*
graced religion. There was another ^Ifric furnamcd Ba/a,
who was pupil of the former in the fchool eftablillied by
Athelwold at Wincheller, who was made archbilhop of
York in 1023, and died in 1051. Another of the fame
name was abbot of Malmefljur)' in 974, was created bifliop
of Crediton in 977, and died in 981. There were feveral
other perfons of this name. The celebrated antiquar)' Lc-
land has exprefl'ed his doubts, whether iElfric, the author
of the Latin-Saxon grammar, was the fan>e with the tranf-
lator of the HomiHes, or with the abbot of St. Alban's,
who drew up the liturgy, which continued to be ufcd there
till his own times. Bale and Pitts have afcribed thefe three
works to three different perfons. Whereas, archbifliop
UlTier, by confounding yElfric, arclibifhop of Canterbul7^
with j5ilfric, arclibifhop of Y'ork, and with yElfric, bifhop
of Crediton, has reduced into one perfon three men who
were rerdly dillincl. See Edvvardi-Rowei Morefi de ^1-
frico, Dorobernenii Archiepifcopo, Commentarius ; ed. per
Dr. Thorkelin, 410. 1789.

TELIA, an appellation derived from one of the names of
Adrian, and applied to feveral towns.

jElia adiana. See Zama. — Augujla mcrcurialis. See
Th/fnA.

iEbiA CaphoUna, a name given by the emperor Adrian,
from jElius that of his own family, and Capitolinus the
epithet of Jupiter, to the nev; city which he caufcd to be
built about A. 1). i ^4, neai- the fpot where the ancient
Jcrufalem flood ; and which, on his vifit to the eaftern
parts of the Roman empire, he found in nrins. Here" he
fettled a Roman colony, and dedicated a temple to Jupiter
Capitolinus in the room of that of Jcrufalem. This pro-
fanation of the holy place irritated the paflions, increafcd
the rebellions, and aggravated the fufferings of the Jew*
durir-g the reign of Adrian. The city was once more
N n 2 tiikai

JE L I

taken by them aftd burnt. Adrian rebuilt it, re-eftabli(hcd
the colony, ordered the marble (latuc of a hog, which the
Jews held in religious abhontncc, to be fet up over the gate
wliich opened towards Bethlehem, and publiflied an edift,
ftridly torbidding ar.y jew on pain of death to enter the
city, or even to look at it from a diilance. He alio lixed a
vigilant garrifon of a Roman cohort to enforce the execution
of his ordci-s. Chriilians, however, were permitted to' re-
main ; and they eltftcd a biHiop, who, being of the race of
the Gentiles formed a flourilhing church of Gentile con-
verts ; and tliefe abolilhed Jie JcwiHi obKrvances which had
preraikd among the Chriilians that had been profclytcd froni_
the Jews ; and in coiifequtncc of this total renunciation of
tlie Jewilh law, they obtained a free admiffion into the
colony of Adrian. In this Hate ti-.c city remained till the
time ofConilantine, the fnft Chrillian emperor, who greatly
improved it and reftored the name of Jerufalem, tnough
that of iElia -continued to be occafionally ufed by
Greek, Latin, and Mahometan authors. The Jews, how-
ever, were not pennittcd to rcfide there. A.ttempting in
vain to get pofl'efllon of ihtir capital, Conilantir.e caukd their
cars to be cut off, their bodies to be marked as rebels, and
difpcrfed tlien'. over all the provinces of the empire, as fugi-
tives and (laves. The coins of Adrian, Antoninus Pius, and
J*Iarcus Aurelius, are infcribed with the characters Col.
AEL. CAP. i.e. Cohnia JUIia Capltoiina. Latin medals
were ilruck at ^Elia in honour of Adrian and oilier Roman
emperors.

^LiA Rkchia. See Riccina.

M.lA.\'ii,ClauiUus,'m Bh^raphy, was born at Prsenefte in
Italy, aboiitthc year So, and taught rhetoric at Rome, where
he lived in the time of tlic tniperors Nerva, Trajan, Adrian
and Antoninus, according to the account of Voflius extratted
from the Greek hiftorians, but according to Perizonius,
under the emperor Alexander Severus, who began his reign
A.D. 222. Philoftratus informs us, that he was a Roman
citizen, and that his life was extended beyond lixty years.
He was iurnamed M£Ar,?.ro-<ro> or M%Ki^^oyyoi,,ho!!ey-moulhed
and honey-fpeeched, on account of the peculiar fweetncfs of
his ftyle, both in his dilcourfes and writings. Martial re-
fers to this excellence, lib. xii. epigr. 24.
" O jucunda, Covine, folitudo,
Carruca magis, efl'edoque gratum
Facundi mihi-munus ^Eliani."
He was honoured with the appellation of Sophift, which
was a title appropriate in that age to men of wifdora and
learning ; and with the office of pontifex, as Suidas informs
us. He appears to have devoted himfelf with peculiar
afiiduity to hteraiy purfuits, and to the ftudy and praftice
of eloquence. As a writer he acquired a high degree of
reputation, and as a perfon of found principles and integrity
he has been much extolled, jtlian greatly admired and
diligently ftudied Plato, Ariftotle, Ifocrates and Plutarch,
and particularly the poets Homer, Anacreon, Archiloehus,
&e. and he exprefTes himfelf in terms of peculiar commen-
dation of Hipparchus, the fon of Pififtratus, as the liberal
patron of the poets. Such were his impartiality and can-
dour, tliat though he was himfelf a Roman, he declares his
preference of the Greek writers. His moll celebrated
works are his " Variae Pliftorias," of which we have an
excellent edition in Greek and Latin by Gronovius, in
two vols. 4to. ; to which are annexed the " Fragments" of
.^Ihan, coUefted by Kuhnius, out of Suidas, Stoba;us and
Euftathius: and his 17 books " De Natura Animalimn,"
publiflied by the fame editor, two vols. 4to. with the ani-
madverfions of Gefner, Triller, and Gronovius.

ii:L u

The ftyle of the latter is more elegant than tliat of the
former, wliich does not feem to have had the laft revifal of
the author. iF.lian alfo wrote an acculation or invective
againil Heliogabalus, or, as fome fay, Domitian, under the
iictitious name of Gyimh Tyriiiuitis. He alfo compofcd a
book' againft. " AtheiiLs, or on Providence," which is much
commended by Suidas, and another " On Divine Appear-
ances, or the Declarations of Providence." Some aicribe
to him the work intitled " Tadlica," addrcfled to Adrian ;
but Perizonius is of opinion, that the author of this work was
a native of Greece, of the fame name, and that he lived about
a century before jF.lian. Thofe who wifti to fee more of
the talents and writings of ^lian, the age in which he lived,,
and the various editions of his works, may conlult Perizo-
nius's preface to the firll volume of the Varia: Hiiloria-, by
Gronovius.

7ELIANUS Mfcdiis, lived in tlie time of the emperor
Adrian. Galen mentions him with refpecl. He haci great
conlidence in the Theriaca, as a preventative and cure of
the plag-ue.

iELII Pons, in Andent Geography, one of the fortrefics
in or near the wall built by Adrian, now Portland in Nor-
thumberland, between Newcallle and Morpeth.

iELIUS Pons, now II ponte S. Angela, a ilone bridge at
Rome over the Tyber, leading to the Bui-go and Vatican
from the city, along the mole built by the emperor Adrian.

yELius Mdunu, in Biography, wi&i a writer in the reign of
the emperor Caracalla, who was then very old, and had been
a flave to Phlegon, the freedman of the emperor Adrian.
This writer is cited by Spartian in his account of the death
of Severus.

iELLO, in Mythology, one of the three Harpies.

AELQUAPPE, in Jcldthyology, the common name
among the German nations of a fidi of the muftela kind, the
viviparous eelpout, called by Schonefeldt muftela vivipara,
and in fome places aelpute, aelmoder and aelmutter.

AELST, Evert Van, in Biography, a painter, w^s
born at Delft in 1602, and died at the age of 56 in 1658.
In painting dead game, fruit, armour, helmets with plumes
of featliers, or vafes of gold and filver, he exhibited a flrik-
ing refemblance of nature, and gave an extraordinai-y lullre
to the gold, filver and fteel. Pilkington's Di£t.

AELST, William Van, the nephew and difciple of the
former, was born at Delft in 1620, and died in 1679. He
excelled his mafter in the exercife of his art. His pencil was
fo light and his touch fo delicate, that the objefts he painted
feemed real. Before the year 1656, he exercifcd his profefiion
in France and Italy, and afterwards fettled at Amfterdam ;
where his works v/ere much admired, and fold for a large
price. The grand duke of Florence honoured him with
a gold chain and medal, in acknowledgment of his merit.
Pilkington.

AELT, in Geography, an abbey of Benediftins upon
the river Iltz, below AVafTenburg, in Bavaria.

^LUjEONES, in Ancient Geography, a people of Ger-
many mentioned by Ptolemy, and called Hiileviones by
Plinv, and Hellufii by Tacitus.

jELUP.I, a people placed by Suidas near the Alps,
which feparated them from the Gauls.

.^LEUROPOLIS, formed of aXcupo,-, a cat, and lTo^l;
city, a town of Egypt, mentioned by Leunclavius.

'yELURUS, in Mythology, tlie god of the cats: he is
reprefented by the ancient Egyptians, fomt times as a cat,
fometimes as a man with a cat's head. Such was the vene-
ration with which cats were regarded by tlie Egyptians,
that if a perfon killed any of them, with or without defign,

he

m M I

be was punilhed with death ; and it is reported, that, in
time of a famine, whicli compelled the inhabitants to de-
vour one another, no p;rfon was accufed of having tailed
any of thefe facrcd animals. See Diodor. Sicul.' 1. i. torn. i.
p. 94. Ed. Wefleling.

.ALLURUS, m Zoolo^j. Sec CivPT.

jELUS, in ylrtdait Geography, a borough of Arabia
Felix, belonging, according to Ptolemy, to the iElcfari.

AEM, Am, or Ame, ajiquid mcafure nfed in moll parts
of Germany ; but different in different towns : the aein
commonly contains 20 vertils, or 80 maffes ; that of Hei-
delberg is equal to 48 maffes ; and that of Wirtembcrg to
160 maffes. See Aam.

iEMATHIA, or Em. ".T HI A, in ylndenl Geography, a
difuift of Macedonia, which received its appelhitioa from
./Ematliius, a prince of remote antiquity, and extended as
far as the Sinus Thermaicus, or gulf of Saloniclii to the call.
It contained feveral confiderablc cities, particnhrly Alcr a.
This dilhift formerly gave name to the whole country of
Macedonia.

jEMILIA, one of the 17 provinces of Italy in the later
divilions of the Roman empire, bounded on the north by
the Po, on the eaft by the Adriatic gulf, on the fouth by
the Apennines, and extending to the fouth call as far as
Ariminum.

7EMILIAN I'jav. See Roman WAVs.

..fflMILIANA, "a town of Spain.

.ffiMILIANI, Jeromf., in Blographf, was foimder of
the regular clerks of St. Maieul in the 16th century. See
Fathers of Somafquo.

jEMILIANUS, tEmilius, or C.Julius, aMoorof
mean defcent, who, having fervcd from his youth in the
Roman armies, raifed himfclf to the firft employments in the
Hate, and became firil conful, and afterward emperor.
Under Gallus he was governor of Pannonia and Masfia ; and
in this ttation he rallied the intimidated and difperfed forces
of Rome, and by a fignal viftoi-y routed the barbarians,
- who were fpreading devaftation through tiie Illyrian pro-
vinces, and terror as far as the gates of Rome itfelf. Hav-
ing diftributed as a donative the money collecled for the tri-
bute, he was proclaimed emperor on the field of battle by
the acclamations of the foldiers. A. D. 253. Gallus, who
was at this time heedlefsof the public welfare, and indulging
himfelf in the pleafures of Italy, was roufed out of his Itth.argy
by information of the fuccefs, revolt and hoilile approaches
of his afpiring lieutenant, now the declared emperor. iEmi-
lianus, by forced marches, haftened to Interamna, now Terni,
about 32 miles from Rome ; and here he was met by Gal-
lus, and his fon Volufianus, at the head of a confiderablc
army. The troops of the latter, comparing the ignominious
couduft of their fovertign witir the glory of his rival, and
feduced by the offer of a confiderablc increafe of pay, de-
ferted from the Imperial llandard ; and having murdered
Tioth Gallus and his fon, united, with the followers of jEm\-
hanus, in proclaiming him emperor. The fenatc added their
legal fanftion to the rights of conquefl. To this affembly,
the new emperor addreffed affurances, that he Ihould refign
to their wildom the civil adminilli-ation, and reftrving to
himfelf the office of their general, that he would in a Ihort
time allert the glory of Rome, and deliver the empire from
all the barbarians of the north and of the call. His pride
was flattered by the applaufe of the fenate ; and medals
are flill extant, reprefcnting him with the names and attri-
butes of Hercules the Viclo)-, and Mars the Avenger.
When Valerian, who was condufting a numerous and well
difciphned body of troops to the alliltance of Gallus, heard

iE M I

at Rhoetla that he was dead, he quickened his march, and
determined to revenge his death. The army of yEmiH.jnu3,
compoled of traitors to their former fovcreign, lay encamped
on the plains of Spoleto, and awed by the chaiaftcr and
forces of Valerian, he had no fooner arrived than they im-
brued tiieir hands in the blood of a prince who had been fo
lately the objcft of their partial clioicc. Thus Valerian
obtained the poffellion of the throne, without wading to it
through the blood of the Roman citizens. ./Emilianus was
killed at a bridge in tiie vicinity of Spoleto, which Viftor the
younger pretends was denominated, from this circumftance,
llic bloody bridge. He died in tlie 46th year of his age,
after a Ihort reign of three, or at moll four months. Enfc»
bius (h vii. c. 10. p. 255) does not rank him among the
emperors ; and in the chronicle of Alexandria and that of
Nicephorus, Valerian is placed immediately after Gallus.
Accurding to Aureiius Victor (in jEmil.) he died a natural
death. Anc. Un. Hid. vol. 13. p. 482, 8vo. Gibbon's
Hift. vol. i. p. 408. 410, 8vo.

yliMILIUS, Paulus, the fon of Lucius Pauhis,
who was killed at the battle of Cann*, was born about
the year of Rome 530, ante Chrill 224, and was
twice conful. He lived, fays Plutarch, in an age that
abounded with great men, and took pains to be in-
ferior to none of them. His firll militaiy command was
in Spain, whither he went as prxtor in the war with An-
tiochus, to quell a genei-al revolt, in effefting which he
fucceeded. In his firil confulate (ante Chrill 182,) he
triumphed over the Ligurians, and on his return lived pri-
vately, and fuperintended the education of his children ;
and in the fecond, (ante Chrill 168) fubducd Perfeus,
king of Macedonia, reduced that country to a Roman pro-
vince, and cUablilhed a new fomi of government, from whicli
circumftance he obtained the name of Maadotacus. His
behavioiu", in confequence of his dccifive viiSlory, evinced
him to be a man of llritl jullice ; for, according to the rules
of war, he gave the plunder of the camp to the infantr\',
and that of the adjacent territory to the horfe. The cities
he would not fuffer to be touched : and as for the royal
treafures he conveyed every part of them to Rome, though
his integrity excited the ill-v.ill of the army. In hisprogrefs
through Greece, with a view of fetthng the di\ifion of the
country, and eftabliflfing his new plan of government, he
went to Epirus for the purpofe of executing a decree of
the Senate, which was fo fevere, that he coidd not read it
without tears, though he could not demur in obeying it.
This decree granted to the Roman army the pillage of the
whole of the country which had adhered to Perfeus. ./Emi-
lius diftributed his troops in fmall bodies through the town,
under a pretence of fecuring their liberty ; but when the ten
chiefs of the Hate had brought into the camp, in purfuancc
of his orders, all the gold and filver they could find, he
r.Uowed the foldiers, on a certain day and hour, to make
booty of the remaining property of the poor inhabitants ;
of whom 150,000 were made Haves, and fold for the benefit
of the republic.

His conduft towards Perfeus, the vanquidied and de-
graded fovcreign, manifelled noblenefs of mind. When the
king's ambafladors approached, he faid to thofc that were
near him, " Mark the inconllaiicy of fortune ; tliis man,
who hut the other day thought the ample kingdom of
Macedou nothing, whilft he w'as hindered from fubduing
the Dardanians and Illyrians, now confined in a narrow
illand, fends thefe poor men to allc favours." When Per-
feus entered his tent, and would have thrown himfelf at the
feet of the conful, he rofe hailily, gave him his hand, and

voidd

JE M I

would not fuffer him to kneel ; and aftti*md3 treated him
with civility nnd ivfpecl. \Vhcii TEiullius relunieU to
Rome, he obtained, after fome helitatlon, a triumph of
three days, which was one of the moll fpleinlid fpectacles
Home hud ever belield. The jjold and liUor earricd in the
(how amounted to a fum wliieli was liilHcient to free tlie
people from ail taxes for 125 years. I'erfeus was at tliis
time confined in a common gaol ; and llie conful's reply to
his rtqucft, that he might not be made a fpeftaclc in his
triumph was not lo honourable to his humanity as liis for-
mer conduct. " This (lays he) is entirely in your own
power ; vou need not alk the favour ot us ;" intimating
tliat the king might kill himfelf, and thus avoid the (hame
of being expofed. However, wlien the humiliating fpee-
tacle was finilhed, and the unfortunate Perfeus conlincd,
with circunillanccs of d.'prelRon and cruelty, in the common
gaol, iEmilius ordered him to be releafed, and treated with
greater decency. The conl'ul did not long furvive his tri-
umph. Having accepted the office of cenfor, and dil-
charged it with honour, he fell into a lingering illnefs, of
which ho died, in the 64th year of his age, ante Chrili
J 60. His funeral was conducted with great folemnity ;
and the natives of thofe countries which he had conquered,
who were then at Rome, attended the proceffion, con-
tended for the honour of carr^-ing his bier, and paid the
tribute of their tears and praifcs to his humanity and inte-
grity. To his children he only left at his death the patri-
mony he had received from his anceilors, without having
augmented it, fays Plutarch, by a fingle drachma. One of
-his two fens, by his firft marriage, was adopted into the fa-
mily of the Scipios, and called ylfricamis Minor, and the
other into another family ; and of the two others by his
fecond wife, who were the hopes of his family, one died
five days before his triumph, and the other three days after
it. " Fortune, fays he, on this occafion, by placing my
triumph between the funerals of my two children, as
thougli file meant to divert herfelf with human events, over-
whelms me indeed with trouble and forrow, but alcertains
a full iccurity to my country-, having emptied her whole
quiver upon me. She has taken a pleafure in expofing the
conqueror and the conquered alike, as a fpeftacle to all
mankind ; with this difference indeed, that the conquered
Perfeus has ftill his children, but thofe of the conqueror
Paulus iEmihus are now no more. But the public happi-
nefs alleviates my grief for my domeftic misfortunes." His
character, fays a judicious biographer (See Aikin's Gen.
Biog.) was that of a genuine Roman, adorned with letters,
and humanized by philofophy. As a military man he may
be eflimated by the maxim dehvcred by him to his fon
Scipio ; " A good general never gives battle but when led
to it by abfolute neceffity, or by a ver)- favourable oppor-
tunity." He was twice married, firll to Papiria, the
daughter of Papirius Mafo ; and being divorced from her,
he took a fecond wife. In early life his reputation was
fuch that he obtained the aedllernip againll twelve competi-
tors, who afterwards became confuls. The office of augur
he faithfully executed, with a rigid attention to the perfor-
mance of ever)- rite enjoined by the religion of his country ;
nor was he lefs obfervant of that military difciphnc by
which Rome had become viftorious. Plut. in Paul. jEmil.
Oper. tom. i. p. 255, &c. edit. Xyland.

.iEMiLius Macer, a poet of the Augulline age, wrote
on the virtues of herbs. There are fevcral editions of his
works ; but in general fo altered and interpolated, Haller
fays, by the monks, that the genuine lines are fcarccly to
be diftinguilhed. Many of his verfes were inferted in the
popular work called the Schola Salernitana.

IP. N A

.^MiiitK Parthexianus, one of the Latin hifioiianj,
flouriihed under the emperor Marcus Aurclius. He com-
pofcd a hillory of all thole who attempted to ulurp the
fovereign power, and bicught it down at leafc to the year
175, for he wrote the life of Avidius Caffius. He is
quoted by Vulcatius Gallicaims, who lived under Dioclclian.
Voir. Hitl. Lat. hb. iii.

^Emilius, Paulus, a celebrated hiflorian, was a native
of Verona, and gained fuch reputation in Italy, that he
was invited into France by Louis XII, in order to write a
I-atin hiftoiy of the kings of France> and had a canonry
granted him in the cathedral of Paris. He was thirty years
in writing this hillory, aud yet it was not completed at his
death. Erafmus fays of him, tliat he rciembled the painter
Protogencs, who tlujuglit he had never fmiflied his pieces :
thus, fays he, I'auhis jlL-intms is never fatislied with him-
felf. It was his ufual cullom to revifc and alter his own
performances, that they would hardly be known to be the
fame ; and this made him fo flow, that elephants could bring
forth fooner than he could produce a work. Lipfius fpeaks
of his hillory and manner of writing in terms of high com-
mendation. It is divided into ten hooks, and extends from
Pharamond to the fifth yeaj- of Charles VIII. in 14S8.
The tentli book was left uufiniihed ; but the hillory was
continued in nine boo.ks to the dole of the reign of Francis I.
by Arnoldus Ferronius, and the continuation was publilh-
ed at Paris in 1650. .^mihus, as to his private life, was
a man of exemplary conducSl and irreproachable reputation.
He died at Paris in 1529, and was buried in the catliedral.
Biog. Dia.

iEMiLius Pons, one of the bridges of Rome, called alfo
Suliichis, becaufe it was built on piles.

AMINES Porlus, were fituated in a fmall ifiand of
Gaul, now called Eniblez, between Taurocutum on the
north-weft and the promontory Cithariftes.

.lEMINIUM, a town and river in Spain mentioned by
Pliny (tom. i. p. 228.), now called Agutda. This town was
fituated in the province of Lufitania, near the northern bank,
of the Monda, a httle to the fouth of Talabriga.

^MOBOLIUM, in Antlquhy, the blood of a bull
or ram, offered in the facrifices, called tauroboha and
criobolia ; in which fenfe the word occurs in ancient in-
fcriptions. Rcinefuis and Vandale take it for a corruption,
and alter it to .fligobolium. M. de Boze defends the
iEniobohum.

^£MOD^, or Emod.^, \n Ancient Geography, iflands of
the Ocean to the north of Great Britain.

yliMONA, Lanlach or Lnybach, a Roman colony and a
fortified place in Italy to the eaft of the Julian Alps.

-(Emonia, one of the ancient names given to Thelfalv.

iEN, or AiN, a village of Judxa, belonging to
the tribe of Judah, and aftenvards comprehended in
that of Simeon, and alTigned to the Levites of this
tribe.

jENA, or AiNA, a town of Arabia Felix ; and alfo a
town of Macedonia.

^:NEIA. See^NiAD^E.

jENARIA, an ifiand in the hay of Cumas, or oppofue
to Ciunae in Italy. It derived its name, fays Pliny (1. iii.
c. 6. tom. i. p. 160.) from its being the llation of the
lliips of yEneas. It is called Inarine by Virgil (jEn. ix.
v. 716.), by Ovid (Metam. 1. xiv. v. 89. t. ii. p. 939. Ed.
Burm.), and by Silius Italicus (1. viii. v. 543. p. 436. Ed.
Drakenb.), and it is now Ischia. It has not been im-
probably conjcdlured, that this illand was, at fome fonner
period, violently feparated from the continent by an earth-
quake. The evidences of fuch a difruption are calcined

rocks.

JE N E

rocks, numerous caverns, and the nature of the foil, which
yields a great quantity of alum. About the year 14S9,
Bartholomew Perdix, a Gcnoefc merchant pafling by this
ifland, obffrved feveral aluminous rocks along the coaft ;
fome of whicli he calcined in a furnace, and thus obtained
excellent alum. By tliis dilcovery he was enabled to revive
the art of making alum, which had been nededted in Italy
for many centuries, and which he brought from Rocca, in
byria, where he traded for many years.

About 163 years before this period, it is faid that the
moll pleafant and fruitful part of this ifland was delhoyed
by a volcano, and that a fmall town was confumed by the
flames which iflucd from it, and afterwards fwallowed up.
Grxvii Thcfaur. Antiq. ct Hilt. Italix, vol. ix. p. 3. p. 88.
For other autliorities to the fame purpofe, fee Beckman's
Hift. Invent, et Difcov. vol.i. p. 303, &c.

iENARIUM, a grove of Achaia confecnited to Jupi-
ter, where, as Strabo (torn. i. p. 593.) informs us, the
Achscans held their public affembhes.

yENEA, or ^NiA, a city of Mygdonia in Macedonia,
at the fouthcrn entrance of the Thcffalonian Gulf near the
ifland Pdlcne, is faid to have been founded by jEneas. On
the promontory adjoining to this city there was a temple
of Venus, according to Dion. Halicarn. the foundation of
which is attributed to the fame perfon. See Dion. Hali-
carn. 1. i. t. i. p. 39. Ed. Oxon. Livy, 1. xl. c. 4. t. v. p.
432. Ed. Drahenb. Stephan. de Urb. p. 44. Livy,(l. xliv.
c. 10. t. V. p. 752.) places ^nia in a fruitful country,
about fifteen, miles from Theffalonica and oppoiite to
Pydna ; bat this mud be laxly interpreted, as Pydna was
near the river Aliacmon, and jEnia was probably near the
upper part of the Thermian bay. ^nia has been fometimes
erroneoufly confounded with jEnus.

-■ENEAS, in Entomology, a fpecies of papilio, with
black wings, a green fpot on the upper part of the pri-
mores, and a fanguineous fpot on the poftici. It is found in
India.

>Eneas, in Fabulous Hiflory, was a Trojan prince, the
fon of Venus and Anchifes, who, at the dellruftion of
Troy, is faid, probably by poetical fiftion, to have carried
away his aged father and his houlhold gods on his back.
Hence, it is alledged, Virgil diftinguiflies him by the epi-
thet Pius. See ^lian, Var. Hift. ti<m. i. p. 264. He alfo
led his fon Afcanius by the hand, and thus faved his father
and fon, &c. from the Greeks ; but he loft liis wife Creula
in the efeape. Some fay that he and Antenor betrayed
the city of Troy. But Virgil, defirous of maintaining his
refemblancc to Ulyfies in all his adventures, excufes him.
After the fiege of Troy he landed in Africa, and was
kindly received by Dido ; b\it quitting her coaft, he ar-
rived in Latium or Italy, where he married Lavinia, the
daughter of king Latinus, who thus fecured to liim the
throne of Latium. The ftory of the loves of Dido and
^ncas, though an interefting part of the jEneid, is .il-
Icwed to be a mere poetical ornament, introduced by a grofs
anachronifm. jEneas, as a teftiniony of his gratitude to
Latinu? and affettion for Lavinia, gave her name to the
camp he had pitched, and, inftead of Troy, called it Lavi-
nium. The Trojans followed the example of their leader,
raid by marriages, forming alliances with the Latin families,
became, in a fliort time, one and the fame pecspk with the
Latins. In the mean time Turnus, who had been con-
ti-afted to Lavinia, and who was difappointed in his expec-
tations by her marriage with jEneas, went over to the Rutuli ;
and excited a battle between them and the Latins, in which
both. he aod. Latinus were killed. Thus iEneas, bv the
6

JE N E

death of his fatlit:r-in-law, and of his rival, obtained the
quiet pofleifion of the kingdom of J-atium, which lie
governed with great wifdom, and tranfinitted to his pof-
terity. .ilLneas is faid to iiave reigned three years, in
which time he eftablilhed the worftiip of the gods of his
own country-, and to the religion of the Latins added that
of Troy. The two palladiums, which had been the pro-
tectors of that city, became the tutelar deities of Lavinium,
and in fucceeding ages, of the whole Roman empire. The
worftiip of Veita was likewife introduced by jEneas, and
probably by his means Jupiter, Venus, and many other dei-
ties, who had"been revered in Troy, became known to the
Latins ; from which eircumftancc fome have fuppofed that
the poets took occaiion to reprefent him under the charac-
ter of a pious hero. The Rutuli, in the mean while, en-
tered into an alliance with Mezentius, king of the Tyrrhe-
nians, and united with them in their attempts to drive out
thefe new adventurers. jEiieas engaged them in a battle,
which lafted till night ; when being driven to the banks of
tlie Numicus that ran clofe by Lavinium, he was forced
into the river, and was there drowned, in the year of the
Julian period 3538, ante Chrift 11 76. The Trojans con-
cealed his body ; and pretending tiiat he had luddenly va-
nilhcd awav, made his credulous fubjefts regard him as a ■
deity ; and they accordingly ereiled a temjjle to him under
the title of Jupiter Indiges. Virgil has immortalized this
prince, by making him the hero of his ^neid.

yEneas was fucceeded by his fon Afcanius, fo called
from a river of Phrygia of that name, and denominated
Julus from Uus, formed from Ilium or Troy, who founded
j'llba longa as the capital of his kingdom. See Dion. HaK —
car. I. i. p. 34. 51. tom. i. Ed. Oxon. 1704. Livy, 1. j. c.I. -
and 2. tom. i. p. iS. — 21. Ed. Drakenb.

tEneas of Gaxa, a fophift by profelTion, was originally
a diieiple of Hierocles, and a Platonic philofopher, but
afterwards became a Chrillian, and fiouriftied about the
year 487. He himftlf an"ures us, that he faw the Afri-
can conftfTors, whofe tongues were cut out by LIunneric
king of the Vandals, in 484, under the reign of the emperor
Zeno ; and that he heard them fpeak. This fupernatural gift
of the African confeftbvs, who fpokc without tongues, fays
Mr. Gibbon (Hiilory of the Decline and Fall of the Roman ^
Empire, vol. vi. p. 295, 8vo.), will command the afl'ent of
thofe, and of thofe only, who already believe that ■ their
language was pure and orthodox. But the ftubborn .mind
of an inlidel is guarded by fccrct incurable, lufpicion ; and :
the Arian, or Socinian, who has ferioufly rejeded the doc-
trine of the Trinity, will not be ftiakea. by the moft plauli-
ble evidence of our Athanafian niiniclc. .iEneas >compofed .
a dialogue, entitled " Theophraftus,"' on the immortality of
the foul, and the refurrcftion of the body ; belides twenty-
five epillles, rtill extant. The dialogue was firll tranflated ■
into Latin, and publiftied at: Bafil in 15 16, in Qr..tk and
Latin, at Bafil in 1560, with other pieces, atLeipfie in 1658, .
with a tranflation and notes by Barthius, in 410. See Bib-
lioth. Patrum. tom. viii. p. 664, 665, Cave's HilU Liter. .
p. 297, and Fabrieius, Bibl. Gitcc. torn. i. P..427. .

jEnfas, TactiCUS, one of the moft ancient Greek au-
thors who have written on the art of war. He lived about .
300 years before the Chriftian acta. Thif age in which
he lived is fettled by Cafaubon, who informs us, that •
Cineas, who was a difciple of EpLeurus, and an anibaf-
fador from Pyrrhus to J<:ome in the 125th Olympiad,
compofed an epitome of the works of jEneas. His work
was pubhllied by Cafaubon, in Greek and Lati-ii, v.ilh
notes, and it is annexed to his edition. .of Polybnj,

printed .

JF. N E

printed at Purls, fol. 1 609. See alio Fabr. Dibl. Crxc. 1.

lii. c. so- f<-'c- 9-

JEsvxs, Sylvius, Piccolomini, was born on tlie
1 8th of Oftobcr, 1405, at Corfigiii, a finall town in the
territory of Sienna, the name of which he afterwards
Ciianged into Pi-nza. His motlicr, when flie was preg-
nant with him, dreamed that (he fliould be dehvercd of a
mitred infant, and interpreting her dream by the mode of
degrading clergymen, which at that time was crowning
them with a paper mitre, the conceived her fon would be
a difgrace to her family, liut the dream proved to be a
prefage of his future advancement. Having been well edu-
cated, though in low circumltanccs, at a granmiar-fchool
in hi^ native town, he was enabled, by the aflittance of
friends, to go to the univerfity of Sienna, in 1423, where
he made great prolicitncy, and publillied feveral pieces in
the Latin and Tufoan langnages. In 14.^1, he attended
Cardinal Capranica, fnrnamed JDe Fermo, to the Council
of Uafil, as his fccrelary. He occupied the fame office
imder Cardinal Albergoti, wiio fent him to Scotland to
mediate a peace between the Engtifh and Scots. Upon
his return, he was appointed Stcretaiy to the Council of
Bafil, which he defended againft the authority of the
Popes, both by his fpeeches and writings. This Council
alTigned to him other offices of importance ; and lie was
employed in various embaffies ; in one of which, to Stialburg,
he is faid to have had an intrigue with a lady, by whom he
had a fon. For this adventure he has made an humorous
apologv, in a letter to his fatiier, prefervcd in Wharton's
Appendix to Cave's Hill. Liter, p. 114, anno 1458. In
J 439, he was crowned by the Emperor Frederic HL with
the poetic laurel; and, in 1442, appointed Secretary to
the Empire, and advanced to the fcnatorial order. Having
made his peace with Pope Eugenius 111, lie was honoured
ivith the office of ftcretaiy to his Holincfs, which he was al-
lov.-cd to retain witiiout reilgning his pod under the emperor.
Upon the deceafe of this pope, ^neas was chofcn by the
cardinals to prelide in the conclave till another pope lliould
be eleiiled. Pope Nicholas confeired upon him the bifliop-
ric of Triefte, and he was at the fame time appointed coun-
fellor to the emperor, and fuperintendant of the moil im-
portant concerns of the empire. He afterwards became
archbiihop of Sienna; and, m 1452, attended Frederic to
Rome, when he went to receive the Imperial crown. Upon
his return, he was named legate of Bohemia and Aulhia.
Jn 1456, he was made a Cardinal ; and, upon the deceafe
pf Cahxtus III, in 1458, elefted pope, by the name of
Pius II. Upon his advancement to the papal chair, hia
views and fentiments, like thofe of others in fmiilar circum-
ftanees, underwent 3 total revolution. He publidicd a bull,
retracing all he had written in defence of the Council of
Bafil, meanly apologized for his former conduft, and be-
came a ftrenuous advocate of the papal prerogatives.

" We exhort and advife you in the Lord, (fays he) not
to pay any regard to thofe writings which injure in any
manner the authority of the apoflolic fee, and affert opinions
which the holy Roman church does not receive. If you
find any thing contrary to this in our dialogues or letters,
or in any other of our works, defpiie fuch notions, rejedl
them, follow what we maintain now. Believe what I
afTert now I am in years, rather than what I faid when I
was young ; regard a pope' rather than a private man ; in
fhort, rejecl JEiiias Syhhii, and revere J'ius II." On this
occafion, he declared appeals from the pope to a council
to be null, erroneous and deteftable, and contrary to the
iacred canons,

iE N E

Although he declaimed, with all the powers of hia
eloquence againft the Turkilh war, when he was fecretary to
the emperor, and defcribed, from liis own experience, the
repugnant Hate and fpirit of Chriilendom ; yet, when he
was raifed to tlie papal throne, he devoted iiis hfe to the
profccntion of this war. With this view, he attended a
convention of princes at Mantua ; but when the pontiff
appeared at Ancona, to embark in perfon with the troops,
engagements vaniflied in excufes ; a precife day was ad-
jom-Hcd to an indeilnitc term ; and his effeftive army con-
filled of lome German pilgrims, wlsom he was obhged to
dilband with indulgences and alms. The French, who had
incurred the the pope's difpleafnre by appealing to a council
in defence of the Piagmatic fanftion, oppofed this meafure ;
but he feems to have been placated by the confent of Louis
XI, in 1461, to aboliffi that cdift, which the parliament of
Paris had fo lately and fo vigoroufly fupported. In the
following year, 1462, he iiiterpofed in a difpute which took
place between the Cordeliers and Dominicans, and iffiicd a
bull forbidding them to brand one another with the odious
epithets of heretics. In the cxercife of his high office,
Pius exerted himfelf with fpirit and aftivity in bringing
many contells to a peaceful termination, and in fetthng the
claims of various princes. During his pontificate he re«
ceived ambafl'adors from the Patriarchs of the eaft ; wlio
profcffed their unanimous agreement to fubmit to the pope
as vicegerent of Jefus Chrill. At Ancona, whither he re-
paired for the purpofe of embarking in the profecution of
the Tuikifh war, he was feizcd with a fever, which ter.
minated in his death, on the 14th of Augull, 1464, in the
59th year of his age.

Spondanus, in his ecclefiaftical Annals, fays, that he was
inferior to none in learning, eloquence, dexterity, and pru-
dence ; and the cardinal of Pavia, in his fpeech to the con-
clave, concerning the choice of a fucceflbr, pronounces this
eulogium on Pius II. that he was a pope who had all the
virtues in his charafter ; and that he had merited the ut-
moft commendation by his zeal for religion, his integrity of
manners, his folid judgment, and profound learning. Am-
bition, however, feems to have been his ruling principle ;
and his conduft furnifhes an example, in addition to many
others, of the verfatility which a change of circumftances
produces in perfons that are influenced by this principle.
The verfe of Virgil's ^neid, (lib. i. v. 382) which begins

Sum plus JEncas and the end of the following

verfe — - . _ .

him.

-fama fuper JEtheva nolus, have been applied ta

A hiiloiy of his hfe, fuppofed to have been written by
himfelf, was publillied by his fecretary, John Gobehn. It
was printed at Rome in 4to. in 1584 and 1589, and at
Frankfort, in folio, in 16J4. We have an edition of
j^neas Sylvius's works, printed at Bafil, in folio, in 1551.
His life is prefixed to the edition of his works, printed at
Helmftadt, in folio, in 1700.

Some apophthegms of ^neas are recorded, of which the
following are a fpecimen ; As a covetous man is never fa-
tisfied with money, fo a learned man ffiould not be with
knowledge — -Common men Should ellecm learning as filver,
noblemen prize it as gold, and princes as jewels. — The
laws have power over the commonalty, but are feeble to
the greater ones. — A citizen ffioidd look upon Ins family as
fubjeft to the city, the city to his countiy, the country to
tiic world, and the world to God,— The chief place with
knigs ia flippejy,— And as all rivers run into the fea, fo do
all vices into the court.— The tongue of a fycophant is a
king's grcatel'l plague.— «A prince who would truft nobody
4 '9

iE N E

JET^ T.

h good for nothing, and he ^vlio believed ever)' Lcdy no
better. — Ho who governs many flioiiU hinifeif be nikJ
by many. — Thofe who go to law are the birds, the
court tiie field, the judge the ntt, and the lawyers the
fowlers. — Men ought to be prcfented to dignitier;, not
digp.itie.'i to men. — A eovelous man never pleafcs any
body, but by his death. To tell lies is a flavifh vice. —
Lull fnllies and ilains eveiy age of man, but quite exlin-
guifiies i.ld age.

.^NEATORES, in yltilinuity, the muficians in an army;
including thofe who playid trumpets, horns, litui, buccin;r,
&C. The word is formed from Aiiicus, on account of the
brazen inftruments ufed by them.

^NEID, in I.iteriiry Hifiory, the title of Virgil's cele-
brated epic poem. The fubjctt ot this poem is very hap-
pily choren : as nothing could be more noble, fo nothing
could bt' more intereiling to the Roman people, than Vir-
gil's tracing thc'origin of their Hate to a hero of filch cele-
brity as jtneas. VV^hillllhe obiedl was fplendid in itfelf, the
theme afforded the pott an oppoitunity of purfiiing, by
means of the ti-aditionar^- hiftoiy of his country, the future
great exploits of the Romans, and of defcribing Italy and
the territory of Rome itfelf, in its ancient and fabulous
ttate. Dr. Blair thinks that there is no foundation
for the opinion, advanced by fonie critics, that the yEueid
is an allegorical poem, bearing conftant reference to the
charafter and reign of AuguiUis Ca;far ; or that Virgil's
chief defign in compofing it was to reconcile the Romans
to the government ot that prince, who is pourtrayed under
the charafter ot j^^neas. In this poem, unity of action is
perfectly preferved ; one main object being always kept in
view, which was the fettlement of ^neas in Italy, by order
of the Gods. The epifodes are likewife fufficiently con-
nected with the main fubjecl; and the nodus, or intrigue of
the potm is, according to the plan of ancient machniery,
bi'pnily formed. The wrath of Juno, who oppofes theTrojun
fettlement in Italy, occafions all the difficulties which embar-
rafs the undertaking of iEncas, and connects, throughout tlie
whole work, the human with the celelHal operations. Hence
arifc the tcmpeft which throws ^Sneas on the African fhore,
the paffion of Dido, who endeavours to detain him at Car-
thage, and the eft'orts of Turnus, who oppofes him in war.
At lail, however, Juno's refentr.icnt is placated, upon a
conipofition with Jupiter, that the Trojan name Should be
funk in the Latin, and th.e hero becomes victorious. The
poem, however, is not free from imperfections : one oi
v.-hich is, that there are fcarce any characters marked in the
yEncid. In this refpeft it is infenor to the Iliad, which
abounds with charafters and action. The charafter of /Eneas
lilmfelf is cold and tame, and not marked with any of thofe
ftrokes that touch the hearti His behas iour to Dido rnanifefts
obduracy, which renders him unamiable. Dido's own clia-
raftcris well fup'poiied, and exhibits a figure more tnily ani-
mated than any other which Virgil has chnfen. Befidcs
this defeft of cliarafter in the jEneid, the dillribution and
management of the fubjcft; are, in fonie refpcCis, excep-
tionable. Allowance indeed ought to be made for an in-
complete work ; for it in faid, that the fix laft books did
not receive the fminiing liand of the author; on which ac-
count he ordered, by has will, the >tneid to be committed
to the flames, which was happilv prevent-ed by Augultus.
The wars with the I^atins are inferior, in point of dignity,
to the deftruc^ion of Troy.^ the intrigue with Dido, and
the defccnt into hell ; and in tlie conduft of thefe wars,
the reader, as Voltaire obferves, is tempted to take part
with Turnuf againll /tneas. This defeft niight have
Vol.. I.

been remedied by the poet's inakinfj Mnvxt, inftead of
diiliefling Lavinia, by killing her io^er and occafioninpf her
mother's death, and embroiling hi.r count:y in a war, deliver
her from the periecution of fomc rival, who v/as odious fo
her and to the whole country. The diilingjifiiing excel-
lence of Virgil is teiide rnefs. He was endowed by natiue
with exquifite ieiifibili'.y ; he felt every aftefting circum-
ilance in the fceiics which hedefcribes; and he know>; how,
by a fingle ftrokt, to reach the heart. This, in an epic
poem, is the merit next to fublimity, and renders the coni-
pofition intcrefling to every reader. The fccond book ij
one of the greatcll malUr-pieccs that was ever executed ;
and Virgil feeins to have there exerted all the powers of
his genius, as the fubjcft aflorded a variety of fcenes, both
of the awful and tender kind. The images of horror, pr;--
fented by a city burning and facked in the night, are lineljr
mixed with pathetic and affcfting incidents. The death of
old Priam, and the family-pieces of ./Eneas, Anchifcs, and
Creufa, are as tender as can be conceived. The fourth
book, relating the unhappy p^'.ffion and death of Dido, h:ii
been always moft juftly admired. The interview of JEn'-as
with Andromache and Helenus in the third book ; the
epifodes of I'allas and Evander, of Nifus and Einyalus, of
llanfus and Mezentius, in the Itahan wars, are flriklng in-
ftances of t)ie poet's power of raif.Kg the tepder emotions.
The belt and moil finiflied books, upon the whole, are the
iirft, the fccond, the fourth, the fixth, the feventh, the eighth,
and the twelfth. Virgil's battles are, in point of fire and
fublimity, inferior to thofe of Homer ; but there is one
important epifode, the dcfcent into hell, in which he has
far exceeded Homer in his OdyfTey. In all antiquity there
is nothing equal, in its kind, to the fixth book of the A'ncid.
Through tlie whole defcription of the invifible world,
there is diiplayed a certain philofophical fubhme, which
Virgil's platonic genius, and the enlarged ideas of the Au-
gullan age, enabled him to fupport with a degree of ma-
jcily far beyond what the rude ideas of Homer's age al-
lowed him to attain. It is needlefs to fay any thing in
praife of the fweetnefs and beauty of Virgil's number.s,
which are univerfally acknowledged. Elegance and tender-
nefs are the diftingiii(hing excellencies of the iEiieid. For
the feeble pafTages of this poem, it ought to be admitted as
an excufe tliat the /Er.eid was an uniiuifhed work. 151air'8
Leftures, vol. iii. p. 248 — 2jti.

A late writer, viz. iSI. la Harpe, in his I.xcee, or I^eftures
at the Lyca-uni, does not allow \'irgil to be the inventor of
R fingle incident, and fcarccly of a verfe, in his poem. He
is not only accufed of imitating Homer in his plan, bis bat-
tles, and his principal events, as well as in his verfes, but of
plagiarifms from the old poets Ennius, Pacuvius, Acciiis,
and Suevius, and from his contemporaries Lucretius, Ca-
tullus, Tibullns, Varius, and Furius. It is confcfled, how-
ever, that the 3d, 4th, and 6th books are great and admi-
rable produftlons. The excellence of \'irgil, in the eftima-
tion of this author, reds on the conrtant perfeftion of his
flvle, to fuqiaff. v.-hich feems impofuble. It is at once, he
favs, the delight and defpair of all who w'ib to cultiv.U'-
poetry ; fo that if he has not equalled Homer in invention,
variety, en- conftant iiitereft, he has furpafled him in the
beauty of particular parts, and in the fine tafte by which he
has embelliihed his narratives.

vENESIPPA, in y/«.-;V;// Geography, called by Strabo
/Encfipnjia, an idand of the Mediterranean, on the coaft of
Lybia.

.(ENESISPHYRA, apromontoiy, according to Strabo,

and a port, according to Ptolemy, at the extremity of the

U o Catabathmu5

IL N I

iE N I

Catabathmus magnus, terminating the I-ybian nome, to the
i'.ort!i-ucil, luar lIil- tVuntuii! of Marmarica.

ANI, ill ^-Uscint G^'ography, an ilkiid of the Red Zc-x,
placed by Ptolemy to the call of Hippos, and to the foulh
of the Kiauitic gulf.

yENiA was a city of the Pcirhichi in Thtffiily; and
alfo the name of a fn-.all p!ac • of Alia Minor, in the
Troas, according to Strabo, about 50 ftadia from PuIk-
ccj'Hs. See ^En f a.

^ENIAD.li, t!ie name of twi) cities ; one in Acavnani;',,
on the Ionian fea, near tlie month of the river Aohclous,
denomInat(;d by Strabo JEne'hi, and now called by modern
travclki-s T)rii«unijlo ; and anotlicr, accovjling to Stephiiniis,
in Macedon. See jEnea.

jT^NIANA, a fortified town of Aiia, ni'ar the Cafpiaii
Tea.

• iENIANES, a people of the foutlicni part of ThcfTaly,
who dwelt to the call of movuit Oeta, upon the Sperchius.
Tliny reckons them among the Tluolians.

./ENIGMA, u propolitlon put in ol)feurc, ambiguous, and
generally contradictory terms to pui'.zle, or exercile t'ne \rit,
in finding out its meaning ; or, an obfcure difcourfe cover-
ing fome common and well known thing, under remote and
uncommon terms.

The word is formed of aivirlscrflsci, obfcure iiwucre, to hint a
thiiii; darkly ; of kivo--, an obfcure fpeech, dfcourfe.

The Latins foractimcs call it fcirput, firpiu, or fcrupns.

The populace with us najne it riddle; from the Belgic
rj:d,-n, or the Saxon aracthan, to interpret.

Fra. Junius defines an tenigma to be an obfcure parable,
or allegoiy ; and makes two kinds : the one greater, ren-
dering the ftnteace more intricate and knotty, by a multi-
.tude of words ; the other IcJer, confilHng of only one or
'two remote word.-, or aliuilons ; as in Ifaiah, ch. xi. i.
where Jefus Chrift is called ~\'il, furculus, rod, or branch.

Fa. Bohours, in tlie memoirs of Trevoux, defines an
senigma, a difcourfe, or painting, including fome hidden
meaning, which is propofed to be gueffed.

jEnigmas, painted, are reprcfcntations of the works of
nature, or art, concealed under human figures, drawn from
hiilor)- or fable. Thus Jefus Chrift, in the middle of the
doftors, reprefents the Bible, &c.

_ A verbal renigma is a witty, artful, and abflrufe defcrlp-
tion of any thing.

The ufe of rcnigmas was very great among the Egyptians.
Gale thinks they might borrow their cuftom from the He-
brews, among whom, it is certain, enigmas were not Icfs in
ufe. Witneis Sarafon's riddle. Judges xiv. 12. 13. I idIU
noiu put forth a riddle to yon, &c. mTl' '• ?• according to
\atable, an £ni(;mat!cal problem : the LXX. render it,
■afoS-Ar.,j.x. Solomon is faid to have been particularly fkilful
in the folution of enigmas. Jofeph. Antiq. lib. v.' cap. 2.
Clemens afliires us, that the Egyptians placed fphin<^es be-
fore their temples ; to intimate that the doarincs of God
and religion were enigmatical and obfcure. See Hiero-
glyphic.

Some reprefent the aenigma as the fame with grvphus :
but the more exaft writers make a diftiuclion ; thouch
wherein the_ difference hcs is not agreed on. Some make'it
confift in this, that the enigma properly imports fomething
meixy or jocofe, and gryphus a fubjed more grave and
profound. Others reduce the difference to this, that in the
gryphus there is fomething captious, and capable of leading
into a fnare, which is not round in the inigm.a.

The REDU5 is alfo ranked by fome in the number of
senignias.

Tr. a general f'nfe, every d.u-k faying, every diiTicuh
qutdion, every parable may pafs for an enigma. Hence
ob^^^ure laws are called snigtrata juris.

The ;:lchemiih are great dealers in the- asnigmatic lan-
guage, tlieir procefles for the ghilofopher's ilone being gene-
rallv \vrap]>cd up in riddles ; e. gr. Fac ex mare et fair.ina
r.rcuhtni, irdc ijiiaoraiigitlum, hinc trirngidnm, fac circnium et
hiibelij lapidcm philofopboruni. Barchufen has publiflied an
explication of the riddhs of cheniilU, alehemilts, phyticians,
&c.

Among [he senigmas of chemiils, that called the fibylline
icnigma is famous, of which we had a copy hi a MS. of
Stephanas Alexandrinus.

If AotTT;} 6i TK ?.oi^a, %xi ilrrrj a.'pu.'ya. rx. tt/v-;.

Kkj Tfii: Tpi.; Cixa^-s xou Jl; TflvA. TtS: h') -:l; s'./.t,
OuK aixuvTOi EO"*] T^J Trap' E//S a-o^tric.

Thus tranfiated by M. Leibnitz.

I.iterulis nofcor qiiadrifyUalns ipfc novenis :
SyHiibn Ihibct binas, n'ifi quod tenet ultima ternas.
Vocales quatnor, quinis non p>ropria -vox efl.
Bis feptem vicious r.nmerum centuria totiim
Ingrcditur, decadefque novem, turn his tria. Si me
Noveris, hinc aditus adfacra nqflra patent.

Stephanus gives a myftical folution of this senigma. Mo-
ret will have it fignify the name Jehovah, which, according
to hira, comprehends the number 1696, abating one, t!ie
number contained in the enigma. Brentius maintains tiiat
the whole fum amounts to 1711, and that it reprefents the
word :?ocrJc.po,:. The generality underftand it of the word
arfenic, or APSENIKDN. M. Leibnitz gives a very artful
folution of it in this fenfe, by only fuppofmg the A to ftar:d
for a thoufand, and I for unity, as we fomctimes find them
ufcd by grammarians.

The operation of cupping, performed in ancient days by
a machine of brafs, is ingenioufly reprefented by the fol-
lowing Knigma :

Avdj;' lijcfv n-ufj ;^aXy..;» c^' c'vt'pi r.r,X\r.T:y.v1a ;
" I faw a man, who, unprovok'd with ire.
Stuck brafs upon another's back by fire."

Ari.fl. Rlietor. 1. iii. c. 2. t. 2. p. 586. Ed. DuvaT.

Aulus Gellius (xii. 6.) has preferved a Latin asnigma,
which he alfo calls a firpus or firpos, debafed (favs Mr.
Han-is in his Philological Inquiries, p. 202.) with all the
qv:ibble of a barbarous age :

" Semel minufne, an bis minus, (non fat fcio)
An utrumque eorum (ut quondam audivi dicier)
Jovi ipf] regi noluit concedere."

It is thus tranfiated by Mr. Harris : " Was it once minus,
or twice minus, (I am not enough informed), or was it not
rather the tiuo tahen together, (as I have heard it faid for-
merly) that would not give way to Jove himfclf, the fove-
rcign." The tiuo talen together, that is, once minus, and
i'wice minus, make, when fo taken, thnce minus ; and thrice
minus in Latin is tcr minus ; which, taken as a fingle word,
is terminus, the god of boundaries. The meaning of the
riddle coincides with the Pagan legend, which fays, that,
when in honour of Jove the capitol was founded, the other
gods confented to retire, but the god Terminus refufed.
See Ovid's Fafti, 1. iii. ; 667, &c. t.iii. p. 137. Ed. Burra.

I The

JE N I

2E N 1

The morjl of the fable is jull and ingenious, viz. that

boiindaiies are facred, and never fiiould be moved.

. F. Meneftrier has attempted to reduce the compoiUion

and refoliitlon of enigmas to a kind of art, with lixed

nilej, and principles, which he calls the philofophy of

•Kuigmatic images.

• ^MG.MA, the fuhj.-c! of an, fiiould be fomethir.g cafily

conceived, and generally known.

JEjjigmas, tkc form of, confifls in tlie words, which,
whether they be in profe or verfe, contain either fome de-
fcription, a queftion, or a profopopccia. Thoftf of the lall
kind are the molt pleafmg, inafrauch as they give life and
ECtion to things, which otherwife iiave them not. They
are commonly involved cither in a pnn or metaphor, or
lometimes in both. In fuch fancies, contrary to tiie prin-
ciples of good metaphor, and good writing, perplexity is
cr.iifcd, not by accident, but by defign, and the pleafm-e
lie,', in being able to refolve it. To make an acnigma, there-
fore, tuo things are to be pitched on, which bear fome re-
fcmblance to each other, as the fun, and a monarch ; or a
(hip, and a houie ; and on this refcmblance is to be raifed a
fuperflrutture of contrarieties to aniufe and perplex. It is
caiier to find great fubjctfs for xnigmas in figures than in
words, inafmuch as painting attracts the eyes, and excites
the attention to difcover the fenfe. The fubjeds of cenig-
nias in painting are to be taken titlier from hiiloi-y or fable ;
the compofition here is a kind of metamoi-phofis, wherein,
e. g. human figures are changed into trees, and rivers into
metals. This converfion, however, does not depend merely
on caprice ; there muil be fomething of fuitablencfs, and
even erudition to authorife it. Thus the battle of Con-
llantine againll Maxentius may be taken for the fubjefl; of
an aenigma, to reprefent the game of chefs : tlie fign which
appeareel in the heavens with the words, In hoc Jigno vinccs,
may properly enough reprefent the fecret of this game,
which confiils in fnving the king. It is much eafier to turn
mythology into xnigmao, than hi/lory. Accordingly feveral
have imagined, that the conquek of the golden fleece was
DO other than the tranfmutation of metals ; and that the
fable of Circe was the art of chemiilry in osnlgma. Enig-
mas of pure invention are a kind of poetiy, and more iiibtle
than thofe drawn from mythology ; fmee here the matter
itfelf is to be created : inftead of adopting fome hiif ory or
received fable, fomething probable is feigned, the chief
aftion whereof is known, ». o-. a fhipwreck, a conliagration,
an amphitheatre, or the like. It is effeniial to enigmas,
that the hiflory or fable under which they are prefcntcd, be
known to evciy body ; otherwife it will comprehend two
enigmas initead of one ; the firit of the hiilory or fable, the
fecond of the fenfe in v/nich it is to be taken. Another
elfcntial iTjle of tiie xnigma is, that it only admits of one
fenfe. Every senigma wliich is fufceptive of different inter-
pretations, all equally natural, is fo far imperfect.

jEnigmas, thi folution or CKplanatlon of, forms a kind
of exercife, that is as difficult as it is amufing, and
that affords feope for invention and penetration. By
the folution of an aenigma we are to underftand
the difcovery of a motto correfponding to the aclion
and perfons reprefented in a pifture, taken either from
hiftory or mythology. This motto muft, either by itfelf
or its attendant circumftances, divert the fpeciators, and
furnifh occafion for difplaying wit, and introducing pieces
of poetry to illuftrate the fubjeft and awaken the attention
of the audience. Thofe xnigmas which are exprefied by
figures, are more difhcult of folution tlian fuch as confift of
words, becaufe images may have a greater variety of figni-
fications than word.; ; fo that to fix tlie.Ti to a particular

ienle, we muR apply every fituntion, fymbol, S:c. wiihom
omitting a cireunillance belonging to liiem. As there are
few pvrfons in hiHory or mythology that iiave not fome
particular character, this chaniilcr mull be regarded, in
order to determine what the figure in any pninting fignifics,
and to difcover how it agrees witli the fubjecl of rliich we
would explain it. Thus, if Proteus be reprefented in a
piAure, it may be taken to denote inconjlancy, and ap])hed
cither to a pliyfical or moral fubjetf, the character of which
is mutability ; e. q. an almanack which exprefTes the varia-
ble weather, feaions, heat, cold, itorms, and the like.
The colours of figures may alfo help to unriddle what they
mean, e. g. luhitc is ;ui emblem of innoetnce, red of mo-
defly, green of hope, blacl: of forrow, &c. ^Vhen figures
are accompanied with I'yuibcjls, they are more detcnninate ;
thefe being, as it were, the fold of xnigmas, and the key
that opens the myllery of them. Of all the fymbols that
occur in the writings of thofe who have treated of the fiiii-
ject, thofe only of Pythagoras are truly xnigmatieal, which,
under obfcure proverbs, convey lefions of morality: as whea
he ufes the phrafe IJatcvam ne trcmjilias to lignify, tlo no in-
jii/Ure. Some xnigmas are fo complicated, that no rule*
will ferve for the folution of them, and that they occafiori
great perplexity to thole who endeavour to interpret them.
Such is that ancient and celebrated xnigma, called A'ltrii
Lalia crifpi.!, which has puzzled many learned perfons, who
have directed their attention to fubjefts of this nature.
There are two copies of it, each of which claims authen-
ticity. The one, formerly engraven on marble and more
lately cut in frefli charai^ers, by order of Achilles Volta,
is preferved by the family of Volta at Cafaralta near
Bologna, and is as follows :

D. M.
JiX\^ Lxlia Crifpis,
Nee vir, nee nnJier, nee androgyna,
Nee puella, nee juvenis, nee anus.
Nee calla, nee meretrix, nee pudica,
Sed omnia.
Sublata
Neque fame, neqne ferro, neque veneno,

Scd omnibus.
Nee coclo, nee aquis, nee tcrris,
Sed ubique jacet.
Lucius Agatho Pmscius
Nee maritus, nee amator, nee necefrarius,
Neque mocrens, neque gaudens, neque flens,

Hanc
Nee molem, nee pvramidem, nee fepulehrum.

Seel omnia,
Seit et nefeit ciii pofuerit."
Thus trandatcd ; JFJ'ia Litlia Crifpis, luho tuas nalher male,
female, nor hermaphrodite ; neither a girl, nor a young tvonun,
nor an old ivoman ; neither cha/le, nor a ivliore, nor a inodtjl
■woman; but all thefe. She died neither by famine, nor Jword,
nor poifon ; hut by all thefe. She lies neither in the air, nor
in the ivaler, nor in the earth ; but ivery where. Lucius
Jigatho Prifius, neither hnjband, nor lover, nor relation, nei-
ther forro-wful, nor rejoicing, nor weeping, ere fled this, ivhich
is neither fabric, nor Pyramid, nor tomb ; but all thefe ; but to
•uihom, he hnoius, and does not know.'"

The Other copy of this xnigma wasfound written in Cothic
letters in a MS. at Milan, introduced with A.M. P. P.l). in-
flead of D.M. diis manihus, which an anonymous author (Act.
Erud. Lipf. Menf. Mart. 1732) interpreting the riddle of
a monument erected by one of the /Elian family to his own
foul, decyphers thus : anima: mci! propria dlcu : at the end is
the following addition ; viz.

O o 3 " Hoc

iE N O

" Hoc cil fcpulchnim iiUus cadaver non habcns,
Hoc cil ciidavcr fcpulchrmn extra non habcus,
Std cada\cr idem ell et fcpulchnim fibi."

i. r. " Here is a fepulchrc without a corpfe : licrc is a corpfc
without a ftpulchre ; the corpfe and fepulchrc are one and
the fumr."

Of this retiigma the fohitions have been verv numerous. On
the four lides of the llono, on which it is infcribtd, there arc
twelve different explanations, wltli the names of their faga-
ctous authors. Mario Michael Angelo will have it to be
rain ; LicctU';, t!ie beginning and ending of fricndfhip ;
Gevartius, love ;_Pontinus, the remains of three diiFcrcnt
perfons : Turrius, the ma/.TM/'r/'ma ; Barnaud, an eunuch,
or the philofopher's ilone : Agathias Scholaflieus, Niobe ; R.
Vitii.-, thv- r.itional foul, or the /V/m Pl.nlor.h ; Boxhornius,
a (liadow; Ovid Mo:'.t.dbanu5, hemp ; M. de Cicogne, pope
Joan ; Heumannu?, Lot's wife ; another anonymous perfon,
the Chriilian church ; Terronus, niufic ; Vefmondius, a law-
fuit ; and, to add no more, Count Malvafia, in a treatife
intitled JElla Lf'ia Cr'<fp'is non mjla refurs^cii: , interprets it
of a daughter promifed to a perfon in marriage, who died
pregnant witli a male child before the celebration of her
nuptials. Sec Keydcr's Travels, vol. iii. 264, &c. 8vo.

^ENIGMATICAL, fomething that relates to, or par-
takes of the nature of enigmas.

The philolopiiy of the DRUIDS was altogether aenigmati-
eal.

The ancient fages in general aflPefted an senigmatical way
of writing, to conceal their doftrines from the populace.
The Romans in Nero's time were obliged to have recourfe
to the like method, though for different reafons. The a;nig-
matical charatlers of the Egyptians were a fpecies of hie-
roglyphics, confifting of fuch as bore no natural refem-
blance to the things they reprefented. Such was the beetle,
ufcd to exprefs the fun : the ferpent, to reprefent the liars.

We read of an oenigmatica! modal prefented by the Hu-
guenots to Henry III. Schott has publiibed an explication
of an ;Er.igmatical coin of the emperor Auguftus, concern-
ing which antiquaries have been long divided.

^NrOMATOGRAPHER, or .Enigmatist, a
maker or explainer of lenigmas.

Hnrdouin, Vander Hardt, &c. are great snigmatifts.

jENIGMATOGRAPHY,.«nio-.,atographia, com-
pounded of a.;»>u» and ypa^-iy, to defcribs, the art of making
aiid refolving, or collecting enigmas.

_ .^nigmatography, otherwife called anigmatology, may be
divided into general and particular. The firil gives rules
concerning the nature, kinds, compofition, and ufe of
enigmas ; the fecond confiders the asnigmas in particular
fcionces, or languages, Greek, Latin, Hebrew, philologi-
cal, philofophical, theological, &c.

Nic. Reufner has a treatife, under the title of Mmgmato-
grapLia.

^NIPPE, in Entomology, a fpecies of Papilio, with
roundilh yellow wings, all of which are marked beneath
with ocellated points ; the fore wings with fix, and the
liinder with leven. It is found in China.

^NITTOLOGIUS, in Poetry, a kind of verfe con-
•nhng of two daByls, and three trochxL Such is,

Pralia dira placent true} ju-veniit.

A,NIUM, in Ancient Geography, a promontory near
.^Inia, on the Thermaic gulf.

^Mv-'*'' ^ '^^^*" "^*'' °^ Dardania in Afia.
.A;NMTM, a fmall town of Egypt, mentioned by Phny
^'■'^-vn^'i^ galled by others PA,/o/^,-a, and now A/^a^/r.
^NULA, in Ctigraphy, a market town gf Naples, in

iE O L

the province or jurlfdiciion of Terra dl Lavora. N. lat.
41'= I 5'. E. long. \7i° 22'.

yEN'ONA, in ylncknt Geography, a city of Liburnia,
called by Pliny (t. i. p. I'i^-) Civitiu Pnfini, now Nona. It
hes on the Adriatic, by which it is almoil furrouuded, over
againll the iiland Giffa, and dillant from it about four miles
to llic well. M. d'AnviUe places it to the fouth of Jadera
in Dalmatia.

/ENUS, a river of Vindtlicia, in Germany, which rifes
in the Rhoetian Alps, and difcharges itfelf into the Da.
nube. It is now the Inn. Near this river was the town
called JEni pons of Antonine, from a bridge that connected
Norlcum with that part of VindeUcia, inhabited by the
Boil.

JEsvs was alfo a river of the Cimbric Cherfonef\u.

^Nus was alfo a mountain of Cephalenia, one of the
Greek iflands, where was a temple of Jupiter.

yExus, /Enos, or JE.sv\js, a town of Thrace, built,
fays Strabo, cited by Stephanas (de Urb. p. 45.) by the
Cuimans, but according to Mela, who feems to miftake
this town for ^nia, by the exile jEneas. If it was founded
by the Trojans, it was enlarged by the Cumxans. It is
fituated on one of the two mouths of the Hebrus. It was
a free town, fays Phny (t. i. p. 204) in which was the
tomb of Polydorus ; and was one of the towns, Maronea
being the otlier, on the ^gean Sea, conquered by Philip,
the father of Perfeus, and upon the defeat of the latter
by the Romans, promifed to Eumenes, king of Pergamus ;
but afterwards declared by the fenate free and independent.
Livy, 1. xxxi. c. 16. c. 31. t. iv. p. 534, 557. Ed.Drakenb.
Polybius, p. 380, 854. Ed. Cafaub. The epithet derived
from it is ^nius. It was alio called Ajifynthus. Here,
according to Plutarch, (t. i. p. 76^. Ed. Xylandr. ) the
brother of Cato of Utica died, and was honoured with a
monument of marble in the forum of the JEnVi. This
town is now Eno.

Stephanus mentions four other towns of this name ;
one built by ^uus, the brother of Guneus ; annother, a
city of Theffaly ; a third, of the country of the Locrians ;
and a fourth, between Thapfacus and the Euplirates.
There is alio an ifland of this name adjoining to Arabia
Ecllx.

yEoLiAN Islands are feven iflands, fituate between
Sicily and Italy, in the Tyn-henian or Tulcan fea ; fo
called according to Phny, (t. i. p. 164. Ed. Hard.) be-
caufe iEolus reigned there in the time of the Trojan war.
They were denominated by the Greeks Hiph,tjliades, and
by the Romans Vulcaniit, from their aeiy eruptions. They
were alfo called by Strabo, (t. i. p. 394-) Airxfsui' ^o-oi,
i. e. Liparenjuim ir.fuhr, from Lipara, the chief of them.
Their names, according to PHny, with whom Diodorus
Siculus, (1. v. c. 7. t. i. p. 335. EdAVeffeling.) agrees, arc
I.ipara, Hiera, Strongyle, Didyme, Ericufa, Phccnicufa, and
Euonymos. They are now called, T/iZ? <//' /w/iir/v. Ptolemy
mentions fifteen of thefe iflands ; but he includes in the
number feveral other little iflands, which are too far dillant
to be properly included under the denomination of the
.^olian iflands.

TEoLic, in a general fenfe, denotes fomething belonging
to iEoLis.

^OLic, or jEolian, in Grammar, denotes one of the
five dialefts of the Greek tongue. It was firll uftd in
Boeotia ; whence it paffed into jEolia, and was that in
which Sappho and Alcarus Vv-rote. We find alfo a mixture
of it in the writings of Theocritus, Pindar, Homer, and
many others. The ^ohc dialecl generally throws out the
afpiratc or Iharp fpirit, as r-fj='p for ^/^£f », day ; draws ba;k
6 the

^E O L

^ O L

fte ascent, as wut«/*«c for ^>t«^o;, river; changes a into
«c>, as jj.ixxii for li'-Xa,;, black ; and JTv into a^;^', as f/wo-:;';-™ for
^>^o-i'ii ; and in the finjfular «. into ao ; puts cua for «?-a, as
wTlctc-o. for TiVWa ; and /3 before p, as /Sf-jJon for fv'5o», a
ro/t' ,• changes two ju/^ into two ir^, as oTxala for oixfixlx,
the cjicv .• and it agrees in fo many tilings with tlsc Doric
dialed, that the two are ufiially confounded together, and
have hee n almoft entirely followed by the Latins.

The yEoIic d'lgiWnra is a name given to the letter F,
which the ^olians ufed to pretix to words beginning with
vowels, as Fonoj, for cuo,- ; and alio to infert between vowels,
as oFi,-, for oi;.

iEoLic Terfe, Carmen ^.o'icum, in Poclry, a kind of
meafure, conlilUng, firft of an Iambic or Spondee ; then of
two Anapells, divided by a I'jng fyllablc ; and, lallly,, a
common fyllable. Tiiis is utherwiie enllcd iw/of/V ; and from
the chief poets who ufed it, Arch'd-ich'tan and Pindaric

Its type is, _ . . |

e. g. " O ftelliferi conditor orbis."

^OLTPILE, ^OLiPiLA, in Hydrivdics, is an inllru-
mcnt confilling of a hollow metalline ball, with a (lender
neck, or pipe, arifmg fiom it. This, being fdlcd with
water, and thus expofed to the fire, produces a vehement
blall of wind.

This inftrument, Des Cartes, and others, have made ufe
of, to account for the natural caufe, and generation, of
■wind. — And hence its name, Aiolip'dii, q. d. p'du jEoIi,
JEolus's bciU, or AioXcV •rrDXai, the gates of JEohis ; jEoIus
being reputed the god of the winds.

Sometimes the ntck is made to fcrew into the ball,
which is the mofl commodious way ; becaufe, then, the
cavity m^y the more readily be filled with water. If there
be no fcrew, it may be filled thus : — Heat the ball red hot,
and throw it into a veffel of water ; the water will run
in at the fraall hole, and fill about two thirds of the
cavity.

If, after this, the j^Zollpile be laid on, or before tlie fire,
fo that the water and vell'cl become verj much heated ; the
water being rarefied into vapour or elafllc ileam, will be
forced out with very great violence and noife ; but it will
be by intervals, and not with a conllant and uniform blaft.
Care Ihould be taken that the aperture of the pipe be not
ftopped, when the inftrument is put on the fire, and that
the ball be not fet upon a violent fire wjtli very little water
in it, othenvife the /iiolipile will burft with a great explo-
fioa, and may occafion much milehief. The ^olipile is
fometimes placed in a fmall carriage with wheels, and a cork
is thruil into the extremity of the pipe. When the vapour
has acquired fufficient ftrength to force out the cork, it
will ruth out v.ith violence in one direftion, while the ball
and carriage move the contrary w.iy. See a figure of the
Eppaiatus for this purpofe in Plate I. Pncumat)a,fg. i.

Thefe phenomena the reader will be eafily enabled to
folve, from what is fhewn under the articles, Air, Water,
and Rarefaction.

Chauvin fuggefts fome farther ufes of the ^ollpile. — I.
Ke thinks it might be applied, inftead of a bellows, to
blov/ the fire, where a very inteafe heat is required. This
faft has been urged as an argument to prove the decompo-
fition of water; but, in this cafe, it is not the fteam which
excites the fire, but the air which is driven before it ; for an
jEolipile will not produce this effecl, but the contran',
unlefs a body of air be interpoled between its aperture and
the five. Accordingly, Dr. Lewis condemns lubllituting
,the jEolipile inilead of a bellows, and fays, that upon trial
he always feund that Inllcad of exciting, it extinguiihed the

fire. Com. PhO. Techn. p. zi. — 2. If a trumpet, horn,
or other fonorous inllrument, were .fitted to its neek, it
might be made to yield mufic. — 3. If the neck were
turned perpendicularly upwards, and prolonged by a tube
or hollow cylinder fitted to it, and a hollow ball laid on
the orifice of the tube, the ball would be blown up, and
kept lluftuating, or playing up and down, as in the llream
of a FOUNTAIN. And, 4. It might ferve to fcent or fumi-
gate a room, if filled with perfumed, inilead of CDinmon water.

An ./Eolipile has been fometimes placed in a chimney,
where it can be iieated, tlie vapour of which ferves to
drive the fmoke up the chimney.

Dr. Plolt gives an inllanee where the yF.olipilc is aiilually
ufed to blow the fire : the lord of the manor of Ellington
is bound by his tenure to drive a goofe every jiew year's
day three limes round the hall of the lord of Hilton, while
Jack of H^fton (a brazen figure having the llrufture of aa
/Eolipile) blows the fire.

In Italy it is faid, that the ,/Eolipile is commonly made
ufe of to cure fmoaky ehimnies ; ior being hung over the
fire, the hlall arifing from it carries up the loitering fmoke
along with it.

I'his inllrument was known to the ancients, and is men-
tioned by Vitruvius, lib. i. cap. vi. and it is alio taken notice
of by feveral mod.;rn aiitliors ; as Des Cartes, in his Meteor.
cap. i. apud Opera Pliilos. tom. i. p. 141.

F. Merfennus, and fome others have made ufe of this ma-
chine, to meafure the gravity and degree of rarefadtion of
the air, by weighing the inllrument, wlien red-hot, without
water, and weighing it again when cold. But this method
is liable to conlidcrable obieCtions. It fuppofcs that there
is no air in the ball when it is red-hot ; whereas Varenius
(Geog. vol. i. p. 438.) has (hewn, that the air is rarefied
but about 70 times ; and, confcquentlv, the weight, obtained
by the above proeefs, will be about I -70th too fmall, or
more or lefs, according to the intenfity of the heat.

Some late authors have difcovered a Hill more extraordi-
naiy ufe, to which the frauds of the heathen priellliood
applied the ^"Eolipile, ii;a. the working of Iham miracles.
Btfides Jack of Hilton, which had been an ancient Saxon
image, or idol, Mr. Weber (hews, that Pluftcr, a celebrated.
German idol, is alfo of the ^Eolipile kind ; and in virtue
thereof, could do noble feats ; being filled with a fluid, and
thus fet on the fire, it would be covered with fweat, and as
the heat increafed would at length burll out into flames.

An TEolipile of great antiquity, made of brafs, vraa
lately dug up in the file of the Bafinglloke canal, and pre-
fented to the antiquarian fociety of London. Inflcnd of
being globidar, v/ith a bent tube, it is in the form of a
giotofque human figure, and the blall proceeds from its
mouth.

yEOLIS or jEoLiA, in Ancient Geography, a counti-y
of Aha Minor, fo called from the jEolians, who fettled in
this part of Afia, comprehended in former times the whole
of Troas, and extended along the coall from Ionia to the
Fropontis : but in a more confined fenfe, it is fituate be-
tween Troas to the north and Ionia to the fouth. Accord-
ing to Strabo (tom. 2. p. 872.) it extended from the pre-
montory Lectus to the river Hermus, and contained 11
cities, mentioned by Herodotus (1. i. p. 73. Ed.WelftjUing.)
who oblcrves, that Smyrna was taken from the /Eolians by
the lonians. Ptolemy, and after him M. d'Anville, a'hxn
Caycus to the north, and Hernius to the fouth, as the limits of
A olis. The .'t olians, according to JoUphus, were defcended
from Elilhah, one of the fonsof Javan ; but according to tin-
Greek hillorians from yEolus, the tiiird fon of Ion foii of
Hellcn, who was the fuu of Deucalion. They, as well as the

loniaus

lonuiis niid Dorians, were Orcck. nitiofis wiio niigiauJ
inti) Afia about 60 years nflci' the takiiij; of Troy, aiiJ 20
before the return of tlie Henclidx into Pclopoiiiicfus ; that
is about 1 1 24 years before the Chritlian arm, according lo
tlie llateincul of Dr. Blair's Clii-ono!op;y. Otlicrs fay this
emij;iatioii was 140 years after the taking of Troy, and 60
yean; after the return of the Hei-aclida;. The ytolie mi-
ffniiion preceded tlie Ionic about 80 yeai-s ; and that of the
Dorians was poilcrior to the Ionic near 70 year.-. Strabo
(ubi fupra) fav?, that tradition referred the migratioti of
the .^>lians to an earlier period than that of the lonians by
four generations; that their colony was conduced by Ortf-
tes, that they were led into 'I'hracc by his fon and fuccefTor
Penthilus, about 60 years after the dellruc^ion of Troy, at
the time of the return of the Htraclidx to Peloponnefus ;
that Archelaus, the fon of Penthilus, conduc'.d them to-
wards Cy/.icus ; and that his fon Graus advanced with them
to the river Granicus, and took pofleflion of Lefbos.

The -l-olians were divided, after their fettlement in Alia,
into fmall ftates, or cantons, independent of each other,
but united in one common confederacy. Their country,
though more extenfive than that of the lonians, was in-
ferior to it in all other refpeils. The ^^iolians, as well as
the other Greek colonies in Afia, enjoyed their liberties,
and lived according to their own laws, from the time ot
their migration to the reign of Croefus, king of Ly-dia,
to whole power they were forced to fubmit. But as they
were allowed to live unmolelled under his mild government,
they took occafion from this indulgence to oppofe Cyrus,
when he firit invaded Lydia ; but they were reduced to
fubjedlion by this viftorious prince ; and their ftate wiis
more dependent under the Pcrlisn monarchs than it had ever
been befoie. The ./Eolians and Dorians were not inferior
to the European Greeks, till they were fubdutd by the
Pcrfians, but having loft their liberty they funk into in-
dolence, and became no Icfs effeminate than the other
Afiatics. Upon the conclufion of the peace between the
Greeks and Perfians, in the reign of Artaxerxes, one of
the articles, fworn to by both parties, was, that all the
Greek flatcs of Afia fhould be made free, and allowed to
live according to their own laws. Their condition was
very various, and the Perfian yoke, to which they were
compelled to fubmit, was very oppreflive, till they were
refcued by Alexander, who rellored all the Greeks in Afia
to the enjoyment of their ancient rights and privileges. After
the death of Alexander, they fell under the power of the
kings of Syria, and continued fubjeft to them till the
Romans, after having delivered Greece from the oppreffion
of Philip, king of Macedon, obliged Antiochus III. fur-
named the Great, to grant the fame liberty to the Greek
colonies in Afia, which they had procm-ed for the Greek
ftates in Europe. They then entered into an alliance with
tiie Romans, till they were fubdued by Mithridates, king
of Pontus, who compelled them to join with him again'.i
the Romans. Upon Sylla's arrival in Afia, they again
declared for the Romans ; but Sylla having completely
fubdued the lefier Afia, they were deprived of their liberty
and burdened v.-ith taxes, which reduced them to beggary.
They never afterwards were able to recover their ancient
fplendour, notwithftanding the favour (hewn them by many
of the emperors, under whofe proteftion they enjoyed fome
(hew of hberty. iEohs is new a dillrict of Anatolia ; but
is not remarkable in any refpcfl, neither does it feem to
enjoy any branch or article of trade.

Herod. 1. i. p. 26 — 73, 141. 1. ii. p. 90, &c. Diod.
Sic. l.ii. p. 40?, and 1. xiv.p. 725. Ed. WcfTehng. Thucyd.
1. i. p. 62. Ed. Dukeri. Liv. I. xsxv. c. 16. tem. iv. p..
525. Ed. Draker.b.

JE O L

jlLOLIl'M, a city of the Thracian Cherfonefus. M.
d'Anville places it at the entrance of the Hellefpout to tlie
north, and calls it, with Pliny,- Elxus.

jTlOLUS, in Entomology, a fpecies of Papilio, with
caudated azure wings, a black fpot on the primores, and
a white band, ftriated with black, under all of them ; found
in South America and India.

jEOLUS, in Mechanics, denotes a portable machine, not
long fince invented by Mr. Tidd, for rcfrefiiing and chang-
ing the air in rooms.

This machine is adapted in its dimenfions to fupply the
place of a fquare of glafs in a falh window, and is executed
in fo fmall a compaf.-, as to projeft but a little way from the
falli, and in fo neat a manner, lays the inventor, as to be an
elegant ornament to the place where it is fixed. It works
without the leaft noife, requires no attendance, and occafions
neither trouble nor cxpence to keep it in order. It throws
in only iuch a quantity of air as is agreeable ; and leaves off
working, of its own accord, whenever the door or window is
opened.

./EOLUS, in Heathen Mythology, the god of the winds,
painted with fwollen checks, like one who with main force
endeavours to blow a blaft ; alfo with two wings on his
fiioulders, and a high-coloured fieiy countenance. He is faid
to have been the fon of Jupiter by Acafta, or Sigefta, the
daughter of Kippotus : or, according to others, tlie fon of
Higpotus by Menecleg, daughter of Hillas, king of Lipara.
He dwelt, as fome fay, in the ifland Strongyle now Strom-
bolo, one of the .^olian idands ; or, as otliers fay, either at
Rhegium in Italy, or in Lipara. The government of tlue
•winds is faid to be under his direftion and controul. Some
mythologifts explain the fables relating to yEolus by repre-
fenting him as a wife and good prince, who was able in con-
fequence of his fldll in the fciences, by the flux and reflux
of the tides, and the appearances of the volcano in the
idand Strongyle, to foretel ft.orms and tempells. Sec
Polybii Fr.igmenta, p. 9S8.

yEoLus's Harp, in Miiftc, an inftitiment fo named, from
its producing an agreeable harmony, merely by the adion of
the wind. — It is thus conftrutlcd. — Let a box be made of
as thin deal as pofllble, (Plate i. MiiJtc,Jlg. i.J of the exa£t
length anfwering to the width of the window in which it is
intended to be placed ; five or fix inches deep and fcven or
eight inches wide. Let there be glued upon it at a a, two
pieces of wainfcot about half an inch high, and a quarter of
an inch thick, to ferve as bridges for the ftrings ; and within
fide, at each end, under il, glue two pieces of beech, about
an inch fquare, of length equal to the width of the box,
which are to fuftain the pegs. Into thcfe fix as many pins,
fuch as are ufed in a hai-piichord, as there are to be firings
in the inftrument, half at one end, and half at the other, at
equal diftances. It now remains to firing it with fmall cat-
gut, or blue Srft fiddlc-ftrings, fixing one end to a fmall
brafs pin, as at ee, (f-g- 1 J and twilling the other round
the oppofite pin at b b.

When thefe ftrings are tuned unifon, and the inftrument
placed with the ftrings outv.ard, in the window to which it
is fitted, it will, pro%"ided the air blows on that window, give
a found like a diftant choir, increafing or dccreafing, accord-
ing to the ftrength of the wind.

The rofes in the middle only reprefent found-holes ; the
thinner the top is, the better will the inftrument perforin.
Mr. Thompfon, in a note to his celebrated Ode on this in-
ftrument, afcribes the invention of it to Mr. Olwald ; whereas
it was known to KJrcher above a hundred years ago ; and
the method of conftrucling and ufing it is defcribed by him
in a book intltled Magia Phonotaclica & Phojiurgia.

An improved form of this inilrament is reprefented in

JE O L

iE O N

fig. 5. conftriiifted by the late Rev. W. Jones;. The firings,
iufti.-ad of being on theoiitfide, are fixed to a founding -board
or belly withia a wooden cafe, and ihe wind is admitted to
the-n through an horizontal aperture. In this fonn the in-
llruni -nit is portable, and mav be ufed any where in the open air.

bolus's harp produces all vht harmonics of a fuigle itring,
divided in liarmonical proportion. See Harmomcs. The
tenilon of the llrings muil not be great ; as the air, if gentle,
has not iufficicnt power to make them vibrate ; and, if it
blows fvofli, the indruniL-nt does not fing, but fcrcam. Its
crefcendo and diminuendo, or the gradual advancing and
retiring of its dchcate tones, can onlv be defcribed by the
jnilrument itfelf.

, Kircher has attempted to account for the plienomena of
the yEolian harp, b;. fuppoling the current of air to ftrike on
different portions of the llring. i3ut this is contraiy to ex-
perience ; for, if We fuppofe tlie ^olian note to be one-lifth
above the original note of the ilring, that is, one third of the
whole, then, acctn-ding to Kircher, the remaining part would
be at rell, which is not the faft ; for an obftacle applied to
any other point belides the quiefccnt points of divifion, will
deitroy the iEolian tone. The chords alfo that would arife
o:i this theory are not fuch as really take place in nature ;
thus, where the chord confifts of the notes F and A, the
firft note F is produced, according to Kircher, by the blafts
ilriking on one fourth of the ftring : and in this cafe, the
remLiining part ot the llring muil be at rell according to
Kircher, which is coatrar)' to experience ; or, if it be agi-
tated as one ilring, it muil produce the note of three-fourths
of the whole ftring, that is, a fourth above the bafs note ;
■whereas, the note really produced is the double oftave to
the third above the bafs note.

Ivir. Young, in order to afcertain the order of the notes
in this inftrument, took off all the ilrings hut one ; and,
placing it in a" proper fituation, he was furpriied to hear a
gretit variety of notes, and frequently fuch as were not pro-
duced by any aliquot part of the ftring ; and he often heard
a chord of two or three notes from this fmgle ftring. Thefe
complex and extraordinary phenomena at firft* perplexed
Iiim ; and he almoft defpaired of being able to account for
them on the principle of aliquot parts. On farther ex-
amination, however, he found that they all flowed naturally
and eafily from this principle. Having direfled his atten-
tion to the effeft of a current of air rulhing againft a
ftretched elaftic ftring, he obferved, that a blail agamft the
middle point of the Ilring moved the whole of it from its
reclilincal pofition ; and that the ftring by its elafticity, re-
turned to its former pofition : fo as thus to continue vibrat-
ing and exciting pulfes in the air, which produced the tone
of the entire ftring. If the current of air be too ftrong and
rapid, when the ftring is bent, it will retain its curvature.
But though the whole ftring cannot perform its vibrations
in this cafe, the fubordinate aliquot parts may ; and thefe
will be of different lengths according to the rapidity of the
blaft. Thus, when the velocity of the current increafes fo
as to prevent the vibration of the whole ftring, thofe particles
which llrike againft the middle points of the halves of the
ftring agitate thofe halves, as in the cafe of fympathetic and
fecondary tones ; and as thefe halves vibrate in half the
time of the whole ilring, though the blail may be too rapid
to admit of the vibration of the whole, yet it can have no
more eff"etl in preventing the motion of the halves than it
would have on the wliole ftring if its teniion were quad-
ruple : for the times of vibrations in ftrings of different
lengths, and agreeing in other circumllances, are direclly
as the lengths; and in ilrings differing in tenfion, and agree-
ing in other circumftajices, invcrfely as the fquare roots of

the tcnfior.s : and therefore, their yibrttions may become
ftrong enough to excite fuch pulfes as will affeifl the drum of
the ear : and the lame may be faid of other aliquot divifions
of the ftring. Thofe particles which ftrike againft fuch
points of the ftring as arc not in the n:iddle of aliquot parts,
will interrupt and counteraft each other's vibrations, as in
the cafe of fympathetic and fecondary tones, and therefore
will not produce a fenfible eli'efl. Thefe principles are
illullrated and applied by Mr. Young in his " Enqulrv
into the Principal Plienomena of Sound and Muiicul
Strings," printed at London in 17H4, 8vd.

iEON, AWN, ag(, literally fignifies the duration of a
thing. But the word has been ufed by Greek writers in
different fenfes. It was firft applied to the age of man, or
"the duration of human life. In fucceeding times it was
tifed by philofophcrs to exprefs the duration of fpiritual and
invlfible beings.

Xf-ovo; was ufed to denote the meafure of corporeal and
changing objeCls ; and khv or xon, for the meafure of fuch
as were immutable and eternal. And, as Ood is the chief
of fpiritual and immutable beings, his eternal duration was
expreffed by this term, and tluis it is now commonly imder-
ftood. It was afterwards attributed to other fp-ritual and
invifible beings ; and the oriental philofophers, who lived
about the time of Chrill's appearance, and made nfe of
the Greek language, underilood by it the duration of eter-
nal and immutable things, the fpace or period of time in
which they exltl. By a metonymy, the term was en>ployed
to fignify the beings themfelves. Thus, the Supreme Being
was called aiav, or ^on ; and the angels alfo dillinguilhed
by the title of i'Eons. Accordingly, the Gnoftics, who had
formed the notion of an invifible and fpiritual world, com-
pofed of entities or virtues, proceeding from the Supreme
Being, and fucceeding each other at certain intervals of
time, fo as to conftitute an eternal chain, of which our
world was the terminating link, afligned to the beings that
formed this chain a certain term of duration, and a certain
fphere of adlion. Thefe terms of duration were at firft
called aiw«i, Sons, and they themfelves were afterwards
metonymically diilinguilhed by that title. Moflieim's Eccl.
Hift. by Machine, vol. i. p. 89. 8vo.

Some have affixed another idea to the word ann ; in order
to which they have made ufe of the pliilofophy of Plato,
giving reality to the ideas which that philoi'opher had
imagined in God ; and even perfonifying them, and feign-
ing them diftinet from God, and to have been produced by
him ; fome male, others female. See Platonism.

Thefe ideas they call leons ; of an aifemblage of which
they compofe their deity, calling it "scXr.fi-tMi., a Greek word,
fignifying fulnifs.

Some fay that Simon Magus was the firft inventor of thefe
Kons, which feem, however, to have fprung from the ori-
ental philofuphy, and which were adopted by the Gnoftics ;
aftenvards brought to perfedlion by Valentinus ; who, re-
fining on thofe who preceded him in this way, produced a
long genealogy of sons, to the number of 30. The firft,
and moft perfeft, he particularly denominates rij-oiv, Proon,
that is, pn-ex'ijlent ; bcfide other names, the moft ufual
whereof was that of Bythos, KuSo;-, depth.

This Bythos, he fays, continued long alpne with Evkux^
Ennan, Thought ; whom Valentinus alfo called \xfic, Grace^
and Siy:i, Silence. At length Bythos, with Sige, produced
Nous, Nk.;, Underjland'wg ; and AXt^nx, Truth, her filler.
Nous begat two asons ; Logos, S.tyv, Word ; and Zoe, Zati,
Life ; which begat two others ; Anlhropos, AnSpun-o-;, Man ;
and Ex-tXncriz, Church. And thefe eight sons were the
chitf of all. the reft.

The

The Won}, .^o>o;, aiiJ Life, Zin, begat ten other «ons ;
Mitn and tlic Church, hegat twelve inorc ; among whom
wore, the I'anu'eh; Fnilh, Hnpc, Charily, the Pfifiii, TfAsio;,
and /yi/./'im, il^yiK. Am! thus wci-e thirty 3:011s made up ;
v.hich, altogether, made the Pleroma, TWrfufjux, ox fjitritunl
ami mviflle plfiilluJe. See Gnostics, and VALnKTiNMANS.
/Sm-h likewife, in the Pbcenician Tk-ology, was the lirll
ci tattd \\ I'.ran.

^011 A, in the Medical Wiitings of the ylncients, is iifed
for gellalion ; which fort of excrcii'c was often prcfcribed
bv tiic phvficiar.s of thofe days. Other excreifes confiiled
principally in the motion of the body ; hut in the a'ora the _
limhs were at rel^, while the body was carried about and
moved front place to place, in fuch a manner as the phyfician
prcfcribed. It had therefore the advantages of exercilc,'
without the fatigue of it.

This exercife was promoted feveral ways : fometimes the
patient was laid in a fort of hamuioc, fupportcd by ropes,
and moved backward and forward ; fometimes his bed run
nimbly on its feet. And belide thefe, the feveral ways of
travelling were accounted fpecics of the xora, whether in
the litter, in a boat or fliip, or on even ground in a chariot.

Afclepiades was the firft who brought geftation into
praftice, which was ufed as a means to recover ftrength
after a fever, &c.

yEPEA, in Ancient Geography, a city of Laconica, ac-
cording to Steplianus (de Urb. p. 46.), and of MelTenia,
according to Strabo (t. i. p. 553-)' '*^'''° calls it Thuria, and
deduces its name from its fituation on the top of a hill. It
is one of the feven cities promifed by Agamemnon to
Achilles, and is mentioned by Homer, II. ix. v. 152.
*' KxXy.v t' Acrsiav x'/a n\ox7ov aix7r£}.o'c-<7y,v.
Pulchramque jEpcam, Pedafumquc vitifcram."
Stephanus mentions another city of this name in Cvprus,
built by Demophoon, the fon of Thefeus, on mount Cla-
rius, whicii was afterwards called Solos in honour of Solon ;
3nd another in Crete.

jEPOLIUM, a place fituated, according to Pliny, be-
tween the Danube and Tvras.

^PY, a city of Meflenia, fo called, fays Stephanus,
from its being fortified ; but more probably from its elevated
fituation, to which Statins refers (Thcb. 1. iv. p. 421. Ed.
Varior.

" Et fummis ingeftum montibus iEpy."

JEQJLTABONA, a town of Lufitania, to the fouth of
the Tagus, near its mouth, and in view of Ohflipo or
LiRion.

jEQ_UANA jiiga, mountains of Picenum, in Naples,
now called Mnntag7ui t/i Sorrento, denominated from the
town JEqua, which, being deftroved, was replaced by
Victis, now Vico di Sorrento, called alfo iEquana. Thus,
Silius Italicus, Punic. 1. v. p. 276. Ed. Drakenb.

" Ac felicia Baccho

^quana, et Zephyro Surrentum moUe fahibri."
JEQJJ AT A SuJ>er/icies, in Botany, denotes a furface
devoid of all inequality ; and differs from planus in not re-
quiring the part to be level, or in a redilinear direction, but
often occurs in round bodies, as in the pedicles of Jxiit.

-^QUI, A'q^iicoli, or^QincuLi, \\\ Ancient Hijlory,
inhabitants of Italy, who were fituated between the Sabinos
and Latins, and v/hofe capital city was Bola. M. d' AnviUe
places them on the banks of the Anio, with the Samniles
to the north and the Marrucini to the eaft ; but others ap-
prehend that their territory extended farther fouth, fo as to
-comprehend Algidum. They are mentioned under the dif-
ferent ajjpellations above-ftated, by the hillorians and poets ;
aud are defcribed as a hardy and valiant people, who were

JE R A.

irmoh employed la agriculture, aiid alfo in militaiy exerclfes.
Thus Virgil, iEn. 1. ix. v. 60S.

" Juventus

Aut ralhis tenam domat, atit quatit oppida bello."

And Virgil's dcfci'iption i'eems to be bon-owed by Siliua
Italiei'.s, when fpeaking of thefe people, Punic. 1. 8.371, p.
419, he fays —

" Raftrifque domant /Fquicula mra."

The etymology of their i;ame has been aferibed by
M. Gebelin to the word arjua, or awa, <u.<ater, cxprefling
their fituation near the fources of the Anio, Tolonius, &c.
which was more aquatic than any part of Latium. Others
have fuppofed, that the Equi, who were didinguiflied by
their love of jullice, fnrniflied the epithet erjuus, jiift. Livy
dilcriminates tl'.em from the Latins, when hereprefents them
(1. ii. c. 30. t. I. p. 369. Ed. Drakenb.) as invading their
territory. They had frequent wars with the Romans, as
I^ivy has informed us (1. 2 — 10.) but were at length fub-
dued by them. Their capital Bola was t?ken by Camillus
in the year of Rome 369, and their country was foon after
laid walle, in order to deprive them of the power to revolt.
They ttill, however, retained their enmity againft the Ro-
mans ; and, when occafioji offered, .joined the other ene-
mies of Rome. Al^out the year U. C. 449, they united
with the Samnites ; but they were no more that formidable
nation, which had often ftruck terror into the Roman
legions ; inaftion had enervated them ; and they were uni
able to maintain the field in their conteft with the difci-
plined armies of Rome. At this time their country was
overrun and laid wafte. The conquerors took poficirion of
forty-one towns in fifty days, moil of which they razed
or burnt, and thus they almoft exterminated the whole na-
tion of the iEqui. Anc. Un. Hift. vol. x. p. 304. The
cities Cliternum, Carfeoli or Carfula, Valeria, Sublaqueum,
Algidum, Vicovaro, Treba, Vitellia, Corbio, and Subiaco
belonged to the jEqui. ,

iEQJ_TIM/ELIUiM, in Roman Antiquit\\ a name given
to that part of the city of Rome on which flood the houfe
of Sp. Melius, who attemipted to ufurp the fupreme power
by bribing the people, and who, refufing to appear before
the diftator Cincinnatus, was put to death by Servilius
Ahala, mailer of the horfe. His houfe was dcmoliflied, and
the region of the city where it flood was called Area JEqxti-
mslii. Livv, t. i. p. 919. Ed. Drakenb.

^QUINOCTIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Upper Pannonia, which is placed by M. d'AuviUe on the
Danube, fouth-eail of Vindobona.

^(^TUM, a Roman colony of Dalmatia in Illyria,
placed by M. d'Anville north-eail of Scardona.

./EQT-TUS Tuticiis, a place of Italy in the Sacmium,
north-eafl of Beneventum : the terin Tuticus in Samnite
being fynonymous with magriis. A Roman way, called
./tquotutican, paffed by this place towards Canulium. The
ruins of it may be feen near Buon-Alhcrgo.

./ERA, in Chronology, a fixed point of time, from whence
to begin a computation of the years enfuing.

The word is alio fometimes written in ancient authors,
era. Its origin is conteiled, though it is generally allowed
to have had its rife in Spain. Sepulveda fuppofes it formed
from A. ER. A. the notse or abbreviatures of the words,
annus erat Augn/li, occafioned by the Spaniards beginning
their computation from the time their country' came under
the dominion of Augufl;us, or that of their receiving the
Ronaan calendar. This opinion, however ingenious, is re-
jected by Scaliger, not only on account that in the ancient
abbreviatures A never flood for annus, unlefs when preceded
by V for I'ixit ; and that it fecms improbable they fliould

put

1

-an R A

iLi R E

put ER for n-i!t, and the letter A, witliout any difcrimlna-
tion, both for annus and ylu^ujlus. Vodlus neverthdefs
favours the conjefture, and judges it at Icall as probable as
either that of Ifidoro, who derives ara from its, the tribute-
money, wherewith AuguRus taxed the workl : or that of
.Scaligcr himltlf, who deduces it likewife from ts, though
in a different manner. JEs, he obferves, was ufed among
the ancients tor an cirlicle, or ititn, in an account ; and hence
it came alfo to iland for a fum or number itfelf. From the
plural tira, came by corruption if in, irram, in the lingular ;
much as OjTia, OjVium, the name of a place, from OjVui, the
months of the Tyhn:

JEti.\ amounts to the fame with epocha ; though fome
authors make a diflerence between them ; but wherein it
confifts they do not agree. A late critic afligns this dif-
ference, that in ilrictnefs of fpetch, epocha is that fixed
point where an a:ra mad^ ufe of commences. Bibl. Germ,
torn. V. p. 172. Vallemont makes another difference, viz.
that an epocha is a point fixed by chronologers, and an
aera a like point, only fixed by the popular ufagc of a
country, or nation. Perhape it might not be amifs if
chronologers wotild keep to this difference, but it is cer-
tain moll of thera hitherto ule the two words promifcu-
owfly. The proper idea of an sera, as it is now generally
underftood, is that of a feries of years, reckoned from a
fixed point of time, called an epoch or epocha. Thus we
fay, that the Chrillian a»ra began at the epoch of the birth
of Chrift, and any particular year is fuch a year, according
to the date of it, of the Chriftian Era. The particvdar
xras are mentioned under epocha. See aUo Chrono-
logy.

^RA is alfo ufed, in fome writers of the barbarous age,
for any year.

In which fenfe, we meet with enltring ilci-zcn the itro, the
eleven hundred and eighth ara, &c.

JE^/E, in Ancient Geography, a town of Macedonia, and
another of Ionia in Afia Minor, according to Stephan.
Byzant. and a people of Afia towards Gedrofia or Ger-
mania according to Ptolemy.

jERARIUM, the public treafiiry of the Roman flate.
The temple of Saturn at Rome, being the great treafury
of the flate, was firft called a;rarium ; from as, itris, copper ;
that being the only money in ufe before the year of Rome
485, when the filver began to be coined.

It was firfl erefted under Augullus, and maintained by
a yearly voluntary contribution ; but that proving infuf-
ficient, the twentieth part of all legacies and inheritances
e-xcept of fuch as feU to the nt^t of kin, or to the poor,
were configned to this treafury.

For the cullody hereof, three of the emperor's life-guards
were conilituted pr.rfedi erarii.

^RARiUM differs irom Jifrus, as the firfl contained the
public money, the fecond that of the prince. Yet the
two are fometimes ufed indifcrimiaatdy for each other.
Calv. Lex. Jur.

^Erarium fanSius, was an appendage to tUe former,
added on occafion of the growth of the Roman flate, when
there was not room enough for lodging all the public mo-
nies, and the public afts, which were dcpofited with it.

It was caWed fonSius, becaufe placed in an. inner and
fafer part of the temple ; or becaufe in it was lodged the
aurum vieeftnarium, or twentieth, which was kept as a fund
or referve, for extreme neceflity of the Hate. On which
account it was aUo called i?mnum I'ieifimarhim.

j^RARiUM Ilithie, or of Jnvo Lucina, was ercfled by
Servius TuUius, fixth king of the Romans, and compofed of
money paid in by parents for the birth of each child, The
Vol. I.

erarium Veiitrit, Called lAliilnir, was for the cuftoJy of iiii>-
ney paid into it for thofe who died : and the arnriuin juveii-
tu/is for the money dcpofited on account of tliofe who ar-
rived at the age of manhood. By thefe means he was able
to alcertain the poptdation and wealth of the country.
Dion. Hal. lib. iv. torn. i. p. 212. lid. Oxon.

VErarium privatum, or the privy purfe, contained the
money and efleAs which the prince was mailer of before
his acceffion to the empire. This was under the care of

the COMES reruni privaiarum Wc meet alio with other

Icffcr treafuries, itraria minora, in the provinces.

yERARiUM Ecehfve, the treafury or lank of the church,
was foniud in the firfl century of the Chriflian ara, ot free
gifts, which were coUefted and prefcrved in churches, partly
for the purpofe of defraying the expencc of divine fcrvice,
and partly to relieve the poor. Such capitals, which were
confidered as ecclefiailical funds, were by Rudentius,
(Hymn. ii. in honorem Laurentii) in the beginning of the
fifth centuiy, called monies annonx, and area numinis.
TertuUian (Apolog. c. 39. oper. p. 3J. Ed. Rigaltii.)
calls them depofiia pietatis ; and hence were formed the
montes pietatis of later times. See Mounts of Piety.

.iERARIUS, in Antiquity, an officer inftitnled by Alex-
ander Sevcrus, for the diflribution of the money given in .
largefles to the foldiery, or people. Pitilc. Lex. Ant.

j^rarius was alfo ufed for a perfon whole name was
flruck out by the cenfors from the album, or lifl of his cen-
tuiy, and was only confidered as a citizen fo far as to make
him fubjeCl to pay taxes, ura, witliout being entitled to any
privileges, or advantages, from the common-wealth.

Hence the phrafes, eerarium facere, inter o'rarios referre^
eerariis eximere, 6ic. — Not only plebeians, to whom fome have
reflrained it, but alfo knights and Icnators, were fubjedl to
this kind of degradation.

The lerarii were incapable of making a will, of inheriting,
of voting in affemblies, of enjoying any poll ot honour or
profit ; in effeft, were only fubjeft to the burdens, without
the benefits of fociety ; yet they retained their fi'cedom, and
were not reduced to the condition of flaves. To be made
an serarius was a punifhment inflieled for fome offence, and
reputed one degree more fevere than to be expelled a tribe,
tribu moveri. Concerning the precife meaning of thefc
terms and the penalties denoted by them, which have been
differently underflood by critics, fee a note to c. Xviii. 1. 24.
Livy, torn. Hi. p. 859. Ed. Drakenb.

jErarius is alfo ufed for a perfon employed in coining,
or working brafs.

Thefe are fometimes called terarii fufores : at other times
a?rariu3 is diflinguiflicd irm-n fufor ; the former anfwering to
what we now call copper-finiths, the latter to founders.
yERARius is alfo applied to a foldier v.ho receives pay.
tERATA aqua. See Ziment tvater,
AERATED luater. See Pvrmont tvafcr.
AERATION of foils, in J.grinihnre, denotes the im-
pregnation of them" with air, by ploughing, harrowing, and
other means of pulverization, whicli Icrve to releafe the
air in the interllices of the foils, and to form various kinds
of new combinations.

yERDING, orEaDiNG, in Geography, a fmall town of
Lower Bavaria, feven leagues fouth of Landfliut, on the
river Sempt, in a diRricl wliich produces the beft grain of
that country. It was fet on fire by t}ie Swedes in 1632,
and in 164S reduced by them to afhes.

iL"-REA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Thrace upon
the Propontis, fouth of a fmall gulf, and north-weil of Pe-
rinthus. It is alfo a furname of Diana, taken from a moun-
tain oi Arffolis, where (lie was worQiipped.

• Pp JLKZ

A E R

^RE c-^a^o, or conh'.o, in Roman jint'iquity, are terms
found in infcrlptions, which denote that the charges of
erccling a tomb or nionimicnt were defrayed cither by the
frieiuUof the dcceafcd or by the people.

M^i dirut], a plirafe apphed to I'oldiers, who were pii-
nidicd hv l)eiiij; deprived i-t their pay.

.EREOLUS, anfweriiig to the Greek xa^Ko,-, was a
weight according to Diodorus and Siiidas equal to -ith,
and according to others equal to ^th of the onoLus, v.hich
was 9.V grains.

AERIA, in j^ncient Geography, a town in that part of
Gallia Narboncnfis, which was inhabited by the Caviares.
Jt was fo called, fays Strabo (t. i. p. 83.), becaufe it was
fituated on an eminence. M. d'Anville places it fouth-eail
of Vaiio, and north-ealt of Carpentovafte. This name was
»lfo given to one of the iflands of Thrace, called Thafus.
ThcHaly, and alio Egypt, were anciently called Aerin.
Apollon. Rhod. 1. i. v. 580. p. 58. 1. iv, 267. p. 400. Ed.
Hoelzlin. This name < is alio given by Hefychius to
Ethiopia.

AERIAL, fomething that confiils of, or has relation to,
air. The EITeni, the moll refined and rational fed among
the Jews, held, that the human foul confillcd of an aerial
fubftance : and the Roficrucians, and other vifionaries, fill
the atniofphere with aerial inhabitants.

Aerial PerfpeHlve is that which reprefents bodies
weakened and diminifhed in proportion to their dillance
from the eye, and which judicious artills praftife by
difliiiing a kind of thin vapour over them, that deceives
the eye agreeably. Aerial peripettive chiefly refpefts the
colours of objects, whofe force and luftre it takes off more
or lefs, to make them appear as if more or lefs remote. It
is founded on this, that the longer column of air an objeft is
feen through, the more feebly do the vifual rays emitted
from' it aflfeft the eye. Objefts feen in a camera obfcura
fenfibly CKhibit this effeft.

Aerial tribute, in ylntiqiiity, was an annual gift of 1 20
thoufaiid pounds, which the emperor Juftinian accepted from
his prEtorian prefett ; and the means of payment were
abandoned to the difcretion of that powerful magiftrate.

AERIANS, in Ecchjiajlica] Hijlory, a religious feft
denominated from Aerius, an Armenian prieft of the fourth
century. The Aerians had much the fame fentiments in
refpect of the Trinity as the Arians : befide which, they
coudemned prayers and offerings for the dead, flated falls
and feafts, the celebration of Eafler, and other rites of the
fame nature, in which the multitude think the life and foul
ef rchgion to confift ; fet falls they confidered as Jev.ifh
ordinances, and they conceived that to obferve Eafler was to
give heed to Jewilh fables (Titus, i. 14. i Tim. i. 4.).
Though they fometiraes failed on the fourth day of the
week, as others did, it was not from a regard to any religious
obligation, but merely of their own free will. What Epi-
phanius fays of their chufmg to fall on the Lord's day
mull therefore be a calumny. Thjy alfo held, that there
is no difference between pricfls and bifhops, but that the
pricflhood and epifcopate are abfolutely one and the fame
order, or dignity : an opinion, fays Mofheim, which was
■igreeable to many good Chriflians, who were no longer
able to bear the tyi-anny and arrogance of the bifhops of
that century, and which has been fince ilrenuoufly afferted
by many incdern divines and others. Aerius built his doc-
trine chiefly on fonie paffages in St. Paul'-s writings ; and
among others, on that in i Tim.iv. 14. where the apoflle
exhorts Timothy not to negled « the gift he had received
by the laying on of the hands of the prefbytcry." Here,
©bfcrves Aerjusj is no mention of bifhops ; but Timothy

A E R

evidently received his ordination from the prcfliyters or
priefts. Epiphanius zealoully maintains the fupcrioritv of
billiops againfl the Aerians. The word prcjhytery, ufed by
St. Paul, he obferves, includes botli bilhops and priefts ; the
whole fenate, or alfembly, of tiie ccclefiaflics of the place.
Aerius, and his followers, whofe great purpofe feeras to have
been that of reducing Chriilianity to its primitive iimpliclty,
met with great difficulties. They were excluded from
churches, and cities, anjl villages ; and being obliged to
wander abroad, they fuffered great hardlhips. Being thus
generally and violently oppofcd, they could not increafe to
any great number, and in time they were reduced to no-
thing. Tillemont conliders them as Calviniils; and it is
certain, that their ideas of church govenmient were formed
vei7 much upon the Prelbytcrian plan. Mofh. Eccl. Hill,
vol. i. 387. Lardner's Works, vol. iv. p. 306, &c.

iERICA, or Erica, iii Ichthyology, a name given by
Gaza and others to the coimnon herring.

^Rll monies, in jlnc'ient Geography, mountains of Sicily,
called alfo Hcrie'i, and confidered by fome as a branch of
^tna, extending to the north-weft.

iERIRUSA, the ancient name for the flcy-coloured
Jasper.

jERITES, in Botany, a name given to Anagallis.

AERNEN, ylragniim, in Geography, a large walled town
of the Valais in Switzerland, which is the court town of the
tithing, and which has a council-houfe where its meetings
are held. With this town is incorporated another fmall
place on the I)eufch-hill, otherwife called Motis Dei, at the
foot of which Kill is a lofty ftone bridge over the Rhone.
N. lat. 46^ 19'. E. long. 8°.

^RVE\ a fmall river of Bccotia, rlfing in mount Cithe-
ron, and difcharging itfelf into Afopus.

AEROGRAPHY, from anf, air, and ypayoj, / defcrilf,
a defcription of the air, or atmosphere, its limits, dimen-
fions, properties, &c. •

This amounts to much the fame with aerology, unlefs we
fuppofe the latter to enter into the rational, and the former
to confine itfelf to a defcription of the more obvious affec-
tions thereof.

AEROLOGY, from owp, and Xoyoc, d'lfcourfe ; the doc-
trine or fcience of the air, and its phenomena, its properties,
good and bad qualities, &;c. See Air.

Aerology, called alfo the aerolog'iea, makes a part of
the regimen of health, or the branch of medicine called by
fome d'tafojl'ica, or the non-naturals, which treats of air,
its properties and ufe in the animal ceconomy, and its efficacy
in prefervmg and reftoring health. See Air.

AEROMANCY, Aeromantia, compounded of a»p,
atr, and iukuteik, divlnr.hon, an ancient fpccies of divination
perfonncd by means of the air, and its phenomena. Aero-
mancy included the bufmefs of augury, and aufpicia ; the
rules of predidlion from uncommon winds, ftorms, fhowers,
and other prodigies. Modern authors fpeak of a more
rational aeromancy, meaning by it the art of foretelling the
changes and variations in the air and weather, winds, ftorras,
and the like.

Morhof advances confiderations for reducing aeromancy
to a certainty, by means of a regular feries of meterological
obfervations. But though many fuch have been infliluted
with great care in many parts, tliis art has hitherto made a
very Imall progrefs. Of this kind is Huxham's book De
Acre.

Barometers, themriometers, hygrometers, and anemome-
ters, are of confiderable ufe in this kind of aeromancy."

Mizoldus has pubhflied a body of rules for foretelling
ftorms, &c. drawn paitly from vulgar obfervations, and

the

A E R

tTie experience of manners, partly from ndrological confi-
deratioiis ; i iide. t e titk" of a erom anti A.

tEROMKLI, a name givLii to honey, and alfo to

MANNA. Sie Dro OMEI.I.

AF.ROMETRY, Akromf.tria, compounded of xr,f,
air, and //STpiiv, to meafure, tlie art of meafuring the air, its
poweis, and properties ; and inchiding the laws of the mo-
tion, gravitation, prcfi'ure, elafticify, reliaftion,condenfation,
&c. oi the atmofpherical fluid.

The word aeromotry is but little ufed : in lieu hereof,
we commonly call this branch of philofophy, pneumatics.
C. Wolfius, profeffor of mathematics at Hall, having re-
duced many of the affeAions of this fluid to geom.ctrical
demonftration, fiift publilhed Elements of Aerometry, at
Leipfic, 1709, in high Dutch, and a! towards more largely
in Latin, which have been t\vice inferted in his Ciirfus Malhe-
matitriis, in eight volumes 410.

AERONAUTICA, from aiip, and vaurixo?, derived from
va.-j^,Jhij>, the art of failing a vefTel through the air, or atmof-
phere, iullained as a (liip in the fea.

AEROPHOBIA, formed of anp, air, and (^0^0:, fear, a
term that has been fometimes ufed for the dread of frefh air.
Dr. Franklin fays, that he has been fometimes feizcd with
this aerophobia, confidering frelh air as an enemy, and ex-
cluding it from the rooms which he has occupied. But
experience convinced him of his error, and taught him to
regard frefli air as eminently conducive to health. Any air,
he fays, is preferable to that of a clofe chamber, whicii has
been again and again refpired without any change. The
fame fagacious philolopher has occafionally rallied thofe vale-
tudinarians, who, wrapping thcmfelves in clofe gamients,
hurr)- from the noxious air of a clofe chamber with as much
of it as they can carry with them into as clofe a carriage,
from which the external air is carefully excluded, and thus
proceed to take the air for the benefit of their health.

AEROPHYLACEA, in Natm-al Hijlary, denote fub-
terraneous receptacles of air or wind.

The word is compounded of anp, air, and iffAaini, cii/Irjdia,
ietping. — In which fenfe aerophylacea ftands contradiftin-
guifhed from hyilrophyLicea, pyrophylacea, &c.

Kircher ipeaks much of aerophylacea, or huge caverns,
replete with air, diipofed under ground, from whence,
through numerous occult palfages, that element is conveyed
either to fubterraneous receptacles of water, which are
hereby raifcd into fprings or rivers, or into the funds of fub-
terraneous fire, which are thus fed and kept ahvc for the
reparation of metah, minerals, and the like.

jEROPUS, in Entomology, a fpecies of Papilio, having
brown wings marked with a yellow band and a fmgle ocellus
at the bafe of the primores. It is found in India and
South America.

^Ropus, in Ancient Geography, a mountain of Mace-
donia.

AEROSIS, among the Ancient Phyficians, denotes the
aft whereby the blood is attenuated and converted into an
aura for the fupport of the vital fpirits, and the mainte-
nance of the flame of life.

AERO.STATICA, from anf, and ra-rixo;, from 'iTifji,
JlniW), is ufed by iorae authors for the fcience called by others
AERoMF.TRY. It is properly the doi!:trine of the weight,
prefTnrf and balance of the air and .\tmosphere.

AEROSTATION, formed of atjj, air, and r^/mi, of
•rn^i, / 'weigh, the fcience of lueights, in its primary and
proper fenfe, denotes the fcience of weights, fufpended
in the air ; but in the modern application of the term, it
fignities the art of navigation through the air, both in the
principles and the praflice of it. Hence alfo the macliines.

A E R

whiclt are employed for this puq>ofe, arc called arrof.ats, or
aerojiatic machines ; and, on account of their round figure,
air-balloons. The aeronaut, formed of xnf and mw:, jailor,
is the perfon who navigates though the air by means of
fuch machines.

Afrostation, principles of. The fchdamental princi-
ples of this art have been long and generally known ;
although the apphcation of them to prattice feems to be
altogether a modern difcovcry. They are particularly
illuftrated in this Diftionaiy under the articles IVeight of
Air, Elaflicity of Ais., and Specific Gravity.

It will be fuiiicient, therefore, to obferve in thir. place,
that any body, which is fptcifically, or bulk for hulk,
lighter than the atmofpheric air encompalfing the earth, will
be buoyed up by it, and afcend ; but as the deniity of the
ATMOSPHERE decrcafcs, on account of the diminilhed prcf-
fure of the fuperincumbent air, and the elaftic property
which it poflTcfTes, at difierent elevations above the earth, this
body can rife only to a height in which the furrounding
air will be of the iamc fpecific gravity with itfelf. In this
fituation it will cither float, or be driven in the direftion of
the wind or current of air, to which it is expofcd. An
air-balloon is a body of this kind, the whole mafs of which,
including its covering and contents, and the feveral weights
annexed to it, is r,[ lefs fpecitrc gravity than that of the
air in which it rifes.

Heat is well known to rarefy and expand, and confe-
quentJy to leflen the fpecific gravity of the air to which it
is applied ; and the diminution of its weight is proportional
to the heat. To the obfervations that occur under Jilaf-
ticity of A IK to this purpofe, we fliall here add, that one
degree of heat, according to the fcale of Fahrenheit's
thcnuometer, feems to expand the air about one four hun-
dredth part; and about 400, or rather 43 j, degrees of
heat, will juft double the bulk of a quantity of air. If,
therefore, the air inelofed in any kind of covering be heated,
and confequently dilated, to fuch a degree, as that the ex-
cels of the weight of an equal bulk of common air above
the weight of the heated air, is greater than the weight of
the covering and its appendages, this wliole mafs will afcend
in the atmofphere, till, by the cooling and condenfation of
the included air, or the diminilhed denfity of the furround-
ing air, it becomes of the fame fpecific gravity with the air
in which it floats ; and without renewed heat, it will gra-
dually dcfcend.

If, inftead of heating common air inelofed in any cover,
ing, and thus diminilhing its weight, the covering be filled
with an elafl.ic fluid, lighter than atmofpheric air ; fo that
the excefs of the weight of an equal bulk of the latter
above that of the inelofed elaftic fluid be greater than the
weight of the covering and its appendages, the whole mafs
will in this cafe afcend in the atmofphere, and continue to
rife till it attains a height at which the furrounding air is of
the fame fpecific gravity with itfelf. Inflammable air is a
fluid of this kind. For the knowledge of many of its pro-
perties, we are indebted to Mr. Henry Cavendifli ; who
difcovered, that if common air is eight hundred times
lighter than water, inflammable air is feven times lighter
than common air ; but if conunon air is eight hundred and
fifty times hghter than water, then inflammable air is 10,8
times lighter than common air. See Phil. Tranf. vol. Ivi.
art. 19. and Inflammalle A\k or Hydrogen.

The conftruction of air-balloons depends upon the prin-
ciples above fl:ated ; and they are of two kinds, as one
or the other of the preceding methods of preparing them ig
adopted.

Aerostation, hiftory of. In the various fchemes that
Pp 2 have

A E R

U>.( I efn propoftd for navigating tbroiij^li the air, fome
have haJ recoirfe to artificial wings ; which, being con-
ftnirtcJ like thole of birtls and annexed to tlie human
bodv. mifht bear it up, ami by tlicir motion, prodiiccd
either by mechanical fprings, or miifcular exertion, effett
it< progrcfs in anv dircAion at plealurc. This is one of the
methods of arlillcial flying Inggelled by bifliop Wilkms, in
the feventh chapter of liis Uedaliis. or Trcatife on Mecha-
nical Motions; but the fuccefs of it i.rdoubtfu!, and expe-
riments made in this way have been few and unlalisfackoy.
Borelli (DeMotu Aniinalinm, cap. 22. prop. 193 and 204,
p. !</) and 20S, ed. 1710), having compared the power of
the miifeles which act on the wings of a bird with that of
the mufcics of the brcaft and arms of a man, tinds the latter
altogether infufficieiit to produce, by means of any wings,
that'^motion a;iainil the air, v.hich is ncccfl'aiy to railc a man
in the atmofpherc.

Othei-s, with greater probability of fuccefs, have pro-
pofcd to attach the human body to fomc mafs, which being
lighter than air, might raife itfelf and the annexed weight
into the regions of that element. This method has adually
fucccedcd ; though Borelli {nil fiipra), as well as Leibnitz,
denied the pofTibility of a man's flying by any of the means
with which tiiey were acquainted.

It is necdlefs to recite any of the accoimts relating to
this fubjeft, which have been tranfmitted to us by the
ancients. Moft, if not all of them, are fabulous. An
ingenious writer, in a work cited at the clofe of this article,
has given us the refult of his enquiries into the records ot
antiquity ; and he informs us, that the earlicll account of
any thing relating to flying, which has the appearance of
authenticity, is that of the wooden pigeon, conftruaed by
Archytas in the fourth century, before the Chriftian sra,
and of which Aulus Gelhus (Nodles Attics, lib. x. cap. 1 2. )
relates, that it could fly by means of mechanical powers,
and by an intlofed fpirit. Thii fpiiit, or aura, our author
apprehends, was nothing more than a fort of animation,
which the machine appeared to be poflefTed of, in confc-
quence of its extraordinary mechanifm. Aeroftation was,
therefore, a fubjeft either altogether unknown, or veiy
imperfeftly underllood among the ancients ; unlcfs we fup-
pole it to be one of thofe arts, of which the records are
loll. In later times, the fchemes which have been propofed
hv ingenious men feem to have terminated in fpeculation.
The reader will find a brief account of fome of them under
the articles Atmosphere and Artificial Flying, and a
more coniprehenfive hiftory of the projefts and atchieve-
ments of different pcrfons, in the work cited below. Upon
the whole it appears, that the art of traverfing the air is an
invention of our own time ; and the whole hillory of it is
comprehended within a veiy ftiort period.

Soon after Mr. Cavendifh's difcovery of the fpecific gra-
vity of inflammable air, it occurred to the ingenious Dr.
Black of Edinburgh, that if a bladder, fuihciently hght
and thin, were filled with this air, it would form a mafs
lighter than the fame bulk of atmofpheric air, and rife
in it. This thought was fuggefted in his leAures in 1767
or l';"68 ; and he propofed, by means of the allantois of a
calf, to try the experiment. Other employments, how-
ever, prevented the execution of his defign. The poflibi-
lity of conftruAing a veffel, which, when filled with inflam-
mable air, would alcend in the atmofphere, had occurred
alfo to Mr. CavaUo about the fame time ; and to him
belongs the honour of having firfl; made experiments on
this fubjtft, in the beginning of the year 1782, of which
an account was read to the Royal Society, on the 20th of

A E R

June in that year. He tried bladders ; but the thinneR of
thife, however fcraped and cleaned, were too heavy. In
ufing China paper, he found that the inilanimable air pafleJ
througli its pores, like water through a ficvc ; and having
failed of fnccefi by blowing this air into a thiuk folution of
gum, thick varnilhes, and oil paint, he was under a necef-
lity of being falislied with foap-balls, which, being inflated
with inflammable air, by dipping the end of a Imall glafs
tube, connected with a bhidder containing the air, into a
thick folution of foap, and gently coniprcifing the blad-
der, afceuded rapidly in the atmofphere ; and thefe were
the firll fort of inflammable air-balloons that were ever
made.

For balloons formed on a larger fcale, and on the prin-
ciple of rarefied air, we muft direct our attention to France ;
where the two brotliers, Stephen and Jolepli Montgolfier,
paper-maiiufaAurers at Annonay, about 36 miles from
Lyons, dillinguilhed themfelves by exhibiting the firll of
thofe aeroftatic machines, which have fince excited fo much
attention and allonifliinent. The firll idea of fuch a ma-
chine was fuggefted to them by the natural afcent of the
fmoke and clouds in the atmofphere ; and the firll experi-
ment was made at Avignon by Stephen, the eldell of the
two brothers, towards the middle of November, 1782.
Having prepared a bag of fine filk, in the fhape of a pand-
Iclcpipedon, and in capacity about forty cubic feet, he
apphed to its aperture burning paper, which rarefied tlie
air, and thus formed a kind of cloud in the bag ; and when
it became fufficiently expanded, it afcended rapidly to the
cieling. Soon afterwards the experiment was repeated by
the two brothers at Annonay, in the open air, when the
machine afcended to the height of about feventy feet.
Encouraged by their fuccefs, they conftrudled a machine,
the capacity of which was about 6jo cubic feet ; which,
iu the experiment, broke the ropes that confined it, and
after afcending rapidly to the height of about 600 feet,
fell on the adjoining ground. With another machine, 35
feet in diameter, they repeated the experiment in April,
1783 ; when breaking loole from its confinement, it rofe to
the height of above 1000 feet, and being carried by the
wind, it fell at the diftance of about three quarters of a
mile from the place where it afcended. The capacity of
this machine was equal to about 23,430 cubic feet; and
when inflated, it meafured 117 Englilh feet in circumfe-
rence. The covering of it was formed of hnen, lined with
paper ; its fliape was nearly fpherical ; and its aperture was
fixed to a wooden frame about 16 feet in furface. When
filled with vapour, which was conjeftured to be about half
as heavy as common air, it was capable of lifting up about
490 pounds, befides its own weight, which, together with
that of the wooden frame, was equal to 500 pounds.
With this machine the next experiment was performed at
Annonay, on the 5th of June, 1783, before a great mul-
titude ot fpeclators. The flaccid bag was fufpended on a
pole 35 feet high ; ftraw and chopped wool were burnt
under the opening at the bottom ; the vapour, or rather
fmoke, foon inflated the bag, fo as to diftend it in all its
parts ; and this immenfe mals afcended in the air with fuch
a velocity, that in lefs than 10 minutes it reached the
height of about 6000 feet. A breeze carried it in an hori-
zontal direftion to the dillance of 7668 feet ; and it then
fell gently on the ground. Mr. Montgolfier attributed the
afcent of the machine, not to the rarefaftion of the heated,
air, which is the truecaufe, but to a certain gas or aeriform
fluid, fpecifically lighter than common air, which was fup-.
pofed. to be difengaged from burning fubftanccs, and.whichi

has

A E R

h.is hecn commonly cnllfd Montgol Tier's pas, as balloons ot
this kind have l)een dcnominattJ Montni,lJ),,-s.

As foon as the news of this cxpcriminL reached Paris,
the philofophers of the city, conceiving- that a new fort ot
gas, half as heavy as common air, had been difcovered by
MeflVs. Montgoliicr, and knowinc; that tiie weight of in-
flammable air was not more than the eighth or tenth part
of the weight ot common air, juftly concluded that in-
flammable air would anfwer the purpofe of this experiment
better than the gas of Montgollkr, and refolvcd to make
trial of it. A fubfcription was opened by M. Fuujas de
St. Fond towards defraying the expence of the experiment.
A fufhcient fum of money having been foon railed, Melfrs.
Roberts were appointed to conltrucl the machine ; and M.
Charles, profeflor of experimental pliilofophy, to fuperin-
tend the work. After furmounting many difficulties in
obtaining a fufficient quantity of inflammable air, and lind-
ing a fubftance hght enough for the covering, they at length
- conilrufted a globe of luteilring, which was rendered imper-
vious to the mcloled air by a varnifh of elailic ginn or
CAOUTCHOUC, dilTolved in tome kind of Ipirit or clfential
oil. The diameter of this globe, which from its fhape was
denominated a balloon, was about thirteen feet, and it had
only one aperture, like a bladder, to which a flop-cock was
adapted : its weight, when empty, together with that of
the ftop-cock, was 25 pounds. On the 23d of Auguft,
1783, they began to hll the globe with inflammable air;
but this, being their firll attempt, was attended with many
hindrances and difappointments. At lall, how'cver, it was
prepared for exhibition ; and on the 27th it was carried to
the Champ de Mars, where, being difengaged from the
cords that held it down, it rofe before a prodigious con-
cowrfe of people, in lefs tlian two minutes, to the height of
3123 feet. It then entered a cloud, but foon appeared
again ; and at lafl: it was loft: among other clouds. Tliis
balloon, after having floated about three quarters of an hour,
fell in a field about tifteen miles dillant from the place of
afctnt ; where, as we may naturally imagine, it occalioned
much aftonilhment to the pealants. Its fall was owing to a
rent, occafioned by the expanfion of the inflammable air in
that rare part of the atmofphere to which it afcended.
When the balloon went up, its fpecitic gravity was 3^
pounds lefs than that of common air.

In confequence of this brilliant experiment, many bal-
loons were made on a fmall fcale ; gold-beaters fkin was ufed
for the covering ; and their fize was from 9 to 18 inches
in diameter.

Mr. Montgolfier repeated an experiment with a machine
of his confl;ruftion before the commiffaries of the Academy
of Sciences on the lith and 12th of September. This
machine was 74 feet high, and abont 43. feet in diameter.
When diltended, it appeared fpheroidical. It was made of
canvas, covered wltl\ paper, both within and without ; and
it weighed looo pounds.

The operation oi iiUing it with rarefied air, produced by
means of the combullion of 50 pounds of dry ilraw, and
12 pounds of chopped wool, was performed in about nine
mhiutes ; and its force of aicenfion, when inflated, was fo
great that it railed eight men who held it fome feet from the
ground. This machine was fo much damaged by the rain,
that it was found necefiary to prepare another for exhibition
before the king and royal family on the I9tl-u This new
machine confilted of cloth, made of linen and cotton thread,
and was painted with water-colours both within and with-
out. Its height was near 60 feet, and its diameter about
43 feet. Having made the necefTar)- jrepardtious for in-

A L R

flating It, tlic operation was begun about one o'clock on
the lyth ot September, befoie tlie king and quccu, the
court, ajid all tile Fariiians who could procure a conveyance
to Wrfailles. In eleven minutes it was fufTieiently dJllend-
cd, and the ropes being cut, it afcended, bearing up with
it a wicker cage, in which were a fhecp, a cock, and a
duck. Its power of afcenfion, or the weight by which it
was lighter than an equal bulk of common air, allowing for
the cage and animals, was fiyd pounds.

This balloon rofe to the lieight of about 1440 feet ; and
being driven by the wind, it defccnded gradually and fell
gently into a wood, at the diftance of 10,200 feet from
Vcrfailles. After remaining in the atmofphere eight mi-
nutes, the animals in the cage were fafely landed. The
fliccp was found feeding ; the cock had received fome liurt
on one of his wings, probably from a kick of the fnecp ;
the duck was perfectly well.

The fuccefs of this experiment induced M. Pilatre de
Rozier, with a philofophical intrepidity which will be re-
corded with applaufe in the hiftory of acroiiation, to offer
himfelf as the iirll adventurer in this aerial navigation. Mr.
Montgollier conilrucf ed a new machine for this purpofe in
a garden in the Fauxbourg St. Antoine. Its fliape was
oval ; its diameter being aljout 48 feet, and its height about
74 feet. To the aperture at the bottom \\'as annexed a
wicker gallery about three feet broad, with a ballufbade
about three feet high. From the middle of the aperture
was fufpended by chains, which came down from the fides
of the machine, an iron grate or brazier, in which a lire
was lighted for inflating the machine ; and port-holes were
opened in the gallery, towards the aperture, through which
any perfon, who might venture to afcend, might feed the
fire on the grate with fuel, and regulate the dilatation of the
inclofed air of the machine at pleafure. The weight of this
aeroflat was upwards of 1600 pounds. On the 15th of
Oftober, the fire being lighted and the machine inflated,
M. P. de Rozier placed himfelf in the gallerv-, and afcended,
to the aftonilhment of a multitude of fpeftators, to the
height of 84 feet from the ground, and there kept the
machine afloat during 4' 25", by repeatedly throwing ftraw
and wool upon the fire : the machine then defcended gra-
dually and gently, through a medium of iucreafing denfity,.
to the ground ; and the intrepid adventurer afiurcd the
fpetlators that he had not experienced the leaft incon-
venience in this aerial excurlion. This experiment was re-
peated on the 17th, and on the 19th, when M. P. de
Rozier, in his defcent, and in order to avoid danger by
reafcending, evinced to a multitude of obfervers, that the
machine may be made to afcend and defcend at the pleafure
of the aeronaut, by merely increafing or diminilhing the fire
in the grate. The balloon having Iseen hauled down, M.
Giraud de Villette placed himfelf in the gallery oppofite to
M. Rozier ; and being fuffered to afcend, it hovered for
about nine minutes over Paris in the fight of all its inha-
bitants at the height of about 330 feet. In another ex-
periment the marquis of Arlandes afcended with M. Rozier
much in the fame manner. In confequence of the report of
the preceding experiment, figncd by the commiflaries of the
Academy of Sciences, it Vv-as ordered that the annual prize
of 600 livres fliould be given to Mcfhs. Montgolfier for the
year 1783. In the experiments above recited the machine
was fecured by ropes : but they were foon fucrecded by un-
confined aerial n<avigation. Accordingly the balloon of 74
feet in height, above mentioned, was removed to La
Muctte, a royal palace in the Bois de Boulogne : and all
things being ready, ob the 2 ill of November M. P. dc.

Rozier-

A E R

Rozicr anl t"ie marquis d'Aihndca took llicir refpeftive
polls in ill- f::ini;ry, and at 54 minutes after one the machine
wai abfulutcly abandoned to the clement, and afcendcd
calmly and maieftically in the atmofpherc. The aeronauts,
hiv'u^ reached" the hcijTht of about 2S0 feet, waved their
hats ^o the allonifhed multitude: but they foon rofe too
high to be d!ftin!;uilhed, and are thought to have foarcd to
an elevation of above 3000 feet. Tlicy were at firft driven
by a north-weft wind horizontally over the ri\er Seine and
over Paris, taking care to clear the ileeples and high build-
ings by increafing the fire ; and in rifmg met with a current
of air, which carried them fouthward. Having padcd the
Boiilevard, and defifting from fupplying the fire with fuel,
thty defcended vei-y gently in a field beyond the new Bou-
levard, about 9000 yards diftant from th.c palace de la
Misettc. They were in the air about 25 minutes. The
weight of the whole apparatus, including that of the two
travellers, was between 1600 and 1700 pounds.

Notwithflanding the rapid progrefs of aeroftation in
France, we have no authentic accoimt of any aeroftatic ex-
periments performed in other countries till about the clofe
of the year 1783. The firft experiment of this kind, p'lb-
liclv exhibited in our own country, was performed in London
on the 25th of Norember, by count Zainbeccari, an inge-
nious Italian, with a balloon of oil filk, 10 feet in diameter,
and weighing 1 1 pounds. It was gilt, in order to render it
more beautiful and more impermeable to the inflammable air.
This balloon, thrse-fourths of which were filled with in-
flammable air, was launched from the Artilleiy -ground, in
the prefence of a vaft concourfe of fpeftators, at one o'clock
in the afternoon, and at half paft three was taken up near
Petwoith, in SufTex, 48 miles diftant from London ; fo
that it travelled at the rate of near 20 miles an hour. Its
defcent was occafioned by a rent, which mull have been the
effect of the rarefaction of the inflammable air, when the
balloon afcended to the rarer part of the atmofphere.

The Parifian philofophers having concerted and executed
flie firft aerial voyage with a balloon inflated by heated air,
determined to attempt a fimilar voyage with a balloon filled
with inflammable air, which feemed to be preferable to
dilated air in eveiy refpeft, the expence attending it ex-
cepted. A fnbfcription was opened to defray the charges,
which were eftimated at about ten thoufand livres ; and the
balloon was conftrufted by Meflrs. Roberts, of gores of
filk, varniflied with a folution of elaftic gum. Its form
was fpherical, and it meafured 27^ feet in diameter. The
upper hemifphere was covered by a net, which was fattened
to the hoop encircling its middle, and called its equator. To
this equator was fufpended by ropes a car or boat, covered
with painted linen and beautifully ornamented, which
fwung a few feet below the balloon. In order to prevent
the burfting of the machine by the expanfion of the inflam-
mable air in a rarefied medium, it was furniflied with a valve,
which might be opened by means of a ftring annexed to it,
for the difcharge of part of the internal air without ad-
mitting the external to enter. To this balloon was likewife
annexed a long pipe through which it was filled. The
apparatus for filling it confifted of feveral can<s placed
round a large tub of water, each of which had a long tin
tube, terminating under a veffel or funnel, that was inver-
ted into the water of the tub. A tube proceeding from
this funnel, communicated with the balloon, which ftood
jnfl over it. Iron filings and diluted vitriolic acid were put
into the cafks ; and the inflammable air, produced from
thefe materials, paffed through the tin tubes, through the
water of the tub, and through the funnel of the balloon.
The car was ballaftcd with fand-bags j fo that by letting

A E R

fome of the air efcape tliroiijjh the valve tliey might dc-
fcend, and by difcharging (ome of their ballaft afcend.
The fpecific gravity of the inflammable air, with which the
balloon was filled, was to that of common air nearly as i to
5^, and the balloon's power of afcenfion, when filled for
the experiment and wnen aftually afcending, was twenty
pounds. The weight of the balloon and cf its various
appendages was 6045 pounds, and therefore the weight
fiiitained by the inflammable air was 6244 pounds : and if
from the weight of the common air difplaced, which was
found to be 771= pounds, the former be fubtrafled, there
will remain 147 pounds for -'ic real weight of the inflam-
mable air contained in the balloon.

The I ft of December was fixed upon for the difplay of
this grand experiment ; and every precaution was made for
condufting it with advantage. The garden of the ThuiUie-
ries was the fcene of operation ; and it was crowded and
encompafled with an innumerable multitude of obfcrvers.
Signals were CTiven by the firing of cannon, waving of pen-
dants, &c. A fmall Montgo!Ji<r was launched for fticv.ing
the direftion of the wind, and f(jr the amuiement of the
people, previoufiy to the general difplay. At three quarters
after one o'clock, M. Charles and one of the Roberts, hav-
ing feated thenifelves in the boat attached to the balloon,
and furnifiied with proper inftruments, provifions, and.
cloathing, left the ground, and aicended with a moderately
accelerated velocity to the height of about 600 yards ; the
furiounding multitude ftanding filent with fear and amaze-
ment. At this height the aerial navigators made fignals of
their fafety. When they went up, the themiometer, ac-
cording to Fahrenheit's fcale, ftood at 59° ; and the baro-
meter at 30, 18 inches. At the height to which they
afcended the barometer ftood at 27 inches, whence they
deduced their elevation to be nearly 600 yards. During
the reft of the voyage the quickfilver in the barometer was
generally between 27 and 27, 6^ inches, rifing and falling as
part of the ballaft was thrown out or fome of the inflam-
mable air efcaped from the balloon. The thenuometer ge-
nerally ftood between 53 and 57°. Soon after their al'cent,
they remained ftationaiy for lome time ; they then moved
horizontally in the direction of N. N. W. and having croff-
ed the Seine, and paiTcd over feveral towns and villages, to
the great allonifliment of the inhabitants, they defcended in
a field about 27 miles diftant from Paris at a quarter paft
three o'clock ; fo that they had travelled at the rate of
about fifteen miles an hour, without feeling the Icaft incon-
venience. The balloon ftill containing a confiderable quan-
tity of inflammable air, M. Charles re-afcended alone. In
ten minutes he thought himfelf at the elevation of about
1500 toifes. The globe, being now in a rarefied medium,
fwelled confiderably ; but when fome of the inflammable air
was difcharged, it rofe ftill higher. The barometer, which
at his departure ftood at 28 inches four lines, had now
fallen to 18 inches ten lines. The thermometer, from about
47° of Fahrenheit's fcale, had funk to 21°. From thefe
data the elevation of the globe was eftimated at 1524 toifes,
or about 3,100 yards. M. d* Meunier fuppofes that he
afcended to the height of at leaft 3500 yards. He con-
tinued in the air about 33 minutes, and by occafionally
pulling the ftring of the upper valve, and thus letting out
the gas, he defcended about three miles from the place of
his alcent. All the inconvenience he experienced in his
elevation was a dr)- fliarp cold, with a pain in one of his
ears and a part of his face, which he afcribed to the dilata-
tion of the internal air. The fmall balloon, launched by
M. Montgolfier, was found to have moved in a direftion
oppofite to that of the aeronauts ; whence it is inferred,

that

A E R

A E R

that there were two ciuTC-iits of air at difTcrent heights above
the earth,

111 the month of December of this year, fcveral experi-
ments with balloons were made at I'liiladelpliia, in America,
by McRi.;. Rittenhoufc and Hopkins. They contrived to
conneft leveral fmall balloons together, and thvs they en-
abled a man to afcend to the height of loc feet, and to float
to a confiderable dillance. But fear induced him to cut
open the balloons, and thus to dcfcend. Small balloons
were at thi3 time very common, both in France and Eng-
land.

In January 1 784, Mr. J. Montgolfier, accompanied by
fix other ^erlons, aicended at Lyons, with a large rarefied
air-balloon, 131 feet high, and 104 feet diameter, to the
height 01 about icoo yards. This was the largeft machine
that had hitherto been made. It was formed of a double
covering of hnen, with three layers of paper between, and
ftrengthened witli llrings and ribbons. It contained about
540,000 cubic feet of igneous gas ; and its weight, includ-
ing the gallery and pallengers, was 1600 pounds. After
remaining in the air about fifteen minutes, a rent in the
machine occafioned its fall : and when it came within about
600 feet of the ground, it dcfcended with a degree of ce-
lerity which very much alarmed the ipectators ; but they all
landed without injury.

On the 2 2d of February an inflammable air-balloon about
five feet in diameter, was launched from Sandwich in Kent,
which, travelling at the rate of about 30 miles an hour,
croITcd the Englilh Channel, and defcended in a field about
nine miles from Lidc, in French Flanders.

The firil perfon in Italy, who was at the expence of con-
ftruAing an aerollatic machine for making an aerial voyage,
was the chevalier Paul Andreani of Milan : his machine
■was fpherieal, about 63 feet in diameter, and formed upon
the principle of tlioie of Montgolfier. The clievalier, and
two brothers of the name of Gerli, who had afiifted in the
conitruftion of it, afcended, on the 25th of February, to
the height of about 1200 feet; and they remained in the
atmofphere about twenty minutes.

From the calculations made refpefting the capacity
of this machine, it appears, that the included air was not
rarefied above one-third, or that the included warm air
■was not ^efs than two thirds of that which would have
filled the machine, when of the fame temperature with
the external air ; and this is the utmoll degree of rare-
faftion that can be reafonably expcfted in b:'.lloons of this
kind.

The next aerial voyage was perfornied by M. Jean Pierre
Blanchard, who had for fevcral years been employed,
though without fuccefs, in attempts of flying b^r mechani-
cal contrivances. This voyage was performed in March
J 7 84, with a balloon 27 feet in diameter, to which a boat
was fufpended, with two wings aid a rudder annexed to the
boat, and a large umbrella or paiachute ipread horizontally
between the boat and the ballooi!, defigned to check the
fall provided that the balloon fliould burft. The greateft
altitude to which Mr, Blanchard aicended from the Champ
de Mars at Paris, is fuppofed to be 9591 feet; and it ap-
pears from his own acknowledgment that the wings and
rudder of his boat had little, if any, power in guiding the
balloon from the diretlion of the wii.d. He was in the air
an hour and a quarter, and dcfcended at Billancourt, near
Seve, after having experinced heat, cold, hunger, and an
exceflive drowfincfs.

Aerollatic experiments and aerial voyages became fo fre-
quent in the courfe of the year 1784, tliat the limits of this
article will not allow our particularly recording them. We

fliaU, therefor^, merely mention thofe which were attended
with any peculiar circumllances. Mcflrs. de Morvcau and
Bertrind afcended from Dijon in April, to the height of
about 13000 feet, with an mflammable air balloon; the ther-
mometer was obfcrved to fland at 25 degrees. They were
in the air during one hour and 25: minutes, and went to the
didance of about 18 miles. Their cars were affeftcd in
the manner deleribed by Mr. diaries. The clouds floated
beneath them, and fecluded them from the eartli : and they
jointly repeated the motto infcribed on their aerollat : —
" Surgit nunc gallus ad a-theni."

In May, lour ladies and two gentlemen afcended with a
Montgolfier at Paris above the highelt buildings ; the ma-
chine was confined by ropes. It was 74 feet high, and 73
in diameter.

In a fecond voyage performed by Mr. Blanchard from
Rouen, in May, it was ohferved, that his wings and oai-s
could not cany him in any other diredion than that of the
wind. The mercury in the barometer defcended as low as
20,57 inches ; but on the earth, before he afcended, it (lood
at 30,16 iiichei'.

At Lyons, on the 4th of June, M. Flcurant and Ma-
dame Thible, the firft lady that made an aerial voyage,
afcended in the prefence of Guftavus king of Sweden to the
height of 8500 feet, and floated to the difl;ance of about
two miles in 45 miiuitcs.

A balloon, 32I feet in diameter, filled with inflammable
air, extracted from zinc, was raifed at Nantes on the 14th
of June with two perfons, via. M. Couilard de Maffi and
M. Mouchet ; which afcended to a great height, and in
58 minutes travelled to the dillance of 27 miles.

On the 23d of June a large aeroflat, on the principle of
rarefied air, 91 J feet high aud 79 feet in diameter, was
elevated by Montgolfier at Verfaillcs, in the prcfence of
the royal family and the king of Sweden. M. Pilatre de
Rozier and M. Proull, afcended with it, and continued for
28 minutes at the height of 11732 feet and obferved the
clouds below them, that reflec'ted to the region which
they occupied the rays of the fun ; the temperature of the -
air being 5'' below the freezing point ; and in three quar-
ters of an hour they travelled to the dillance of 36 miles. .
In confequencc of this experiment the king granted to •
M. Rozier a penlion of 2000 livres.

On the 15th of July the duke of Chartres, the two bro-
thers Roberts, and another perfon, aicended witli an in-
flammable air-balloon of an oblong form, ^^^ feet long and"
34 feet in diameter, from the Park of St. Cloud : the ma-
chine remained in the atmofphere about 4J minutes. This
machine contained an ir.terior fmall balloon, . filled with
common air, by which means it was propofed to make it
afcend or defcend without any lofs of inflammable air or
ballall. The boat was furnifhed with a helm and oars, in-
tended for guiding it. At the place of departure the ba-
rometer flood at 30, I 2 inches. Three minutes after afcend-
ing, the balloon was loft in the clouds and involved in a
dcnfe vapour. An agitation of the air, refembling a whirl-
wind, alarmed the aerial voyagers, and occafioned fevcral
fliocks, which prevented their ufing any of the inflrnments
and contrivances prepared for the direftion of the balloon.
Other circumllances concurred to increafe their danger ;
and W'hen the mercury, Handing in the barometer at 24,35
inches, indicated their jieight to be about 5100 feet, they
found it neceffary to ntake holes in the bottom for dif-
charging the inflammable air : and having made a rent of
between feven and eight feet, they defcended very rapidly,
and at laft came fafely to the ground.

On the 18th of July M, Blanchard, accompanied by a

Mn,^

A E R

A E R

Mr. Bobv, ma<Jc Ills third aerial voyage v ith tlie fame in-
flammable !iir-b:illoon, al Koiitn ; and afcended lo high
as to make the mcrcuiy iii the baronirtcr fall 4, 76 inclits,
and the thermnmcttT 40*^. In two hours and a quarter
they floated 45 miles, or, at the rale of twenty miles an
hour. In this voyage Mr. IJlanchard conceived, that by
agitating the wings of his boat he could not only afcend
and di-lcend, but move fidcways againll the wind ; but lub-
ftquent trials do not feem to have eftabliflicd this faft.
'I'hc machine retained its %iir during the night, and feveral
ladies amufcd thcmfelvcs the next day, by afcending with it
to the height of 80 feet, the length of the ropes to which it
wiii attached.

In the courfe of this fummer two pcrfons, one in Spain,
and anollier in America, were in danger oi lofmg their lives
by afcending with rarefied air-machines. The former was
fcorchcd by the machine's taking iire, and fo hurt by his
fall, that his life was long defpaired of; and the latter was
»vafted againil the wall of a houfe, and fo entangled, that he
fell from the height of about twenty feet, and the machine
took fire, and was confumcd.

In the month of Auguft the Abbe Carnus, profefTor of
philofophy, and M. Louchet, profefTor of belles letters, af-
cendcd at Rodez, a town of Guienne in France, with an
aeroftatic machine of 57 feet in diameter. The air was
calm, and the machine did not travel farther than about
14900 yards in 46 minutes ; and the height to which it af-
ccndcd was 3920 yards above the level of the town. The
thennometer was 34 degrees lower than it was at the earth
when they afcended. On examining the air in one of two
bottles, which they had filled at their highcll elevation,
they found that it contained a quarter lefs air than if it had
been filled at about the level of the lea ; and the air, tried
by the tell ot nitrcnis air, was found more pure than that
near the furface of the earth.

The firll aerial voyage in England was performed in
London, on the 15th of September, by Vincent Lunardi, a
native of Italy. His balloon was made of oiled filk, painted
in alternate flripes of blue and red. Its diameter was 33
feet. From a net which went over about two-thirds of
the balloon, dcfcended 45 cords to a hoop hanging below
t!ie balloon, and to which the gallery was attached. The
balloon had no valve ; and its neck, which terminated in
the form of a pear, was the aperture through which the in-
flammable air was introduced, and through which it might
be let out. The air for fiUuig the balloon was produced
from zinc by means of diluted vitriohc acid. Mr. Lunardi
departed from the Artillery-ground at two o'clock ; and
with him were a dog, a cat, and a pigeon. After throwing
cut fome fand to clear the houfes, he afcended to a great
beight. The direiftion of his motion at firfl was north-well
by weft, but as the balloon rofe higher, it fell into anotlier
current of air, which carried it nearly north. About half
after three he defcended very near the ground, and landed
the cat, which was almoft dead with cold : then rifmg, he
profecutcd his voyage. He afcribes his defcent to the ac-
tion of an oar ; but as lie was under the necefllty of throw-
ing out ballaft in order to re-afcend, his defcent was more
probably occafioned by the lols of intlanimable air. At
ten minutes pafl four he defcended on a meadow near Ware
in Hcrtfordfhire. The only philofophical inllrument which
he carried with him was a thermometer, which in the courfe
of his voyage flood as low as 29°, and he obferved that
the drops of water which collefted round the balloon were
frozen.

The longefl and the mofl interefling voyage, which was
performed about this time, was that of MefTrs. Roberts and

2

^f. Collin Hnllln, nt Paris, on the 19th of September.
Their aeroflat was filled with inflammable air. Its diame-
ter was iji feet, and its length 46I feet, and it \\a*
made to float with its longefl part parallel to the horizon,
with a boat of nearly 17 feet long attached to a net that
went over it as far as its middle. To the boat were an-
nexed wings or oars, in the form of an umbrella. At
1 2 o'clock they afcended with 450 pounds of ballull-,
and after various manoeuvres defcended at 40 minutes pail
fix o'clock near Arras, iu Artois, having fliU 200 pounds
of their ballafl remaining in the boat. Having rifcn about
1400 feet, they perceived flormy clouds which they
endeavomed to avoid ; but the current of air was uniform
from the height of 600 to 4200 feet. The barometer on
the coafl of the fea was 29,61 inches, and funk to 23,94
inches. They found that by working with their oars, they
accelerated their courfe. In the proiecution of their voy-
age, which was i JO miles, they heard two claps of thunder ;
and tlie cold occafioned by the approach of flormy clouds
made the thermometer fall from 77"^ to 59*^, and condenfed
the inflammable air in the balloon, fo as to make it delcend
very low. From fome experiments they concluded, that
they were able by the ufe of two oars to deviate from the
dircclion of the v/ind about 22°. But this experiment re-
quires repetition, in order to afcertain with accuracy the ef-
fect here afcribed to oars.

The fecond aerial voyage in England was performed by
Mr. Blanchard and M. Sheldon, profefTor of anatomy to
the Royal Academy, the firft Englilhman who afcended
with an aeroftatic machine. This experiment was perform-
ed at Chelfea on the i6th of Oftober. The wings ufed on
this occafion fecmed to have produced no deviation in the
machuie's tracks from the direflion of the wind. Mr.
Blanchard, having landed his friend about the dillance of
14 miles from Chelfea, proceeded alone with different cur-
rents ; and afcended fo high as to experience great difficulty
of breathing : a pic;eon alfo, which flew away from the
be)at, laboured for fome time with its wings, in order to
fuftam itfelf in the rarefied air, and after wandering for a
good while returned and refled on one fide of the boat.
Mr. Blanchard perceiving the fea before him defcended near
Rumfey, about 75 miles from London, having travelled at
the rate of nearly 20 miles an hour.

On the 12th of Oftober, Mr. Sadler, of Oxford, made
a voyage of 14 miles from that place in 17 minutes, with
an inflammable air-balloon of his own contrivance and con-
Itruftion.

Mr. Blanchard's fifth aerial voyage was performed from
London on the 30th of November, in company with Dr.
J. JefTerics, a native of America. This voyage was about
twenty-one miles. It does not appear that they derived any
advantage from their oars in direfting the courfe of the bal-
loon.

On the 4th of Januai-y, 1785, Mr. Harper afcended
with an inflammable air-balloon from Binningham : he
went to the diftance of 50 miles in about an hour and a
quarter, and found no inconveniences befide fuch as m.ight
be expetled -from the changes of wet and cold, and a tem-
porary deafnefs. The thermometer defcended from 40° to
28°.

On the 7th of January, Mr. Blanchard, accompanied by
Dr. Jefferies, departed with the balloon, which had carried
him five times through the air, from Dover-caflle towards
the French coafl. In their paffage they were under a
neceffity of throwing away every thing which they had with
theni in the boat, and to part even with their clothes, in
order to prevent the baljoon from falling into the fea : but

A E R

ji? tliey approached the land, it began to rife : and in two
hju'.s ih-y reached the high grounds, near Calais, and the
b^dioon rifing iHU higher over the land, they defccnded
fafely in the foreil oi Guiennes. In confequence of this
voyage the king of France prefented Mr. Bhirichard with a
gift ot I2O0O hvres, and granted liim a peniion of I 200 litres
a year. A bottle which was thrown out of the boat in the
time of their danger, ftruek the water with fueh foice, that
{he fiiock was heard at a corifidei-able elevation, and fenfihly
fell on the car and ballooji.

On the 19th of [aniinry Mr. Crofbie afcendcd at Dnblin
with aiT infiammable air balloon to a great height, and rofe
fo rapidly as to be oiit of hght in 3 J minutes. By opening
the valve he defccnded fuddenly as he approached very
rear the fea. On the 23d of Marcli Count Zambeccari and
Admiral Sir Edward Vernon afcended at Lor.don, and
failed to Horfham in Suflex, at the dillance of 35 miles, in
lefs than an hour. At the height of about two miles, the
barometer having fallen from 30. 4 inches to 20. 8 inches,
an accident endangered tiiem, and obliged them to defcend.
In their defcent they paffed through a denfe cloud, which
covered them with fnovv. Tliey obferved that the balloon
revolved perpetually round its vertical axis, with fucli ra-
pidity as to perform each revolution in four or live feconds ;
they alio mention a kind of ruftling noife, which they heard
among the clouds, and that the balloon was greatly agi-
tated in its defcent. On the 5th of May, Mr. Sadler and
Mr. Windham afcended at Moulfey Hurft ; and wxre
driven by a current of air towaids the fea. They fortu-
nately defcended at the conflux of the Thames and Med-
way ; but the cords of their machine being releafed, it in-
ftantly afcended and floated to a confiderable diftance, and
was taken up by a trading veflel at fea, where it fell. On
the 1 2th of May, Mr. Crolbie afcended at Dublin, but foon
came down again with a velocity which alarmed the fpcc-
tators. Upon his defcent, Mr. M'Guire, a c;-^;ge youth,
fprung into the machine, and was earned off by the afcend-
ing balloon tov.-ards the Channel ; he at length fell into
the fea, and was taken up by a boat dilpatched for his relief,
juft when h;-. ftrength was exhaufted with fwimming, and
thus his life was faved.

The fate of M. P. de Rozier, the fini aerial navigator,
and of his companion M. Romain, has been much lamented.
They afcended at Boulogne on the 15th of June, with an
intention of croflnig the Channel to England. Their ma-
chine confifted of a fphcrical balloon 37 feet in diameter,
filled with infl.xmmable air ; and under this balloon was fuf-
pended a fmall Montgolfier, or fire-balloon, ten feet in
diameter. This Montgolfier was defigned for rarefying the
almolpheric air, and thus diminilhing the fpeciiic gravity of
the whole apparatus. For the firlt twenty minutes they
feemed to purine the proper courfe ; but the balloon fcemed to
be much inflated, and the aeronauts appeared anxious to de-
fcend. Soon h.owever, when they were at the height of
about three quarters of a mile, the whole apparatus was in
flames, and the unfortunate adver.turers fell to the ground,
and were killed on the fpot.

On the 19th of July Mr. Crofbie afcended at Dublin,
with a view of crofling the Channel to England. To a
wicker ba!l<et of a circular form, which he hud fubftituted
for the boat, he had affixed a number of bladders, for the
purpofe of rendei'ing his gallery' buoyant, in crfe of a difafter
at fea. The height to which he afcended at one time was
fuch, that by the intenfe cold his ink was frozen, and the
mercury funk into the ball of the thermometer. He him-
felf was fick, and he felt a ftrong imprelfum on the tym-
panum of his ears. At his uimoll elevation he thought

Vol. I.

A E R

himfelf ftationar)' ; but on dlfcharglng feme gas, lie de-
fccnded to a very rough cnn'cit of an blowing to the nortli.
He then entered a denfe cloud, and ex;eri.nccd Ihong
blafts of winds, with thunder and lightning, which brought
him with rapidity towards the furface of the water. Tiie
water foon entered his car; the force of the wind plunged
him into the ocean ; and it was with difficulty that he put
on his cork jacket. The bladder-; wliieh he had prepared
were now found of grtat ufe. The water, added lo his
own weight, ferved as ballad ; and the balloon maintaining
its poife, anfwered the purpofe of a fail, by means of which,
and a fnatch-block to his car, he moved before the wind as
regularly as a failing veflel. He was at length overtaken by
fome veil'els that were crowding fail after him, and conveyed
to Dunleary, with the balloon towed after them. On the
2 2d of July, Major Money, who afcended at Norwich, was
driven out to fea, and after iiaving been blown about for
about two hours, he d-opped into the water. After much
exertion for preferviug his life, and when he was almoll de-
fpairing of relief, he was taken up by a revenue cutter in
a Hate of extreme weaknefs ; having been ilruggling to
keep himfelf above v.ater for about feven hours. The
longeft voyage that had been hitherto made was performed
by Mr. Blanchard towards the end of Auguil. He af-
cended at Lifle, accompanied by the chevalier de L'Epi-
nard, and traverfed a diilancc of 300 miles before th.ey de-
fccnded. On this, as well as on other occafions, Mr. Blan-
chard made trial of a parachute, in the form of a laige
umbrella, which he contrived for breaking the fall in cafe
of any accident. With this machine he let down a dog,
which came to the ground gently, and unhurt.

On the 8th of September Mr. Baldv.-in afcended froTTi
the city of Chefter, and perfoi-mcd an aerial voyage of 25
miles in two hours and a quarter. His grcateft elevation was
about a mile and an half, and he fuppofes that the velocity
of his motion was fometimes at the rate of 30 miles an
hour. He has publifliecl' a circumftantial account of his
voyage, defcribed the appearances of the clouds as he paffed
through them, and annexed a variety of obfervations relat-
ing to aeroftation, which render his treatife valuable and in-
tereiling to thofe who wifli to acquaint themfclves withthis
fubjeft. It would be tedious to recount the aerial expedi-
tions that were performed in various parts of our own
conatrv', as well as on the continent, in the whole courfe
of the year 1785; more efpecially as they have afforded
us no experiment or difcovery of any peculiar impoitance.
The moll perfevering aerial navigator has been Mr. Blan-
chard. In Augufl 1788, he afcended at Brunfwick for the
tiiirty-fecond time. Within two years fiom the firll dif-
covery of this art of navigating the atmofphere, more than
forty different perfosis performed tlie experiment without
any material injury ; and it may be juftly queflioned, fays
Mr. Cavallo, whether the firft forty perions, who trailed
themfelves to the fea in boats, efcaped fo fafely. The ca-
tallrophe that befel Rozier, and the unpleafant circum-
flances that have happened to fome of the aeronauts in our
own country, have been owing not fo much to the principle
of the art, as to want of judgment, or imprudent manage-
ment in the conduft of it.

We fliall 'clofe this abfti-aft of the hiftor)' of aeroflatioa
with the obfervations of a very competent judge on the re-
fpeclive advantages and difjidvrfntages of balloon.s made with
inflammable air, and of thofe that are raifed by means of hot
air, to the former of which he gives the preference. The
principal comparative advantages of the rarefied air-balloons
are, their Ixing filled with little or no expence ; their not
requiring to be made of fo expenfive materials ; and the corn-
er CL bulliblei

A F. R

A E R

b'.:".;b!e? nfcefTarv to fill vlicin being found nlmoft evaj tliat if the J'ameterof a balloon be 35 feet, its circwtrfL-rence
wii:rL-, fo that when the nrovlGon of fuel is cxliaufted, the will be I !0 feet. If tlie diameter be multiplied by tii; cir-
aeronaut may defccud ;ma recruit liis fuel, in order to pro-
ceed on his vf.yage. But thty nuift be larger than balloons
of til.- other fort, in order to lake up the fame wei^'ht ; and
the prefence of Crc is a continual trouble and a continual

danj^cr. Experience has, in many inftances, envinced the
difalirous comequences that have attended them. On the
other hand, the inflammable air balloon mull be made of a
fnbftance irapenneable to the fubtile gas ; the gas it fclf can-
not b: produced without a confiderable expence ; and it is
not eafy to find the materials and apparatus neecfTaiT- for
the prod'.'.Aion of it in eveiy place. Improvements, how-
ever, daily occur in the preparation of the coverings of
thefe balloons, fo as to render them nearly impermeable to
the inflammable air : and it has been found that an in-
flammable air-balloon, 30 feet in diameter, may be fo made
as to fuftain two pcrfons and a confidcrable quantity of
ballail in the air for more than 24 hours, when properly
managed ; and one man might poflibly be fupported by the
fame machine for three day.i.

Afrostatios, piiiclice of. The (liape of the balloon is
•ne of the firft objecls of confideration in the conftruftion
©f this machine. As a fphere admits the greateft capacity
tinder the Icaft furface, the fpherical figure, or that which
approaches nearell to it, has been generally preferred.
However, fince bodies of thii form oppofe a greater furface
to tiie air, and conftqucntly a greater obibiiftion to the
aclioii of the oar or wings than thofe of fome otlier form,
and tlierefore cannot be fo well guided in a calm, or in
a courfe different from the direction of the wind, it has been
prdpofed to conllruft balloons of a conical or oblong figure,
and to make them proceed with their narrov/ er-d forward.
Mr. Hoole, an ingenious writer, who is now publifliing a
tranflation of the works of Leeuwenhoek, in his Thoughts
on the farther Improvement of Aeroftation, fuggeils the
Ihape of a filTi as the mod proper ; the fliarp head, under
fuch a form, will ferve to divide the refifting iluid,
and open a paflage, and the tail will ferve as a rud-
der to fteer its courfe. He alfo propofes to fix a feat
for the traveller in the lower part of the body of the
fi(h, or in tlie centre of gravity of the whole mafs, fo
that the machine may be always horizontal, and that
the impulfe of any force ufed there may aftuate the whole
body. And he farther fuggefts, that the traveller fiaould
be furniflied with inilruments of fufficient furface to take
hold of the air, and of fufficient ftrength to bear the whole
exertion of his mufcular force, analogous in their form and
Situation to the fins of fiflies. But by adopting the oblong
fhape, the furface, and confequently die weight of the
cover, muft be augmented, in order to obtain the fame
lifting power with that of a fphere, both becavife its capa-
city will be lefs under the fame furface, and becaufe its
capacity muft be made greater in order to compeniate for
the augmentation of weight. Befides, an oblong machine
cannot eafily be kept with the fmallefl: part forward in the
atmofphere ; and if it ihould turn fideways, as it probably
might, the propofed advantage would thereby be loft : not
to add, that accidental circumitances might occur which
would endanger its overturning.

In order to expedite the calculations that relate to the
«onftruftion of a balloon <3f a fpherical form, it fhould
be remembered, that the circumferences of fpheres are
as their diameters ; their furfaces as the fquares ; and their
fohd contents as the cubes of the diameters. The pro-
portion of the diameter to the circumference of a cir-
«k, i. t, 7 to 22, or I to 31, fhould be rccolkfted ; lj»

cumfereuce, the produtSl will be the furfiice of the fphere ;
i.e. ^5 X 1 10=3850 fquare feet. If this furface be divided
by the breadth (in feet) of the (luff of wiiicl; the b::lloon
is made, the quotient wiil be the number of feet in length
neceflary for conftrudling the balloon : thus, if the ituft" be

3 feet wide, — ^ = 1283] feet, or 428 yards nearly, which

is the quantity for a balloon of 35 feet in diameter. By
knowing the v/eight of a given piece of the ituiT, as of »
fquare yard or fquare foot, it is eafy to find the weight of
the whole bag, by multiplying the furface in fquare feet m
yards by the weight of a fquare foot or yard ; c. g. if each
fquare yard weigh 16 ounces, or one pound, the whole
bag wiU weigh 42S pounds. Agam, the capacity, or folid
content of the fphere, may be found by multiplying -K of t!ie
furface by the diameter, or by taking \\ of the cube of
the diameter ; thus, in the prefent inftance, we (hall have-
22458 cubic feet for the capacity of the balloon, or the
number of cubic feet of air which it will difplace. From
the content and furface of the balloon, we may deduce its
power of afceufion or levity in the following manner : — a
cubic foot of air vreighs, at an average, about l\ ounce,
and adding to the number 22458, its fifth part, we flii'd
have 26950 ounces, or 1684 pounds, for the weight of the
common air difplaced by the balloon. From this weigiit,
dedufting the weight of the bag, or 428 pounds, tliere
will remain 1256 pounds expreffing the levity of the bal-
loon, independently of the contained air. If this be Inflam-
mable air, its weight varies from 5- to -jJ,; the weight of
common air ; if it be taken at -g- of the weight of common

air, then — - — =r 280 pounds will denote the weight of the

air filling the balloon ; and taking this from 1256, /. e>
1256 — 280, will leave 976 pounds, the power of afcenfion
of the balloon, or the weight which it will carry up, con-
fifting of the car, ropes, palfengei-s, ballaft, and other
neceifaries. If heated air be ufed, the denlity of this is
diminiflied about one-third ; and therefore, taking from
1684 one-third of itfeif, there will remain 1123 for the
weight of the contained warm air, and this fubtraclcd from
1256, leaves 133 pounds for the levity of the balloon ; but
as this is not fufiicient for carrying up the car, paflengers,
&c. it is evident that a larger balloon, on Montgolfier's
principle, is neceflarv for the fame purpofe that may be
effedled by a fmaller one of inflammable air. To eftimate
the power of afcenfion correfponding to any given weight,
e.g. 1000 pounds ; fince the levities are nearly as the cubes
of the diair,<;ters, and confequently the diameters as the
cube roots of the levities ; and the levities being as 133 to
1000, i.e. nearly as I to 8, the cube-roots are as i to 2 ;.
confequently I : 2 : : 35 : 70 feet, the diameter of a
Montgolfier, made of the fame thicknefs of ftuff a; the
former, and capable of hfting 1000 pounds. Purfuing the
fame kind of calculation, it is eafy to eftimate the fize of a
balloon, made of iluif of a given thicknefs, and filled with,
air of a given denfity, that will juft float in air. From the
weight of a cubic foot of common air, fubtracl that. of a
cubic foot of the lighter or contained air ; then divide
6 times the weight of a fquare foot of the ftuft" by the
remainder, and the quotient will be the diameter, in feet, of
the balloon that will juft float at the furface of the earth.
Suppofe the ftuft' to be l pound to the fquare yard, or
•^ ounces to the fquare foot, and this multiphed b)* 6 gives
^l ; then the cubic foot of common air weighing i-l ounce,
and of heated air f of the fame, the difference being -^ ;

eon-

A E R

A E R

eofifcquently— divided by |., gives 265. feet, which is the

diameter of a Montgolfier that wjll jufl float : but if inflam-
mable air, t the weight of common air, be ufcd, the diffe-
rence between li and ~ of it is one ; by which d'viding

~ or 10 -J, the quotient loj feet will be the diameter of an

inflammable air-balloon that will juft float. If the diameter,
in either of thefe cafes be increafcd, the refpeftive balloons
will afcend in the atmofphere.

In order to determine the height to which a given bal-
loon will rife, when the diameter of the balloon, and the
weight that exactly balances it are given, proceed in the
following m.anner : — compute the contents of the globe in
cubic feet, and divide its rellraiuing weight in ounces by
this content, and the quotient will be the difference in denfity
or fpecific gravity of the atmofphere at the furface of the
earth, and that at the height to whi' h the balloon will rife ;
fubtraft this difference or quotient from li or I, 2, the
dcnfity at the earth, and the remainder will be the denfity
at that height ; then the height correfponding to that dcn-
fity will be found with fufhcient exaftnefs in the annexed
Table.

e. <^. Let the jiiameter of the bal-
loon be 35 feet, its capacity 22458,
and the levity of the firit 976 pounds,
or 15616 ounces; the quotient of
the latter number divided by the for-
mer, /. e. — ; — is .695, which is the

and

Heiglu-in
miles.

Denhly.

0

1.200

i

1
—

i

I

1. 141

1.085
1.03 I
0.980

1}

0.932
0.886

2

0.842
0.800

2|

0.761

2l-
2i

3

0.723
0.687
0.653

224-5
denfity at the utmoft height,
to which in the Table correfponds
fomov/hat lefs than 2 i miles, and
this is the height to which the
balloon will afcend. \Vlien the
fame baUoon was filled with heated
air, its levity was equal to 133
pounds, or ZI28 ounces, which di-
vided by 2245S, the capacity, gives
the quotient, .095 ; and this iub-
tracled from i.200, leaves 1. 105 for the denfity; to which,
in the Table correfponds half a mile, or more nearly -|- of
a mile. Such are the heights to which thele balloons
would nearly afcend, if they retained their figure, and loft
none of the contained air : or, more precifely, thefe are
the heights at which they would fettle ; for their acquired
velocity would at firll carry them above thefe heights, till
their motion would be deffroyed ; and then they would
defeend below thefe heights, though not fo much ap they
had gone above them : after v.'hich they would reafcend,
and pafs thefe heights again, but not fo far as they had
gone below them ; thus vibrating alternately above and
below thefe heights, but every-time lefs and lefs. Thefe
calculations for finding the height to which the balloon will
afcend, are formed independently of the different ftates of
the thermometer at the highcft point and at the furface of
the earth ; but the allowances to bs made on this account
will appear from what is delivered under the article At-

M0SPHER.E.

Next to the ihape, it is neceffary to confider the fluff that
is moll proper for forming the envelope of the inflammable
0( rarefied air. Silk fluff, efpecially that which is called
liUellring, properly varnifhed, has been moil commonly
ufcd for inflammable air-balloons : and comm.on li;ien, lined
within and without with paper, varnifliod, for thofe of
rarefied air, Vaniilhed paper, or gold beater's flcin, will
aufwer the purpole for making fraall inflammable air-bal-

loons ; and the fmall rarefied aii-b:il!oon3 may be made of
paper without any varnilh or other preparation.

The fluff for large balloons of both kinds require fomc
previous preparation. The bell mode of preparing the
cloth for a machine upon Montgolficr'3 principle, is firfl to
foak it in a foluti'^n of fal ammoniac and fiic, ufing one
pound of each to everj' gallon of water ; and when the
cloth is quite dr)', to paint it over with fome earthy ciJour,
and flrong fizc or glue. It may be alfo varnlfued over,
when pcrfeftly dry, with fome lliif oily varnifli or finiple
drying linfeed oil ; which would dry before it penetrate*
quite through the cloth.

The varnifh for the filk or linen of the inflammable air-
balloons fhould be impermeable to the inflammable gas,
pliable, and fufficicntly dry to adhere firmly to the ftufi.
In Fiance much has been faid of the elaftic gum varnifli ;
but the compofition of it is kept a fecret. This gum i«
known to be foluble in divers effential oils, and a'fo by
vitriolic ether. The former folution fonns a varnifli which
never perfectly dries : the latter dries readily, but the folu-
tion is too dear for common ufe. The following varnifli
has been recommended. To one pint of linfeed oil, add
two ounces of litharge, two ounces of white vitriol, and
two ounces of gum fandarach ; boil the whole for about aa
hour over a flow fire ; then let it cool : feparate it from the
fediment, or ilrain it through a fieve, and dilute it with a
fufficient quantity of fpirits of turpentine. But the befl
varnifli for an inflammable air-balloon is made with bird-hrae.
Mr. Cavallo direfts to prepare it in the following manner,
which, iu his opinion, is preferable to that of M. Faujas dc
Saint Fond. In order to render linfeed oil drying, boil
it with two ounces of facchariim faturni and three ounces of
litharge, for every pint of oil, till the oil hath diffolved them;
then put a pound of bird-hme and h;df a pint of the dr)-ing
oil into a pot of iron or copper, holding about a gallon ; and
let it boil gently over a flow charcoal fire till the bird-hme
ceafes to crackle ; then pour upon it two pints and a half of
drying oil, and boil it for about an hour longer, flirring it
often with an iron or wooden fpatula. As the varnifli in
boiling fwelis m,ueh, the pot fhould be removed from the
fire and replaced when the varnifh fubfidc;. Whilfl it is
boiling, it fliould be occafionally examined, in order to "de-
termine whether it has boiled enough. For this purpose,
take fome of it upon the blade of a large knife, and after
rubbing the blade of another knife upon it, feparate the
knives, and when on their feparation the varnifli begins to
form threads between the two knives, it has boiled enough,
and fhould be removed from the fire. When it is ahnofl
cold, add about an equal quantity of fpirits of tui-pciitine,
mix both well together, and let the mafs reft till the next
day ; then having warmed it a httle, ftrain and bottle it.
If it is too thick, add more fpirits of turpentine. This
varnifh fhould be laid upon the ftufi", when perfecftly dry,
in a luke-warm ftate ; a thin coat of it upon one fide, and
about twelve hours after two other coats fliould be laid on,
one on each fide, and in twenty-four hours the filk may be
ufcd.

Mr, Blanchard's method of making elaftic gum varnifli for
the filk of a balloon is as follows, Diffolve elaftic gum, cut
fmall, in five times its weight of fpirits of turpentine, by
keeping them fome days together ; then boil one ounce of
this fohition in eight ounces of drying linfeed oil for a few
minutes, and ftrain it, Ufe it warm.

The pieces of which an inflammable air-balloon is to b*

formed, muft be cut of a proper fizc, according to the pro-

poftd dimerfions of it, when the varnifli is fufficiently dry.

The pieces that compofe the furface of the ballooa are like

0^1 2 thafe

A E R

tbofe gores that fonn the fuperCcies of a globe : and the
bcft method of cutting tlurn is to defcribe a pattern of
Wfwd or llilf card-paper, and to cut tlic filk or fluff upon it.
0:ie of thcfe pieces, that may fcrve as a pattern for others,
is reprcfcnted in Plate I. Pmviii/i/ies, Ji^t;. 2. In this figure,
fuppofe A E and B C to be two right hues pei-pi-'ndicular to
each other. Then find the circumference aufwering to the
given diameter of tlie balloon in feet and decimals oi a foot ;
and make AD and DE each equal to a quarter of the cir-
cumference, fo that AE may be equal to half the circum-
ference. Divide A D into 1 8 equal parts, and to the points
of divifion apply the lines fg, hi, kl, &c. paVallel to each
other, and perpendicular to AD. Divide the whole cir-
cumference into twice the givjn number of pieces, and make
D C and DB each equal to the quotient of this divifion ; fo
that B C will be equal to the greatcft breadth of one of thofe
pieces. Multiply this quotient or D C by the decimals
annexed io fg, vi-/.. 0.99619, and the product exprefl'es the
length of fg ; and multiply D C by the decimals annexed
to ki, and the produft exprefl'es the length of ii, &c.
Having thus found the lengths of all thefe lines, draw by
hand a curve line, paffing tiirough their extremities, and
this will be the edge of one quarter of the pattern. The
other quarters A B D, E B D, E D C, may be ealUy dcfcribed
bv applying to each of them a piece of paper equal to A
D C. Suppofe the diameter of the balloon to be 20 feet,
and that it is to be made of l ^ pieces. In order to draw
the pattern, find the circumference of the balloon, which is
62,83 feet, and dividing it by 4, the quotient is 15,7 feet :
confcquently AD and DE will be each equal to 15.7 feet.
Divide the circumference 62,83 ^7 ^4' O'' double the num-
ber of pieces that are to form the balloon ; and the quotient
2,618 feet will be the length of DC or BD ; therefore BC
is equal to 5,236 feet. Then dividing AD into 18 equal
parts, and drawing the parallel lines from the points of di-
vifion, find the length of thefe lines by multiplying 2,618
by the decimals annexed to that hne : thus, 2,618 multi-
plied by 0,99619 gives 2,608 feet for the length of y^V
and multiplying 2,618 by 0,98481, we fhall have 2,578 feet
for the length of hi, &c. The pieces cut after fuch a pat-
tern (houkl be left about one half or three quarters of an
inch all round larger than the pattei-n, in order to allow for
the feams. They may be joined by laying about half an
inch of the edge of one piece over the edge of the other,
and fewing them with a double Hitching. Mr. Blanchard
joins them veiy expeditioufly in the following manner. He
lays about half an inch of the edge of one piece flat over the
edgeof theother,and paffesa hot iron over it ; in doing which,
a piece of paper ought to be laid both under and over the filk.
The joining may be rendered more fecure, by running it
with a filk thread, and fticking a ribband over it. The
ribbands laid over feams may be ftuck with common glue,
provided the varnifii of the filk is properly dried. When the
glue is quite dry, the ribbands fhould be varniflied over, to
prevent their being unglued by the rain.

To the upper part of the balloon there muft' be adapted
a valve, opening inward, to which is annexed a firing paJTing
through a hole made in a fmall round piece of wood which is
faftened to the lowell part of the balloon oppofite to the
valve, to the boat below it ; fo that the aeronaut may open
it as occafion requires, and let the inflammable air out of
the balloon. To the lower part of the balloon are fixed
two pipes of the fame fluff with the covering, fix inches in
diameter fur a balloon of thirty feet, and much larger for
balloons of greater fize, and long enough to reach the boat.
Thefe pipes are the apertures througli which tlie iuflam-
mable air b introduced into the ballo;<u.

A E R

The boat may be made of wicker-work, and covered with
leather, well painted or varniflied over. The beft me-
thod of fulpending it is by means of ropes, proceeding from
the net which goes over the balloon. This net fliould be
formed to the Ihape of the balloon, and fall down to the
middle of it, and have various cords proceeding from it to
the circumference of a circle, about two feet below the
balloon ; and from that circle other ropes fhould go to the
edge of the boat. This circle may be made of wood, or of
feveral pieces of (lender cane bound together. The mclhes
of the net may be fmall at top, agaiull which part of the
balloon the inflammable air exerts the greateft, force, and in-
creafe in fize as they recede from the top. A hoop has been
fometimes put round the middle of the balloon for failening
the net. This is not abfolutely neceffary ; but when ufed,
it is befl; made of pieces of cane bound together, and covered
with leather. When the balloon and its appendages are
conftrufted, the next objeft of importance is to procure
proper materials for filling it. With relpeft to thofe in-
flated by heated air, nothing need be faid tiU the method of
filling them is defcribed.

Inflammable aV for balloons of the other kind may be
obtained in feveral ways ; but the beft methods are by ap-
plying acids to certain metals ; by expofing animal, vege-
table, and fome mineral fubftances, in a clofe veffcl, to a
ftrong fire ; or by tranfmitting the vapour of certain fluids
through red-hot tubes.

In the firll of thefe methods, iron, zinc, and vitriolic acid,
are the materials moft commonly ufed. The vitriolic acid
muft be diluted with five or fix parts of water. Iron may
be cxpetled to yield in the common way about 1700 times
ityown bulk of gas; or 4^ ounces of iron, tire like weight
of oil of vitriol, and 22i ounces of water will produce one
cubic foot of inflammable air : fix ounces of zinc, an equal
weight of oil of vitriol, and 30 ounces of water, are neceffary
for producing the fame quantity. It is more proper to ufe
the turnings or chippings of great pieces of iron, as of
cannon, &c. than the tihngs of that metal ; becaufe the heat
attending the effervefeence will be diminiihed, and the di-
luted acid will pafs more readily through the interftices of
the turnings, when they are heaped together, than throurrh
the filings which ftick clofer to one another. The weight
of the inflammable air, thus obtained by means of acid of
vitriol, is, in the common way of prociinng it, generally
one-feventh part of the weight of common air ; and with the
neceffary precautions for philofophical experiments, lefs than
one-tenth of the weight of common air. The other elaltic
fluids, which are generated vfith the inflammable air, may
be fepai-ated from it by paffing the inflammable air througli
water, in which quick-Ume has been diflolved ; the water
will abforb thefe fluid's, cool the inflammable air, and pre-
vent its overheating the balloon, when it is introduced into
it. As white vitriol is fold much dearer than the vitriol of
iron, it will be a faving to make the inflammable air by
means of zinc and vitriolic acid, rather than of this acid and
iron : becaufe the fale of the white vitriol arifing from the
former will, in a degree, be a compenfation for the expence
of the materials.

Inflammable air may alfo be obtained at a much cheaper
rate by the action of fire on various fubftances ; but the gas
thus obtained is not fo hght as that produced by the efler-
vefcence of acids and metals. The fubftances proper to be
ufed for this purpofe are pit-coal, afphaltum, amber, rock,
oil, and other minerals ; wood, and efpecially oak, camphor
oil, fpirits of wine, oether, and animal fubftances, whicii yield
air of different degrees and of various fpecific gravity. But.
pit-coal is the fubilance moft proper to be ufed. A pound,

of

A E R

AE R

of pit-coal, expoftd to a red heat, yitlds about three ciiWc
feet of inflan^niable air, which, whether it be pafled throiigli
water or not, weighs about one-fourih of the weight of an
equal bulk of common air.

Dr. Pricftley obfervcs, that animal or vegetable fubftanccs
will yield fix and even ten times more inflammable air, when
the tire is ludJenly increafed than when it is gently raifed,
though it be afterwards made veiy ilrong. And Mr. Ca-
vallo informs us, that the various fubflanees above enume-
rated generally yield all their inflammable air in about an
hour's time. Tiie ufual method is to indole the fubdances
in earthen or iron veflels, and thus to expofe them to a
llrong fire fufScicnt to make the vefTels red-hot ; the inflam-
mable air proceeding from the apertme of the vcflel, is re-
ceived into a tube or refrigeratoi^, and pallliig through the
tube or worm, is at lail cuUedled in a balloon or other vef-
fel. A gun-barrel has been often ufed for eflays of this
kind. The manner of conducing this procefs is particu-
larly deicribed by Mr. Cavallo, ubi infra.

The lall method of obtaining iiiflammible air was lately
dilcovered by Mr. Lavoilier, and eJfo by Dr. Prleftley.
Mr. Lavoifier made the fteam of boiling water pafs through
the barrel of a gun, kept red-hot by burning coals. Dr.
Prieltley ufes, inftead of the gun-barrel, a tube of red-hot
brafs, upon which the fteam of water has no effeft, and
which he tills with the pieces of iron which are feparated in
the boring of cannon. By this method he obtains an in-
flammable air, the fpecitic gravity of whicli is to that of
common air as l to 13. In this method, a tube about three
quarters of an inch in diameter, and about three feet long, is
filled with iron turnings ; then the neck of a retort or clofe
boiler is luted to one of its ends, and the worm of a refrige-
ratory is adapted to its other extremity. The middle part
of the tube is then funounded with burning coals, fo as to
keep about one foot in lengtii of it red-hot, and a fire is
always made under the retort or boiler fufficientto make the
water boil with vehemence. In this procefs a confiderable
quantity of inflammable air comes out of the worm of
the refrigeratory. It is faid that iron yields one half
more air by this means, than by the aftion of vitriolic acid.
See Hydrogen.

Balloons of the fmaller fize, fucli as thofu of two or three
feet in diameter, and alio bladders, may be filled with in-
flammable air, after pafling it through water, by means of
the following fimple apparatus. See Plate I. Pmiimat'ics,
fig. 3. A is the botde that contains the ingredients which
produce the gas : BCD is a tube in form of a fyphon,
faftened by one extremity into the neck of this bottle, and
paifing through a hole of the ftopper of another bottle E,
it extends fo far as almoil to touch the bottom of this bottle,
which is nearly full of water. To another hole made in the
cork of the bottle E is adapted another tube, to the out-
ward extremity of which a bladder, or the aperture of the
balloon is tied. The inflammable air, coming out of the aper-
ture D of the tube, paffes through the water of the bottle E,
and then enters into the bladder or balloon. Two fmall
caflis might be ufed inilead of the bottles A and E.

Auetiier apparatus for producing hydrogen and conveying
it into a balloon is exhibited in ;?o-. 4. ABC is a veflel
made of clay, or of iron, in the form of a Florence flaflc ;
and the fubltance yielding gas is introduced into it fo as to
occupy about -}ths, or lefs, of its cavity. If the fubftance
fw;!! much by the Jittiou of the fire applied to it, a tube of
braf i, or riril a braf^ and then a leaden tube muft be luted to
the neck C of the veflel, and the extremity D of the tube is
Tnade to pais through the water of a tub H I, and to ter-
minate under an inverted veflel E Fj to the upper aperture

of wliicli the balloon, or a tube going t« the balloon is
adapted. When the part, A B, of the veflel is put into
the tire, and made red-liot, the inflammable air that is gene-
rated will come out of the tube C D, and palling tlirough
the water of the tub, it will at lall enter into the balloon Ci.
As a confiderable quantity of common air remains in tlie
inverted veflel E F, before the operation is begun, it fliould
have a llop-cock, K, through which it may be drawn out
by fuftion, and then tlie water will afcend as high as the
llop-cock. The aperture of the vefll-I, E F, fliould be at
lead one foot below the furface of the water in HI; and
the fire fliould be at a fuflicient dillance from the tub H I,
that the inflammable air, if any of it fliould efcape, may
not take fire and do injury.

The method of filling large aerollatic machines with rarc-
fi :d air is as follows. A fcaifold A B C D j' J'/alf 1 1 . /-. 5 . )
the breadth of which is at leall two-thirds of the diameter of
the machine, is elevated about fix or eight feet above the
ground. From the middle of it defcends a well E F,
rifing about two or three feet above it, and reaching to the
ground, furniflied with a door or two, through which the
fire in the well is fupplied with fi:el. The well Ihould be
conftrufted of brick or of plallered wood ; and its diame-
ter fliould be fomewhat lefs than that of the machine. On
each fide of the fcaffold are erefted two malls H I, K L,
each of wliich has a pulley at the top, and rendered firm
by means of n.pes K G, K P, H P, H G. The machine
to be filled is placed on the fcaffold, with its neck vwind the
aperture of the well. The rope paffing over the pullies of
the two malls, ferves, by pulling its two ends, to lift the
balloon about fifteen feet or more above the fcaffold : and
the rell of the machine is reprefented by the dotted lines in
the figure M N O. The machine is kept Heady and held
down, whilil filling, by ropes paffing through loops or holes
about its equator; and thel'e ropes maybe eafily difengaged
from the machine, by flipping them through the loops,
when it is able to fuflain itfelf. The proper combufl:ibles
to be lighted in the well are thofe which burn quick and
clear, rather thafi fuch as produce much fmoke ; becaufe it
is hot air, and not fmoke, that is required to be introduei.d
into the machine. Small wood and llraw have been found
to be very fit for this purpofe. Mr. Cavallo obferves, as
the i-efult of many experiments with fmall machines, that
fpirits of wine are upon the whole the bell combullible ;
but its price may prevent its being ufed for large ma-
chines. As the current of hot air afcends, the machine
will foon dilate, and lift itfelf above the fcafi'old and gal-
leij, which was covered by it. The paflengers, fuel, in-
ftruments, &c. are_then placed in the gallery. When the
machine makes efforts to afcend, its aperture raufl be
brought, by means of the ropes annexed to it, towards the
fide of the well, a little above the fcafiold. The fire-place
is then fufpended in it ; the fire lighted in the grate ; and
the lateral ropes being flipped off, the machine is abandoned
to the air. It will appear in the atmofphere as it is repre-
fented in^'. 6. It has been determined by accurate expe-
riments, that only one-third of the common air dan be
expelled from thefe large machines ; and therefore, the
afcendlng power of the rarefied air in them can be efiimated
as only equal to half an ounce avoirdupois for every cub.c
foot. The apparatus for filling an inflammable air balloon
is reprefented in Jjg. 7. A, A are two tubs, about three
feet in diameter, and nearly two feet deep, inverted in
larger tubs, B, B, full of water. At the bottom of each
of the inverted tubs there is a hole, to which is adapted a
tin tube E, about feven inches in diameter, an.! fevcn or
eight inches long. To thefe tubes the filken tubes of the

balloon

A E R

balloon are tied. Eacli of the tubs, B, is fiiiroundcd by
fcvcral Ilrong caflc^, fo regulated in number ai;d capacity,
as to be lefs than half full, when the materials arc equally
dillributed. In the top of each of thefe c.ifks are two
holes ; and to one of the holes is adapted a tin tube, formed
fo as to pafs over the edge of the tub D, and through the
water, and to terminate with its aperture^under the inverted
tub A. The other hole, which fervcs for fupplying the
ca!l< with materials, is flopped with a wooden plug. Thefe
tin tubes may be about tliree inches and a half in diatpeter,
and the other holes may be fmaller. Two marts, with a
rope, &c. are uled for this machine, as well as for the for-
mer, although tliey are not abfolutely necelTary ; becaufe
the balloon, bv means of a nanow fcaffold, or other con-
trvance, mav be elevated five or fix feet above the level of
the tubs A A. When the balloon is to be filled, the net
is put over it and fufpended, as exhibited in CDF; and
having expelled all tiie common air from it, its filk tubes
are failened round the tin tubes E E, and the materials in
the caPivS are properly proportioned ; the iron being firil put
in, then the water, and lailly the vitriolic acid. The bal-
loon will foon be inflated by this inflammable air, and fup-
port itt-'lf without the aid of the rope G H. As the filling
advances, the net is adiuilcd round it, the cords, proceed-
ing from the net, are faftened to the hoop M N ; the boat
I K is fufpended from the hoop M N, and every tiling ne-
ceffary for the voyage is depofitcd in the boat. When the
balloon is a httle more than three quarters full, the filken
tubes are feparated from the tin tubes, and their extremities
being tied, they are placed in the boat. Finally, when
the aeronauts are feated in the boat, the lateral ropes are
flipped off, and the machine afcends in tlie air, appearing
as in _^. 8. In order to produce fuch a- bulk of in-
flammable air as is neceffar)' for a balloon of 30 feet in
diameter, whofe capacity is 141 37 cubic feet, there will be
required about 3900 pounds of iron turnings, 3900 pounds
of- v'itrioUc acid, and 19500 pounds of water. The balloon
will not be above three quarters full.

Thefe proportions, ftated by Mr. Cavallo, are too great
with refpecl to the metal and acid, and too fmall with re-
gard to the water. Mr. Lunardi, who had confiderable
experience in the praftice of aeroftation, filled his balloons
at Edinburgh and Glafgow with about 7000 pounds of the
chippings of cannon procured fromCarron, the fame quantity
of vitriolic acid, and 12,000 pounds of water. The iron was
placed in layers in his velTels, with ftraw between them, in
order to enlarge the furface expofed to the aclion of the
acid. He ufed only two large calks, which were funk in
the ground, and conveyed the gas into the balloon without
paiTing through water ; and he contrived to fill his balloon
in lefs than half an hour, which operation had on former
occafions required at leaft two hours.

The inflammable air with which they fill their balloons
at the Aeroftatic Inftitute, not long fince eftablifhed in
France, is obtained by the following method, which is
fimple and not very expenfive. Six cylinders, or tubes of
iron, are fixed by niafonry in a furnace of cafy and expe-
ditious conllruftion, in fuch a mariner that the two' ends of
each cylindL-r projeft out of the furnace ; and thefe are
fm-nifhcd with ftrong covers or lids of iron. Into thefe
cyhnders are introduced tubes of metal, one of which fcrves
to coiivej' warm water into the red-hot cylinder, and the
other to convey the air which is produced through a refer-
voir filled with ca iftic ley, into the balloon. The cylinders
are partly filled with the chippings or turnings of iron that
are procure,! from the boring of cannon. The exceffive heat
of the furnace, which is maintained by a fupply of char-
I

A E R

coal during the operation, is communicated to the cylinder*
and their contents. In this llate, billing water is conveyed
by one of the tabes to each cylinder ; and as foon .is it
communicates with the i:;flamed iron, the water is decom-
pofed : the one part, called the oxygen, attaches itfelf to
the iron at.d calcines it ; but the other part, or the hydro-
gen, is combined with a quantity of the igneous fubftan.ce,
called caloric, and becomes hydrogenous gas, or inflamma-
ble air, which remains in a permanent ilate of claftic
fluidity, and weiglfs feven or eight times lefs than the
atmoipheric air. As the water contains a fmall quantity of
carbon or fixed air, which would add weight to the air of
the balloon, it is made to pafs through water in which
caulHc alkali has been diflblved. This fluid attaches the
carbon to itfelf, and thus the pure inflammable air is con-
veyed into the bal'oon. The cylinders, in this operation,
are fometimes fufed ; for preventing which accident, a
pyrometer is annexed to the extremity of the cylinder which
projects from the furnace ; and the fire is regulated by a
fcale conncfted with the pyrometer. The operation of
filling a balloon, 30 feet in diameter, in this way wiD occupy
about four hours.

In eftimating the afcending power of thefe machines,
that of the inflammable air Ihould be confidered as equal to
one ounce avoirdupois for every cubic foot, which is one
fixth of the weight of common air ; and therefore, if the
capacity of a balloon is 12000 cubic feet, and three-fourths
of it are filled with inflammable air, obtained from iron and
diluted vitriolic acid, the afcending power of that ga$
may be eftimated at 9000 ounces, or 562^ pounds; from
which the weight of the covering, boat, and other ap-
pendages, mull be fubti-acled.

The conducl of balloons, when confhructed, filled, and
adlually afcending in the atmofphere, is an obieft of great
importance in the praftice of aeroftation. The method
generally ufed for elevating or lowering the balloons with
rarefied air, has been the increafe or diminution of the fire ;
and this is entirely at the command of the aeronaut, as long
as he has any fuel in the gallen^. The inflammable air-
baUoons have been generally raifed or lowered by diminilhing
the weight in the boat, or by letting out fome of the gas
through the valve. But the alternate efcape of the air in
defcending, and difcharge of the ballad for afcending, will
by degrees render the machine incapable of floating ; for in
the air it is impoffible to fupply the lofs of ballaft, and very
difficult to fupply that of inflammable air. Thefe balloons
will alfo rife or fall by means of the rarefaftion or condenfa-
tion of the inclofed air, occafioned by heat and cold. It
has been propofed to aid a balloon in its alternate motion of
afcent and defcent, by annexing to it a veflel of common
air, which niight be condeufed by lowering the machine,
and rarefied again, by expelling part of it, for railing the
machine. But a vefiel adapted to this purpofe mud be very
ftrong, and, after all, the afliftance afforded by it would
not be very confiderable. M. Meunier, in order to attain
this end, propofes to inclofe oi\e balloon filled with common
air in another filled with inflammable air : as the bidloon
afcends, the inflammable air is dilated, and of courfe com-
preffes the internal balloon containing common air ; and by
diminilhing its quantity, leffens its weight. If it fliould be
ncccffary to fupply this lofs, he fays it may be eafily done
by a pair of bellows fixed in the galler)'. Others have pro-
pofed to annex a fmall machine with rarefied air to an in-
flammable air-balloon by ropes, at fuch a diftance that the
fire of the former might not affeft the inflammable air of
the latter : the whole apparatus, thus combined, of balloons
formed on the two principles of heated and inflammable air,

might

A E R

A E R

wiffht te ralfed or lowered by merely increafnig or diminifli-
ing the fiie in tlie lower balloon. Wings or oars feem to
have contributed little to the eft'ciSt of e tlier i-aiilng or low-
ering balloons.

Many fchemes have been propofed for direfling the ho-
rizontal motion of balloons, borne have thought of an-
nexing fails to a balloon, in order to give it the advantage of
the wind ; but to this propofal it has been ohjefted, that
as the aeroilatie machines are at reft with refpcdl to the air
that furrounds them, they feel no wind, and confcquently
can derive no benefit from the fails. An ingenious writer
obferves, that the caCe of vcfTels at fea is qi;'te different
from that of balloons ; bccaufe the former move with a
velocity incomparably lefs than that of the wind impelling
them, on account of the ri> (Isnce of the water; and
therefore, the difference between the velocity of the wind,
and that of (liips, oceafions tliat ftrcam of air which afts
upon the fails. But a balloon, finding no refiftance, ac-
quires the fame velocity with the furrounding air, and
therefore can feel no wind. The fame author adds, that
the moft rational projefts for direfting an aeroftatic machine
are thofe wliich propofe to exert a force againft the ambient
air on one fide of the machine, fo as to move it in the oppofite
direction. Oars and wings are the only inftiuments that
have been ufed for this purpofe with any meafure of fuc-
cefs ; but farther experiments are neceflary to afcertain
their effeft. If wings or oars be ufed, the beft method of mov-
ing them is by the immed ate application of human power, as
in the cafe of the oars of boats on the water. Howeverthey
iliould be as large and light as poflible ; and they may be
made of filk ftretched between wires, tubes, or fticks. If
they are flat they mull be turned edgeways when they
are moved in the direftion of the balloon's courfe, and flat in
the oppofite direftion. One of the wings, ufed by Mr.
Blanchard, is reprefented \nji<;. 9. That ufed by Mr. Lu-
jiardi confided of mary fillc Ihutters or valves ABC D, DE
C F, &.C. (Jig. 10.) each of which opens only on one fide,
viz. A D B^C upon the hnc A B, D E C F upon the
line D C, &c ; and by this conftruAion, it becomes unne-
ceflTaiy to turn thefe oars edgeways. One of the wings,
conilruAcd by Zambeccari is exhibited in fig. \ i, and is no-
thing more than a piece of filk ftretched between two tin
tubes fet at an angle ; and fo contrived as to turn edgeways
of themfelves, when they go in one direftion. Fig. 12.
reprefents one of the wings ufed by Meflrs. Roberts, in
the voyage of September 19th, 1784. The greateft effeft
produced by the wings of an aeroflatic machiiie was that
which occurred in this voyage. It is not difficult to deter-
mine what force is neccffary to move a given machine in the
air with any propofed velocity. Dr. Hutton found, from
accurate experiments, that a globe of 6| inches in diame-
ter, and moving with a velocity of 20 feet in a fecond, fuf-
tains a refiftance from the air, which is equal to the weight
or prefTure of one ounce avoirdupois ; and that with diffe-
rent furfaces and the fame velocity, the rcfiftances are di-
reftly proportional to the furfaces nearly ; and alfo that,-
with difl^erent velocities, the refiftances are proportional to
the fquares of the velocities nearly. By thefe data the re-
fiftance to move a given balloon with any velocity may be
afligned. Let the balloon be 35 feet in diameter ; then if
it moved with the velocity of 20 feet per fecond, or ahnoft
14 miles per hour, it would counteraft a refiftance equal to
371 pounds ; with a motion of feven miles an hour, the re-
fiftance would be 68 Tjounds ; and at three miles and an half
in an hour, the refiftance would be 17 pounds ; and fnch is
the force with which the aeronauts muft aft on the air in a
contrary diredion, in order to communicate fucli a degree

of motion to the machine. If tlie balloon move thro\igh a
rarer part of the atmofphf re than that at the furface of the
earth, as 3d or Jth, fee. rarer, the refiftance will be lefs in
the fame proportion ; yet the force of t!ie oars will Ve di-
minilhed as much ; and therefore the fam.e difficulty re-
mains. It may be <>bi'ervcd in general, that the aeron?Ht
muft rtrike the air, by means of his cars, with a force juft
equal to the refiftance of the air or the Ipalh-on, and there-
fore he muft ftrikc that air with a velocity wbii h muft be
greater as the fuiface of the oar is lefs than the refiftid fur-
face of tile globe, but not in the fame proportion, becaiife
the force is as tlie fquare of tlie velocity. Kupi'ofi. that the
aeronaut afts witli an oar equal to 100 fquare feet of fur-
face to move the balloon above-mentioned at the rate of
20 feet per fecond, or 74 miles an hour, then he muft
move this oar with the great velocity of 62 feet per fecond,
or nearly 43 miles an hour : and fo in proportion for other
velocities of the balloon. Hence it is highly probable,
that it will never be in the power of man to guide fuch
machines with any tolerable degree of fuccefs, cfpceially
when any confiderablc wind blows, which is generally the
cafe. A helm feems to have no particular power in direft-
ing the courfe of a balloon, for the fame reafon that has
been alledged to evince the inefficacy of fails. We have
not in air, as in water, fays count'de Mirabeau, in his Con-
fiderations on the Order of Cincinnatus, the refource of a
fixed point of aftion upon a fluid, which has alfo much
greater refiftance than air. He adds, that as there are dif-
ferent currents of air, fometimes in oppoiite dircftions, and
balloons are capable of afcending and defcending in fearch
of thefe currents, this circumftance may favour the hope of
direfting aeroftatic machines. Perhaps, an attention to the
means by which birds fly againft the wind, added to obfer-
vations of comparative anatomy upon fifties and birds, which
furmount the currents of the two fluids that are common
to us and them, may alfo fugj^eft new ideas with refpecl to-
the direftion of balloons. Time alone, and ncmerous ex-
periments, can bring thefe rtfleftions to maturity, and rea-
hze the expeftations fuggefted by them.

Several of the foreign journals have lately announced an
invention of profeftor Danzel for direfting an air-balloon
through the atmofphere. W^ith this view he hasconftiiiifted
two cylinders, or axles, to the ends of v.hich are fixed, in
the form of a crofs, four fails, or oars_, moveable at the point
of their infertion in the cylinder, in fuch a manner, that
when made to move round by means of a liandle, the eight
oars, like the cogs of a water-mill wheel, prefent fucccflivcly
to the air fometimes their flat fide and fometimes their
edge. To caufe each oar to turn back on itfelf about the
fourth part of a circle, M. Danzel has not only left fufiici-
ent play at the point where the ftiek of each oar is infertcd
in the cyhnder, but has placed the ftick in fuch a manner
that the air itfelf makes the oar fall back, at each turn, with
the neceftaiy velocity and precifion. Each of the two cylin-
ders, armed with its four oars or fails, is deftined to occupy
one fide of the balloon, with its four oai-s on each fide. For
a farther account of this apparatus and of its efTcft, fee
Philofophical Magazine, vol. iv. p. 108.

As parachutes, in the form of umbrellas, have been pro-
pofed in order to guard againft accidents, and to break the
fall in cafes of fudden defccnt, we fliall here annex a method
of eilimating the power of fuch defenfive machines, A
perfon, moving uniformly at the rate of ten feet per fecond,
may defcend \wth fafety. For this uniform defcent the re--
fiftance of the air muft be equal to tlie whole defcending
weight. Ruppofe then that the weight of the aeronaut is
J50 pounds, and that tlie parachute i$ flat and circular, and

made

A E R

made of fuch matctals as llint every fquare foot of it weighs
two ounces, ami thai the « i^l'.l iucvoatcs in the proper

tiim of the incrcalc of t!ic fi-

II i\\h talc the diameter

of tlie parachute, wliich w il dciotnd at the 'late of ten
feet per fccoud, mull be upwards of 78 feet 5 but if the
parachute be concave on tlie lower fide, its power will be
r.\t'iT •.^■•! Mtrr, and its diaintter nay be lefs. In order to
t . : 1 I I : iwer of a flat circular paracluite, or the re-
liilaiiet ii i...^ii witli fru.n air of a mean dcnfity, when de-
.fcendi:i(» with a given velocity, fay as the nun'.ber isoo is to
tiie fqiiarc of the velocity jn feet, fo is the fquare of the
diameter in feet to a fourth number, wlilch will be the re-
fillance in poundi. And if it be required to know, with
what velocity a paracluite will delcend with a given weight,
fay a> the given diameter is to the fquare root of the weight,
fo is the nun.ber zSj to a fourth, wliich will be tU? veio-
citv in air of a mean denfity. Thus, if the diair.cter of a
b;dloon be 50, and its weight, together with that of a n.an,
be 530 pounds, the fquare root of which is 23 very nearly ;
then 50: 23 :: 28', : 13 ; and therefore tlie man and pa-
■' raeliutc will dcfcend wltii the velocity of 13 feet per feeond,
which, as it is equal to that acquired by leaping freely
from a lieight of two feet two inches, may be vei7 fafely
fullained.

Aerostation, ///rj 0,/i The advantages of an art, fo
lately difcovercd, have not yet been fufiiciently afcertained ;
but we may reafonably expett, eonfidenng the progrefs it
has ma<le in fo (hoit a fpace of time, that many benefits
mav refnlt from the farther prolecution of it. To fay the
leail. It is unphilofophical to difcourage future trials and
improvements, becaufe the ufes jf this art do not immedi-
ately appear. With regard to philofophical obfervations,
derived from aeroilation, it is acknowledged that very few
have yet been made. The novelty of the dilcovery, and of the
profpeCl, fays Mr. Cavallo, has generally dillrafted the at-
tention ; and befides, moft of the aerial voyages have been
liiade by perfons who had pecuniary profit alone in view,
or who were lUmulated to afcend in the atmofphere for the
fake of the profpeft, or by the vanity of adding their
names to the lift of aerial adventurers. Aerial navigation,
confidered as a mode of travelling between diftant places,
independently of its furnifliing means of conveyance to
places othcrwife inacctffible, is attended with many advan-
^tages and conveniences. The aeronaut has much lefs
trouble with this machine than a failor with a (hip in the
moft favourable circumftances. "With a moderate wind,
aerial navigators have often gone at the rate of forty or fifty
miles an hour, and very commonly at the rate of thirty
miles witliout any agitation, or even feeling the wind, and
without the danger of lofing time by being often becalmed.
Aeroftatic machines may ferve the purpofc of efcapii:;r
from (hips that cannot fafely land, from befieged places,
and from other circumftances of danger. A fmaJl balloon
fix or feveji feet in diameter, fays an anonymous author in
his propofal of various means for faving the crews of veflels
ftiipwrecked near the coall, would anfwer this purpofe, by
canying to the fliore a ftring capable of drawing a cord,
with which feveral ropes might be afterwards conveyed to
the veffcl. They alfo expedite the communication of im-
portant events by llgnals, and ferve for exploring, from a
great elevation, adjacent coafts or regions, fleets and annies.
To the latter of thefe porpofes they have been actually ap-
plied by the French, in the courfe of the laft war ; and to
tlie elevation of a balloon, and the information obtained in
coiifequence of thus reconnoitering the army of the enemy,
they aicribe the fignal viclory obtained in the battle of
Jleurusin 1794. The balloon employed on this occafion,

A E R

was called the Entrtpr:nant, and it was under the dirci£tion
of M. Coutd, the captain of the aemnauts at Meudon, ac-
companied by an adjutant and a general. He afcended
twice in the fame day, to the height of 220 fathoms, for
the purpofe of obferving the pofition and manoeuvres of the
eiiemv. He continued each time four hours in the air, and
correiponded with General Jourdan, who commamkd the
French army, by means of pre-cojicerted fignals. I'he en-
teipiife was difcovered by the enemy , and a batteiy opone4
its fire againlt the afcending aeronauts ; but they foon
gained an elevation which was beyond the reach of their
fire. This balloon was prepared iu>der the direflion of thp
j'krOjQatk Institute, for the ufe of the army of t!:e north;
as were alfo another called Cehjh, for the anny of the
Sambre and Meufe ; and the Heraile and Intref'uU, for the
army of the Rhine and iVIofelle. Another, thirty feet in
circumference, and weighing 160 pounds, was deftined for
the army of Italy. A new machine, invented by M. Conte,
the director of the Aeroftatic Inititute, was defigned to aid
the aeronauts in communicating intelligence, and was de-
nominated the Acrojlat'ic Telegraph. Balloons may like-
wile ferve to explore the ftate of the atmofphere at differ-
ent heights, and to furnifti obfervations, which fhall illnftrate
a variety of phenomena, depending on the denfity, tempera-
ture, and other qualities of the an\ From one experiment
that has been already made we learn, that the air of a
high region, prefei-ved and examined by means of nitrous
air, was found to be purer than the air below. The appli-
cation of thefe machines to eleftrical experiments, is a very-
obvious ufe of which they are capable. The firft perfon
who employed them in this way feems to have been fhe
Abbe Bertholon, at Montpellier. He raifed feveral air
balloons, furniihed with long and (lender wires, having
their lower ends fattened to a glafs ftick, or other infulating
fubftance ; and thereby obtained fronn the wires eleftric
fluid fufHcient to iliew the attraftion, repulfion, and even
the fparks of eleClricity. The exiltence of a continual elec-
tricity, of the pofitive kind, in a clear atmofphere, known
indeed before, has been farther afcertained by ilrings faf-
teiied to balloons floating in the atniolphere. Some have
apprehended danger from the electricity of the atmofphere ;
and have thought that a ftroke of lightning, or the fmallell
eleftrical fpark, happening near a balloon, might fet fire to
the inflammable air, and deftroy both the machine and the
adventurers. Mr. Cavallo has fnggefted (everal confidera*
tions for dimir.Khing apprehenfions of this kind. Balloons
have been already railed in every feafon of the year, and
even when thunder has been heard, without injury. ]n
cafe of, danger, the aeronauts may either defcend to the
earth, or afcend above the region of the clouds and thunder
ftorms. Befides, as balloons are formed of materials that
are not conductors of electricity, they are not likely to re-
ceive ilrokes, efpecially as by being encompaffed with air
they ftand infulated. Moreover, inflammable air by itfelf, or
unmixed with a certain quantity of common air, will ijot
burn ; fo that if an electric fpark fhou'd happen to pafs
through the balloon, it would not fet fii-e to the inflammable
air, unlefs a hole was made in the covering.

For a variety of other important and ufeful particulars
relating to the fubjeft of aeroilation, we mu(l refer to Mr.
Cavallo's curious and comprehenfive work, entitled, the
Hiftor)- and Practice of Aeroftation, 8vo. 1785; which
will afford the reader ample inforraation concerning the
principles of this art, and the hiftory of its progrefs, the
method of conftrufting and managing balloons, the na-
ture and preparation of the materials of which they are
formed, the obfervations and ufes to which tliey are
2 adapted.

^ R U

ndapted, and-rulcs for eflimnting the heiglits to which they
afceiid.

See alfo for an account of fcveral publications on this
fubjeft and abftratts of tlitir contents, Monthly Review,
vol. Ixix. p. 551. — vol. Ixxi. p. 379. — vol. Ixxiii. p. 99. —
Meyer's Fragments fur Paiis, torn, ii, p. 107, &c. Hut-
ton's Math. Dia. Art. Aeroflation.

AERSCHOT, or Arschot, in Geography, a town of
the Auftrian Netherlands in the duchy of Brabant, and ca-
pital of the diftridl of the fame name,»\vhich was railed to
a marquifite in 1507, and to a duchy in 1533. The town
is fmall, but fortiiied and well inhabited, fcated on the river
Demer, about ten miles tall of Mechlin, and eight miles
north of Louvain, and contains a collegiate church, two
monalleries, and three nunneries. It belongs to the Houfe
of Aremberg. N. lat. 51°. E. long. 5° 44'.

AERTSEN, in Biography. See Aarsens.

^RVA, in Botany, a genus of the monaddph'ta decan-
dria clafs and order. The charafters of which are, that
tire flowers are polygamous ; the calyx is five-I,eaved and
patent ; the (lamina are five, and ban-en ; the piftillum is a
globnlous ovaiy, having a filiform ftyle terminated by a
bifid ftigma ; the fruit is a capfule, which is oblong, fingle-
feeded and encompaffed by the calyx. There is one fpecies,
viz. JK. icgfptiaca or tomcntnfa, which grows on fandy cal-
careous foil in Arabia. La Riarck thinks it bears affinity to

the AMARANTUS.

iERUGINOUS, fortething partaking of, or hke to,
the ruft of copper.

Authors do not feem perfcftly agreed about the colour
to be exprefled by this word, fome exprefling by it green,
others brown.

iERUGO denotes rust, efpecially that of copper.

Naturaliils fpeak of two kinds of n-nigo, one nali-ve, and
the othvv fciilitious : the na/ive, is only the fuperficial par-
ticles of the metal diffolved ; and intimately mixed with
acid fait ; in which form it is ordinarily found in copper-
mines, and other moill places : and the arllfu-lal, commonly
called vF.RDiGRisE, or copper converted into a green
calx bv vinous acid.

One fpecies of natural <triigo is a greenldi marcafite, like
the drops of iron ; it is found in copper-mines, but is of no
ufe. Diofcorides (hb. v. c. 91, 92.) and PKny (lib. xxxlv.
c. II. 12.) lay cxprcfsly, that a fubftance of the nature of
thefe ftones, which yielded cop])er when melted, was fcraped
off In the mines of Cyprus, much In the manner now prac-
tifed in Hungary, where the outer coat of the copper ore Is
thus coUefted, and afterwards purified by being wafiied In
water. Another fpecies, according to the account*of Dio-
fcorides, was procured from the water of a grotto in the
fame Ifland ; and the moft faleable natural vcrdigrife is ft.111
obtained in the fame way in Hungary. The clear water
which runs from old copper works is put into large veffels,
and after fome time the green earth falls to the bottom as
a fedlment. There is alio, on lome mountains In Moravia,
a fort of green grains, like fand, that is of a grafs green,
ivhen ui( d in painting. It is called the Hungarian tnoim-
tail!, or/ea •verdigrift: See nwunla'in green.

jIIrugo rafil'is, or 4t5 vir'nle. Is a mil formed on copper,
Ity hanging a plate of It over the ilrongtft vinegar for
fome time, without fufiering' the one to touch the other.
It was only ufed externally by Diofcorides and the ancient
phyfielans for cleanfing ulcers, and deltroying excrefcences ;
but it has been more lately employed externally with cf-
fence of mynh and honey of rofes in fiilulte and aphthse,
and alfo internally for malignant ulcers that have corroded
the bones, and either with or without turbith mineral as a

Vol. I.

JE S

remedy for men or hearts that have been bitten by mad
dogs or wolves. The dofe has been from three to fix gialns.
Pills, formed of the lenago, in a manner however that ha<
been concealed, have been recommended for a cancer of the
breafts ; but their beneficial effedt Kas been difputed.
Gmelln's App. Med. voL i. p. 346.

A'.v-VGO Jalis, In Natural HtJIpry,z name given by PUny,
and fcveral other ancient authors, to a rcddini filmy Jnat-
ter, feparatcd from the Egyptian fait, called natrum,
in purifying it. We find this matter remain in the filter,
on diflblving and filtering the Egyptian nitre, at this
time ; it feems to be a mixture of bituminous matter,
and a red eartli, which had mixed tliemfelves among the
cakes of the fait, during the time of their concreting from
the water.

iERUSCATORES, formed from ifrufcan, to heg, mump,
&c. in Anliqudy, a kind of (harping ilrollers, who got their
living by tricks, telling fortunes, and the like, much like
modern gyplies. The term is alfo applied to oppreffive tax-
gatherers.

The Gall'i, or priefts of Cybele, were called grufcalores
niag/iie matris, on account of their begging, or collefting
alms in the ftreets. To which end they had little bells
whereby to draw people's attention to them, much like fome
orders of mendicants abroad.

AERY, or Airy, in fpeaking of hawks, eagles, or the
like, anfwers to the nest of other birds.

./ES, In jintiquily, has various fignlfications ; but it pro-
perly denotes brafs or copper. It was for a long time ap-
plied indlfcriminately to either of thefe metals ; and it was
not till a late period that metallurglfts, in order to diftin-
gullh them, gave the name cuprum to copper : as copper wa»
the firll metal ufed in coinage by the Romans, the word aei
was ufed In their language to fignify money In general. It
■ llkewlfe denoted a particular coin made of that metal.

^s caldarhim, or cajl brafs, otherwife called as olarlum,
or pot brass, is a fpecies of brafs mentioned by Pliny, which
was not capable of being hammered. This is likev/ife a
term ufed by the German irinerahjls, for a fubftance
which fometimes occurs to thofe who work upon co-
balt, and is ufed for making the fine blue colour called

SMALT.

jEs candidum, among the Anc'tsnts, was different from that
which we call white brafs ; it Is a purer and whiter kind of
metal found, it is fald, under the veins of filver, fomewhat
analogous to Venetian talc. They had probably a me-
thod of making Copper while 2iS well as yello'w, equal, if
not fuperior, to that now in ufe. The phrafes of ortchakum
album in Virgil, (jEn. xli. v. 87.) and \aiKa-i xpa/iiK among
the Greeks, ftrldtly fignify 'white brass.

jEs Corinthium, a precious metallic compofition, of a
much finer colour than common brafs, and for its beauty
little inferior to gold. Pliny fays, (Hift. torn. II. p. 640.
Ed. Hard.) that this was an accidental mixture of metals
at the fack and conflagration of Corinth by I-. Munimlus,
146 years before Chriil ; when the gold, filver, and brafs
ftatues, and all metallic fubftances, melting and mingling
together, formed this mafs. He fays, that there were three
forts of Corinthian brafs, viz. the red, the white, and that
which was of the coloin- of money, according to the different
proportions of gold and filver livat were In It. But fome re-
finers, who have flriftly examined this metal, find no gold
in it ; a circumflance which, if true, fuggefts one reafon,
among others, for concluding, that this account is fabu-
lous. However, the f^hle has been interpreted by fome to
fignify, that tlie art of making copper into brass wa»
firll dilcQvered by the Corinthians, who found the cala-

R r MINE

JE S

JE S A

MIME Bone on tTie plains of Pcfoponnefus, or at lead that
thcv LivugLt this art to iHifcrtioii.

^s corotmrium, is iifc\! by Pliny, (H. N. torn. ii. p.
6J9.) to denote hi-afs wroiig-lit into thin plntos, ajid which,
he lap, ftaincd with the pill of bulls, furnilhed a foit of
gold tor the crowns of players. This was called its i!uc-
till, in contradillinCtion to the rfr J'liJiL; or <tt caidaiiiim.
Th«y were both brought from Cyp. us.

its Cybrium, was a kind of copper produced in the
jfland of Cyprus. This denomination was firll given to
co]>i)cr in general ; whence it was called cyprium, and at
Kiigtii aiftruin. The fuperion'ty of the Cyprian copper
gave occallon to this appellation.

^ijiavum, yello'j) iapbtr. All the Roman authors have
mentiaiKd the method 01 making brass with calamine and
etippcr ; but their finell kind, which they called orkhakum,
or iiuri.-hjicum, they dillinguinied fronj the inferior forts,
which had only the name of xs flavum.

JEs grave denoted money among the Romans, which was
paid by weight, and not by tale. In this fenfe it is ufcd by
Buddxus and Scaliger.

But others by is grave underftand large pieces of copper
coined, containi'i^r, for inilance, an as, or pound of that me-
tal, fuch as we find current in Sweden. Thefe they affert bore
tlie title a?s grave, till the time in which they were reduced
to a fmaller llandard. — Gronovius, on the contrary-, main-
tains, that the as, or pound weight, did not acquire the
appellation, xs grave, till after their reduftion. Philof.
Tranf. N°. 19.

Kuller rejefts all thefe opinions, and aflerts, that the ex-
prcfiion is ufcd to denote any kind of copper-raoney com-
pared with gold or filvcr ; which, with regard to the bulk
and fize of the pieces, was much lighter, though of greater
ralue.

But this fyftem, however plaufible, is rejefted by feveral
learned men, particularly Perizonius, and Mr. XVard.
The former has a difTcrtation on the fubjett, wherein
the opinion of Gronovius is farther examined and de-
fended.

jEs hepalicon was of a filveridi colour, and probably what
vlie moderns call bronze ; though fome confound it with
the its Cor'mthium.

JEs patiperiim is a name given to copper ore, diveiled of its
filvcr, when it contains any.

M% rude, that unfhapcd, or not falhioned for any parti-
«ular purpofe. — Some will have this to be the fame with es
grave. — The money, during the fiift ages of Rome, was all
uf this kind.

Others, by xs rude, underftand metal undamped ; in op-
polition to asf<?^nalum, that ftampcd, or coined.

.^s vjlum, called alfo<tj Veneris, — as crimalum, — crocus Ve-
neris, and cinis /cris, is a term which, like many others among
the old chemifts, has been applied to two or' three different
fubflances ; it is, therefore, ou tliis account defervedlyreitfted
from the reformed nomenclature. Kunkel (Labor. Chym.
p. iii. c. 35.) employs it as a general denomination for a
perfcft oxyd of copper prepared by heat ; the exprtlFion
is, however, more commonly employed to denote a pharma-
ceutical preparation once n-.uch in vogue as an efcharotic,
but now fallen into dlfufe. This ks uilura eflcntially con-
fills of copper and fulphur ; snd the different varieties ori-
ginate from the relative proportions of the ingredients, and
the different ftates of oxydation of the copper. It is ufu-
ally prepared by ilratifying in a crucible copper clippimrs
and powdered fuljjbur, and heating the crucible by degrees
till it ccafts to emit any vapours ; it muft then be raifed to a
dull red heat for an horn- ; there rcfults a brittle mafs which

when pulverized and wa/hcd is the fubtlance In queflion,
Barchufen's method is dill more finiple, coiifilling merely in
heating a flip of copper to w'aitcnefs, and rubbing it with
a roll of brimftone ; as fooji as it is taken out of the fire,
the copper combines eagerly with the fulphur, and the com-
pound runs down in drops, and is recei\ed in a bafon of
water : this is then pulverised and waflied. In both thefe
cafes the compound is a fliglitly oxydated copper, f-iUirated
with fulphur; of an iron brown colour. In addition to
thefe proceffcs Lemcry goes on to heat the fulphurate-d
oxvd in a reverberatoi-y nine times fiicccfTively, quench-
ing it in linfeed oil ;ilter each roalUng. He thus obtains
a produifl of a high red colour, which in fact is a limplc
oxyd of copper, the fulphur being burnt out. Some
recommend a mixture of nilre or common fait with the ful-
phur, and the fubltance refulting from this, if not wallicd, 19
certainly a very powerful efcharotic on account of the ful-
phnrated alkali which is thus combined with the oxyd of
copper. As to the fal ammeniac and vinegar, in which fome ■
previoufly lleep the copper, it is wholly ufelcfs, aU its effeft
being deilroved by the fubfequent heating. Diet. Method.
Art. .iEs ullum. — New Difpenfatory, 1765, p. ^(^8.^
Beaumc's Chymic. Experiment, vol. ii. p. 651. — Gren's
Chemiftry, vol. ii.p. 269.

jEs uftum is very dr)'ing and deterfive, and has been, on-
that account, mixed with plafters and unguents, for dicing
up fillulous ulcers, and imbibing acrimonious humours, or
fanies. It is alfo commended for diforders of the eyes ;
and joined with cardomoms and honey-water, it has been'
prefcribed internally to epileptics, with whom, according to
Diofcorides, it operates as an emetic, and according to-
Aretxus, as a laxative. See Gniehn's App. Med. vol. i,.
p. 344. It is hkewife ufed for colouring glafs.

^s UKorium, in Anliquily, a fum paid, by bachelors, as a.
penalty for living ilngle to old age.

This tax for not manying feems to have been firfl im—
pofed in the year of Rome 350, under the cenforfhip of M.
Furius Camillus, and M. Pofthumus.

At the cenfiis, or review of the people, each perfon was-
alked, Et tu ex anima ftntcntia uxorem hahes lilcrutn quizren~
dorum caufa ? He who had no wife, was hereupon fined after
a certain rate, called jes uxorium.

iEs ; jlos .£ris, called by the Greeks, x"-^"-'^ av9oc
(fometimes confounded by moderns with chalcanthum), is-
prepared of copper melted, and removed into other fur-
naces, wlierein being expofed to a farther and greater heat,
and vehemently agitated by bellows, it depofits an infinite
number of fmall fcales, like millet grains, which being-
feparatea by lotion, make the flos a:ris. The cold water-
is poured on the copper, as it runs out of the furnace into-
the receiver.

JEs ; fquama JKris properly denotes flakes of thaf
raetal ftnick off by the hammer, in the operations of the-
forge, &c. Thefe, from the Cyprian copper-works, art
called Hclilis.

j^& ; per jEs £5' lilrnm vs^i'iifonniila in the Roman law,
whereby purchafes and iales were ratified.

Originally the phrafe feems to have been only ufed ia-
fpeaking of things fold by \veight, or by the fcales ; but
it afterwardo was ufed on other occafions. Hence even in
ADOPTIONS, as tliere was a Idnd of imaginary purchafe,
the formula thereof exprelTed, that tlie perfon adopted
was bought per ass & libram.

yESA, in jinclcnt Geography, a tov.-n of Thrace, near
Pallene. Steph. Byz.

jESALON, in Ormtholigy, a fpecies of falcon, called

in Er.glillj the merlin. /Ej'alan cwolimctijij, is the name

3 giveK

M S C

jrTven by CrirTon to tlie accifiUr nunor of CattfljT) and the
FALCO /pnrvi-rins of Liniianis, which has a ydlow cere,
brown head, red vertex and abdomen, and bhiifh wings.
The head of the female is cncompaded by fcvcii Uackifli
fpots.

iESANTS, in /Inaent Gfcgrnphy, a town of Phrygia'
Major, according to Ptolemr.

yESAPUS, a river of Myfia, in Afia Minor, according
to Strabo, which rofe fouth-weil of Sccpfis, and dif-
charged itlclf into the Propontis, weft of Cyzicus.

jTiSAR, Strcl.no, a river of Etruria in Italy, which, fays
Strabo, (oined the Anius at Pifa, but its mouth is faid to
"be ten miles north of that of this rivtr.

^SAR, \\\ AJylhol'igy, a deity of the Etnafcans. It is
faid that the letter C being obliterated in the word Caj'ar,
annexed to a ftatne of Augullus, the augurs deduced from
this accident on the part of the ftatuary, a forrowful pre-
fage. As C was a numeral letter, denoting lOO, they con-
cluded that he had not loo days to live : but as the word
iEfar was tlie name of a deity, they thence inferred that he
would be deified after his deatli.

jESARONENSII, in Ancient Geography, a people of
the nortliern part of Sardinia.

jESARUS, Efaro, a fmall river of Brutium, which
watered the town of Croton. Ovid (iNIct. 1. 15. V. 23.)
calls it jEfaris.

jESCH, in Ichthyology, a name by which fome have
called the grayling, or tumbler, a fiih of the truttaccous
kind, called in Latin thymaUiis.

jESCHINES, in Biogrciphf, an Athenian philofopher of
low extraftion, faid by fome to be the fon of Chaiinus, a
faufage-maker, and by others, the fon of I.yfanias. He dif-
covered an early dciue of knowledge, and, though opprcfled
by poverty, was affiduous and perfevering in the purfuit of
it. With this view he placed himfclf under the tuition of
Socrates, who was gratified by the refpeft which was paid
to him by this young and ftudious, though mean difciple.
Upon flrft offering himfelf to the notice of Socrates, he
told the philofopher that the only thing which it was in his
power to prefent him, in return for his kindnefs in giving
him inftruftion, was himfelf. Socrates replied, that he
Accepted and efteemed the prefent, and hoped to render it
inore valuable by culture. He adhered to his mafter with
unalterable fitlelity and conftancy, and enjoyed his particular
fricndfhip. Impelled by poverty, he determined to quit
Athens ; and after the example of Plato and others, to vifit
the court of Dionyiuis, the tyrant of Sicily, who was,
at this time, either through vanity or jealoufy, a general
patron of philofophers. Upon his arrival in Syracule, he
was flighted by Plato on account of his poverty ; but
Ariflippus introduced him to the prince, by whom he was
liberally rewarded for his Socratic Dialogues. Plutarch,
however, vindicates Plato from this charge, and fays that
when he was neglefted at Syracufe, the philofopher recom-
mended him to Dionyfius, and engaged for him the protec-
tion anel favour of the iovereign. See Plut. Commentarius
de Adulatoris et Amici difcriminatione apud Opcr. torn. ii.
p. 67. Ed. Xyland. jEfchines remained in_ Sicily till the
txpulfion of the tyrant, and then returned to Athens.
But fearing to become a rival of Plato or Ariftippus, who
were in high eftecm, by any public exhibition, he taught
philofophy in private, and maintained himfelf by the pecu-
niary recompence which he received ""or his inftruftions.
Afterwards, in order to gain a more ample fubfillence, he
appeared as a public orator. Laertius fays, that he wrote
judicial orations for the vindicrition of the innocent. Be-
fides orations and epillles, iEfchines wrote fevcn Socratic

JE S C

• Dialogues in the true fpirit of hi* mailer, on (entperance,
moderation, humanity, integrity, and other virtues : of
which only three are extant, i'/i. one concerning Virtue,
whetiier it can be taught ; a fecond concerning Riches,
whether they are good ; and a third, concerning Death,
whether it is to be feared ; a fragment of a fourth, on the
Duties of a State of Marriage, may be found in Cicero
de Inventione Rhetorica, Li. c. 31. They are pubhfhed by
I^e Clerc, with notes and fcveral dilTertations, in the
" Silvaj Philologies." Amftelod. 171 1. Eabricius ( Bib!.
Gra:c. tom. i. p. 829.) Suidas (in Aicr;i^nEi) and Lucian
(de Parafito. Op. toin. ii. p. 860. Ed. Reitv;ii.) have given
an account of them. Some have charged him with pur.
loining the works of Antillhenes, and with pubhlhing dia-
logues of Socrates, confided with him by Xantippe, as hie
own. This JEfchines, who is a different perfon from ^f-,
chines the orator, is faid by Diodorus Siculus (Hill. tom. ii.
p. 62. Ed. WelTeling.) to have flouriflied about the l05d
Olympiad.

.^scHiNES, the 0/-<7/or,was the fon of Atrometus, a gram-
marian and fchoolmafter, and Glaucothea, who is faid to have
been a timbrel-player. See Lucian (in Somn. tom.i. p. 17.)
Pliiloftratus (de vit. Sophiil. ap. Oper. p. 506. Ed. Olearii.)
He was diiliiiguiflied, as Plutarch fays (X Oral. Vit. ap,
Oper. tom. ii. p. 8.p. ) neither by his birth nor riches.
In his youth, iEfchines being of a robuft conflitution, de-
voted himfelf to the exercifes of the gymnafium, and
having a clear voice, he performed a part in the exhibition
of tragedies. Some fay that he attended the leisures of
Ifocrates and Plato ; but according to others, he received
inftntd'tion from Alcidamas, the preceptor of Gorgias.
Plis progrefs, however, was confiderable, and he became
a competitor with Demofthenes ; and by his public condutl:
incurred his difpleafure. When the Athenians negociated
a peace with Philip of Macedon, JEfchines and Demof-
thenes were two of the ten ambafladors employed for this
puipofe. On this occafion, it is faid that .^fchines was
bi-ibed by Philip, and perfuaded the Athenians, in oppofi-
tion to the remonflrancefrof DemoHhencs, to confide in the
promifes of the fovereign of Macedon. Thus deluded, they^
gave this prince an opportunity to poffefs himfelf of Ther-
mopylae, and to enter the tcrritor)' of Phocis. Philip^
afpiring to be a generaliffimo of the Greeks, was anxious to
be appointed to this office by the council of the Amphyc-
tions. With this view, he contrived, by intrigue and cor-
ruption, to engage the fupport of jEfchines ; who, in a
ftudied oration, prevailed with the deputies of the Greek
cities, aflembled in the council of the Amphyftions, to
eleft him for their general, and to invert him with full
power to aft as he (liould think proper. By this artifice
Phihp got pofTefllon of Elataea, the chief city of Phocis,
and thus eftablifhed himfelf in a fituation the mofl favour-
able for the execution of his farther defigns. Demofthenes
exerted all his powers of eloquence to roufe the Athenians,
and to induce them to unite with the Thebans in difcon-
certing the machinations of Philip. His eloquence was
effeftual, and the two hoftile armies encamped near Che-
ronsa, a city of Bccotia. The wifdom and force of Philip
prevailed, and Demofthenes, being lefs a warrior tlian a
llatcfman, and being more capable of giving counfcl in his
harangues than of enforcing and fupporting it by intrepid
courage, threw down his arms, and fled with the otlier
difcomfited troop.;. The fliock which Athens received at
this time, the effeft of which it was never able to recover,
was afcribed to Demofthenes ; and jEfchines took the lead
in criminating his rival : and he, accordingly, drew up an
pccufation againlt Ctefiphon, or rather agaiufl. Donollhencs.
Rr 2 The

JE S C

The confllifl between thcfi- two orators excited very prcneral
attention, and the two orations tiiat wore dclivrrcd by them
ks\e been always confidcred as the mallcr-pieccs of aiiti-
quky, cfpecially that of Dtiiiollhcncs, which is more powci--
ful and imprel'livc than that of jEfchines. The latter loll
Lis caufe, and was fcntenced to baniduucnt for his rafli accu-
liition, ante ChrilK 3:^0. Upon this, he fettled at Rhodes,
vherc he opened a Vchool of eloquence, the reputation of
vhieh f.ibfilled for many ages. He is faid to have commenced
his lectures with the two orations that had oecafioned his
lianilhment That of /lifchines hinifclf was received with
appliiufe ; but wiieii theduditor. heard that of Demofthenes,
their plaudits were redoubled. On this occafion, yEfchincs
declared, with a candour and liberality highly honourable
to him as an enemy and rival, /K/'u/ applauj'es would you iwt
lave ie/h-Mtel, if vou hail heard DemojUienes /peak it kimfelf!
Plutarch and Phiioilratus, uli fiipra'. When iEfchines left
Athens, in order to embark for Rhodes, Demofthenes ran
after him and oliliged hin\ to accept a purfe of money ;
upon which jEfchines exclaiined, How will it be pojihle for
me not to regret a country, in nvhich I leave an enemy more
generous than I can hope to find friends in any other part of the
•world I From Rhodes, ylLfehines removed to Samos, and
there he died, at the age of 75 years. Some have faid, that
.^chines was the firll who delivered extemporaneous ora-
tions, a praftice which others have afcribed to Gorgias.
Philortratus extols him for luminous perfpicuity, decorous
gravity, and dillinguidied energy ; and he is denominated
by Dcmoilhenes fj.iyyXo'fjini-xlo:. Quinftilian, comparing
liim with Demollhenes, fays of him, (Inft. Orat. 1. x. c. i.
torn. ii. p. 901. Ed. Burman.) Plenior ^fchines, et magis
fufus, et grandiori fimilis, ,quo minus Jlriclus ejl : carnis tamen
plus hahet, lacertorum minus. Photius afcribes nine epif-
lles (according to the number of the mufes) to jEfchines ;
but there are twelve, which were addrefled to the Athe-
nians when he was an exile at Rhodes, in Wollius's edition
of Demofthenes and ^fchines, p. 205 ; and Taylor has
added them to his edition. The ancients acknowledge only
three genuine orations, viz. I. Adverfus Timavchum (Wolf.
Ed. p. 259.) Timarchus was his accufer, and it is faid
that in confequence of the reproaches of jEfchines he laid
violent hands on himfelf. 2. l)e falfa Legalione, (lb. p. 395.)
This is an apology for himfelf againil Demofthenes, who
bad aecufed him of perlidy in an embafTy to Phihp. 3.
Adverfus Ctefiphontem, (lb. p. 425.) who decreed the
golden crown to Demofthenes. Fabricius compares thefe
orations to the three graces. Another oration, intitled
Aii)>.iaxo-; vo/iof, was formerly infcribed with the name of
.^fchines ; but the ancients afcribe it to another perfon of
the fame name. See Plutarch and Philoftratus, ubi fupra.
Demofthen. et ^fchin. Opera, by Wolfius Francof. 1604.
Fabricius. Bibl. Graec. tom. i. p. 412 — 928, &c. Laertius,

Stom. i. p. 118. tom. ii. p. 107. Ed. Meib.) mentions
everal other perfons, called yEfchines ; and this identity of
name has oecafioned no fmall confufion in the hiftory of the
perfons, and particularly with regard to the Socratic philo-
fopher and Athenian orator, who are the fubjefts of thefe
arlicles.

^SCHNA, in Entomology, the name of a fpecies of
water-fly, of an afti-colour, with four wings, and a long
body, hairy near the tail.

VESCHRION, in Biography, a fellow citizen, and one of
tlie mafters of Galen, by whom he is mentioned with refpeft.
He had great faith in a medicine he invented againft the ef-
fefts of the bite of a mad dog. The following is the prefcrip-
tion, and it is, without doubt, as efficacious as the famous
eompofition recommended by Dr. Mead. Take of the aflies

iE S C

of lobfters, burnt alive in a copper veiTel, ten parts ; of
gentian, in powder, five parts ; of jucanfa, one part ; mix
them, and let the patient take a fpoonful in a glal's of
water eveiy day, for forty days. There are fome idle cere-
monies direded to be obfervedin making the powder, which
are here omitted.

jESCHY, in Geography, a town of Switzerland in the
Canton of ISern ; two leagues fouth-eaft of Spiek.

AESCHYLUS, in Biography, the famous tragic poet,
was bom at Athens, in the fail year of the 63d Olympiad,
or the 525th year before Chrift, according to the Arundehaii
marbles, on which Stanley, in his notes on the life of this
poet, relics. He was the fon of Eupliorion, and diftinguiihed
by his military valour as well as by the exercife of thofe fignal
tdents, which intitle him to the appellation of the father of
tragedy.

At the battle of Marathon, his brother, Cyna?gynis,
lignalized himielf ; and, as Herodotus informs us (1. ii. p.
491. Ed, WefTel.) laid hold of the prow of one of the Per-
fian (hips with his hands, which were cut ofl" by an axe, fo
that he died of his wounds : and his youngeft brother
Aminias, fays Diodorus Siculus (1. xi. p. 426. Ed. WefTel.),
who had the command of a fquadron of flaps, conduced
himfelf with fuch ikill and braveiy^, that he funk the ad-
miral of the Perfian fleet, and gained diftinguiihed honour.
In thefe battles, as we learn from Pautmias (l.i. p. 35. Ed.
Kuhnii), as well as in thofe of Platxa and Artemifium, he
was prefent ; and we are affured that he acquitted himfelf
with honour. But his principal attention was direfted to the
eompofition of tragedies and the improvement of the ilage.
Paufanias informs us^ (1. i. p. 49.) that he was admoniftied
by Bacchus, when a boy and afleep in the field, to write
tragedies ; and that when he awoke he made a trial and
fucceeded.

His mind was naturally ftrong and ardent; and the
aufterity of his charafter was manifefted by his filence and
gravity. From his youth he had been accuftomed to the
lelTons of thofe poets, who, living near to the heroic times,
conceived ideas correfponding in fublimity to the illnftrious
deeds that were then atehieved. In the filftory of thefe re-
mote ages he beheld eveiy where the imprefs of grandeur,
and frequently that of ferocit)-. In order to bring fcenes of
this kind to view, and to exhibit, as it were, before the eyes
of the fpedlator the time and place, and various circum-
ftances of events, vEfchylus employed all the refources of
theatrical reprefentation : and thus the illufion became a
reality. Snfarion and Thefpis, and Phrynichus, the difciple
of the latter, had proceeded but a little way. Thefpis
indeed had introduced a fingle actor, and Phrynichus
felefted that kind of verfe which is nioft fuitable to the
drama, and made fome other clianges ; neverthelefs tragedy
was in its infancy before the time of ^fchylus. In his firit
tragedies he introduced a fecond aftor ; and, afterwards,
copying the example of Sophocles, who had juft entered on
his theatrical career, he admitted a third, and fometimes
even a fourth. By thus multiplying perfons, one of liis
aftors became the hero of the piece, and pofTefted the princi-
pal intereli: ; and as the chorus now held only a fubaltern
ftation, iEfcliylus abridged its part. He is ccnfured for
having admitted mute charafters into his drama ; but it has
been fuggefted that the veil which covered them and the
filent grief which they manifefted, produced a more fenfible
efiecl than any lamentatiotis and tears. What he has faid
of his hero Hippomedon (Sept. contr. Theb. v. 506.) may
be applied to hiinfelt :

" Before him ftrides

Gigantic terror, tow'ring to the ikies."

And

iE S C

And yd he kiifw how to fct bounds to the emotions
which he earndlly hibourcd to exciie, and conilatitly
avoided poUuting the Itagc with blood ; for he wilUcd to
produce fccnes that (hould be terrible but not horrible. He
rarely excites pity or tears, either bccaufe he was naturally
dellitute oi a very delicate fenlibilily, or bccaufe he did not
wifli to render his auditors effeminate. An ingenious
author (See Anacharfis's Travels in Greece by the Abbe
Barthcleini, vol. vi. p. lo, &e.) has examined the manner
in which iEfchylus has acquitted himielf in the different
parts of tracjedy, vi«. in the fable, manners, fentiments,
diilion, decoration, and mulic. His plots, fays this writer,
are extremely iimple ; and he fometimes intereils us merely by
the recital of fafts and the vivacity of the dialogue (in Sept.
contr. Theb.) ; and at other times (in Suppl. and Eumen.)
by the vigour of his ftyle, and the terror of his fcenes. In
his eftimation the unities of action and of time weroeffential,
but that of place lefs neceffary. His chorus makes a part
of the whole. It is the comforter of the wretched, the
connfellor of kings, the terror of tyrants, and the confident
of all. Sometimes it participates in the aftion during its
whole continuance, as in Suppl. and Eumen. The chaiafter
and manners of his perfonages rarely fail in fuitablencfs and
confiilency. He ufually wrote liis models from the heroic
times, and fuftains his charafters at the elevation to which
Homer had raifed iiis heroes ; and it fliould be rccolleCfed
that he wrote in the time of the Perfian war. As he in-
clines more to excite terror than pity, he feeks only to ren-
der his charafters more furious, but without injury to the
theatrical intereff. See the charafter of ClytKmneftra, in
Agamemnon; and particularly v. 1571, 1445, 1494, 141 1,
1398, 1506.

In his time no other ftyle was known for heroic compo-
Ction, but that of the epopoeia and that of the dithyram-
bic. As they fuited the elevation of his ideas and fenti-
ments, yfifchylus, without enfeebling them, referred them
to tragedy. HuiTied away by an enthuliafm, which he was
unable to govern, he lavilhes epithets, metaphors, every
figurative expreffion of the emotions of the foul, and what-
ever may give weight, ftrength, and magnificence to lan-
guage, or animate and render it impaffioned. Beneath his
vigorous pencil, narrative, fentiments, and maxims, are
changed into images, which are ftriking for their beauty or
fingularity. Of a man of confummate prudence, he fays,
(Sept. contr. Theb. v. 599.) — " He reaps thofe fage and
generous refolutions, which fpring in the deep furrows of
his foul ;" and he thus warns a free people early to watch
over the condudl of a citizen dangerous from his abilities
and his riches : " Beware how you nurfe up a young lion,
how you carefs him while he yet fears you, or how you
refill him when he is grown a ilranger to fear." And yet
thefe fliinlng paffages are fometimes accompanied by an ob-
fcurity, which arifes not only from his extreme concifenefs
and the boldnefs of his figures, but alfo from new words
with which he affefted to enrich his ftyle. The ftyle of
^fchylus is in general noble and fubhme : in certain parts
grand to excefs, and pompous to inflation ; but fome-
times degraded and difgufting by ignoble comparifons, a
puerile play on words, and other dcfefts which are com-
mon to this author, with all thofe who poffefs more genius
than taite. But notwithftanding his faults, he merits a
diftinguiihed rank among the moft celebrated poets of
Greece.

iEfchylus adapted the drefs of his charafters, and
the decorations of the theatre, to thofe impreffions of
grandeur which he wiflied to produce on the minds of the

JES C

auditors. As nature had given to lieroes a lofty flature
and imprcffed a majefty on their perfims which commanded
refpeil, /Efchylus raifed his attors on high ftilts or bulkins.
He covered their features, which were often irregular and
difagreeable, with a made ; he clothed them in ilowlng and
magnificent robes, fuch as the priclls of Ceres have not
blulhcd to adopt. The inferior adtors were alfo provided
with ma(l<s and drcffes fuited to their parts. He alfo ob-
tained a theatre, furnilhed with machines, and embellilhcd
with decorations. Here the found of the trumpet was
reverberated, the incenfe was feen to burn on the altars, the
(liades of the dead to arife from the tombs, and the furies to
rulh from the gulphs of Tartarus. At the fight of fome oi
the dreadful fpectres which he contrived, and the found of
their hideous bowlings, it is faid that terror feiy.ed on tlic
whole affembly, women mifcarried, and children expired
with fear : and the magiftrates were under a necefTity of
iffulng orders, that the chorus ftiould confiil only of 15,
aftors inftead of 50.

.iEfchylus paid particular attention to the performance of
the actors, regulating their ileps, and diiecling them to
give additional force to the aftion, by appropriate and ex-
preilive gefturcs. He alfo inftrudUd them more effectually
by his example, as he performed with them in his pieces.
Befides, he employed a perfon, called Teleftes, who had
brought the art of gefture to fuch perfeftion, that in the
reprefentation of the feven chiefs before Thebes, he per-
formed with fo much truth and expreflfion, that his aftion
might have fupplied the place of words. Sec Athenxi
Deipnofophift, 1. i. p. 22. Ed. Cafaub.

ikfchylus alfo applied to tragedy the lofty modidations
and impetuous rhythmus of certain airs calculated to excite
courage, without adopting thofe innovations which began to
disfigure the ancient mufic. His choral chant is full of
grandeur and decorum, and conftantly in the diatonic
genus, which is the moft fimple and natural of all.

Quinftilian(Inft. Orat.l. i. c. i. torn. ii. p. 897) gives the
following charafter of -(Efchylus, as a writer ; " Tni^^aiuas pri'
mus in lucem JEfchylus protuVit, fublimis et gravh, isf gnvulilo-
qiius fiipe ufque ad vit'iiim, fed rudi in pkrifque i5f iticompofitiis,
ice." Longinus (Ed. Pearce, p. 99.) fays, that he had a
noble boldnefs of expreflion, a'nd that his imagination was
elevated and heroic. Some have afferted that he never com-
pofed but wlien he had drank freely ; and by others he has
been compared to Shakcfpcarc for energy of fentiment and
ftyle, as well as for the exprefrion of charafter and paflion by
the happy ufe of trivial circumftances. Horace deferibes
the character of jEfchylus in his Ars Poet, v. 282, S:c.

" Poft hunc perfonK, pallceque repertor honefts,
jEfchvlus, et modicis inftravit pulpita tignis,
Et docuit magnumque loqui nilique cothurno."

jEfchylus, fays a modern author, exhibits both the beau-
ties and the defefts of an early original writer. He is bold,
nervous, and animated ; but very obfcure and difficult to be
underftood ; partly by reafon of the incon-cft ftute in which
his works have been tranfmitted to us, and partly on ac
count of the nature of his ftyle, which is crouded with
metaphors, often harfli and tumid. He abounds with mar-
tial ideas and defcriptions. He has much fire and elevation ;
lefs of tendernefs than force. He delights in the marvel-
lous. The ghoft of Darius in the Perfs, the infjjiratioii
of Cnffandra in Agamemnon, and the fongs of the Furies in
the Eumenides, are beautiful in their kind, and ftrongly ex-
prefti-e of his geuliis. Blair's Ledt, vol. iii. p. 340.

iEiian informs us ( Var. Hill;. 1. v. c. xviii. tom. i. p. 433.
^ Ed.

JE S C

EJ. GroTiovO, that iCfchylus was charged with impifty hy
tlic Alhciilaiis, and condemned to be ftoned to death.
The grinind of the charge is not that whicli Herodotus and
I'aufania'i have fupjiofed, viz. j'Lfchylus's adopting the
thcofjony of the Etjj-ptians rather than tliat of tlie Greeks,
and prefuming to fay that Diana was the daughter of Ceres
and not of Latona ; but more probably that which Clemens
Alex, lias dated (Sirom. 1. ii. oper. lorn. i. p. 467. Ed.
Potteri.) that yTifchylus, being himfeif uninitiated, profaned
the mylleries by cxpofing them in one of his dramas on the
ftage. However this be, the Athenians were preparing to
execute the fentence that was pronounced againfl:.i£lciiyhis,
when hii brotlscr Aminias drew afidc his cloak and pic-
fented liis arm without a hand, which he had loft at the
battle of Salamis, in defence of his country. This fight
intererted tiie compalTion and honour of his judges, and
induced them to lovoke their decree and to pardon
iEfeliyius.

Plutarch (in Cimon. op. torn. i. p. 48 v) ^'^Y^' '^''^^ ■^^'
chylu5, being difgnfted with the preference given to Sopho-
cles in the contelt for the prize of poetic merit, abandoned
his country and went to reiide in Sicily. Tliere Hiero dif-
tinguillied liim with benefatlions and honours : but he foon
died, at the age of 69 years, ante Chrift. 456. Pliny informs
us, (H. N. I. X. c. iii. torn. i. p. 547.) that whilll he was
walking in the field, in order to avoid a danger of which he
was forewarned, with refuedl to the mode of his death, an
eagle, hovering over him in the air, let fall a tortoife upon
his head, for the purpofe of breaking tlie (liell, which in-
ftantly killed him. The following epitaph, conipofed by
himfeif (for the original of which fee Paufanias, p. 35.
Ed. Kuhnii.) was engraved on his tomb : — " Here lies Ai-
chyhis, the fon of Euphorion, born in Attica. He died
in the feitile countiy of Gela. The Ptrfians and the woods
of Marathon will for ever atteft his valour." At the time
when he wrote thefe hues, he was unqueftionably difguftcd
with literary fame, and knew no gloiy more illullrious than
that of arms.

The Athenians decreed honours to his memory ; and
authors who have intended to dedicate their talents to the
theatre, have gone to offer libations, and to recite their
works at his tomb. There are feveii of his tragedies
extant, of which the bed edition is the foHo of Thomas
Stanley, publifhed in 1663, with a Latin tranflation and
learned Commcntaiy. There have been many other edi-
tions, and alfo trandations (See Fabric. Bibl. Grxc. tom. i.
1. ii. c. xvi. p. 600 — 618.) of thefe tragedies: Potter's
tranflation, publifhed in 4to. at London, 1777; and after-
wards in 2 volumes, 8vo. deferves to be particularly men-
tioned. Stanley, in his I^ife of iEfchylus, has mentioned
feveral other perfons of the fame name.

^SCHYNOMENE, formed of aiT;)(;i;vo;xai, lohe nfiamed,
becaufe it retreats from the touch ; kiflurd ftiifilive plant,
ill Botany, a genus of the diaiUphia decnndna clafs and order ;
and of the natural order of piipdiuimceie or legiimhwfir. : the
charafters of which are, that the calyx is a one-leafed, bell-
fliaped, fubbilablate with equal lips, upper bifid, and lower
three-toothed penantliium ; the corolla papilionaceous, with
fub-cordate, fcarcely gaping, large banner, fubovate, obtufe
wings, Ihorter than the banner, and lunate, acuminate keel
of the length of the wings : the ftamina have l o fila-
ments, fingle and nine-cleft, andfmall anthers: the pillillum
is an oblong, villous, columnar germen, the ftyle fubulate
and riling, the ftigmas fimple, rather obtufe : the pericnr-
pium is a long, fiat, jointed, rough, one-celled legume,
.opening at the truncate joints ; the feeds are folitary, be-
. iween the joints, and kidney-duped. Martyn enumei-atcs

iE S C

twelve fpccics, vir.. the grand'iflora, arlorea, coec'inea, -ajpera,
amer'tcana, hul'ica, fcfian or F.gyplinn, piimila or dwarf, fen-
Jliiva, hclerophyUn, Ingeniiria, and ciinnid'ina.

1'he id is a Ihrub, from 10 to ly feet in height, a native
of the Eafl Indies, cultivated in Jamaica, and in England
bv Miller, in 176S. The feeds are agreeable to domclUc
birtls. — 'I'he 2d grows to the height of fix or feven feet,
with a fingle dem, and bears large and copper-coloured
flowers. — 'i he 3d is a native of the Eaft Indies, and of the
idands Otaheite and Hualieine in the South Seas. — The
4th is a native of the Eail Indies. — The 5th is fomewhat
fcnfiiive : during the night, and at the approach of rain,
the leaves fold together. It is a native of Jamaica, and
was cultivated in 1739 by Miller. — The 6th is a native of
the Ead Indies. — The 7th is a native of Egypt, was culti-
vated in 1680, in the botanic garden of Oxford, and flowers
in July and Auguft. — The 8th is a native of the Eaft
Indies ; and the 9th, of the Well Indies — The loth and
I ith are natives of Cochinchina. — And the 12th is a native
of the Ead Indies, which may be ti-eated as hemp and ufed
for the fame purpofes. The fiifl fort is with difficulty pre-
ferved through the winter in this country. The 2d, 3d,
and 7tli, may, like the firft, be preferved through the win-
ter in a warm dove, will flower early in the following fum-
mcr, and their feeds will ripen in the autumn : they muft
be kept dry in winter, or elfe they are fubjeft to rot. The
4th, 5th, 6th, and 8th fpecies are annual, and mud be
brouglit forward early in the year, otherwife their feeds
will not be perfefted. All the forts are propagated by
feeds, which Ihould be fown on a liot-bed early in the
fpring ; and when the plants are llrong enough to be re-
moved, they fliould be put each into a feparate fmall pot,
filled with light earth, and plunged into a frelli hot-bed ;
and as they advance in growth, they Ihould be diiftcd into
larger pots ; but care Ihould be taken that the pots be not
too large, which will prevent their thriving.

.^SCHYNOMENOUS PLmts, among Botanfls, m-e
thofe properly called Setfitive plants.

jESCULANUS, JEres, or JEs, in Anl'iqn'ity, are diffe-
rent names given to the divinity who prefided over the coin-
age of copper money. This ^fculanus, it is faid, was the
father of Argentinus, becaufe copper was employed before
filver ; and Argentinus, the father of Aurlnus, becaufe gold
money fucceedcd filver ; and thus they had three divinities
prefiding over the coinage of the three principal mctalii.
On fome medals of the emperors there are found three god-
dcdes, reprefented with balances, a cornucopia, and near
them a piece of the different metals.

jESCULAPII Aiigu]s,\-a Zoology, the name of a hami-
lefs fpecies of ferpent, common in Spain and Italy, called
alfo PAR/^A. The criluler •rfculap'ii of Linnaeus has white
and black bands, which are bifefted by a white I'ing, and
is found in bpth Indies.

jESCULAPIUS, in AJlronomy, the ancient name for
the conflellation ophiucus.

iEscuLAPius, Efcuhiphis, and as Paufanias calls him
Afclepius, in Mythology, the god of medicine, wss the fon of
Apollo, by the nymph Coionis, born at Epidaurus, and
educated by Chiron, the preceptor of Achilles, who taught
him to cure difeafes of the mod dangerous and defperate
kind, and even to raife the dead. Tlie hiftory of ^fcula-
pius, hke that of other deified heroes of antiquity, is in-
volved in great obfcurity, and many abfurd and incredible
dories are related concerning him. If we regard the re-
ports of the people of Epidaurus, which is laid to be the
place of his nativity, as Paufanias has reprefented them ;
(1. ii. c. 26. p. 170. Ed. Kuhnii.) a fliepherd, having

. lott

JE S C

loft his dog, and one of his fiic-goats, founl thorn on n
neighbouring mountain, near a child who fhone with an
extraordinary rcfplendence, and whom the goat i'lickled,
and the dog guarded. This child was jEfculapins. As
he advanced in age and wifdom, he dedicated his days to
the relief of the unhappy. The mod dangerous wounds
and maladies yielded to liis operations, his remedies, his
liannonious fongs, and the magical words which he
employed. Tiie gods, it is faid, pardoned him his fucceis ;
hut as he dared to call the dead to life, Pluto com-
plained, and Jnpiter ilruck him dead with a thunder-bolt.
See Pindar. Pyth. 1. iii. v. lo. 9;. p. 191^. 201. Ed. Weft
and Weliled. Diod. Sicul. 1. iv. torn. i. p. 315. I'-d. AN'tf-
fel. Plin. H. N. 1. 29. torn. ii. p. 493.

It is added, that iElculapius was the difcipl ■ of Chiron,
and having been entrullcd with the fecrets of his mailer,
he conmiuniciited them to his fons Machaon and Po-
dalirius, who_ after his death reigned over a fmall city
in Tht'lTLily. During the liege of Troy, they figna-
hzed themfelves by tlieir courage in the field of battle,
and by their (l^ill in the treatment of wounds (Homer II.
1. ii. V. 730. 1. iv. V. Z19. 1. ix. v. 832.), the only part of
the medical art that was much known in thofe remote ages.
Tlie children of Machaon, who was killed under the walls
of Troy, followed the profcdion of their father, and fet-
tled in the country'. They raifed altars to their grandfa-
ther, and merited the fame honours themfelves by the fer-
v-ices which they rendered to the human race. See Paufa-
nias, 1. ii. c. II. p. 136. c. 23. p. 163. c. 26. p. 171. and
172. Ed. Kuhnii.

The founder of fo refpeftable a familv foon became the
objeft of public veneration, though his advancement to the
rank of gods mud have been poilerior to the time of Ho-
mer, who only fpeaks of him as a fimple individual. In
procefs of time divine honours were evei"v where paid to
him. At Epidaurus he had a famous temple, in which his
ftatue, made of gold and ivory, by Thrai'ymedes of Paros,
^\'as placed on a throne of the fame materials. It was
cro«'ned with rays with a knotty dick in one hand, and
ftretching out the other arm over a fci'pent, which feemed
to raife itfelf up in order to reach it ; and a dog lay at
his feet. The Epidaurians inditiited fedivrlls and games,
which were at fird annually, (Plat, in Ion. torn. i. p. 530.
Ed. Serrani.) and afterwards once in five years celebrated
in honour ot him. From Epidamais his wordiip pafTed to
the other cities of Greece, and even to diftant countries.
In all his temples votive tablets were hung up, on which
were recorded the difeafes cured by his affidance. This
god was brought to Rome, by order of Apollo, when a
peftilence raged in that city, in the times of the republic,
under die confulate of Podhumus Megellus and C. Junius
Brutus. About the year of Rome 462, the Sibylline
books were confulted, and an embaffy was appointed to
bring the god from Epidaurus to Rome, who is faid to
liave ilolen away from his old wordiippers under the form of
a ferpent ; and on his arrival, to the great joy of the people,
the plague foon ceafed. On this occafion altars were erefted
Jong the banks of the Tiber, and numerous facrifices were
offered to the new deity. The Romans defigned to ereft a
temple in honour of him, witliin the walls of the city ; but
the god who redded in the vicinity of Epidaurus, and not
within the citv, is faid to have chofen his abode in the
midd of the Tiber, on an idand form.ed in the infancy of
the republic by draw, trees, fand, and the rubbilh of the city.
Thither the ferpent retired, and from that time the idand
was called the iflaiul of jEfculapins, and a temple was
creeled in the form, of a diipr to which, as to the temple of

iE S C

tlie god of health, the common people frequently repaired.
The Tick were relJored to health, and in token of gratitude
offered a cock to yKfculapius. Of this temple there were
fome remains in the r6th century, near tlie churcli of St.
Bartholomew, in the idand of the Tiber. From this time
jElculapius was honoured at Rome <i3 one of the chief of
their made gods. On coins, &c. he is crowned with laurel,
in token of liis defcent from Apollo, and he is reprefentcd
with a mild afpeft, and with hair and beard not unhke
thole of the mild Jupiter : his right arm is bare, in order to
denote his readinefs for any operation ; his left holds a
dick, with a ferpent twided round it. He is fomctimes
feen accompanied by his wife Hygeia or health, with their
fon Tclefphonis, or convalcfccnce, between them. The dog
and cock have been reputed faered to tlvis deity on account
of their vigilance ; and the raven for his forecad. Statius,
lib. iii. Sylv. iv. v. 25. Ovid. Met. 1. xv. tom. ii. p. io6y.
Ed. Burman. Sueton. in Claud, tom. i. p. 6X6. Ed. Pitifc.
— Liv. Epitom. lib. xi. tom. iii. p. 197. Ed. Burman. —
Pint. QuKd. Rom. tom. ii. p. 286. — Paufan. Corinth.
1. ii. p. 171. Achaic. 1. vii. p. 592, &c. Ed. Kuhnii. — Ci-
cero, (de Nat. Deor. 1. iii. c. 22. tom. ii. p. 635. Ed Olivet.)
mentions three deities called iEfculapius ; the fird the fon
of Apollo, worihipped in Arcadia, who invented the probe
and bandages for wounds ; the fccond, the brother of the
fecond Mercuiy, killed by lightning ; and the third, the fon
of Arfippus and Arfinoe, who firft difcovered the art of
tooth-drawing and pnrging.

Thofe who trace the origin of medicine, as well as the
other arts and feiences, to the Egyptians, afcribe the in-
vention of it to Toforthrus or Seforthms, a king of Mem-
phis, and the fecond of the third dynady of Manetho, who
was called /Efculapius on account of his great llvill in that
art. This prince was much more ancient tlian the Grecian
jEfculapius, and though Africanus places him fome years
after Athothis, the fucceffor of Menes, fuppofed to be the
fame with Thoth, or the fird Hermes, yet others make
them contemporaries, as they mud have been if this
jEfculapius was the fame with the fon of Sydyc and
the brother of the Cabiri. — Auc. Un. Hid. v. i. p. 246.
8vo;

JiSCULUS, Horfi-Ch.'Jlniit, in Botany, a genus of the-
h'cpfcinilna monogy?na clafs and order, of the natural order of
tnhilatif, and the ncera of Juffieu. It is the h'tppocajiamim of
Tournefort, and i\\e: paina of Boerhaave. The nam.e xfcu-
lus is derived from efca, food ; and the old names of hippo-
caflamwi and cqftaiiea erjulna, from the fimiUtude of the fruit
to that of the chednut, and from its being given to horfes.
Its charafters are, that the calyx is a one-leafed, ventricofe,
fmall and five-toothed perianthium : the corolla confids of
five roundidi petals, plaited and waving about the edge,
fiat, fpreading, with naiTow claw^, inferted into the calyx,
and irregularly coloured ; the damiiia have fubulate, declin-
ing filaments, of the length of the corolla, and afcending
anthers : the pidillum is a roundidi germ, ending in a fubu-
late dyle ; the digma acuminate : the pericarpiiim is a
leathery, roundidi, three-celled, three-valved capfule : the
feeds are two and fub-globular. Van Royen de Necker and ■
Miller obferved both hermaphrodite and male flowers in thi»-
gcnus. , There are three fpecies, ^l/s. the JE.. hippocqftamim,
or common horfe chednut ; the leaves of which are digitate,
with feven entire leaflets, and prickly capfiiles ; the JE.^^vu
or yeUow-flowered horfe-chednut, with leaves digitate with
five leaflets, the laminas of the corolla cordate roundidi, and
the claws twice the length of the calyx ; and the JE. painHf
or fcarlet horfe-chednut, which has flowers w-ith eight da-
mina, digitate leaves with five or fix ferrate leaflets, fmooth

capfules.

JE S C

t:apfi:les, laniinas of the corolla obovate, and claws of tlie
Iciijji!) of tilt calyx ; and the JE. fnrva, with a long thick
Ipikc, and a llirubby ftulk.

Tlie ill fpctits. or common hor/f-chej?iiiit,\v:ishroug:ht from
the northern parts of Afia into Europe about the year
1550, and fcnt to Vienna about the year 1558. From
Vienna it was conveyed to France and Italy ; but it came to
us from the L.vant. It is diilinjriiidied by the beautiful pa-
rabolic form of its branches, tlie dlfpofition and ilrufture of
its digitate leaves, and by the pyramidal bunches of its
white flowers, varie);ated near the centre with yellow
or red. Althouj^h this tree is now lefs in elleem for
avenues and walks tlian it formerly was, on account of the
early decay of its leaves, it affords an excellent fhade ; and
the I'pikcs of (lowers which appear in May, with the inter-
mixture of laifje leaves, exhibit a noble appearance. The
!noft eligible fituation for thcfe trees is in lawns and parks,
where they may be planted lingly, and where their fruit
will be ferviceable to the deer, who are fond of it. This
tiee is of quick growth ; and in a few years it will afford a
good fhade in fummer, and yield plenty of flowers. Trees,
raifed from nuts, have in 12 or 14 ycai-s become large
enough to (liadc two or three chairs with their branches,
which in the feafon arc covered with flowers. But the trees
are of lliort duration, and the wood is of little value. It.
ferves, however, for water-pipes, turner's ware, and fuel :
and for thefe ufes it is worth the charge of planting, and
ihoult) be felled in November or December.

The common horfe-cheflnut is propagated by fowing the nuts,
after preferving them in fand during the winter, in order to
prevent their rotting early in the fpring. In this cafe the
plants, in a proper foil, will flioot near a foot the firll
fummer ; and they may be tranfplanted, either in the fol-
lowing autumn, or in Februai-y and March, into the nurfery,
and fet in rows at the dillancc of three feet, and one foot
afunder, where they are to remain two years ; and they will
then be fit fm- planting where they are to continue. The
moil favourable foil for them is a fandy loam, inclining to
moifture. The vvjiole fhoot of this tree is completed in lefs
than three weeks after the buds are opened ; and as foon as
the flowers are fallen, the buds for the fucceeding year are
formed, which continue fwelling till autumn, when they are
overfpread with a thick tenacious juice, that defends the
tender buds from the winter froft ; and on the return of
warmth, the juice melts and runs off, and the buds are left
at liberty to extend themfelves. Of this tree there arc
varieties, with gold and filvcr ftripcd leaves, which are in-
crcafed by layers, and by budding or ingrafting them upon
flocks of the common fort.

In Turkey the nuts of this tree are ground and mixed
with the provender for their horfes, efpecially thofe which
are troubled with coughs, or are broken-winded ; in both
which diforders they are reckoned very good. M. Raimont,
of Anjou, gave them, mixed with other food, to his cows ;
and they increafed the quantity of milk, without injuring its
quality ; and he apprehends that if they were blanched and
rafped, or otherwife prepared, they might be given to hogs
snd poultry. Memoirs of the Royal Society of Agriculture
at Tours. voL i. p. 121.

lo. Jac. Zannichelli informs us, that after many trials he
has found the bark to have the fame effeft as the Peruvian
bark : and Dr. Fuchs, teacher of medicine at lena, has
prepared from the ripe fruit, diverted of the huflcs, an
cxtraft, which, according to his txperiments, may be ufed,
perhaps, inllead of the expenfive extradum china:. Its
good effcAs, as a febrifuge, have been con firmed by many

^ S H

The horfe-ch.f.nut has been employed in France and Sveit-
zerland for the pu .pofc of bleaching yarn ; and it is recom-
mended in the Mem. of the Society of Bemc, vol. ii. part '2,
as capable of extenlive ufe in whitening not only flax and
hemp, but lllk and wool. It contains an allriugent fa-
ponaceous juice, which is obtained by peeling the nuts, and
grinding or rafping them. Tiiey are then mixed with hot
rain or r,unning water, in the proportion of 2C nuts to 10 or
1 2 quarts of %vater. Wove caps and ilockings were milled
in this water, and took the dye extremely well ; and fuc-
cefsful trials were made of it in fulling llufl's and cloths.
Linen wafhed in this water takes a pleafing light Iky-bluc
colour ; and the filaments of hemp, ftccped in it fome
days, were eafily fcparatcd. The jVuthor of the memoir
above referred to, imagines, that if the meal of thecheftnuts
could be made into cakes or balls, it would anfwer the pur-
pofes of foap, in waihing and fulling. The fediment, after
infufion, lofcs its bitter tafte, and becomes good food for
fowls when mixed with bran. The Edinburgh College
have admitted the horfi-chejiitut into their Phavmacopa-ia of
17^3, on the recommendation of Dr. Gardiner, who fays,
that three or four grains of the powder fnuffed up the
nollrils in the evening, operates next morning as an excel-
lent flcrnutatory, and thereby proves very beneficial in ob-
flinate inflammations of the eyes. A patent was granted in
1796, to Lord W. Murray, for his difcovery of a method
of extrafting flarchfrom horfe-cheflnuts. See {tarch.

The 2d fpecies, or yellotv-Jlo-iuered horfe chejlniit, is a na-
tive of Nortli Carolina, was cultivated with us in 1764, and
flowers in May and June.

The 3d fpecies, ox fcarht horfc-chejlmit, rifes to the height
of 20 feet, without much extending its branches ; its bark
is fmooth, and the leaves, which are oppolite, on long red
petioles, are of a light green. Tlie flowers, which are
produced from the ends of the branches upon long naked
peduncles, are much fniallcr than the common fort and
wholly red : they appear in June, and are fomctimes fuc-
ceedcdby fruit in England ; but the feeds rarely ripen here.
It grows naturally in Bratll, Carolina, Florida, Japan, and
feveral parts of the eafl ; and. was cultivated with us in
17 1 2. This tree may be propagated by the nuts, which
mull be procured from the countries where it grows na-
turally. They mufl be fown in pots early in the fpring,
and the pots fliould be plunged into a moderate hot -bed,
and towards the end of May into the ground in a fouth-
eail border ; arid in dry weather the plants fliould be
watered, and fecured from early frofls. In the following
fpring they fliould be planted at the diilance of a foot from
each other, in a fheltered fituation, and in the fucceeding
winter fhcltered from cold by fome light covering. The
common method praftifed by the nurferynnen, whs propa-
gate this tree for fale, is to graft or bud it upon flocks of
the common horfe-chefnut ; but as the flocks greatly out-
grow the bud or graft, the trees make a bad appearance,
nor do they laft long. Martyn.

TESEPUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Myfia, which
Strabo (1. 12. t. ii. p. 847) on the authority of Homer,
makes the houndaiy between MyiiaandTroba. See^SAPUs.

^SERNIA, in Ancient Geography, Ifernta, a town of
the Samnites, which was a Roman colony belonging to the
Caracini between Autidena north, and Bovlanum foiith-
eaft. It was not far from the river Vulturno. Silius Ita-
licus (1. viii. v. 56) refers to it ; and the appellation Efer-
nini of Pliay (1. iii. c. 12.) is derived from it.

,'ESHNA, in Entomology, a fub-divillon of the Unogata,
or fifth clafs of infccls, by Fabricius, comprehending feveral
fpecies of the Libelluua of Linnxui, charafterized by

equal

JE S O

equal lacinl* or fringes of the lip. Tlie fpecics are,

1. L.or /-E. mlnu/a, With a yellow abdoinen, two black lines,
hinder wings yellow, and two black fpGts, found in Cliin;i.

2. /X. clavcila, with a clavated abdomen, gil)bou3 baft,
and body vanegated witli brown and green, found in Cliina.

3. IE. macnliita or vanvgata, with two yellow lines on eaell
fide of the thorax, and a black fpot at the bafe of the
wings, found in Terra del Fuego. 4. jr.. j^nrm/is, with four
yellow lines on the thorax and variegated body, found near
the waters of Europe, and in the .Sandwicli iflands. 5.
R. forcipaia, with a black thorax, varioiis yellowillj marks,
and unguiculated tail, found in Europe.

■ .ffiSICA, in ylncienl Geography, is luppofed to have been
the prefent village of Netterby in Cumberland.

jESIS, F.firm, Fhimkino, a fmall river of Italy, which
feparaled the Senones from Piccnuin, and emptied itfelf
into the Adriatic fea. near Ancona. See Sil. Ital. lib. viii.
V. 446. ^

^SISIU-Vl, a town of Italy, belonging to the Uni-
brians.

iESIT^, a people of Arabia Defcrta, placed by Pto-
lemy below the Cauchabcni.

^SIUM, called alfo yEsis, a town of Umbria in Italy,
fituate upon the wellern bank of the .■Efis, which was the
common boundary of Umbria and Picenum. In after-ages
it received a Roman colony.

^ESNECY, in Laiu, denotes priority of age among
coparceners.

jESOLA, or iEsuLA, in Aiuient Geography, a town of
Italy, near the Tiber and not far from Pedum. It was
fituated upon a hill between the Tiber and Prxnefte ; and
according to Livy, who fpeaks of jlrx /Efulamt (1. xxvi.
c. ix. t. iii. p. 1069. Ed. Burman.) it was a fortilied place.
It is mentioned by Horace (1. iii. od. 25.) and by Pater-
culus (1. i. c. 14.) as a colony ; and Pliny alfo (1. iii. c. 9.)
fpeaks of the jEfolani in his time, though no vellige of
them now remains.

..ESON, a town of ThefFaly, founded by ^fon, the fa-
ther of Jafon : and alfo a river of Theffaly towards Mag-
nefia, near this town.

iESONA, or leforiLi, a town of Spain, between the
livers Sicoris and Nuceria.

^SOP, in Biographf, a native of Phrygia, who lived
in the time of Solon, about the 5 ill or ^zA olympiad, the
firfl: year of which coincides with the 572d before Chrift,
and during the reign of Crocfus the laft king of Lydia.
His condition was that of a fiave, and his perlon was fo
deformed, that one of his mailers found great difficulty in
difpofmg of liim, as every one who law him was fhoeked
at the unfightlinefs of his figure. He is alfo feid to have
been for a confiderable time without the ufe of fpeech.
His mental talents, however, compenlated for his bodily
defecls, and commanded attention and refpcft notvvitli-
ftanding the meannefs of his condition. His firfl maftcr
was Demarchus, an Athenian, in whofe fervice he is fup-
pofed to have acquired his purity in the Greek tongue.
From him he was transferred to Xanthus, a Samian jshilofo-
pher ; and he was fold by Xanthus to ladmon, who was
likewife a Samian, and who granted him his freedom on
account of his extraordinary abihties ; others fay that lie
became free by the favour of Rhodope, a celebrated
courtezan. Having obtained his liberty, jEtop acquired
very ditlinguifhed reputation, and was much eileemed by
Crocfus, altliough in the firll interview his deformity made
an unfavourable impreffion on the mind of the king, who
found the obfcrvation of ^foj), on another oecafion, fignally
verified in his own cafe, ria. tjiat we ought jiot to coalider

Vol. I.

^ s o

the form of the vefl'cl, but the quality of the liquor
wlu'cli it contains. Piixdrus (1. i. fab. 2.) informs us that
h e made fevcni! voyages into Greece, either for his own
pleafiirc, or upon the aflairs of Crccfus ; and being at
Athens foon afterPififtratushad ufui-ped the fovcrcignty and
abolifhcd the pojjular government, and obferving the im-
patience of the Athenians under tliis newyi.ke, he repeated
to them the fable of the frogs who demanded a king from
Jupiter. In order to account for the mifcries of human
life, ^fop ufed to fay, that when Prometheus formed man
of clay, he tempered the mateiials with tears. As to the
time of .lEfop's death, Eufebius and Suidas refer it to the
54tli olympiad ; but this date is not confident wrtli the
oecafion to which Plixdrus afcribes the fable of the frogs ;
for Pifiltratiis alTumed the fovcrcignty of Athens in the
firfl; year of tlie 55th olympiad. In Blair's Tables, his
death is fixed to about the year before Chrill, 561. The
manner of his death is thus related by Plutarch, in hii
treatife de his qui fero a nurniue ptiniuntur, (apud Oper.
torn. ii. p. 556. Ed. Xylandr.) Having gone to Delphos,
by order of Crocfus, with a large quantity of gold and
filvea-, to offer a coftly facrifice to Apollo, and to diilribute
a confiderable fum amongft the inhabitants, a quan-el arofe
between him and tlie Delphians, wliicli, induced him to re-
turn the money, and to inform the king tliat the people
were unworthy of the liberal bencfaftion which he intended
for them. The inliabitants of Delphos, thus incenfed,
charged liim witli facrilege, and having procured his con-
demnation, precipitated him from a rock and OLcafioned his
death. Apollo puniflied them for this aft of violence with
pellilence and famine ; and in order to avert thefe evils, it
was proclaimed in all the aiTemblies of Greece, that if any
one, for the honour of ^fop, would claim vengeance for
his death, they would give him fatisfadtion. A "relation of
ladmon, a foi-mer mailer of .iEfop, prefented himfelf, fays
Herodotus (1. ii. p. 168. Ed. WefleHng.) and obtained
fatisfaftion ; and thus the Delphians were refcned from the
peililence and famine by which they were diflrelfed. The
Athenians afterwards eredled a noble ilatue, executed by
Lyfippus, to the honour of this ingenious and learned flave,
in order to let all the people know, as PhiKdrus (lib. ii.)
obferves, that the path of honour was alike accefiTible to all
mankind ; and that it was not to birth, but merit, thef
rendered this diftinguiihing honour.

" ^fopo ingentem ftatnam pofuere Attici,

Senumque colloearunt a;terna in bafi,

Patcre lionoris fcirent ut cundlis viam.

Nee genere tribui, fed virtuti gloriam."
jEfop, it is faid, compofed his fables, in order to allevi-
ate the hardfliips of fervitude ; and it has been generally
fuppofcd that he was the firfl author or inventor of thi*
fpecies of compofition : and thus Phxdrus (Prol. ad lib. i,)
reprefents him :

" iEfopus auilor qiiam materiam reperit,

Hanc ego polivi vcrfibus fenariis.

If any thoughts in thefe Iambics (hine,

Th' invention's ^fop's, and the veife is mine.'*
But Qiiindliliari (Inil. Orat. 1. v. c. II. tom. i. p. 44.1.)
afcribes the honour of the invention to Hefiod, who is
known to have lived 1 30 years before the time of /^fop :
and he fpeaks of them as admirably adapted to delight and
captivate the minds, particularly, of the vulgar and unin-
formed, ^fop, however, improved this kind of writing,
and adopted a variety of images, which combine the acriee-
able with the inflruftive, and cdmmunicato praftical pre-
cepts ifi a familiar and impreffive niannet. 'J'o this purpoie
S s Aului

iE S P

Aulus Gellius (NoA. Att. l.ii. c. 20. ) obferves, that JECop,
tiie fahulift, was dcfcrvcdly cUccmoJ wife, fince he did not,
aittr the raaiincr of the philofophcrs, rigidly and imperi-
oiiily diiftate fiich things as were proper lubjccts of couiifel
and p'-rfiiafioii, but by fonniiig amufirtp and a<jreeable apo-
Unjucs he charms and coinmaiids attention, and tliua infinu-
8tc3 into the mind fuhjccts that defcrvc conlideration.
Many of yi-Lfdp's fables have been afcribed to Phniides,
who li.-ed in tlie i+th century, and wrt>te a Vie of hi;n,
whicli abonnds with anachronifms and irtrediWe relations.

Plato (in Pha-do. Opcr. torn. i. >p% 60. Ed. Sen-ani.)
Plutarch (dc Aud. Poet. Op. torn. ii. p. 16.) Suidas in
Iiix;^!;;, and otliers, inform us, that Socrates, a little before
his death, tranilatcd fomc of j'Efop's FabliiR into verfc ; and
Plato (1. ii. de R.-publica. torn. ii. p. $1^) recommends it
to nurfcs to inilruift children in tliem tetimes, in order to
finii tlieir manners, and to inipirc them at an early age
vith the love of wifdom. Among many editions of iBfop's
Tables, by Aldus, Rob. Stephens, Plaiitin, Sec. we may
mention Hudfon's, 0.\oii. 17 18, 8vo. which has been the
foundation of fevcral others.

Fabricius (Bibl. Gntc. torn. i. p. 39 1.) has enumerated
nine other pc rfo!is under the name of ^fop. Of thefe, one
was a Greek iin\«^ian, who wrote a romantic hillory of
Alexander the Great ; but it is not known at what time he
«ved.

Another of them «-as,

^so? (Clodius,) a celebrated tragic after, who lived
about the 670th year of Rome, and amaffed great wealth
by the exercife of his proreffion. Plutarch (in Ciceron. Op.
torn. i. p. S63.) infonns us, that Cicero lludicd action under
the inilruftion of /Cfop, as well as that of Rofcius, and in
fpeaking of this perforaier, he fays, that h; entered into
Lis pait to fuch a degree as to be fometinies tranfported
beyond the power of felf-government. Accordingly,
whilit he was reprefcnting the delibei-ation of Atreus, who
wilhed to revenge himfelf on Thyefles, he fmote one of the
fervants tliat happened to crofs the ftage, with his truncheon,
and laid him dead at his feet. iEfop lived in the moll
luxurious and extravagant manner; and Pliny (N.H. 1. x»
C. 51. tom. i. p. 571. Ed. Hard.) fays, that at one en-
tertainment he had a di!h, which coll ico fefterces, or about
872 pounds fterling, and the difli confifted of finging and
fpeaking birds, fome of which coil fix fellcrces, or about
52/. each. At the dedication of Pompey's theatre, U. C.
i()^, Afop, when he was attempting to amufe the fpefta-
tors in his ufual manner, was obliged to ftop ihort in a fen-
tence on account of the failure of liis voice ; fo that he
was, probably, then in the deehne of life. The fon of this
TEfop was more luxurious than his father ; for he is faid,
or. a particular occafion, to have diffolved pearls for his guells
to fwallow. See Val. Max. l.ix. c. i. num. 2. Pliny N. H.
1. ix. c.lix. tom. i. p. 524. i:.d. Hard. Horace (Sat. iii. lib. ii.
■"• ?39, &c.) fpeaks only of one pearl of great value,
which he diffolved in vinegar and drank :

" Filius ^fopi detraftam ex aure Metellx,
Scihcct ut decies folidum abforberct, aceto
Diliiit infignem baccam : qui fanior, ac fi
lUud idem in rapidum fiumen, iaceretve cloacam >"
^'.op, notv.'ithftauding his profulion, is faid to have died
wt.rth above a hundred and iixty thoufand pounds. Macrob.
Sjivirn. 1. ii. c. X.

jliSOPUS, in Enlomology, a fpecies of Papilio, with
the wings brown or, the upper part, a white fpot, and under-
neath white and 'imfpotted ; the Papillo Thuys of Drury ;
foimd in India. ^

jLSPING, in Zoohsy, the colukr clurfia of LinoKue,

JE S Y

a fpecies of viper, found in Sweden, fefembling the Aspis».
but fnialler than that fpecies. Liiinxus qucllions whether
it mav not be the fame. Its bite is venomous, and in fome
cafes has proved fatal. Count de la Cepede, in trie fecor.d-
volume of his liilloire Naturcllc des Serpens, &c. recom-
mends the juice exprelTed from the leaves of the afii as a
fpeeiiic againft it.

./ESTII, in ylnr'ient Geography, a people of Germany,
near the borders of Pruffia and Poland. T'liev are repre-
fented by Tacitu,; (De Mor.Gennan. apud Op. t. ii. p.680*
Ed. Gronov.) as refembling the Suevi in their culloins and-
manners, and the Britons in their hngimgc.

jESTIMATIO CnpUis, in our aiK-ejit bw-books. Sec
Were, and Wkrelade.

King Athelltan, in a great aiTembly held at Exeter, de-
clared what mulcts were to be paid p'-o ttflhim'.hne cap'iSls,
for oflence committed againft; feveral peifons according to
their degrees : the ejVtmat'wn of the king's head to be 300a
thrymfa; ; of an archbilhop, or fatj-apa, or prince, 1 5000 ;
of a bifhop, or a fenator, 8000 ; of a priell, or a thane,
2000, &c.

jESTIVAL, or EsTivAL, of or belonging to fummer.

Thus, we fay, the (rjTival s.olstice, &c. in oppolitioa-
to I'rumal.

M.%T\y Ki. point is that whereby the fun's afcent above the-
equator is determined.

&iTivh\.figns arethofe extended from the fummer folfti-
tial point, /'. e. the iun's greatell declination northward,
to the interfeftion of the echptic and equinotllal fouthward,
including Cancer, Lc-o, Virgo.

^Sf n^ATION, in Botany, a term expreffing tho
ftate of the bud in fummer, and ufed by Linnxus to denotes
one of thofe circuttiftances which conftitute the h.\bit of
plants.

iESTRIANS, in Ancient Geography, the inhabitants
of a diftrlct of Macedonia, the chief city of \\hich was for-
merly called ^^/frium.

.SSTUARIUM, a town of Spain, between Noejra and
Salia.

jESTUARY, .(EsTUARiUM, in Gcograpliy, an arm of
the SEA, running up a good way into the land.

Such is" Brillol channel, many of the friths of Scotland,
&c. See Bay.

^STUARV" is fomctimes alfo ufed in. Pharmacy, for a va-
pour bath, balneum •vaporofiim.

^STUARV, in the Ancient Bath.', was applied to the oe-
ctdt paflages, or openings from the hypocanflam, or ftove,
penetrating into the chambers. Pitifc. Lex. Ant.

To fuch a pafla"e in the houfe of Pompeia, Statius refert-
(Sylv.lib. i. i^. 5. v. 58.)

•— — — " Ubi languidus ignis inerrat
jEdibus, et tenuem volvunt hypocaufta vaporem."
jESYMNETIC monarchy, among Ancient Writers on
Government, denotes a limited eleftive monarchy. Arifl.
Pol. c. 10. The word is formed from atropaiiu, regno, T
govern. — An xfymnetic ftate ftands oppofed to a barbaric, or
hereditary one.

jESYMNIUM, in Antiquity, a monument erefted to the
memory of the deceafed heroes, by ^fymnus the Megarean.
Upon confulting the oracle at Delphos, how the country
might profper and enjoy the moil aufpicious government,
lie received for anfwer, that it would be moil likely to
profper if it followed the coimfel of the moil numerous r
and underilanding the oracle to refer to the dead, he built
this monument and encompaiTed it with a council-houfe ;
and thus the Megareans hoped to obtain wife and falutary
eounfd. See Panfjaiix Attic, i. i. p. 104. Kuhnii.

JET 11

JET^EI, in j-fiiclfnt Geography., a people, iccoiiliiig to
rtolcmy, of Arabia Ftlix.

ATiVRA, a town of Africa, placed by Ptolemy between
the town of Tnbraca and the river Ampfagas. ,"

ATATE prohanja, in Laiv, a writ that lay to inquire
whether the king's tenant, holding In chief by chivaliy,
were of full age to receive his lands into his own hands. It
was directed to the cfcheator of the county ; but is now
difulcd, fince wards and liveries are taken av>-ay by the lla-
tute Car. II. Reg. Orig. 294.

.^TH, or Ath, in Geography, a ftrong little town of
the county of Hainault, in the Auftrian Netherlands,
fituate on the river Dender, about 20 miles fputh-well of
BrufTels. It had formerly an abbey of nuns, and fomc
good linen manufactures.

^CTH^A, a town of Laconia.

.('ETHALE, in Natural llijlory, a name given by fome
writers to the caihm.i fornatum, or ti;tty.

It had this name from its being the concreted foot, or va-
pour of the h.p'is cahuniimr'is, and copper, melted together,
in the making of brafs.

-/ETHALIA, or Ilva, now Ella, in /incic7it Geography,
an ifland on the coaft of Etriu-ia, about 100 miles in com-
pafs, and abounding witli iron. It was fo called from
aivaXn, fmoke, ifliiing from the fliops of Vidcan.

.(ETHALIDiE, a people of Attica, in the tribe of
Leontides.

^THALOEIS, a town of Myfia, eail of mount Ida,
and fouth of Scepfis.

iETHELING, in Briiylj Hi/lory. See Atheling.

jETHER, in P/'v/io/ogy, is ufually underllood of a thin,
•fubtle matter, or medium, much finer and rarer than air ;
which, commencing from the limits of our atmofphere,
pofTefTes the whole heavenly fpace.

The wortl is luppofed to be formed from the verb atduv,
to burn, to Jlo.me ; fome of the ancients, partitiularly Anax-
agoras, fuppofing it of the nature of fire.

The philofophers cannot conceive that the largefl part of
the creation fliould be perfeftly void ; and therefore fill it
with a fpecies of matter under the denomination of sether.
— But they vary extremely as to the nature and charafter
of this a3ther. — Some conceive it is a body fu'i generis, ap-
pointed only to fill up the vacuities between the heavenly
bodies ; and tlierefore confined to the regions above our
atmofphere. — Othei-s fuppofe it of fo fubtile and penetrating
a nature, as to pervade the air, and other bodies ; and
poffefs the pores and intervals thereof. — Others deny the ex-
iftence of any fuch fpecific matter ; and think the air itfclf,
by that immenfe tenniiy and expanfion of v.hich it is found
•capable, may difi'ufe itfelf through the interftellar fpaces,
and be the only matter found in them.

In effeft, xther being no objeft of our feiife, but the
mere produft of imagination, introduced only for the fake
of hypothefis, or to iolve fome phenomenon, real or ima-
ginary ; authors take the liberty to modify it how they
pleafe. — Some fuppofe it of an elementary nature, like other
todies, and only dliUnguifhed by its tenuity, and the otlier
affeftions refulting from, it ; which is the philofophieal
aether. — Others will have it of another fpccits, and not
elementary ; but rather a fort of fifth element, of a pure,
more refined, and fpirituous naturt than the fubftances about
cur earth ; and void of the common properties of matter, as
gravity, &c. — Such is the ancient idea of oetlicr or aetherial
matter.

The term xther being thus embarrafTed with a variety of
ideas, and arbitrarily applied to fo many different things,
the later philofophers choofe to fct it afide ; and accord-

M T H

jngly, the Cartefians ufc the tenn tyiitlerin futlWu, which
is their sether ; and Sir Ifaac Newton fomctimes a fukile
fplr'it, as in the clofe of his Principia ; (apnd Oper. torn. iii.
p. 174. Ed. Horfi.) and fomctimes ^fubtile or ethereal me-
dittm; as in his Ojnics. Qiieries 18 — 24, apud Oper, torn,
iv. p. 223 — 226. Sec alfo his letter to Mi. Boyle, apud
Oper. tom. iv. p. 385, &c.

The truth is, there are numerous confidcrations, which
fcem to evince the cxiftence of fome matter in the air miicli
finer than the air itfelf. There is an un.known fomelhing
which remains behind when the air \% taken away ; as ap-
pears from certain efiefts which we fee produced in Tacvo. —
Heat, Sir Ifaac Newton obfcrves, is communicated through
a vacuum, almoll as readily as through air ; but fuch com-
munication cannot be without fome interjacent body, to ail
as a medium. And fuch body mull be fubtile enough to
penetrate the pores of glafs ; and may be very well con-
cluded to penetrate thofe of all other bodies, and confe-
quently be ditfufed through all the parts of fpace j which
anfwers to the full character of a;i aither. He fuppofes
that it is rarer in the pores of bodies than in open fpaces,
and even rarer in fmall pores and denfe bodies than in large
pores and rare bodies ; and alfo, that its denfity increafcs
in receding from grofs matter, fo as to be greater, e.g.
at the T-J^yth of an inch from the furface of any body than
at its furface ; and fo on.

The cxiftence of fuch an tetherial medium being fettled,
that author proceeds to its properties ;• inferring it to be
not only rarer and more fluid than air, but exceedingly-
more elafi;ic and aftive : in virtue of which properties, he
ftiews, that a gi-eat part of the phenomena of nature may
be produced by it. The elaftic force of this medium, in
proportion to its denfity, according to his mode of eftimat-
ing it, muft be above 700000 x 700000 times greater than
the elaftic force of the air in proportion to its denfity. If,
he fays, any one fliould fuppofe that sether, like our air,
may contain particles which endeavour to recede from one
another, and that its particles are exceedingly fmaller than
thofe of air, or even than thofe of light ; the exceeding
fmallnefs of its particles may contribute to the greatnefs of
the force, by which thofe particles may recede from onf
another, and thereby make that medium exceedingly more
rare and elaftic than air, and by confequence exceedingly
lefs able to refift the motions of projeiSliles, and exceedingly
more able to prefs upon grofs bodies by endeavouring tt»
expand itfelf. The rtfiftance of this medium, he fuppofes,
to be very inconfiderable. If this xther iliould be fuppofed
700000 times more elaftic than our air, and above 700000
times more rare, its refiftancc would be above 6000C0000
times lefs than that of water ; and a refiftance fo fraall
would fcarcely make any fenfible alteration in the motions
of the planets in 10,000 years.

To the acStion of this medium he afcrihes the attraiaions
of gravitation and cohefion, the attraftio.is and repulfions of
electrical bodies, the elaftic force of the air, and of nervous
fibres, and the emiffion, refraijlion, reflection, and other
phenomena of light, the effects and communication of heat ;
as alfo fenfation, mufcular motion, &c. In fine, this fame
matter feeins the primum mobile, the firll fourcc or fpring, of
phyfical aiftion in the modern fyfteni.

The Carlclian sether is fiippoled not onl)' to pei-vade, but
adequately to fill all the vacuities of bodies ; and thus to
make an abfolute pletium in the univerfe. See Materia
fuhtilis.

But Sir Ifaac Newton overturns this opinion, from divers

confidcrations; by (hewing that the ccleftial fpaces arc

void of all fenfible refiftance; for, hcnee it follows, that

S f ? tkc

JET n

the matter coniaincd in thtm mu'A hi imnienfcly rare, be-
caufc the Tcl'iftancc of bodies is chiefly as their dcniity ; io
that if the heavens Wert thus aduiuatily lilkd witli a me-
dium or matter, how fubtilc fi)evcr, they would refill liic
nu'tiop of the phmets and comets much more than qiiick-
fjvcr or gold.

The eviftence of fudi a fMbtile fluid as a-ther has been
slmoll unlverfally allowed : and its imponauce and utility,
ill the f^ei'.cral fyllem of nature, have been very generally
acknowledj^ed. Dr. Reid, indeed, fecms to have enter-
tained doubts on this fiibjeet. He obferves, .that although
Sir Ifaac Newton had fonmd conjeclures about this aether
near 50 years before he died, and iiad it in contenipl;;tiou
as a lubject of enquiry, during tliat long fpace ; yet it does
not appear that he ever found any convincing proof of its
cxiilencc, but coniidercd it to the la 11 as a qiiettion, whether
there be fuch an aether or not. RcgardiniJ, tlitrefore, the
authority of Newton hinifclf, he is of opinion that we
ou'fht to hold the exillencc of fuch an lether as a matter
not eftabhihed by proof, but to be examined into by expe-
riments ; and he adds, " I have never heard that, iiuce his
time, anv new evidence has been found of its exiftcnce."
Dr. Hartley, however, whofe fyllem of the mind and its
operations is founded on the reality of this a;ther, alledges,
that if we fuppofe the exiflence of fuch a fubtile medium,
and of its properties, to be dcftitute of all dirett evidence,
yet, if it feems to account for a great variety of phenomena,
it will have an indirett evidence in its favour by this means.
To which mode of reafoning Dr. Reid replies, that there
never was au hypothefis invented by an ingenious man
which has not this evidence in its favour. The vortices of
Des Cartes, the fylphs and gnomes of Mr. Pope, ferve to
account for a great variety of phenomena. Hartley's Ob-
fervations on Man, p. 7. 4to. 1791. Reid's EflTay on the
IntcUeclual Poweis of Man, p. 87. Some late writers have
afcribed the phenomena of elcClricity and magnetifm to a
fluid of this kind, under the denominations of tlie eleftrical
and magnetical fluid ; and they have referred to its operation
in different circumftances, many of thofe effefts, which are
inexplicable without fuch a fluid, diffufed through every
part of the material univerfe. See Electricity, cauji
of Gravity, Heat, Light, Magnetism, Reflec-
tion, Refractiom, Sensation, Sound, Vibration, &c.

/Ether, in Chemijlry. See Ether.

utTHERIA, in yhic'unt Geogmphy, is a name formerly
given to Ethiopia, under which appellation, it is mentioned
both by Phny (l.vi. c. 30.) and Stnibo, 1. ii. p. 82.

.^theria Herba, is a name given to eringo.

JETHERIAL, ^therius, fomething that belongs to
or partakes of the nature of aether.

Thus, we fay, the aetherial fpace, wtherial regions, &c.
Some of the ancients divided the univerfe, with rcfpeft to
the matter contained in it, into elementary and sthcrial.

Under aether, or the aetherial world, was included all that
fpace above the uppermofl element, viz. fire. — Tliis they
luppofcd to be perfeftly homogeneous, incorruptible, un-
changeable, &c. See Corruption.

The ancient Platonifts and Pythagoreans fuppofe dif-
ferent bodies united with the human foul, -v'f^. the grofs, or
material one ; a finer aerial one ; and, thirdly, the tinell of
all, which they call atherial, celeflial, lucifoiTn, &c.

This kind of body they conceived pecuharly belonging to
fuch fouls after death, as are purged and cleanfed from
corporeal afTettions, lulls, and pafPions. That this diftinc-
tion of two interior vehicles, or tunicles of the foul, befides
the outer veftment of the terrellrial body, was not a mere fig-
ment of the latter Platonifts lince cliriftianity was introduced,

.^E T H

appears plainly from Virgil's defcriplion of the pure
alherial and fiery body, which he diflinguilhes from the
fpirituous or aivy body, in which v.npurged fouls receive
punilhnicnt after death. After defcribing this punilhment,
lie proceeds in this manner :

" Donee longa dies, perfefto tcmporis oibe,
Concretam exemlt labem, puruniquc reliquit
iEtherium fenfum, atque aurai fimplicis ignem."

yL'n. 1. vi. v. 745, &c. Tom. iii. p. 118.
Ed. Burmuu.

The ground of this opinion feems to have been the notion
which thefs philofophers entertained concerning the pre-
exillence of the human foul, which, according to their
imagination, was invelled wiih a lucid and stherial body,
either from eternity, or elle from the firll commencement of
the habitable world ; and which, being coeval with the
foul itfelf, and alfo inctvTuptible, inteparably adhered to it,
in its fubfcquent lapies and defcents, firll into an aerial,
and then into a tenellrial body ; this being, as it were, the
bond of union betwixt the foul and them. The Pytha-
goreans and Platonifts, however, were not all of this opi-
nion ; for fome of theni fuppofed, that, according to the
moral dii'pofition of the foul, it always finds or forms a
fuitaijle body, corretpondently pure or impure ; and confe-
quently that, by moral virtue and philofophy, it might
again recover that celeftial body, which v.as loll by its fall
and dcfcent into the groffer body. See Cudworth's InteU.
Syllcra, b. i. c. 5. vol. ii. p. 78S, — 793. Ed. Birch.

The Chaldees placed an aetherial world between the empy-
reum and the region of the fixed ftars. Befide which, they
fometimes alfo fpeak of a fecond wtherial world, meaning
by it the ftarry orb : and a third jetherial world, by which
is meant the planetary region. Stanley Hift. Phil. 1040.

./Etherial phofphorus, is a name generally given, by
Bernouilli, to that otherwife called mercurial, or barometri-
cal PHOSPHORUS.

./Etherial oil, is a fine, fubtile, essential oil, ap-
proaching nearly to the natwe of a fpirit.

Tims, the pure liquor rifing next after the fpirit, in the
diftillation of turpentine, is called the <ttherial oil of turpentine.

Some cheraills dillinguifh two principles in urine; the
one a volatile urinous fait, refembhng fpirit of nitre ; the
other, an aetherial oil, or fulphur, partaking of the nature
of fpirit of wine.

vEtherial //i?^7^v«. See Heaven.

.^THERIUS, in Biography, an architeft, who lived in
the beginning of the 6th centur)', during the reign of
Anaftaiius L emperor of the eaft, v/ho made him a privy-
couiifellor. He built an edifice, named Chalcis, in the
palace of Conftantinople, and he is fuppofed to have con-
ihufted the ftrong wall which extends from the fea to Se-
limbria, for preventing the incurfions of the Bulgarians and
Scythians.

.5LTHICIA, in Ancinit Geography,', a country, according
to Strabo, adjacent to Macedonia, ThefTaly, and Pindus,
inhabited by the JEthices.

jETHIOPE, a name formerly given to the iiland of
Lesbos.

ETHIOPIA, in Geography. See Ethiopia.

ETHIOPIAN crown, in Natural Hi/lory, the name of
a fliell-fifli, of the genus of the ilolium, or concha globofa.
It is of a brown colour, but differs from the common (hells
of this ge.ius in having the top or head dentated, fo as to
reprefent a crown.

u£THIOPIS, fignifies Ethiopian clary. See alfo Sal-

TIA.

^THIOPS,

iE T H

iE T H

^THTOPS, in Phaniuuy. a name given to certain me-
tallic preparations of a dark olour ; and though ihe tcnn
is at prefent fiiperfc-ded, it h yet too fanniliar to chemifU to
be wholly omitted. There arc four pharm-.t'eiit tea! articles
of this name, acthiops antimonialis, a?thiops maitialis, xliii-
ops mercnrii per fe, and xthiops mineralis.

j^THiops tintimon'mlis, is a combination of the fulphurcts
of antimony and niercur)' ; the old way of preparing it is,
to mix together equal parts of common fait and crude anti-
mony, and flux the mais in a crucible ; when cold tliere will
be found a du(ky fcoria, relling upon a metallic lookinjj
fubftance, which is the crude antimony nearly in the fame
ftate as at firll. The fcoria being feparaled, the antimony
is to be ground with an eq'.ial weight of mercury till t'l'-y
are well united. The iirft part of this proctfs feems whol'y
unnecefTary, and accordingly the antimonial sthiops is ge-
nerally -made by trituration of crude antimony with an
equal weight of mercury. A lliU more expeditious and
equally efficacious way of preparing this m' dicine, is to fufe
fome crude antimony in an earthenware crucible, and when
it is upon the point of fixing, to add to it an equal weight
of hot mercury ; the mixture immediately becomes more
fluid, and after a while becomes folid : wlitn cold it
muft be levigated in a mortar, and waflied. Sometimes, in-
ftead of crude antimony, the golden fulphur of this metal is
made ufe of.

The medical effecls of antimonial aetliiops are chiefly as a
fudorific in Imall dofts, and as a purgative and emetic in *
larger ones. It has been exhibited with effeft in old inve-
terate cafes of lues, fcrophula, and glandular obftruftions,
but on account of the irregularity of its aftion, is now fall-
en much into difufe. The pilulse aethiopicse of the late
Edinburgh pharm.acopoeia, were compofed chiefly of mercury
and golden lulphur of antimony, but in the laft edition of
this as well as of the London pharmacopoeia the sethiops an-
tim.onii is wholly omitted. New Difpenfatory, 1765.
p. 545. — Lewis's Mat. Med. vol. i. p. 161.

.^THiops Martialis, fnfriin lie Mars de I^emery, is a
pure magnetic oxyd of iron, and was firft introduced into
, th^ materia medica by the younger Lemery ; he direfts it
to be prepared in the following manner. Into a large glafs
bafon put a few pounds of clean inirulled iron filings, then
add a fufficient quantity of water to cover them to the
depth of five or fix inches : this mixture is to be ftirred up
with an iron fpatula, two or three times a day, and frefti
water to be fupplied in proportion to the evaporation ; at
the end of five or fix niontlis almoft the whole of the iron
will be converted into a black fine powder which remains
fufpendcd in the water for fome feconds after agitation.
The water thus rendered turbid is to be decaeted into a cu-
cui-bit or retort, and allov.'ed to repofe till the whole of the
iron is depofited ; the fupernatant clear liquor muit then
be poimed off, and the remaining moifture evaporated by
the heat of a fand-bath, care being taken to prevent the
accefs of air to the powder while drying ; if the procefs
has been well conducted, the refult is a pure black pulve-
rulent magnetic oxyd of iron ; as however by moiftin-e and
contaft with the atmofphere, it foon pafles Into the ftate of
yellow oxyd, it is neceflary to keep it in a Arj well clofed
vial. M. Lemery, the inventor of this preparation, as is
ufual in fimilar cafes, ftrongly m.aintained its fuperiority over
all the other medicinal forms of iron ; the tedioufnefs of the
procefs, however, has prevented its ufe from being very
general : it certainly pofiefles in a high degree the tonic pro-
perties which characterize the falts and other preparations
of iron, but is fuperfedtd in both the Britifli pharmacopoeias

by the riill^a fcn'i. Beaum' Chymie. Experim. vol. ii-
p. 5:47. Be.iume Elements de Plnrmacie, p. 137. Mac-
quer's Chem. Dictionary, Art. F.thi'ips Marluil.

jEthiops Mercur'u per fi- ; fiLl'.Aops iilhu' ; by this name
is diilinguinied in the German pharmacopoeias an impci-feft
oxyd of mercury prepared by triturating the metal with
gum arabic, or any otiier firiiple mucilage, or by long con-
tinued agitation in contaft with atmofpheric air. Even
when all poflible care has been taken, this is a ver)' im-
perfeft mercurial oxyd, and in common the metal is merely
reduced to a fine ftate of divifion. Loefecke recommends
it in a dofe from half a fcniple to half a dram, either alone
or united with jalap, in buboes, gonorrh-.ea a.nd other cuta-
neous affeftions of a venereal kind, and alfo in inflammations
of the liver ; and it has been fucccfsfuliy adminillered in
intermittent fevers. Gmehn's App. Med. vol. ii. p. 145.
vol. iii. p. 124.

jEthiOps Mincralh. — JEthiobs mineral. — Tiyilrargyrus
fulphuratus n'vj^er. — Edin. Pharmac. Hyclrargyrus cum ful-
phiire. — Lond. Pharmac. This is direfted by the London
and Edinburgh Difpenfatories to be prepared by triturating
in a glafs or rnarble mortar equal parts of fulphur and
mercur)', or one part of the former^ and tv>-o of the latter,
till they have united into an uniform black powder. Not-
with Handing, howevei', the directions of the college, the
Kthiops is in faft generally made by ftirring mercury into
melted fulphur, and then pulverising the mafs ; by which
manipulation much time is faved : a method cqu;dly expe-
ditious, and perhaps upon the whole preferable to this, is
to mix a folution of fu'phurated alkah with the mercuiy and
fulphur, in which caie tiie two combine very readily by
fimple trituration, and by fubfequent wafliing, the alkali is
eafily got rid of. iEthiops mineral is, therefore, mercury
at its nvnimum of o:cydation, faturatcd with fulphur : it is
one of the leaft aciive of the mercurial medicines, and is
ufed in conjundtion with tin filings as j vermifuge, and in
fome cutaneous difeales. If the combination of the mercury
and fulphur is perfeft, it will not whiten the furface of gold'
when rubbed upon it. Lond. and Edin. Pharmacop. — •
Levv'is's Mat. Med. vol. i. p. 148. — Beaume Chymie. Ex-
perim. vol. ii. p. 456.

Authors are not agreed as to the merits of sethiops mine-
ral. Cheyne, and many inore, commend it highly. It has
been prefcribed for the worms, and for crudities and acri-
mony of the humours : and by fome perfons it has been re-
puted infallible againft the itch and other cutaneous difeafes.
Gmelin's App. Med. vol. ii. p. 129. Boerhaave, on the
contrary, and fome oth.ers, rejeft it us ufelefs. He lays that
it cannot enter the abforbcnt vefTels, the lafteals, or lym-
phatics, but paiTcs direftly through the intclHnal tube,
where it may happen to deftroy worms, if it operates
luckily. Thofe are deceived who cxpeft any other efiefts
from it. He adds, that it is unwarily given, in large quan-
tities, to children and perfons of tender conftitutions, as be-
ing a foreign mafs, unconquerable by the body, and the
more to be fufpefted, as it continues there for a long time
lluggilh and inaftive.

The rethiops, as it is now preparcdj with a double pro-
portion of mercury, is more likely to produce eilect than
the iaaftive preparation formerly ufed.

jEthiops vegetabilis, is formed by burning the fea-
wreck, or fea-oak, the Tvcvs —ije/ii.-11/ofus oi Linnxus, in the
open air, and chen reducing it into a black powder. It is
fometimes ufrd to remove fcrophulous iwellings.

Dr. RufTell recori.inends it as an uleful aiiiftant to fea-
watei- in the cure of dilorders of the glands, when taken in

JE T H

.thi quantity of a dram ; anil lie fays, that, as an internal
medicine, it is much fiiperior to the officinal burnt fponge ;
that, ufcd as a dcntiiiicc, it is bcni.-lici:J for corroding laxi-
titJ of the j;ums ; and that its detergent virtue appeared
by its efl'ecl in cleanfuig the teeth. See Murray's App.
Med. vol. V. p. 540.

' ^THiOPS ^ovi.t/h, formed of equal parts of mertur)',
tin, and Uilphur,- is recommended in an occafional dofe of
half a dram, as an antidote to the tienia. Gmcliu's App.
^Icd. vol. ii. p. 132.

jEthiops, is alfo a tiame given to feveral corapofitioiis,
tvliich arc dilUnguilhed by epiliiets founded on the ufes to ,
wliich tliey are applied : as JE. anliphth'ificw, formed of
mercury extinguilli^d by balfam of Peru, of Canada or of
Copaiva, and wliieh is faid l)y Allruc to afford relief in fe-
veral fpecies of phthifis : M. aniirhsumaliciis, confilling of
meix'ury ground and uniformly mixed with ginn guaiacum,
which is recommended in the rheumatifm and gout : iE.
diunlicus, compofed of quickfilvcr well mixed with juniper
gum or fal ammoniac, wliich promotes the excretion of urine
as well as the infcnfible pcrfpiration : and J\L. purgans
formed with manna or jalap into an uniform powder, and re-
commended as a laxative, and for dellroying inteftine worms.
..pmclin's App. Med. vol.i. p. 115.

^Ethiops, in Entomology, a fpecies of the ceramdyx,
black, with a fpinofe thorax, and with the two bands of
the clytrx, and the point of the apex yellow, and mid-
dle,fi7.ed antennsc, found at the Cape of Good Hope.
JElh'iops is alfo a fpecies of the CARabus, wholly black, found
at Berlin, and a fpecies of the cimex, black, witii a ridge
on tlie middle of the tliorax, and black fpinofe tibix, found
at Cayenne. JElh'wps is alfo a fpecies of papilio, with
black wings; the priinores marked with three white bands,
and cxrulean fpots ou the tipper part, and the pofterior
with two longitudinal pale furrows at the bafe, and a tranf-
verfe ridge, with five cxrulean points ; found out of Eu-
rope. jEth'vips is alfo a fpecies of apis, or the black bee,
with the margin of the legments of the abdomen white ;
found in America. JEtk'wps is alfo the hairy black musca,
with black wings, white at the apex ; two points, and a
filveiy anus ; found in Italy.

^THiops, in Natural Hijlory, a fpecies of the tureo,
with the fhell tranfverfely furrowed and black ; the lirft
windings are nearly ftriated; the fucceeding ones are of a
filvery brightaefs, with the lip and limb brown ; the aper-
ture is dilated.

^THIOPS fulica, in Ornithology, is the wholly black
ruLicA or coot of Sparrman.

^THiops Simia,'\\\ Zoology, the white eye-hd ape of
Pennant, and Mangabey of Buffoon.

^THOLICES, in Phyfic, derived from aA-^, to in-
fiimt, is a name given to fuperficial puftules, or boils in the
ikin, occafioned by heat.

j^iTHON, in Mythology, formed of aiflw, to burn, one
of the four horfes of the fun, which caufed the fall of
Pliaeton, according to Ovid. Claudian calls one of the
liorfes of Pluto's chariot by the fame name, from aifl;?, black.

jETHRA, in Geography, a river of Sweden, called alfo
I'alkenberg.

■•t'THRIA, a name formerly given to the ifland of
Rhodes.

iETHUSA, A;9a!ra, beggarly, in Botany, a genus of the
ptntanrlria digynia clafs and order; and belonging to the
natural order of umbullatie or umbeUtfera: : the cliarafters are,
tiiat the calyx is an univerfal spreading umbel, with the
rays gradually ftiortening towards the middle, and the par-

JE T H

tial is alfo fpreading but fmall; having no ttniyerfal inrfl.
lucre, and the partial one placed on the outside, and con-
filling only of three very long, linear, pendulous leaflets;
and the proper perianthium fca'Ce obKrvablc: the univerfal
corolla is nearly uniform, with all the flofcules fertile, and
the partial has the petals bent in, heart-ihaped and un-
equal: the ilainina are fimple filaments vvitii roundifli an-
thers: the piilillum is an inferior germ, and the ilyles are
reflex with obtufe (ligmas: it has no pericarpium, and the
fruit is roundilh, ftreaked and bipartile: the seeds are two,
roundifli, llreaked, except on a third part of the furface,
which is plane. There are four fpecies, viz. i. 2&.cyniipium,
common fool's par/ley, or leffir hemlocl, which is a common
weed in fields and kitclien gardens, and in a flight degree
poifonous. It is eafily diftinguiflied when in flower, or iu
July and Auguft, from true parfley and chervil, by the
three narrow pendent leaflets of the involucre, placed on
the outer part only of the umbel, and by its being a much
humbler plant than eitlier of the others. The leaves alfo,
in an earlier Itnte, are of a different form and a daiker hue,
and when bruifed emit in a flight degree a difagreeablc
venomous fmell. The fafcfl; way to avoid doubt or danger
is to cultivate the curled parfley. Moll cattle eat it, but
it is faid to be noxious to geefc. 2. IS.. Bunhis, or Mon-
tana, conancler-leaiied fooPs parj1c\, which is a native of
the Pyrenees. La Marck thinks this fpecies ihould be joined
to the Seseli. 3. jE. Maim, Spigucl, Mcu, or Bald'
money, which grows wild in the mountains of Switzerland,
GeiTnany, Aullria, Carniola, Italy and Spain, and alfo iit
the high paftures of Welhnoreland, Cumberland, Lanca-
fliirc, and Merionethfliire. This is the Meum athaman-
I'icum iu Dr. Smith's arrangement of Britilh plants, vol. i.
p. 308. The roots and feeds are aromatic and acrid, and
recommended as carminative and ftomachic in afthmas and
obilruftions of the lungs, in the ftone, lloppage of
urine, and all uterine diforders: and the infufion both of
I'lie roots and the feeds is fometimes given to cure inter-
mittent fevers both in England and amongft: the inhabit-
ants of tlie Alps. Spignel is alfo an ingredient in Theriaca
and Mithridate, and appears to be of the fame nature with
lovage. The difference betwixt the roots is moll confider-
able in the cxtra£ls by water, that of the fpignel being
unpleafantly bitterifli, with little or nothing of the fweet-
nefs of that of the roots of lovage. The fpirituous ex-
tratt of Spignel, more aromatic than that of the lovage,
is moderately warm, bitterilh and pungent. Lewis's Mat.
Med. Diofcorides and Galen tell us, that the too frequent
ufe of this medicine, or too large dofts of it, will occafion
violent pains in the head. It may be given m fubftance
from half a dram to two fcruples, or from a dram to two
drams in infufion. Geoffrey Mat. Med. vol. ii. p. 105.
4. tE. fatua, Jinc-leavcd fool's parjley, was introduced here
in 1781, and flowers in Auguft or September. Its native
climate is not known. La Marck has joined to this genus
the Phyllandrium mutellina of Linnxus. The firil
fpticies is annual, and may eafily be kept dow^n in gardens,
by not fufterifig it to feed ; the fecond may be propagated
by feeds, and flowers in July; the third and fourth are
hardy perennial plants, and may be increafed by parting
the roots at Michaelmas, or lowing the feeds foon after
they are ripe in July and Auguft ; and keeping the plants
in a fliady fituation and moift foil. Martyn's Miller's Did.

u^ixHusA. See tEgusa.

iETHYIA, in Ornithology, a name by which the old au-
thors have called one of the web-footed fowl, feeming to be the
UTAMANiA of Crete, or the common auk or Ra2.or-uill.

^THYSSEIS,

JB T i

^THYSSELS, a people of Lybla near Marmarica.

iETIANS, Aetiani, ill C,'}iirc/j H'iflnry, a I'ctt or
branch of Arians, lb called from their leader Aetius, in
tlie fourth centuiy.

The Acluvis were of the flridt^r kir.d of Arians, who
held that -the Son and Holy Gholl are in every relp,;ft
dilTimilar to the Father. Whence alfo they are called
Anomcet and Ucleroufiam j fometimesy>«r(! Arums.

The profefiion of this doClrine was contrary to an
eUablifhed law of the emperor Conflantius, who had
decreed, " that no man (hould fay, that the Son of
God was of the fame fuhllanee with God, or of a dif-
ferent fub;lance, but that he was in all things like
to him that begat him."- By fuch nice diftiniSlions were
the confciences of mankind directed and guarded ; and th.e
freedom of religious inquiry reitriAed ; and the (llghtcft
deviation from the prefcvibcJ rule expofcd them to exile and
other limllar penalties.

yETINIUM, in Atui.nt Gco<rrapky, a town, placed by
Ptolemy, in Macedonia, and which, he fays, belonged to the
Elliotes, but as they inhabited Theffaly, its fituation is
not well afeertaintd.

ETIOLOGICAL, fomething that afligns the caufe
of an effeft, or appearance.

AETIOLOGY, in lileJidne, a rationale, or dlfeourfe of
the caufe of a difeafe, or it is that part of Pathology,
which is employed in exploring the caufes of difeafes. The
word is compoimded of kitw, caufe, and Aoy©-, d'lj'courfc.
In this fenl'e, we fay, the ,eUology of the fmall pox, of the
hyHrophobln, of the gout, the dropfy, &c.

iExioLOGY is ufed for a figuie in 7?/if/5r;V, whereby, in
relating an event, we aflign alfo the caufe of it. In which
fenfe, ttt'iolugy differs from color, as the former afllgns the
true caufe, the latter only a feigned or fpecious one.

The fceptics were profefied opponents of all a:liology, or
argumentation from caufes.

jETION, in Biography, an eminent painter, whofe pic-
ture of Roxana and Alexander was exhibited at the
Olympic games. It reprefents a magnificent chamber, in
which Roxana is feated on a bed, with a modeft and con-
fufed afpefl, whilil Alexander is Handing before her. Se-
veral Cupids are fluttei ing about her ; fome of whom hold
tip the curtain, others undrefs the lady, and others again
prefent Alexander to his miftrefs, at whofe feet he lays his
crown, being accompanied by Epheftion with a torch in his
liand, and leaning upoa a youth who reprefents Hymen.
Other Cupids appear in different attitudes and fituations.
This pifture gained TEtion fuch a degree of reputation,
that the prefident of the games gave him his daughter in
maniage. jEtion is mentioned with diftinguiOied refpeft
by Cicero, De claris orat. ap. op. tom. i. p. 395. ed. OUvet.

ETITES, or cagle-Jlone, in Natural H'ljlory, a flinty or
erullated ftone, hollow within, and containing a nucleus,
which, on fhaking, rattles within. It was formerly in re-
pute for feveral extraordinary magical, as well as tnedtcal
powers ; fuch as preventing abortion, difcovering thieves,
and other lidiculous properties.

The word is formed from a.'.T®^, eagle ; and by the Italians
this flonc is called p'letra d'aquila: the popidar tradition
being, that it is found in the eagle's neft, whither it is fup-
pofed to be carried while the female fits, to prevent her
eggs from bei'ig rotten. Matthiolus fays, that birds of
prey could never hatch their young without it, and that they
go in fearch of it as far as the Ealt Indies. Baufch has
written a Latin treatife on the fubjeft.

The lapis irtitis is found in feveral parts : near Trevoux
in France, one can fcarcc dig a few feet, without finding

JE T I

conridetable llrata or beds, of the coarfe or femiginou»
kind. — 'i'hey are originally foft, and of the colour of yel-
low ochre.

But the fmefl: and mofl. valued of all the caglc-fl.ones,
are accidental Hates of one or other of cur common ped-
lii.ts. Thefe are fo far, from being a peculiar fpecics of
foffil, though ufually accounted fucli, that they are not
deterniinatel^ of any one fpceies of pebble. That, how-
ever, which moll ufually furnilhes them is the brown-cen-
tered pebble, with whitilli, bluilh, and brown crulls. The
plain liiitory of tills remarkable foflil is this: the central
nucleus of many fpecies of pebbles, peculiarly of this, ia
coaiier than the reil of the ftone, that is, it is made up of
more earth and lefs ciyftal : the natural confequence of
which mull be, that being of a more loofe and rare tex-
ture, it is in drying more apt to (lirink than fuch mafles as
are compofed of a iiarder and purer matter. The central
nucleus in this fpecies is alfo furrounded with a whitifh cruft,
of a more loofe texture, and more fubject to flirink in di-y-
iiig than even the nucleus itfelf j and being compofed of
more earth and lefs cryllal, is alfo more friable and foft.
Tlie outer circles of this ftone are of a much harder fub-
ftuncc. Whenever the earthy matter in the nucleus, and
firft cruft of this pebble, a little exceeds its juft proportion,
the confequence will be, that the ftone will become an
lEtites : for the nucleus (hrinking and contraiting itfelf to a
fmall fize on the evaporation of its fluid matter, muft fc-
parate itfelf from its lirft cruft, and that alfo (lirinking, muft
be drawn backward toward the other crufts ; whence the
cavity will become larger between that and the nucleus, and
confequently, the nucleus will rattle in it when the ilone is.
fliaken. The pebble in this ftate having been afterwards
rolled about by waters, the nucleus has by rolling brokea
to pieces all the inner cruft, and is ufually found in the
hofiovv of the ftone, buried in a large quantity of a whitidi
powder. Thefe eagle-ftones are not uncoir.mon in our
gravel-pits, but being by their Uollownefs rendered lefs ftrong
than the folid pebbles, we frequently find them broken.
Hill. The Etites is claffed by Chaptal (Chem. v. ii. p.
340) among the bog ores, or argillaceous ores of iron : and
Kirwan (Elem. Miner, vol. ii. p. 178) dcfcribes it under
the fourth variety of the firft family of thefe ores ; as, ex-
ternally, yellowifli brown, internally lighter, with a ker-
nel, whofe colour is moftly ochre yellow. The form is
generally that of a rounded knob, or approaching more or
lefs to the kidney form, feldom quadrangular ; the furface
is generally fouled with earth. The lultre of the external
rind refembles that of filk or is fomcwhat lefs gloify, and
metallic. The kernel, which is fometimes loole, has no
luilre at all. The frafture of the former is even, or fine
fphntery ; that of the interior fine earthy.. Externally it
prefents one or more curved lamellar concentric concretions,,
the kernel none. Its hardnefs is between that which is
one degree fuperior to that of clialk or yielding to the
nail, and that which hardly yields to the knife; it is brittle
and heavy. Its ftreak is hght yellowifli brown, commonly
brighter..

The ffitites is alfo known by the names eiitocium, echites,
lapis aqiiihc, crodialis, aquikius, 13 lapis prxgnans ; fome
rank it under the clafs of precious itones, to which it has
no title.

j5iTILTS, in Biography, one of the followers of Arius,
was born at Antioch in Syria, and flouriflied, according to
Cave (Hift. Lit. tom. i. p. 218) about the year 359, and
died in, or foon after, the year 366. Having contended
with difficulties in early hfe on account of the reduced con-
jiitiou of his parents, lie applied with diligence and fuccefs

JE T I

•to the aequifition- of literature at Alexandria in h'n ma-
turer year;; and in this city lie learned tlie art of phyfic,
wliiih Ik- lionourab'.y praaificl for the bonelit of ihofe who
•needed his advice. From Alexandria lie returned to An-
tioch, where he was ord lined deacon, as fome fay, by
Leontius, biluop of tliat city ; or, according to Epiphunius,
by George the Arian, bilhop of Alexandria. He Icems to
have been a< man of found underllandiiig and conliderable
knowl.-dj^c, ihonijh his acquaintance with the more an-
ticnt Chrii^iaii writers was partial and imperfecl. As he
had adopted the fcntiments of Arius, and had acquired
the talents of an able and invincible difputant ; whom,
favs Gibbon, (Hill. vol. iii. p. 340) it was impofiible either
to filence or to convince, he was baniflied by Coiillantius,
whofe timid confcience, fays the hiilorian (Id. p. 354) was
alarmed by the impiety of ^tius, into a remote part of
Phrj'Ria, I. e. fays' Gibbon, citinjj Philollorgius (iiH fupra
p. y/<) to Amblada, a dlllrid inhabited by favages, and
infeilcd by war and peftilence; but he was rcftorcd by
Julian, who honoured him with his patronage, and gave
him an eflatc neax, Mitylene in Leftos, where he fonietimes
rcfided; though he probably died at Conllantinople, and
was there buried bv Euuomiiis and his other frienifc in a
very refpedful manner. The difpleafure of the Catholics
againll yEtius was fo great, that they Itigmatized him vvitli
the odious appellation of Atheill. Epiphanius has pre-
fei-ved a fmall book of ./Etius concerning the faith, confift-
ing of 47 propofitions or fhort chapters, which he has an-
fwercd ; and he alfo fays, from report, that ^tius had
compofed 300 fuch chapters. He is faid to have held a
public difputation with Apthonius, the Manichean, of
Alexandria, and to have obtained fo complete a viclory
over him, that he died of grief feven days after. He was
the founder of a feci called ^ti an s. Lardner's Works,
vol. iii. p. 396. vol. iv. p. 122.

.ffixius, called .,^m/V/ifm«, from yfmiila in Mefopolamia,
the place of his birth, flouriflied at Alexa.ndria, about the
end of the fifth centur)-, as Friend clearly demonftrates,
from feveral paflages in his works, in which reference is
made to St. Cyril, who died in 444 ; and to Petrus Archi-
ator, who was phyfician to Theodoric. He left fixteen
books divided-into four /c/raArWw, on the practice of phyfic
and furgery, principally coUefted from Galen and other
earlier writers, but with fome original obfervations. " We
find many palTages, Friend obferves, in this author, to con-
vince U3 how much the actual and potential cautei-y Were
then in ufe ; particularly in a pally. He fays from Ar-
chigencs, that he fhould not at all hefitate to make an
efchar either way, and this in feveral places ; one in the
nape, where the Ipinal marrow takes its rife ; two on each
fide of it, inc. and if the ulcers continue running a good
while, he fhould not doubt of a perfeft recovery." The late
Mr. Pott revived this practice in the palfy of the lower
limbs, applj-ing his caultics in thofe cafes on each fide of
the fpine, a little above the facnim, induced to it we have
no doubt, from reading this paflage ; and the practice is
now general, and is frequently attended with complete fuc-
cefs, fo that it feems wonderful phyficlans do not ufe them
in hemiplegia, and in other fimilar untraceable difeafes.
.ffitius is the earlieft writer who afcribed medical efBcacy to
the external ufe of the magnet. But this he does upon re-
port, and not from his own experience. " Tradunt (fays he)
magmtem delentum manu chiragrorum ac podagncorum dolores
ipforum Jcdare. Mqui convuljls opitulatiir. It is reported
that thofe who are afflided with the gout in their hands or
feet, or with convulfions, are relieved by holding a magnet
ifl tlieir hands." The works of Mum were tranflated into

JET I

Latin by Janus Cornarins, a phyfician of Frankfort, and
publifhed, accompanied with the Greek, at Bade, 1542,
in folio. Henry Stephens has inferted them iu his editiou
of Medici principes, printed at Geneva, 1567. The lad
and bed edition is that of Franz at Leipzig in 1777.

^Tius, whofe father was Guudentius, an iHuilrioufS
citizen of the province of Scythia, and niaftcr-general of
the cavalry, and mother a rich and noble Italian, was one
of the generals of Piacldia, the mother of V'alentinian
III. who reigned 25 years in the name of her fon.

jttins ferved at firft among the troops of the emperor's
houfehold, and after the battle of Polcntiain 403, he wak
delivered as an hollage to Alaric, and afterwards to the
Huns with whofe chiefs he became intimately acquainted.
His llature, which was tall and majellic, and his conftitu-
tion, which was robuft, litted him for the duties and toils of a
military' life. He is alfo co;nmcnded by the ancients for
his prudence and addrefs in the conduct of political bu-
finefo, as well as tor his intrepidity and experience in war.
His regard to jullice wa? fo liricl, that no temptation could
induce him to deviate from the exercifc of it. On his re-
turn from the country of the Huns he married the dau'^h-
ter of Carpilio, tlie captain of the guards ; and was em-
ployed in offices of high truH in the empire. When Mar-
feilles was attacked by Ataulphus, /-itius and Count Bo-
niface were united in its defence ; and thefe two great
commanders are faid to have deferved the diftinguifiiing
appellation of the laft Romans. They were unhappily
rivals, and their mutual jealoufy and diicord teiTninated in
the lofs of Africa and the death of Boniface. After the .
death of Honorius, the empire was ufurped by John his
chief fecretaiy, and iEtius connected himfelf with the
ufui-per, and was employed to procure the afiillance of the
Huns. John, however, was. foon cut off; and iEtius with-
in three days entered Italy with 60,000 Huns, who ferved
to fecure to him a reconciliation with Placidia, and who, by
a grant of the province of Pannonia, were prevailed upon
to return into their own countiy. Having induced Placidia
to recal Boniface from his government of Africa, and at
the fame time advifed him not to comply, he was the caufe
of the revolt of his rival, and the lofs of Africa; and the
difcovery- of this fraud produced a civil war between thefe
two commanders, which terminated in the death of Boni-
face, and in the exile of jEtius to the court of Rugilas,
king of the Huns, in Pannonia. He foon returned, how-
ever, to his own countiy; ar.d he was indebted to their
alliance for his fafety and relloratioii. Inflead of the fup-
pliant language of a guilty exile, he folicited his pardon
at the head of a large army of barbarians; and the em-
prefs Placidia was under a neceiTity of forgetting his re-
bellion and his treacheiy, and of delivering herfelf, her fon
Valentinian and the Weftern empire, into the hands of an
infolent fubjcCl. The fortunate TEtius, who was im.ine-
diately promoted to the rank of patrician, and thrice in-
vefted with the honours of the confulfliip, affumed, with
the title of Mailer of the cavalry and infantry, the whole
military power of the ftate ; and he is fometimes ilyled,
by cotemporary writers, the duke or general of the Ro-
mans of the Weft. The Gothic hiftorian, Jornandes, in-
genuoufly confeffcs, that ^tius was born for the falvation
of the Roman republic ; and in the eulogium which a cor-
temporary hiftorian" bellows upon him, he favs that his
mind and body were alike capable of the moft laborious
efforts : that he pofTefled the genuine courage, that can
defpile not only dangers but injuries, and that it was im-
poffible either to corrupt, or deceive, or intimidate the
tirm integrity of his foul. But thefe lavifh praifes are not

very

JE T N

iE T N

verv confiftonL with his condiift towards Boniface. J^uius
affiduo\illy cultivated the alliance of the Huns. Whilft
he rofidcd in their tents, as an hoftage or an exile, he had
familiarly convcrfed with Attila liimfelf, and the two aii-
tagonifts were connefted by a perfonal and military triend-
fliip, which was afterwards conhrmed by gifts ar^d eni
baifies. Thus a numerous armv of Huns and Alani, whom
jEtius had attached to his perfon, was employed in the de-
fence of Caul. He etlablifhed a treaty with Geaicric,
which averted the Vandals from the phnuler of Italy. He re-
llored the authority of the empire in Spain and Gaul, and
compelled the Franks and Suevi, after vanquifliinrr them in
the field, to become ufeful allies. He afterwards concluded
a peace with Theodoric, king of the Viligoths, who inha-
bited the fouthern ])rovinces of Gaul; after a ilgnal defeat,
in which ^ooo Goths fell near the walls of Narbonne ; and
.ffitins and Theodoric, in mutual alliance, gave battle to
the innumerable holl of Attila, encamped before Orleans,
and compelled them to raile tlie fiege. On the plains of C!ia-
lons, where the valiant Theodoric fell, yEtius, aided by
the intrepid Torifmond, obtained a viftory over the Huns,
and obliged Attila to retreat. When Attila invaded Italy,
his prudence and courage fen'ed to harrafs and retard the
march of the invader ; nor did he ever appear more truly
great, than at the time when his conduct was fufpeded
by a timid and diilruftful fovereign, and blamed by an igno-
rant and ungrateful people. At length the emperor jealous
of his merit, and fearing his wealth, power, and popularity,
put him to death in 454 with his own hand, under a pre-
tence, encouraged by the malicious infinuations of Hera-
clius the eunuch, that he had permitted the invafion of the
Huns, after Attila's defeat, and that he was afpiring to the
empire ; and thus phinged his fword in the breail of a ge-
neral who had faved his empire. Thus fell the bell: general
of his age, the terroi of Attila, and the bulwark of the
weftern provinces, fays Sidonius, by the hand of the great-
eft coward in the whole empire. By this aft he con-
verted the public contempt into deep and univerfal ab-
horrence. Such fentiments, fays Gibbon (Hill. vol. vi.
p. 139), feldom pervade the walls of a palace ; yet the em-
peror was confounded by the honeft reply of a Roman,
whofe approbation he had not difdained to folicit : " I am
ignorant. Sir, of your motives or provocations. 1 only
know, that you have afted hkeaman who cuts off his right
hand with his left." The memorable letter, entitled the
groans of the Britoiu, was addreOed to iEtius, A. D. 449,
ivhowas then conful the third time. " We know not, fay
thty, even which way to flee : chafed by the barbarians to
the fea, and forced back by the fea upon the barbarians,
we have only left us the choice of two deaths, eitlier to
periQi by the fword, or to be fwallowed up by the waves."
Rome was then threatened by Attila, and the Britons re-
ceived no afl'illance. Anc. Un, Hift. v. xiv. p. 417. Gib-
bon's Hill. vol. vi.

jETNA, in Geography, the higheft moimtain in Sicily.
In the Itineraries it is called ^/^;«rt, and fuppofed to be
derived from aifev, to burn. Bochart (Geog. Sac. 1. i,
c. xxviii. apud oper. torn. i. p. ^26. Ed. Villem.) deduces
the name from f^JinK' Mnma, fignifying either ^ furnace.,
or darknefs ; and he cites feveral authorities from the poets
•that favour both the one and the other of thefe etymologies.
The inhabitants of the ifland call it Monte GiMlo, or by con-
traftion Mongiheilo, i.e. Mount of Mounts. This mountain,
which has been famous for both its bulk and volcanic erup-
tions for many ages, is fituated in dis eaftern part of Sicily,
called Val di Demoni, or Demona, from a notion that the
Buroerous caverns of JEtna ave inhabited by dxmons, and

Vol. I.

other wicked and mifenible beings. N. hit. 37" 40'. E.
long. 15°.

'i'he fire, which is continually burning in the bowels of
this mountain, led the poets to place here the forges of the
Cyclops, under the direftion of Vulcan, and the prifon of
the giants who rebelled againft Jupiter. Upon this
fuppofition they erefted a temple to Vulcan upon the
hill, in which was kept, as wc are informed by vElian (dc
Animal. 1. xi. c. iii. torn. ii. p. 608. 1, a pei-jxtual fire, as in
the temple of Vclla ; this clement being a fynibol of that
deity.

The ^figure of this mountain is a kind of obttife, truncated
cone, extended at the bafe, and terminating in a bifurcated
vertex, which conliib of two eminences at a confiderablc
dillaiice from each other.

\\'ith regard to the formation of JEtna, M. De BuflTon is
of opinion that, on account of its licight and immenfe bulk,
it ought to be confidered as one of the primitive mountains,
coeval with the earth itfelf ; and that it vomited flames foon
after the creation ; but that, on the fubfiding of the waters
which covered the face of the earth, it ceafed to burn,
bccaufe there was not a fufficient quantity of fluid feu- pro.
dueing an effervefcence with its mineral contents. After a
long lapfe of ages, the Straits of Gibraltar were burft open,
and the ocean mixed with the Mediterranean Sea ; and a
fimilar rupture of the Bofpliorus furniftied an additional fup-
ply of water, and thus it deluged the land between Sicily
and Italy, and approached the bafis of ^tna. In confe-
quence of this event, the mountain began to emit flames
anew, which at different inteiTals, and with various degrees
of force, it has continued to do until the prefent time.
From Homer's filence with refpeft to the eruption of this
mountain, we -may jullly infer, that it did not burn in his
days ; and therefore the lirll known eruptions of ^tna mull
be dated after his age. Other writers, who have not
adopted the whole of Buffon's hypothefis, maintain, that
yttna exifted as a mountain before it became a volcano.
Dolomieu, cited by Mr. Kinvan ( Irhh Tranf. vol. vi.
p. 306), found immenfe heaps of fea-lhclls in the north-eaft
flanks of this mountain, at the height of near 2000 feet
above the furface of the fea. Hence he concludes, that this
volcano exift;ed as a mountain before it was uncovered by the
fea. He adds, that at the height of about 2400 feet, there
are regular ftrata of grey clay filled with marine fliells ; and
thefe ilrata muft have been depolited while the mountain
was progrefiivcly formed under the fea. He further affirms,
that in fome parts of this mountain, the calcareous ftrata
exift under tlve lava. Count Borch alfo, in his Letters on
Sicily and Malta, informs us, that the original ttone of
which jEtna confifts, is granite mixed with jafper, neither
of which is lava ; and he fays, that it abounds in mines of
lead and copper, which are never found entire in lava.
This geologift pretends, that JE\.n^ is at ieaft 8000 years
old ; '"id this high antiquity he infers from the layers of
vegetable earth, which he difcovered betwixt diflcrent beds
of lava. Canon Recupero, who had been employed in
writing the hiftoiy of Mount iEtna, has alfo difcovered a
ilratnm of lava, which, in his opinion, flowed from the
mountain in the time of the lecond Punic war, or about
2000 years ago. This ftratum, he fays, is not yet covered
with foil fufficient for producing either corn or vines. It
requires, then, about 2000 years to convert a ftratum of
lava into a fertile field. But in digging n pit near Jaci, in
the neighbourhood of jEtna, he diicovered feven diilinct
layers of lava, moft of which were covered with a thick bed
of rich earth ; and as the eruption which formed the lowclt
of thefe lavas, flowed from the mountain at Ieaft 14000
T t ycRii

iE T N

YWM ago, he deduces from tViis circumllance a correfpond-
inT acia for the formation of tlic mouniaiii. Mr. Diydone,
(See his Tour through Sicily and Malta, vol. i. p. IIJ,
132) inforir.s us, that Rccupcro. was much cmbarralTed by
this d!fco^•cry and the iiiftienctf it afforded, becaufc they
contradicted the hiftory of Mofes. lor the relief of the
canou and the fatisfaaioii of the traveller, we might allidge,
that the Mofuic hillor>' contains nothing that is repugnant
to the notions here fupgelled concerning the antiquity of
the earth. Although man has not cxillcd .ongcr on the
earth than the period alllgned in tin; hiilory, the earth
itfelf might have exilled, and probably did exiil, in fome
other form and for other purpofes, for ages before this
period. IJcfides, we might alk, is the lava to which the
canon direds our attention, the lame which flowed from
^tna in the fecond Carthaginian war ; and is not the time
required for converting lavas into fertile fields ver)' diflerent,
according to the different conliik-ney of the lavas and their
different fituations with refpeft to elevation or deprefTion,
and to their being expofed to wind, rain, 5:c. jiifl as the
time, in which heaps of iron (lag which vcfembles Inva, are
covered with verdure, is ver)- diferent at different furnaces,
according to the nature of the flag, and the fituation of the
furnace ? But there is an argument deducible from faft,
which invalidates and totally overthrows the canon's objec-
tion. iEtna and Vesuvius refemble each other with regard
to the various circumflances 'that pertain to this fubjecl ;
but the eruption of Vefuvius, which deltroyed Herculaneum,
happened A.D. 79, or about 1700 years ago. The mat-
ter which overwhelmed this ancient tov/n, is covered by the
roduce of fix other fubfequent eruptions : and thefe
everal llrata of lava are feparatcd by veins of good foil.
See Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixi. p. 7. and Bifliop Watfon's Apo-
logy for Chrillianity, in fermons and tratts, p. 383, &c.

Further, Dolomieu (Ponces, 472.) informs us, that vege-
table earth does not exift between beds of lava ; and he
obfervcs, that if this were the cafe, no conclufion relative
to their age could faiilv be deduced from this clrcumllance,
as fome lavas become fertile much fooner than others. To
this purpofe. Chevalier Giocni, in 1787, found lavas, that
were projefted in 1766, in a ilate of vegetation, while other
lavas, much more ancient, remained barren. It is alio well
known, that beds of volcanic allies and pumice vegetate
fooner than any other. Mr. Dolomieu adds, that canon
Rccupcro denied his ever having expreffed any doubt with
regard to the Mofaic hiilory ; and could not conceive why
a late celebrated traveller (hould endeavour to render fuf-
pieious the orthodoxy of his belief. So far from having
been perfecuted on that account, he had a peniion from the
c-ourt of Naples to his death, with many teitimonies of
«fteem. The abbe Spallanzani (See Travels into the two
Sicilies, vol. i. p. 205, &c.) has ftated and examined the ar-
gument of Count Borch, deduced from the decompofition
and vegetation of different i1:rata of lava, in proof of the
Entiquity of the world. A lava, fays the Count, that was
produced by an eruption in 1 157, had a coating of earth in
Uecember, 1776, that was 12 inches thick ; another which
had flowed in 13-9, had one of 8 inches ; on that of 1669,
was found more than one inch ; vvhilil the-mofl recent, that
«f 1766, was entirely dcllitute of fuch earth. The abbe
allows that lavas, after a feries of years, are invefted with a
fti-atum of earth proper for vegetation ; and that the earth
is originally produced by the decompofition of the lava and
that of the plants wliich have taken root upon it. But
lavas are vtrj' different in their confiftenCy and other quali-
ties ; and thefe differences mull render the argument of

I

JE T N

Count Borch and fuch reafoners very inconclufive. The
lava, which flowed in 1329, and which was examined by
the Count 447 years after its eruption, was covered vsitli
eight inches of carlh ; and yet the lava of the Arfo in
Ilehia, which rulhed into the tea in 1302, appeared in 1788
to have preferved its hardnefs and iterility. Another cur-
rent of lava, near Catania, which has been employed for
2000 years for the purpofe of building, retains fuch a degree
of hardnefs, that where t'lc art and labour of cultivation
have not been applied to it, it iliU continues aliogetlicr
itcrile. He concludes upon the wh')le, that all cileulation*
on the greater or lefs quantity of earth which may cover
lavas arc very uncertain and lullacious.

But to return from this digreilion, with regard to the anti-
quity of j^tna, we obfervc, that nnturalilfs have generally-
maintained, that ^tna, like other infulated mountains, is
the gradual produftion of volcanic eruptions. It is certain,
that every great eruption produces a new mountain; and that
iEtna confiils of a number of hills and declivities, more
nearly or more remotely connefted, which have been occa-
fioiied by the commotions and changes, to which it has
been fubjeft in the eourfe of many pall centuries. jEtna
may therefore be regarded, not as a fingle volcano, but as
an affemblage of volcanos, many of which are extinguilhed
or burn with a gentle fire, and of which fome few are lliU
aflmg imperceptibly or viiibly, with violence.

M. Houcl, one of the latell and moft accurate infpeftors
of tliis mountain, obferves, (in his Voyage P'lttorefqui^, that
yEtna is entirely conipofcd of fubftances that have been
difcharged from the volcano in its various eruptions. From
the quantities of marine bodies that are depofited over its
lower part, he infers, as others have done, that it muil
have been once covered by the fea, to at leaft one half of
its prefent height : and he fuppofes that, in this ilate, the
currents of the ocean would gradually accumulate upon it
large malTes, not only of its own produftions, fuch as Ibells
and bones of fifhes, but of feveial other lubilanees inter-
mixed with the matters difcharged from the focus of the
burning mountain. Thele maffes, he conceives, would, in
procefs of time, fo increafe as to form thofe various moun-
tains which now furround the volcano. The currents of
the ocean would likewife convey fome part of the difcharged
matter of the volcano to a greater dillance ; and thus form
thofe mountains that are feparatcd from it, and that are
found farther removed. The bafe of this mountain, ac-
cording to this ingenious author's obfervations, confiils of
alternate layers of lava and marine fubftances, fucceflively
depofited upon one another, and reaching to a confiderable,
but unknown depth. Thefe inu-l defcend to the level of
the flratum of lava, which was difcharged by the volcano at
its firil origin. The lad layer, depofited by the fea, is a
range of calcareous eminences of confiderable height, placed
on a bafis of lava. Beneath this, there is another ftratum
of fea-pebbles, rounded by their mutual attrition in the con-
flift of the waves. This, again, lies upon a yellowiih rock,
confining of a fpecies of indurated fand. The river Sinieto
flows over this rock ; and the bafe of the river is much
higher than that of ^Lna, which is on a level with the fea :
but the primary bafe of the volcano is unknown.

From the mountains of calcareous matter that are fcattered
over the lower part of jEtna, the iuha.bitaiit3 provide them-
felves with limeflone, and they apply fragments of lava,
inftcad of flones, of which they liave none, to the purpofes
of building. The mountains tiiat furround ^-Etna, and that
are obfervcd to great advantage from its fummit, evidently
indicate, by tlieir conical figm-e and the cavity at their top^

their

-a; T N

"iE T N

tTieir being the produiTtions of fire. They bear unequivocal
marks of the cfcfts of this Jeftniftire agent in an accumu-
lation of lava, fcorise and volcanic fand. AVhellicr the
origin of thefe mouniains is to be traced to the cxpanfive
effort of the ignited matter contained within the great abyfs
of JEtm, and whicli, incapable of afcending to the upper
crater, burfls foi-th at the fides ; or whether they are to be
afcribed to particular conflagrations and eruptions, wliich
have no communication with the imnienfe furnace within
the crater, has been a fubjeft of inquiry and difcuflion.
The former alternative has been generally allowed ; and it
mull be acknowledged that this is ircquently the fa£t. In-
ftances, however, may be cited, which afford llrong reafons
for believing that the production of the lateral mountains is
owing- to partial eruptions, wliich have no communication
with the principal crater. Of this ki.id is Monte Rojfj, of
which an account will be given in the fequel of this article.
Kir W. Hamilton reckons 44 mountains of this kind on
the fide of Catania, with their dillintt craters, moll of
which are now in a ftate of fertility.

From the confideration of the conllituent parts of ^tna,
and the mode of its formation, we fliall proceed to ftate its
dtmaifwns. Thcfe have not yet been fatisfaftorily afcertained.
Its ilupendous height and bulk were noticed lb long ago as
the time of Pindar, more than 435 years before Cluift, in a
p'iiTage which we fliall cite in the progrefs of our account.
He reprefents it not only as the eternal abode of fnows, but
as the pillar of heaven. The ancients in general, as well as
tlie moderns, have been accutlomed to confider y£tna as one
of the higheft mountains on the globe. There are many
paffages in their writings, fays Mr. Brydone, that (hew this ;
though, perhaps, none more ftronglv than their making
Deucalion and Pyrrha take refuge on the top of this mountain,
in order to fave themfelves from the univerfal deluge. Theie
ideas, however, appear to be very erroneous ; for Sir George
Shuckburgh obferves, (Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixvii. p. 595.) that
Vefuvius, placed upon Mount Atna, would not be equal to
the height of Mont Blanc. The accounts of thofe who
have vifited TEtna in later times have been very various.
The following meafures have been given by different
authors.

Height above the furface of the fea, T Faujasde S.Fond in

1 0,0 ■56 feet.

> his Volcans du Vi-

Kircher.

Italian Mathemati-
cians.
Brydone.

ccupero.

Circumference at the bafe, 180 miles. J varais.
Height, 4000 French toifes.

3 miles 264 paces.

4 6 and 8 miles.

1 2000 feet — —

2500 toifes ; circumference

1R3 miles.

'95° toifes ; diameter

'^o miles.

3000 fathoms; circumference"! BufFon's Nat. Flift.

60 leagues ; and fuperlieles '- by Smellie, v. ix.
300 fquare leagues. J 14^,

— — — funimit above the Medilerva-]
ncan 10954 feet. I

circumference of the vilible | Sir George Shuck-
horizon on the top of Mount \ burgh, Phil.Tranf.

V

( Mentelle Gcogr.
' Comp.

yTtna, 6' being allowed for
rcfradlion, is 1093 Enghfh
miles.

vol. Ixvii. p. 59J.

Other,-, make its height only 2000 toifes, and its fuj^erficies
3C0 Iquare miles. By the following heights of the ther-
mometer and barometer, at different nations, extrafted from
Brydone's Tour, v. i. p. 211, their refpedive elevations

might be afcertained, if the altitudes by ihc inftruinents
were accurately taken.

Height of Fahrenheit's Thermometer.
At Catania, May 26, at noon, . . . ^(J

Ditto, 27, at 5 in the morning - 72

At Niciiofi, 12 miles up the mountain, at noon 73

At the cave, called Spelonca del Capriole, in flic

feeoiid region, where there was a confiderable

quantity of fnow, at 7 at night - - 6f

In the fame cave, at half an hour paft 11 - 52

At the Torre del Philofopho, in the third region, at

three in the morning ... 34^

At the foot of the crater of ILXxa. - - 33

About half way up the crater - - 29

On tlie fummit of ^tna, a little before fun-rife 27

Height of the Barometer in inches and lines.
At the fea-fide at Catania - - 29.8I

At the village of Piedmonti, in the firfl region of

jEtna ... 27.8

At Nieolofi, ditto - - 27. li

At the Caflagno di Cento Cavalli, in the fecond

region ... 24.1

At the Torre del Philofopho, in the third region 20.5

At the foot of the crater - - 20.4'

Within about 300 yards of the fummit - 19.6-2

At the fummit of ^tna, where the wind prevented

an exaft obfervation, fuppofed to be - 19.4

M. Houel (uhi fupra) ilates the circumference of the
bafe at 40 miles ; and though he had no opportunity of
meafuring the altitude, he obferves, that it had been done
by M. de Sauffure, who found it to be 10,036 feet, or, as we
learn from Senebier, 10,963 Englifh feet. This was afcer-
tained on the 5th of June, 1773, at 20' after feven in the
morning. The height of the barometer, on the mod ele-
vated part, at the brink of the crater, was 18 inches
I if lines; whigh, by the neceffai-^' coireftions, is reduced
to 18 inches io4-| lines. At the fame time, the mercuiy at
Catania, placed only one foot above the level of the fea,
flood at 28 inches Z-^ lines, which muil be reduced to
28 inches l^- line, on account of the requifitc correftions
for the thermometer.

Some have fuppofed, that volcanic mountains always in-
creafe in height by tli£ produfts of fucceffive eruptions, till
they are extinguifhed. However, it is generally conceived
that the height and bulk of ^tna are much the fame now
as they were in former times. The dilapidations, occafioned
by the falling in, and abforption of the fummit, have pro-
duced, for time immemorial, no lenfible diminution ; as the
lofTes refulting from fome eruptions* are repaired bv ethers
which fucceed. In proof of this, it is alledged, that if
any confiderable decreafe of the mountain had taken place,
ice and fnow would not have continued, in a climate fo mild,
to envelope the top of the mountain, as they now do, even
during the greatefl heats of fummer. On the contrary, it is
a vei-y old opinion (vide Seneca, Epifl. 179, and iElian Var.
Hill. 1. viii. c. xi. tom. i. p. 548.) and adopted by M.
Houel, that jEtna is in a ftate of decay and diminution, fo
that it cannot be obferved at fo great a diflance as formerly.
It is full of excavations ; and he confiders the torrents of
lava, which overfpread its fides from time to time, as infuf-
ficient for repairing the v/alle occafioned by rains, rivulets,
and torrents flowing down from the fummit. Hence he
concludes that, unkfs the eruptions become more frequent
than they have been for fome time paft, the height of the
mountain will be gradually reduced to that of the fun-ound-
ing beds of lava. Over the fides of y£tna there arc fcat-
T t 2 icred

iE T N

;e T N

tered no fewer iban 77 cilics, towns, and villages ; and allow-
ing liOO or J jco poifons to cacli of tlicfc, the whok iniiiiber
of die inhabitants of Mount jEtna, vill be 92,400 or
115,500.

Ill our farther dtfcription of this mountain, and of its
volcanic prodiiflioiis and appearances, we fiiall avail oiu-
fclvcs of the accounts tliat nave been given by thofe who
havo vifitcd it ; fcleaing from each thole circiniillances that
are mott defcrving of notice,- and combining them together
fo as to form a conneAed and continued narrative. The
Writers to v hofc oblcrvatious wc (hall principally refer are
BorcUi, Hill. Inccnd. JElux, An. 1669; M. Jac. d'Or\'il!c's
Sicula, Mr. lirydone's Tour tlirough Sicily, vol. i. Sir
\\'.lliam Hamilton's Canipi phlegrxi, and Phil. Tranf.
Riedcfel's Travels in Sicily, Svvinburne'sTravels in the Two
iSicilies, vol. iv. Abbe Spullan/ani's Travels in the Two
Sicllic»;&c. vol. i. M. Dolomieu, and M. Houel, Voyage
Pittorefque.

The afcent of Mount /Etna is tedious, difficult, and pe-
rilous ; and few have had refolulion to undertake it.
From Catania, where the journey ufually commences, to
the fummit, the dillance is about 30 miles : and the tra-
veller, in the progrefs of his journey, pafics through three
diftinift climates, which might be juil!)' denoniinated, ou
account of the variety of their temperature, the torrid, the
temperate, and the fngid /ones. Accordingly the whole
mountain is divided into three diftincl regions, called La
Ke,^icnr Ctillii, or P'ledinnntej}, the fertile region ; // Regione
Sylvo/a, or Nemorofa, the woody region ; and // Regior.e
Dtft-rta, or ScoprrlLi, the barren region. Count Borch has
added a fourth, which he calls the region of fncw ; and he
has fubdivided thefe four regions into feveral diilricis.

The Jii^f} or loivejl region, extends through an interval of
afcent from 12 to 18 miles, according to the ftatemcnts of
different writers. Its whole circumference is eftimated by
Recupero at 183 miles, and its furface is fuppofed by
Buffon to exceed 220 fquare leagues. It is bounded by
the fea to the fuuth and fouth-eaft, and on all its other fides
by the rivers Semetus and Alcantara, which almoft run
round it. The city of Catania and feveral villages are fitu-
ated in this hrll zone ; and it abovinds in paftures, orchards,
and various kinds of fruit trees. The fertility of this region
has been recorded by Strabo, Fazello, Peter Bembo, and
rood of the travellers who have vifited ^tna ; and it is
juiUy afcribed to the decompofition of the lava, and of thofe
vegetables, which have been introduced by the arts of agri-
culture, and the exertions of human indullry. In fome
parts, however, the lava appears in craggy eminences above
the foil. Where the earth is fliallow, the roots of trees,
unable to penetrate the hard lava, extend themfclves hori-
zontally near tiie furface : but wliere tiiere is a greater
depth of earth, the foil is more fertile and produdlive. The
firil ftation in the aitent of the mountain is Nicohfi, (fee
PI. I. Nat. Hist, fig, 2. let. H.) wliich, according to Bry-
done's ftatement, is IZ miles up tlie mountain, and by
Houcl's account 2496 feet above tlie level of the fea. The
road from Catania to tiiis ftation lies over old lavas and the
mouths of extinguifhed volcanos, which are now converted
into corn fields, vineyards, and orchards. Tlie figs of tliis
region, and the fruit in general, are reckoned the fineft in
Sicily. W^ien the harvell was finiihed at Catania and tlie
heat extrtm.e, Mr. Biydone found the corn green at KicrJrJi,
, and the lieat moderate. The lava of this region flows from
a number of fnial! mountains, which are difperfed over the
immcnfe declivity of /Etna. Thefe mountains, which are
rf a conical or hcriifpherical figure, are formed by erup-
tions J and they arc generally about two or three miies in

circuit, and about 300 or 400 feet high. They are covered
With a ricli verdure, and beautil'ul trees. Not far from A';-
co/o/i is MoiUe Rnjfo, which was formerly a plain ; but in
J 669 a new vertex was opened in it, and difciiarged a dread-
ful torrent of lava, which flowed as far as tj^e fea, and
formed a kind of promontoiy (as Y.) It is furrounded ta
the extent of two miles with a black fand, which wa«
thrown out in that eruption, and which then covered a
fpace of tj miles, to fuch a depth as to bur)' the vines and
flirubs that were fcaltcrcd over the foil. Some of the
finer particles of it were wafted by the wind as far as Cata-
bria. The fand is ven,' deep as you approach the mourt
tain ; and the mountain is forked at the vertex. By Bo-
rclli'j account its circumference at the bafe does not exceed
two miles, and its perpendicular h'"iglit is not more than
150 paces; whereas, Sir William Kamiiton cllimates its
heiglit at a mile, and its circuit at three miles. Spr.llr.n7aiu
prefers the former eliimate. Aniongll 100 or more moun-
tains, which rear their heads on the lides of Mount ^tna,
this is the onlv one with the hiilory of the formation of
which we are acquainted. The bafe of the lava of this
motuitain is horn-ilone, of a grey colour, rough to the
touch, and of a moderatelr line gi'ain. It gives fparks with
lleel, and founds wlien it is llruck. It ferves as a matrix
to a great number of felt-fpathoie or flioerlaceous cryftal-
lizations. The fcorix, of which tlie mountain is principally
compofed, have the fame kind of bafe, containing flioeris
and felt-fpars ; but they are more light and friable than the
lava, and have a kind of vitreous appearance. Thefe and
other differences are produced by the mutual colUfion and
pulverization of thele fcoris. The number of detached
fliocrls that are found on and near Monte Rojfo is very
great. Dolomieu thought, that they firft entered into the
body of the lava, and that they were feparated from it by
means of the fulphur, which had fcorified the lava, but had
not produced the fame effeft on the flioeris, becaufe of the
fmall quantity of iron which they contain ; and confequently
they remained free and detached. Spallanzani rejects this
hypothelis ; as upon experiments with the magnetic
needle he found that the martial principle was more abun-
dant in the Ihoerls than in their bafe ; and he therefore ac-
counts for their fepanition from the lava in another way.
The volcanic fire, which melted the lava, was incapable of
melting thefe fhoerls, which ai'e not only refrac\oi-y to the
fire, but of a different fpecific gravity from the lava. When
this was melted, elevated to a great height, and feparated
into fmall particles in the progrefs of the eruption, a num-
ber of flioeris were detached from it, and fell, ifolated, partly
within tlie crater, and partly around it. Accordingly he
found, that the ilioerls detached from the lava are infufible
in the furriace ; hut thofe which are incorporated with the
lava fuflain a perfect fufion. Thefe flioeris are not pecu-
liar to the lava of Monte RoJfo ; but they are found in many
other mountains of Altna. Spallanzani analyfed them, and
from ICO docimallic pounds, he obtained the following
refult : -x'/'z.

Pounds

Siles - - - 34,5

Lime - - - iS,7

Iron ... 7,6

Alum ... 12,4

Magnefia - - 1 1 ,

Sum - 84,2

The mountain derives its name Monte Roffh, or red
raouutain, from the tinge 01 this colour which fome parts

«f

iE T N

of it exhibit ; tnoiir-1i othor parts arc \v]iitc, ar'd others
yellow, bKic, and green, witii ilificrcnt iViadcs and mixtures.
All thcfc parts, fays the Abbe, are found in a (late more or
lefs decompofed ; and in general, they are only fcorix ; tlie
colours are produced by iron, changed or modified by acids.
Of thefe fcorloE, fwme have not been afleifli-d bv acids ; and
they are covered with a thin pellucid coat of glafs, juft as
if a Iheet of water had been thrown over them, and Inddenly
frozen. This phenomenon is remarkable at ^tna, bccaule
■■\vc there meet with no vitrifications.

M. Houel went down into one of the openings of this'
mountain with torches, but could not reach the bottom,
and was obliged foon to return on account of the extreme
cold. The crater is of an oval form, and the opening
through which he defcendcd was in one extremity ; but lie
inchned to tliink tiiat the crater whicli rifes above it had
been formed of matter difcharged by anotlicr mouth ; or
perliaps it might have had a more -eentncal opening,
through which the itones, fand, 5cc. that form the crater,
were difcharged. This mountain is one of the mouths :>[
./Etna, through which it difchargcs, from time to time,
great quantities of lava, fa!id, adies, &c. The fides of the
cratei-s are not all of tlic fame height ; thofe to the eafl and
weft are confiderably higher than the intermediate fummits,
becaufe the currents of the afhes pafled alternately from
eaft to welt, and fell upon thefe fides in greater quantities
than upon the ithers ; which circumilance has given to this
volcano the appearance of two fummits.

St.jV/Vfo/o tlell'Areiui, in the ncigliboiirhood of this m-cun-
tain, is an agreeable reiling-place for travellers who vifit
.^tna. This is an ancient edifice, foimded on the lava, and
was formerly the habitation of a number of Benedictine
monks, who, about 200 years ago were obliged, on account
of the devaftations occafioned by the lava to abandon it,
and retire to Catania. Here are many infcriptions, which
record the ruinous eartliquakes, torrents of lava, and fliowers
of fand and allies by which it has been damaged and even
deftroyed, together with the dates of their dift'erent repairs.
The black fand, thrown up in 1669, is more eafily clianged
into vegetable earth than the lava ; and has for many
years been planted with extenfive vineyards : whilft there
are many beds of ancient lava that remain in an unproduc-
tive ftate, and deftitute of every kind of vegctalile.

At a fmall diilance there is another mountain, called
Alontpelitri, or Monpileri (fee letter G.). This is of a fpheri-
cal form, and its perpendicular height does not exceed 300
feet, and its circuit is about a mile. It is pcrfecfly regu-
lar on every iide, and richly overfpread with fruits • and
flowers. Its crater is large in proportion to the mountain
itfelf, and is as'exaftly hollowed out as the beft made
bowl. This mountain v.'as formed by the firll eruption
that deftroyed the ancient hybla, which v.'as celebrated for
its fertihty, and particularly for its honey, and thence called
3'Iel Pi^lJi ; thus, in confequence of being reduced by feve-
ral eruptions, and more particularly by that of 1669, to a
Hate of wretched ilerility, it obtained the contemptuous ap-
pellation of I;Lil Pa'fl. The lava, however, in its courfe over
this beautiful country, has left feveral httle iflands or hillocks,
which exhibit a firgular appearance, with all the bloom of the
moil luxuriant vegetation, encompalled and retidercd almoll
inacceffible by large fields of black and rugged lava.

About three miles above San N'lccolo deW Arena, the
lower region of jEtna terminates, and the middle region
begins. This is called the Reg'wne Sylvofa, the woody re-
gion, or the temperate zone ; and extends from eight to ten
miles in a dire£l hue towards the top of the mountain. Its
circumference is eiliniated by Rtcupero at 70 or 80 miles;

-S T N

and it comprchcr.ds a furfacc of about 40 or 45 fquare
leagues. It forms a zone of the brighteft green all around
the mountain ; which cxliihits a plealing contrail to tlic
white and hoary head of this venerable mountain, and
it is called the woody region, becaufe it abounds with oaks,
beeches, firs, and pines. The foil is a vegetable laith, ge-
ner.iled by the deoompofition ot the lai-a, and limilar to jiiit
in the lower region. " As foon as we entered tliele de-
lightful forefts, fays Mr. Brydone, wc feemed to have got
into another world. I'he air, which was before fultrv- and
iiot, was now cool a:.d rcfreiliing ; and every bree/e was
loaded with a thoufaiul perfumes ; the whole ground being
covered o\'cr with the riehtft aromatic plants. Many parts
of this region are really the moll heavenly fpots upon earth ;
and if .'Ltna relcmbles hell within, it may with equal juilicc
be faid to refemble Paradife without. Here, lie fays, you
gather the inoft delicious fruit, rifing from what was lately
a black and barren rock. Here the ground is covered with
every flower, and we wander over theie beauties and contem-
plate this wildernefs of fweets, without tronfidering that hell,
with all its terrors, is immediately under our tect ; and lliat
a few yards feparate us from lakes of liquid fire and brim-
Hone." " Thefe majellic forefts of jEtnn, fays Mr. Houel,
afford a fingular fpeftaclc, and bear no refcmblance to thofe
of other countries. Their verdure is more lively, and llie
trees of which they confill are of greater height." Thefe
advantages they owe to the foil on which they grow, which
is peculiarly favourable to luxuriant vegetation. The haw-
thorn trees are of an immenfe fize. The beeches appear
hke fo many ramified pillars, and the tufted branches of the
oak, like clofe bufhes, impenetrable to the rays of the fun.
The appearance of ihe woods in general is exceedingly piiilur-
efque, not only on account of the number and variety of
the trees, but from the iuequality of the ground, which
exhibits them like the ranges of an amphitheatre one above
another. The call fide of the woody region abounds v.ith
chefnut trees of an extraordinary fize. Thefe are cultivated
by the inhabitants with particular attention ; and as they
are wrought into hoops for caflcs, they yield a profitable
article of trade. But the mod remarkable of thefe trees is
the Cdjlagno ill cento Cavalli, or the chefnut tree of an hun-
dred horfe ; fo called, becaufe it is fuppofed to be capable
of flieltering an hundred horfes under the canopy of its
boughs. Fabulous report deduces its name from the fol-
lowing circumrtance. Jean of AiTagon, during her Hay in
Sicily, whilft (he was travelling from Spain to Naples, vifited
Mount /Etna, and was attended by her principal nobility :
but being overtaken by a ftorm, all of them found Ihelte'r
under this tree. It (lands upon^a rifing ground, and is
fiirrounded by an open pafturc, which is bounded by woods
and vineyards. Its height has of late been much diminifhed
by lopping its brandies, partly under a notion of increafing
its fruitfulnefs, but principally, perhaps, for obtaining a flip-
ply of fuel. Some have fuppofed that it was merely a buih.
or clump of feveral trees united. But Recupero, and Swin-
burne inform us, that upon digging round it they found all
the ilems united in one root, or body, at a very fmall depth
under ground. Of this trunk five divifions are formed,
each of which fends forth enormous branches. The ex-
terior furface of thefe divifions is covered with bark, but
on the infide there is none ; the fubliftence and verdure of
the tree depending upon the external bark. The intervals
are of different extent : one of them is wide enough for
two coaches to drive abreall. In the middle cavity, or the
part that is denominated the hollow of the tree, a hut is
built for the habitation and ufc of thofe who collect luij
prefcrve its fruit, «nd who dry the nuts in an oven, .-tiid

^re^iurc

^ T N

prepare confsrves of lliem for fale. Mr. Swinburne fays,
tli '. liis wluiltf caravan, men and animals, were accommo-
diird al their cafe in this fxtiaordinary iiiclofurc : and tliat
after three acciiraie meafiircnuiUs, he fiuind the' outer cir-
cumference at one incli above the grour.d, to be 196 Eng-
lith feet. This tree formerly belonged to St. Agatha, but
has lately been di.cl.>red the properly of the crown. Tliere
arc other trees of a fimilui- kind at a fmidl dillance, whicli
are more worthy of admiration than this, as their trunk is
entire. One 01 them, which was clear of branciies to the
height of 15 feet, and perftftiy found, mcafured, in the
girth, at three feet above the ground, 57 feet. The foreft
of pines, as it is called, is almoll inaccelfiblc, on account
of the rocks and precipices that furround it. It is chiefly
worthy of notice, as it leads the traveller to ihe/nom grotto.
This cavity has been lately formed by the aftion of the
waters under tlie beds of lava, and removing the llratum of
po/./.olana below them. It is fituated on a mo\mt named
Finocchio. This grotto has been repaired at the expence of
the Knights of Malta, who have hired this and other ca-
verns in the mountain for the purpofe of holding fnow,
which is more wanted in their ifland than in Sicily, and
which forms a very confiderable article of commerce. The
fnow is thrown in at two openings above ; and thev have
accefs to thefc as well as to the internal parts by flights of
Heps. A confiderable extent of ground is enclofed by high
vails above llic grotto ; fo tiiat when tile wind drives
down the fnow from the higher pavts of the mountain, it is
flopped by the walls of this inclofure. It is then thrown
into the grotto, where the thickncfs of the beds of lava,
which cover it, picvents any injury from the fummer heat.
At the feafon of exportation, it is prefl'ed clofe in large bags,
and lumps of it are wrapped up in leaves, and conveyed to
the flioie on mules. Pieces of fnow, preferved in this man-
ner, have appeared like the moll tranfparent cryftal.

Spallanzai.i detracts from the commendation which has
been given by other writers to the luxuriance of vegetation
in this region. The oaks, he fays, are low and ftinted in
their growth ; and th; beeches which grow only in the
upper txtrcniity of the zone, would appear mere pigmies,
if they were placed belide thofe which rear their lofty heads
on the Apennines and the Alps^ This he attributes to the
little depth of earth proper for vegetation.

The woods and verdure of the regions, now defcribed,
«/2. the inferior and the' middle, have been recorded by
moll of the ancient writers ; and therefore the commence-
ment of this vegetation mufl be loft in the obfeurity of time.
Wliat is Hill more remarkable with refpecl to this woody
region, is the circumllance, that the furface of it is fo un-
equal, that it every where prcfents hills, or rather moun-
tains ; all of which have been produced by different erup-
tions from the fummit of ^ma, and other cratei-s below
the fummit, fcveral of which have formerly laid wafle this
zone, which is now converted into luxuriant forefts. Moll
of the travelleis in this region have fought flielter on the
night preceding their farther afcent, in the cave called La
Spe'onca del Ciipnol; or La Grotta delk Capre, or the grotto
of the goats, becaufe thefe animals take refuge here in bad
weather. This cave has been formed, from time immemo-
rial, by the lava, when in a fluid Hate, and feems to have
been enlarged by the torrents of water that have paffed
through it, and carried away fome of the fand and ilones
of which it confills. The lava is of a horn-ftone bafe ;
and though its texture is earthy and porous, it poirelfes a
confiderable degree of hardnefs. It contains fome fhoeris,
and two kuids of felt-fpars, fome of which are of a fiat
figure, and brilliant appearance, and others irregular in their

iE T N

form, with little ludrc, and manifeRing a degree of caUiiia-
tion without any fufion. There are fome -other ilones in-
tcrfperfed, which are thought, from their haidnefs and green
colour, to be chryfolites. This grotto is fituated about 5054.
feet above the level of the fea, according to the calculations of
M. de Sauflure. It is furrounded by llately and majeilic
oaks, the dry leaves of which fupply the travellers who
flielter in it with beds, as the wood does with fuel. In the
neighbourhood of this cave there are two beautiful mountains,
the cratei? of which are larger than that of Vcfuvius,
They are .low filled with oaks, and covered to a great depth
with the rieheil foil.

The ujiper region of iRtna, called its fn^id zon.', or the
Regione Dejerta, is maiked out by a circle of fnow and ice,
extending, as fome tlate, to the dillaiice of about eight
miles ; but according to Fazello, nearly twelve, and having
the great crater in its centre. The furface of this zone is
for tiie mofl; part flat and even ; and the approach to it is
indicated by the decline of vegetation, by uncovered rocks
of lava, and heaps of fand, by near views of an expanfe of
fnow and ice, and of the torrents of fmokc ilfulHg from the
crater of the mountain, and by the difficulty and danger of
advancing amidll llreams of melted liiow, flicets of ice, and
gulls of cliilling wind. The curious traveller, liowevcr,
thinks himfelf amply recompenfed, upon gaining the fum-
mit, for the perils with which he has encountered. His
fatigue is alleviated by the rcfleiflion that the emperor
Adrian, and the philofopher Plato, underwent the fame :
for the purpofe of exploring the fummit of the mountain,
and of gratifying themfelves with a view of the riling fun
from this eminence. Mofl of the traveller: who have vitited
Atna, have been anxious to reach its fummit at the dawn of
the morning, before the vapours that are raifed by the fun
obfcare furrounding objefts ; and they all agree in defcrib-
ing the extent and beauty of the profpeft. When Mr.
Brydone and his companions afcended this eminence, ele-
vated above the common region of vapour, in the night,
they obferved that the number of the ftars feemed to be
much increafed, and that their light appeared brighter than
ufual. The luftre of the milky way was like a pure flame,
that fliot acrofs the heavens ; and with the naked eye they
could obferve clullers of liars which were totally invifible
in the lower regions. Below them on the mountain they
perceived a moving light amcng.the forefts, which might
probably have been an ignis fatuus, and they took notice of
feveral of thofe meteors that are called falling ftars, which
app'eared to be as much above them, as when they were
feen from the plain ; and from this circumllance Mr. Biy-
done infers, that thefe meteors move in regions much more
remote than the bounds which fome philolophers have af-
cnbed to our atmofphere. Before dawn they arrived at the
ruins of an ancient flruclure, called //' Torre del Phdofupho,
which fome fuppofe to have been built by Empedocles, for
his convenience in obfei-ving the conflagrations, and lludyi.ig
the nature of Mount ^tna. By others it is fuppofed to be
the ruins of a temple of Vulcan. Others again imagine it to
be a watch-tower, built by the Normans, for the pui-pofe
of obferving the motions of their enemies, and giving no-
tice of them by fignals, to the different bodies of troops
fcattered over the ifland. M. Houel thinks it is not very
ancient ; neither the materials of which it confills, nor the
mode of architetlure, bearing any refcmblance to thofe of
the Greeks or Romans. Some have afferted, that they
have found in this ruin, fragments of brick and marble ;
but no fuch fragments now exill. The materials were exa-
mined by Spallanzani, who dif'covered that they confifled of
a cement of lime, which by length of time is become car-

bonate

iE T N

iE TN

bonate of lime, and two kinds of lava, which exhaled an ar-
gillaceous odour in their fraftu'-es, and whol.- bafc was the
horn-ftone. Thefe materials were collected upon the ipot,
and rendered compatt and united by a cement of lime.

The prolpect from the iumniit of /Etna has been defcribed
in very animated and glowing colours, by many writers.
The gradati<mj of the morning dawn appear willi friijular
advantage from this elevated ftation. At the rifmg of the
fun, fays M. Houel, the horizon was ferene, without a
fmgle cloud. The coall of Calabria could not be diRin-
guifned from the adjoining fea ; but a fiery radiance foon
began to appear beliiad the Italian hills, which bounded
the pvofpeft to the eaft. The fleecy clouds, which uTually
appear in the morning, were tinged with purple ; the at-
mofphere became ftrongly illuminated ; and, reflefting the
rays of the rifing fun, glowed with a bright effulgence of
flame. The immenfe elevation of tlie fumniit of ^tna
caught the firft rays of light, and yielded a dazzling, but
animating fplendour. The lea ftill retained its dark hue,
nor did the fields and foreils yet refleft the folar rays. As
the fun gradually advanced above the horizon, his light was
diii'ufed over the hills which lie below the peak of ^Etna.
Tiiis huge mtnmtain ilood like an illand in the midll of the
ocean, prefenting to view a multitude of luminous points,
the number and Kiilre of which rapidly increafed. The
fcene, fays this author, was as if the univerfe had been ob-
lerved fuddenly fpringing from the night of non-exillence.
The tall foreils, the lofty hills, and extenfive plains of ii'tna,
now prcfented themfelvcs to view. Tlie bafe, th; vaft: trafts
of adjacent level ground, the cities of Sicily, its parched
fliores, with the dafliing waves and wide expanfe of the
ocean gradually appeared, whilll fome fleeting vapours,
driven by the wind, occafionally inteiTupted part of tliis
grand and magnificent profpecl. In a little while the dif-
play was fo dillind:, that places before known were eafily
recognized. On the fouth vvtre feen the hills of Camerata
and Traponi ; on the north, the mounts Pclegrino and
Thermini, with the celebrated Enna, once crowned with
the temples of Ceres and Proferpine. Among thefe moim-
tains appeared many rivers, like lines of glittering filver,
winding their courfe through rich and fertile fields, and
wafhing the walls of twenty cities, while their banks were
crowded with villages, hamlets, &c. that refe among the
ruins of the moll illuftriolis republics of antiquity. On the
fouth and north were obferved the rivers whofe coiu-fe
"bounds the immenfe biife of iEtna ; and at a much greater
dillance were feen the ides of Lipari, Alieudi, Felicocide,
Parinacia and Stromboli.

Oh the fun's firft rifing, fays Mr. Brydone, the fliadow of
the mountain extends aerofs the whole idand, and makes a
large traft vifible even in the fea and in the air. This
fhadow is gradually fiiortencd, and, in a little time, is con-
fined only to the neigVibourhood of jEtna. Between the
'body of the fun, as it is feen rifing from the ocean, and the
fpeftator, immenfe tracts of fea and laud intei-vene ; the
iflands of Lipari, Paraci, Alieudi, Stromboli, and Volcano,
with their fmoky fummits appear under your feet ; and
you look down on the whole of Sicily as on a map, and can
trace every river through all its windings from its fource to
its mouth. The extent of the horizon is no lefs than 8co
miles in diameter ; and Mafia, a Sicilian author, obfervcs,
that the African coall, as well as that of Naples, with
niany of its ifiands, have often Iieen difcovered from the top
of iEtna. But the mod beautiful parts of the fcene, in the
judgTrent of Mr. Brydone, are tlie mountain itfelf, the
ifland of Sicily, and the numerous iilands lying aro\ind it ;
all which feem as if they v/ere brought clofe round the llcirts

of jTStn.i, the dlflances appearing reduced to nothing. Tlie
fame fcene is defcribed in finiilar language by Spallanzani.
No elevated region in the whole globe, iays this author,
ofl'ers at one view fo ample an extent of land and fea, as llie
fummit of jlitna. The firfl of the lublime objects which it
prefents is the immenfe niafs of its own coloffal body. The
firft part, and that which is ncarell the obferver, is the
upl>er repnn, commonly covered with fnow and ice, and oc-
callonally exhibiting rough and craggy cliffs, either piled on
each other or feparate, and rifing perpendicularly, towards
the middle of this zone ; an affemblage of fugitive clouds,
iiTadiated by the fun, and all in motion, increaled the wild
variety of the fcene. Lower down appeared the m'tddle
rc^'wn, with its numerous woods and multitude of moun-
tains, originating from iiery eruptions ; and beyond this the
eye difeerns, with admiration, ihe /ocuir region, the moft fpa-
cious of the three, adorned with elegant villas and caftles,
verdant hills and flowei-y fields, and terminated by the ex-
tenfive coaft, where, to the fouth, Hands the beautiful city
of Catania, to which the neighbouring fea ferves as a
mirror. The obferver, at tliis elevation, difeovers iu)t only
the entire raafiy body of ^tna itfelf, but the whole of the
ifland of Sicily, with all its noble cities, lofty hills, exten-
five plains, nid meandering rivers. Malta is alfo perceived at
an indillinSt dillance ; the eye commands the environs of
Mefiina, and the greater part of Calabria ; while Lij)ari
and the jEolian ifies appear U> near as to be under the feet
of the obferver, and as if by Hooping down he might touch
tliem with his finger. The far llrctching furface of the
adjacent aid fuiTounding fea prefented an objeft no lefs
majeftic, and led the eye to an immenfe dillance, bounded
only by the heavens. " Seated," fays Spallanzani, " in t!ie
midft of this theatre of the wonders of nature, I felt an
indefcribable pleafure from the multiplicity and beauty of
the objefts I furveyed ; and a kind of internal fatisfadtiou
and exultation of heart. The fun was advancing to the
meridian, iinobfcured by the fmallell cloud, aad Reaumur's
thermometer flood at the loth degree above the freezing
point ; I was therefore in that temperature which is moll
friendly to man, and the refined air I breathed, as if it had
been entirely vital, communicated a vigour and agility to
my limbs, and an aftivity and life to my ideas, which ap-
peared to be of a celcllial nature."

The accefs to the principal crater of jEtna is rendered
both inconvenient and perilous, for a dillance of near four
miles, by a variety of circumllances which different travel-
lers have defcribed. The famniit of the mountain is a plain
covered with fcoria:, afhes, and fand, which have been
thrown out of the volcano at Its fucceffive eruptions, and
which are fo loofe as to endanger the traveller's being fwal-
lowed up at every ftep of his progrefs. It is alfo covered
with fnow and ice, and obfcured with clouds, excepting at
times when thcfe clouds are low and range along the fides of
the mountain, fo as to prefent an object of terror. The
winds, likewife, blow with fueh violence that perfons can
fcarce ftand fecurely, nor enddre the cold which benumbs
their Ihnbs. The fouth wind is, on the top of jEtna, the
moft prevalent, and the cold is fo intenfe, that travellers
have often foimd their clothes infufficient to proteft them.
But the moft formidable impediments to the progrefs of the
adventurers in this perilous journey are the ftreams of m.e-
phitic vapour which rife on the fides, and the thick clouds •
of fulphureous fmoke which btirft from the mouth of the vol-
cano, even when it is not in a ftate of agitation. The
founds that ifiiie from the crater are alfo lingularly teni- •
fying, and have difcouraged fome perfons from approaching
the ipot whence they proceed. M. Houel compares them
C. to

iE T N

to a difcharfff of cannon in llio wide abyfa, which
bciig reflcitcd from the various caverns products vevcr-
ber.itions of the moil alarming kind. By means of tiicfe,
foiii'di, wliich in the open air would be confidcrcd as
flight cxplofioni, become more tremendous than the loudell
thundtr.

^Vhen Spallanzani vifitcd this mountain, he obfened,
when he was at the diftancc of two miles and a halt from
the limit of his iourney, two white columns of fmoke, whkh
arofe from its fummit ; one, towards the north-eail fide
of the mountain, and another towards the north-well ; fe-
veral other flrcams of fmoke, which arofe from inferior
parts towards the weft, purfued the diieclion of thefe two
larger columns. As he proceeded, he met.w!lh a torrent of
lava, which he was obliged to crof3 in order to anivc at the
fmoking fummit. This torrent was covered with fcorix,
^vhich projected in fome places in a variety of prominent
points, and in others funk in hollows, which rendered his
paffage extremely difficult j and the lava itfclf, though the
interval from its difeharge was 1 1 months, was in many
parts of it red-hot. His difficulties increafed as he pniTcd
that tract, which may properly be called the cone of A^tna,
and which, in a right line, is about a mile in length. Hav-
ing airived, after mnch labour and fatigue, within 150
paces from the vertex of the cone, he found himfelf enve-
loped by the vapours of the feveral ilreams of fmoke that
idutd from the top and fides of the mountain ; and his pro-
grefs was rendered extremely hazardous by the effect which
thefe noxious vapours produced on his refpiration. He
foon, however, recovered his llrength and refolution, and
arrived at the utmoft fummit of the mountain, where he
began to difcover the edges of the cratei;. Here he viewed
with aftonilhment the configuration of the borders, the in-
ternal fides, the form of the immenfe cavern, its bottom,
and an aperture which appeared in it, the melted matter
which boiled within, and the fmoke which afcended from it ;
and he has minutely defcribed the feveral appearances from
his own attentive and accurate obfervation. The upper
edges of the crater, which are broken and indented in fe-
veral places, arc, as he judged by the eye, about a mile and
a half in circuit, and form an oval, the longell diameter of
.which extends from cafl to welt. Its internal fides, which are
inclined at different angles in its feveral parts, form a kind of
i'unncl of a conical figure, and abound with concretions,
which he found to be the muriate of ammoniac. The bottom
was nearly an horizontal plane, about two-thirds of a mile in
circumference ; in which plane was vifible a circular aperture,
about five poles in dia!nttcr, from which proceeded the
largeft of the two columns of fmoke, obferved before he
arrived at the fummit of jEtna. This column appeared at
-its o.-igin to be about 20 feet in diameter, and whilft it re-
mained within the crater, afcended in a perpendicular di-
refllon ; but when it arofe above the edges, it was made
to incline towards the weft by a light wind ; and afterwards
it dilated into an extended and rare volume. The fmoke
was of a white colour. Within the crater Spallanzani ob-
f.-rved a liquid and ignited matter, which continually undu- ■
latcd and boiled, alternately rifing and falling, without
fprcading ovtr the bottom. This, he fays, was the melted
lava, which had arifen to that aperture from the bottom of
the ^tnean gulf. Several large ftoncs were thrown into
the crater, fome of which ftruck the liquid lava and pro-
duced a found fimilar to that which would have been oc-
cafioiied by their failing into a thick tenacious paflc ; but
the ftoncs which fell on the bottom rebounded, and their
found was different from that of the others. Hence our
author infers, that the bottom muft. be thick and folid,

JE T N

which, if this were not the cafe, would have been broken by
heavy Hones falling from fo great a height.

The fummit of jEtna, funounded with large maffes of
lava, is exhibited in Plate i. Nat. Hist. fig. 2. A. A. A.
reprefcuts one edge of the lava of 17S7, which iffued from
the upper crater. B. B. is the circumference of the crater,
with its cleft. C. C. through which the internal part is
difcernible. D. is the flat bottom of the crater ; and E.
the aperture in the bottom, from which the larger column
of fmoke F. F. arofe ; which aperture, though it was at
one fide of the bottom, is, for the greater dillinftiiefs of
view, rtprefented in the middle. G. G. is thai part of the
edge of the crater from v/hick its internal part is bell fecn,
and where the defign of it might be moll conveniently
taken. FI. H. is tlie fmaller column of fmoke to the north-
eaft.

Spallanzani informs us, that befide the eminence on which
he itood, there is another to the north, a qnarter of a mile
higher, which renders the fummit of iEtiia properly bifur-
cated. The crater on this fecond pre-eminence, and from
which the leller column of fmoke alcends, is about one
half finaller tU;m the other, and is feparated from it by a
partition of fcoria: and accumulated lava, which lies in a
direftion from call to well. The Abbe has compared his
own ol)ler\'ation3 with thofe of others who have defcribed
the crater of iEtna in the courfe of 20 years, or from the
time when it was vifited by Caron Riedefel in 1767, to
that of his own journey in 1788. At the time of the Ba-
ron's oblervaiion, the crater was enlarged towards the ead
with an aperture which does not now exift ; and as the
ftones which were then thrown in did not return the fmallell
found, the bottom of the crater could not be formed with
the hard and flat furface which the Abbe has defcribed.
Within the gulf itfelf was heard a noife fimilar to that of
the waves of the fea, when agitated by a tempefl ; and
this muft probably have proceeded from the lava within the
bounds of the mountain, m a liquified and perturbed ftate.
Sir \'\^illlam Haj.nilton arrived at the fummit of ilitna on the
26th of October, 17^9 ; but was preventtd from dillinctly
viewing the lower parts of the crater by the fmoke that
iffued from it. From what he was able to obfer\'e he con-
cludes, that its figure refembled that of a funnel, diminilh-
ing till it ended in a point, and that this funnel was crufted
over with fait and fulphur. The crater was then two miles
and a half in circumference ; and muft have undergone
great changes in the interval that elapfed betv.-ecn thefe ob-
fervations and thofe of Riedefel, in whoTe time there muft
have been an abyfs as well as a funnel ; nor does the point
in which the funnel terminated admit of the fiat bottom
defcribed by Spallanzani. The dimenfions of the crater,
ftated by Sir WiUiam Hamilton, the Abbe accounts for by
fuppofing, that the partition which now feparates the great
crater into two parts has been produced fince the time of
his obfervation ; for the fum of the two circumferences
which the Abbe has noticed would not much differ from the
other meafure. Mr. Brydone, who obferved tlie crater on
the 29th of May 1770, fays, that it was then a circle of
about three miles and a Half in circumference, that it (helved
down on each fide, and that it formed a regular hollow, hke
a vaft amphitheatre, and that a great mouth opened near
the center. Count Borch arrived at the mountain on the
1 6th of Oftober 177C), and merely obferves, that the crater
is formed like a funnel, and that the fummit is bifurcated ;
a circumrtance unnoticed by Sir W. Hamilton, who affirms,
on the contrary, that the fummit is fingle : and the Abbe
therefore concludes, that one of thefe fummits has been
produced fince the journey of Brytfcn* in 1770. M.

D'Orvillc,

Al T N

JET N

D'Orvillo, wlio afccndcd iEtna in 1727. I'cmaikcd two cvn-
tJrs, (VIC larger than the other, and in ciicumfeiciice ("orae-
vhat more than four miles, from xvhieh idutd clouds of
i'mokc and reddilh flames. On looking into tliis crater, he
and his companions were unable to dilcern the holtoni on
account of the llames and fmoke. They only obfcrved that
a conical hill, formed of lava, rofe in the middle of , the cra-
ter, the top of which thty eftimatcd to be 60 feet below
them ; and as they were ]irobably able to fee about C)0 teet
lower, they conjeftured that ihc circuit of tiiis hill uiight
he f;om Coo to ;(oo feet,

M. Hoiiel, whofe account of tliif mountain was publilaed in
r7S2, and who made a drawin<r of the crater, reprefents its
environ; asconfillir-.gof three emmenees, forming an equilatend
triangle, though when viewed at a ilillancc, only two of them
can be feen ; for which reafon the Sicilians have denominated
the mountain /lironis, or double horned. The filuation of the
principal mouth is in the midll of tliefe three eminences, its
diameter was only about 6q feet; but it was io Idled with
fmoke that nothing remarkable coidd be difcovered. This
author obferves, that the cone is not exactly m the middle of
the plain, but that it hes iomewhat more to the uoith than
the foulh. Evciy obfervation, therefore, tends to evince
the inconftancy of the internal configuration and drmenfions
of this volcano. Befide the changes which have taken jilace
on the fummit of jEtna, with rtfpeft to the number, form
and fi7.e of its craters, Fazello and I'.Drelli defcribe another
alteration occafioned by the falling in and abforption of the
extreme fummit of the mountain within its crater. The
former author relates, that in his time there arofe in the
moKth of the crater a little hill, ifolated on eveiy fide, which
formed the vertex of the mountain, and which, in a terrible
eruption, fell into the gulf, and thus eidarged the crater and
diminifhed the height of the mountain. The hill itfelf had
been produced by a former eruption in 1444., Borelli like-
wife informs us, that in the conflagration ot 1669 the fum-
mit of jEtna which rofe, like a tov/er, to a great height
above the part which is level, was fwallowed up in the deep
gulf. Strabo (tom. i. p. 420, &c.) relying on the account
of thofe who had vifited TEtna in his time, defcribes the
fummit as a level plain, about 20 lladia in circumference,
furrouuded by a brow, or ridge, of the height of a wall ;
and he adds, that in the middle of the plain arofe a fmoky
hill, the fmoke of which afcended in a dircil line to the
height of 20 fett. Solinus (cap. 1 1 ) informs us, that there
were two craters, from which the vapours "ifrued. Cardinal
Bembo likewife fua\id two eiaters, one higher than the other,
and about as far diltant as a Hone might be tlu'own from a
fling. The extreme violence of the wind and tlie exhaled
fumes prevented his approaching the upper crater ; but
he defcribes it from the information of others, as fituatcd on
the liighell part of the fummit ot ^Etna, about three miles
in circumference, formed like a funnel, and having in its
middle a fpacioiu cavity. In the time of Fa/.cUo, who
vilited iEtna alter Bembo, there was onlv one crater about
four miles in circumference. Its form was that of a funnel ;
it emitted fire and thick fmoke ; and a fubterraneous noife
was heard, which rcfeir.bled the boiling «f an immenfe cal-
dron on a very lierce fire.

As for the dilferencc that occurred with regard to the
ajipearancc of the fmoke, noticed by difterenl writers, fome
of whom reprefent it as nfliiug down the fides of the moun-
tain, and others, as aicending perpendicularly to a-great
height, and afterwards falling, like white flowers on the top
of the mountain ; it was owing, without (h)ubt, not only
to the diflcrcnt deniity of the air on iEtna at different times,
but alfo to the diverfity of the fmoke, v/hich wonld fimie-
times be lighter and fometiines heavier than the air itfelf,-

Vor. I.

accord mg to the qualities of the fubflanrcs from which it
is prod deed.

The effects o.'' the air at the fummit of ALtns, recited by
different writers, have alfo been vsiy diffeient. Some havi;
complained of the difficulty of relpiration v.'hich they ex-
perienced, whilll others felt no l.ich dilhcully, and aflcrt •
that rcfpiralion is performed with equal eafe on the top of
the mountain, as in the country below. It ajjpears fron»
the obf rvations of M. oauflure in liij travels on the Alps,
that, allhoigh at the height of M'. unt Blanc, about 2450*
poles above the level of the fea, a codlderable difiiculty of
relpiration was occafioned by the r^rcfacflon of the air, no
fiich inconveftience was experienced at the leis elevation of
1900 poles. The height of /Una being lefs than the laft
nicafurc, it is natural to infer th.rvl 'lie relpiration of many
perfons wuuid not be incommoded, '. hilll the contraiy hap-
pens to otiiers, according to the diiferent ftre;;gth and habit
of body of different individuals. The oblerved difference
of the barom-ter indicated in tliefc varioiu circumflances a
coniiderable dilTercnee in the weight and rarity of the air.

Spallanzani obferves, that iiitna has at all times been
very deficient in fprings ; and when he vifitcd this moup.-
tain, water was fo extremely icarce, that a fiiigle drop of
rain had not fallen for nine months. As the rain water which
the peafants, who inhabit different parts of it, had coUcCled
in ciflerns was exhaulled, th'-y were obhged to go in fearch
of it to thofe parts of the mountain at coniiderable diftan-
ces, where a fcanty fpring might ilill be found. This
author has obfei-ved a fimilar fcarcity of fpnngs in the
jEolian or Lipari iflands ; and he apprehends, that other
volcanic countries are fubjecf to the fame inconvenience.
Tile rains, he fays, which defcend on mountnins of this
kind, fall on tufas or fcoriE, in which they fink deep and
do not again appear, becaufe tliey meet with no argillaceous
or itony ilrata capable of detaining them ; whei-eas fuch
flrata are frequent in other mountains, and produce nuineroi;-;
fprings, as we find to be the cafe in the Alps and Ap;;::-
uines. When the rains fall on compaft and folid lavas,
they do not link into them, but run down their declivities,
forming rivers and torrents in the rainy feafon, and not true
fprings. In feveral parts of /litna, and efpeciallv near the
GrnHa delle Capic, he obfencd large furrows hollowed in
the lavas, by the action of the rain water. Other writers,
however, have given a very different account. They ilate,
that vEtna abounds with fountains and v>'ith rivers of con-
fiderable magnitude." See Acis and Alcantara. Mr.
Brydone informs us, that there are feveral periodical fprings
on iEtiui, that flov>' during the day and Hop at night,
which he attributes to the alternate melting and freezing of
the fnow. There are alfo poifonous fprin';-s, which emit a
very noxious vapour ; and others which afford fine fait ; and
others again, whole water ierves for dying particular co-
lours. On the north fide of the fnowy region, there are feveral
fmall lakes which never frec/.e. M. Hmu-l eilimates the
quantity of water which flows down the lides of the moun-
tain to be fuch, that if it were collected it would fill the
channel of a river 36 feet broad and fix feet deep ; and he
adds, that llreams of water are feen to ilfue at all d'fferent
degrees of height from the bafe to the lummit of the
mountain ; and that thefe continue to flow even during the
droucrht of fummer. The fupply of theie ftre:ims, he
thinks, cannot be accounted for by the water depofited by
the clouds, iior by the melting of the fnow ; but the fourcc
of it inuil be more regular and permanent. This he c n-
ceives to be the evajjoration of thofe aqueous particles th it
arife from the conllant ebullition at the bottom of the vol-
canic focus, and which, in his opinion, are necelfaiy to the
fubliftence of volcanoes. Thefc vapours, iffuing from the
U u great

JE T N

grtM crater, and from innumerable fiffiires in the fides of the
Fioiiiuaiii, arc condenftd by the cold of that elevated region
of the atmofphcre, and percolating through the earth, fur-
niih the numerous Ibeanis of ililna with water.

The numerous caverns that are met with in different
parts of iEtna dcferve notice. The grotto of the goats,
the fr.ow grotto, and thofe of mount RofTo, have been
already mentioned. Kircher fpeaks of one, which he faw,
capable of containing jo.oco perlons. One ot thcfe ca-
♦erns lUll retains the name of Proferpine, from its being
fuppofed by the ancients, that it was by this entry Pluto
coin ived her into his dominions; on which occafion Ovid
defcribes Ctrco as fcarchingfor her daughter with two trees,
I'luc'ii file had plucked from the mountain, for ferving the
purpofe of torches. Thefc trees he calls T^i/a ; and they
produce great quantities of a kind of rulin, called Catalana,
and cileemed a cure for fores. Ovid. Fall. 1. iv. torn. iii. p.
:-|. Ed. Burni. Diod. Sic. torn. i. p. .^33. Ed. Weli'eliiig.

^tna produces a great variety of plants and flowers, as
well as trees of a larger fize, fuch as the chefnut, oak and
cork tree, S:c. Mr. Br)done enumerates the cinnamon,
f.u faparilla, faffafras, rhubarb and palma Chri'.li : and he
add-:, that it was celebrated by the ancients for its odoriferous
produrtions. See Diod. Sic. torn. i. p. 322. Plutarch and
Arillotle intim.ate tltat the Imcll of the plants was fo ftrong
on many parts of the mountain, that it was impoffible to
hunt. There was fonnerly a great variety of wild beafts
in the woody region of YEtua ; but the niunbcr of them
is now much reduced. There are dill wild boars, roebucks
and wild goats; but the race of llags is thought to be ex-
tinct. The horfcs and cattle of mount JEtna were once
efteemed the bell in Sicily. The cattle are ilill of a large
fize, but the horfes have degenerated. Spallanzani infomis
us, that partridges (Tctrao rufiis, Linn.) were fhot at the
upper extremity of the middle region, and in this region
he met with feveral birds of the titnioufe fpecies (Panu
exnileus, Linn.) a kke fluiko iiiihusj, three jays f'^orw/j
gLimlularlus), two thruflies (TttrJits •vifchorus J , and feveral
ravens and crows ( corvus corax ; corvus corone.) But in
the middle of the higher region he faw no other animals,
except fome lion-ants ( Myrmeh'oii formiciirum, Linn.) which
made their pitfalls in the dull of the lavas.

We (hall clofe this article, already extended to a confi-
derable length, and compriling every kind of information
which we have met with concerning iEtna, with an account
of its principal ei-upt'tcns. The hrll fymptom of an ap-
proaching eruption is an increafe of the fmoke, in fair wea-
ther ; and after fome time, a puff of black fmoke is feen to
fhoot up to a confiderable height in the midll of the white.
Thefe puffs are attended with confiderable explofions ; and
the afcending column of black fmoke is followed by a red-
dirtt flame. The fmoke appears black in the day, and in
the night refembles flame. Showers of afties precede ;
earthquakes frequently accompany them ; and red hot ftones
are projefted to a great height in the air. The crater and
fmoke, at the time of an eruption, arc fo highly eleftrical,
that they throw off^ fpontaneous flaflies into the air ; and
the fmoke has fometimes extended, fays Mr. Brydone, for
upwards of 100 miles, and produced dreadful effefls, killing
fliephe.-ds and flocks on the mountains, blalling trees, and
fetting fire to houfes which occupied an elevated fituation.
From the column of afcending Iraoke continual flaflies of
forked or zig-zag lightning proceed, and this is fometimes
attended with thunder. When thcfe appearances have con-
tinued for three or four months, the lava, or ftream of
melted mineral matter, boils over the top of the crater, or
budls throufrh fome weak place in the fide. Upon the
appearance of the lava, the violent cruptious of the moun-

il- T N

tarn generally, though not always, ceafe ; but without a
vent for the lava, the commotion is veiy much increafed.
In the night this lava ajipears like a ftream of fire, and flows
to a great dillance ; but in the day its progrefs is marked by
a white fmoke. It has been a fubjetl of difcuffion among
philofophers, whether the eruptions of volcanoes are now
iefs frequent than they were formerly. This is probably
the cafe, as the matter in the volcanic focus was then greater
in quantity than it is at prefent ; and the cavities beinjj
fmaller were fooner filled with vapour, and the center of the
focus was nearer the furface than it is now, in confequencc
of repeated eruptions and difcharges. The whole number
of the crL-.plions of this mountain, of which we have a!iy
record, fays Spallanzani, before and after the ChriiUan oera, iii
3 I ; and 10 only, according to Gioeni, have iflued immediately
from the higliell crater ; but it is not eafy to make an exadt
eilimate, as the fame eruption has continued with or without
iutcrmifTionr,, for fome time ; and has been taken fmgly by
fome writers, whilll others have reckoned eveiy renewal of
it feparatcly. The eruptions of ^tna have been reported
and defcribed by feveral of the ancient poets. Tiie hrll of
thefe, by whom they are mentioned, is I'indar, in the follow-
ing pafi"age, the fifth decade of an ode which was com--
pofed in the 78th olympiad, about four or five years after
tiie fecond eruption mentioned by Thucydidcs.

Xi^osVo-' AiVvx, TaK?;;
Xiovo,- <j|s<Vo TlSuvSi" &x.

Pythia. Od, i. v. 36. kc. p. 168.
Ed. Weft and Welfted.

Now under fulph'rous Cuma's fea-bound coaft,
And vail Sicilialies his fhaggy breaft ;
By fnowy ^tua, nurfe of endlels froft.
The pillar'd prop of Heav'n, for ever prefs'd :
Forth from whole nitrous caverns ifluing rife
Pure liquid fountains of tempeftuous fire.
And veil in ruddy mills the noon-day (kics.
While wrapt in fmoke the eddying flames afpire ;
Or gleaming thro' the night with hideous roar.
Far o'er the red'ning main huge rocky fragments pour.
G. Weft's tranllation. Odes of Pindar, vol. i. p. ^6,

i2mo. Sec.

They arc alfo defcribed by Virgil, in confequence of the
Crtiption which happened, according to Mr. Oldenburg
fubi infra) at the time of the expedition of iEneas, who,
being terrified with the fire of this burning mountain, lelt
Sicily.

■ Hon'ificis juxta tonat TEtna ruinis,

Interdumque atramprorumpit ad ^thera nubem,
Turbine fumantem piceo et candente faviila ;
, Adtolhtque globos flammarum, et Sidera lambit ;
Interdum fcopulos avolfaque vifcera moutis
Erigit eruftans, liqueladta faxa fub auras
Cum gcmitu glomerat, fundoque exa;ftuat irao.

/Eiieid. 1. iii. v. 571, &c. torn. ii. p. 433, &c,
Ed. Burman.

The philofophical poet, Lucretius, has alfo mentioned thfi
eruptions of ^tna.

Per fauces montis ut jEtnse

Exfpirent ignes interdum turbine tanto,
Expediam : neque enim mediocri clade co'orta
FlamniiC tempeflas, Siculum dominata per agios
Finitumis ad fe convertit gentibus ora ;
Fumida quom cocli fcintillare omnia templa

CemeiUes,

M T N

^ T N

Ccmentos, pavida coniplcbant pcftora curS,

Quid molirctur reium iiatura novaiiim.
Lib, vi. V. 639, &c.

Vol. iii. p. 309, &c. F.d. Wakefield.

For Silius Itnlicus's defcription of TEtna, fee Pimic.
lib. xiv. V. 55. 69. p. 697. Ed. DiT.kenb.

Mr. Oldenburg has enumerated feveral eruptions which
happened before his time in the Phil. Tranf. No. 48.
Abridgm. vol. ii. p. 386. The firft he mentions is that to
which we have already referred ; but the full eruption of
which we have any pofitive hiitoiical record is that men-
tioned by Diodorus Sicuhis (1. 5. torn. i. p. 335. Ed.
Weffel.), though he docs not fpecify th.e precife period
when it happcr.ed. This event, however, compelled
the Sicaiii to abandon the eaftern parts of Sicily, and to
i'ettle in the fouthern parts. This territory was afterwards
occupied by the Sicilians, v.ho migrated thither from Italy.
Thefircnfi eruption is the firft of three that are recited by
Thucydides(Hirt. 1. iii.c. 1 16. p. 237. Ed. Dukeri.) Vvilhout
mentioning the exaft date of any one of them. He fays,
that from the arrival of the firft Greek colonics that fettled
in Sicily, vi':. in the third year of the i itii olympiad,
correfponding to the year 733 before the Chriltian -.era (vid.
Annales Thuq-d. p. 12), to the thiid year of the 88th
olympiad. Ant. Chrift. 425, iEtna, at three different times,
difcliarged torrents of fire. This fecond eruption happened
2ccordlng to Eufebius (Chronicon. MDXC.) Ant. Clirill.
565. The thlrt/ eruption, or the fecond mentioned by
■T^hucydides, happened, as he fays, in the 50th year before
the lail ; or as it is ftated (vid. Annales Tliucyd. p. 31.
Ed. Weffel.) Ante Chrift. 47J. Olymp. 76^ when Phtedo
was archon at Athens. But the Oxford marble refers it to
the iff year of the 75th olympiad, Ant. Chrift. 477, when
Xantippus was archon at Athens. In the lecond year of
this Olympiad, it is faid the Athenians gained their boafted
viftoi-y over Xerxes's general, Mardonius, near Platxa.
Both the ei-uption of the volcano and the viftor)' of the
Athenians are commemorated in an ancient infcription on
the marble table above-mentioned. It was at this eruption,
as we are told, that two rich brothers, named Amphinomus
and Anapis, difregarding their effects, - rulhed into the
ilamea and carried oft their aged parents on their backs.
It is faid that the fire fparcd thefc youths, whilft others who
took the fame road were confumed. Tiie citizens of Cata-
nia rccompenfed this aft of filial piety with a temple and
divine honours. The heroic deed is reprefented on an an-
cient medal, and it is recorded by feveral ancient authors,
as Strabo, (tom. i. p. 412.) Silius Italicus, (1. :xiv. verf.
cxcvii. p. 703.) Valerius Maxinuis (1. v. c. 4) Paufanias
(Phociea. 1. x. p. 867. Ed. Kuhnii) TElian (Fragmenta. Var.
Hift. tom. ii. 1054) Seneca, Ariftotle, Claudian, Sollnus,
&c. The fintrth eruption, or the third mentioned by Thu-
cj'dides, occurred, as we have already hinted, in the 88th
olympiad, Aiit. Chrift:. 425. and laid wafte the territory of
Catania. Tlie fiflh is dated by Orofuis, in the conltilftiip
of Sei"gius Fulvius Flaccus, and Qiiiiitus Calpuinius Pilo,
about 133 years before Chrift. Livy (1. liv. c. 12. tom. v.
p. 1043. Ed. Dr.ikenb.) mentions an eruption in the
confulate of C. Lrelius and Q^ Servilius, Ante Chrift.
140, The y7.v/A happened m the 125th year before the
Chrift'an xra, and Orofius fays, that a number of fifties
were deftrored by it, and that the inhal)itaiits of Lipari
fuft'ered exceedingly by eating them. The yj-irH//; eruption,
which occiuTcd in the I2lft year before Chrift, detolated
Catania to fiich a degree, that the inhabitants were excufed
by the Romans trom paying taxes tor 10 years, in order to
enab\e them to rejiair the dacnage which they had fuftaioed.

TIus is m«ntioned by Livy (1. ki. c. 41. torn. vi. p. ii).
An r/n'/'Z/i eruption hai)])encd in tlie 43d year before Chriit,
not long before the death of Ca-fur, and was afterwards re-
garded as an omen of this event. The v'uith eruption i»
mentioned by Suetonius, in hi.; life of Caligula (torn. i. p.
608. YA. Pitifc.) It happened A. 1). 40, and tenifieJ
the emperor fo as to make liim fty precipitately from Mcf-
fina. Phis is reckoned the 13th enij;tion by Cluverius in
his Sicil. 1.8. ^. 2. Carrera mention^ two eruptions, one
in the year 253 and another in 420. The eruption which
happened in the reign of Charlemagne, A. D. 812, is re-
corded by ( rcoffroy of \'iterbo in his chronicle. In I 1 69,
Sicily was difturbed by a violent earthquake, which extend-
ed to Reggio on the oppofile fide of the ftrait. Catania
was dcftroyed by it, and \ 5,000 perfoas perifticd. On this
occafiou old rivers difappeared, and nev/ ones burft out ;
and the ridge of ^Etna fell on the fide near Taonnina. The
fpriug of Arcthuia became muddy and brackifti; and the
fountain of Ajo ceafed to flow for two hours, and then
gnftieJ forth more abundantly than before. The fea at
Mcffiiia retired far within its ufual limits, and then over-
flowed its ordinary banks, and fwallowed up a number of
perfons, who had fled to the ftiore for fafety. Corn and
trees of all forts were deftroyed, and the fields were coveted
with ftones fo as to become unfit for cultivation. From the
year 1160, or as fome fay 1157, to 1169, Sicily repeatedly
fullered from eaithquakes and eruptions. This was follow,
ed by another eruption ia 1181 or 11 84, when ftreams of
fire ran down the declivity of the mountain: and in 1329
the inhabitants of the mountain and of the whole iftand were
alarmed by the commotions and noifes of yEtna, and by the
flames and ftones, and other attendants of an eruption,
which fucceeded them. On this occafion a new crater Avas
opened, and the flaming materials that were difgorged fi-om
it overfpread the adjacent fields, deftroyed their buildings,
and occafioncd the death of birds and quadrupeds, and of
the fifties of the rivers and contiguous parts of the fea.
A fpeftator fays, that he could not think Babylon or So-
dom was deftroyed with fuch awful feverity. The allies
were carried by the wind as far as Malta, and many perfons
are faid to have died of tenor. In 13^3, ^tna made an-
other terrible explofion, which was fucceeded by that of
1 38 1, which extended its ravages to the confines of Catania,
and bunit up the olive-yards in the neighbourhood of the
city, and again by another in 1444, when the uiountaia
fliook and difcharged a quantity of lava, and large rocks
were broken off from its fummit and precipitated into the
fea. Slight eruptions occurred in 144^! and T447 ; hut the
eruption of 1536, after a cefiation of near 100 years, was
ver)- dreadful in its appearance and effccls, and lafted for a
confiderable time. A thick cloud, tinged with red in the
middle, hovered over the fummit of the mountain, which
was attended by a ftrong weft wind, and fucceeded by the
difcharge of a large quantitv of bui ning materials, that
ruftied with the noife and rapidity of a torrent down the
eaftern lide of the mountain, and deftroyed buildings and
animals tluit lay in its war. A fimilar ilream of liquid
fire held its courfc towards the weft, and did great damage.
Several chafir.s were opened on the fides of the mountain,
from which llreams of ignited matter were thrown up to a
great height into the air ; and a learned phyfieiau whofc
curiofity. and defire of information led him to examine the
eruption, was burnt to aftics bv a volley of burning ILmes.
This continued with little intermiflion for a whole year, and
terminated by caufing the river Siinetus fnddenly to over-
flow its banks, and earn' oif thofe who lived near it with
their clfcle snd other property. The country near Paterno
U u -2 fuffered

uE T N

fuffered much ; and the neighbouring caftk.-, and more
than 500 houfea were dcllroycd by the ravages of the river,
aT\d trees were torn up by vioUnt Walls ot wind. vEtna
•was convulfed and rent in fcvcral places, and poured forth
torrents of hn-a, which dcftroyed the vineyards and gardens
al the nionallery of St. Nkholus iTJrfna, and proceeded on-
wards to N'uolofi, burnt jMuHp.-lHerl and F,i/li<ii, and did
great injur)- wherever it fpread. Tlie commotions of
JEUvi were fo great, that the fiunmit fell in wiili a trcmen-
Jduj noifc, and the flioeks of the earlliquake that attended
liu-ra were felt through the whole ifland. The inhabitants
were fo much ahinntd and diilrcli'cd, that they appeared in
muuniing, and continued in this Hate for a conliderable
part of the year. In 1567 and 1579, the ravages of TEtna
were renewed ; aiul from 1603 to 1636 its eruptions were
occafionally repeated, and torrent;! of lava flowed fjom it,
vliich dcftroyed the woods and \incyards in thole parts to
which they reached. In 1650, as Oldenburg informs us,
from Kircher's Muiulus SiiLlfrnimiu, the mountain burnt
en the north fule, and produced great devaftation. Carrera
was witnefs of a dreadful conflagration in 1664, which lull-
ed till the end of May 1678. But the eruption of 1669
vas the moll formidable and moil dellruttivc. Borelli,
who was an eye witnefs of this catadrophe, and fome Eng-
lifh merchants who were alfo upon the fpct and who exa-
mined its effefts, of whofe report we have a detailed ac-
count, in the Phil. Tranf. (No. 51. abr. vol. ii. p. 387.)
liave minutely defcrihed the accefs, and progrefs, and ruin-
ous confequences of this eruption. It was preceded, for
eighteen days, with a dark fky, thunder and lightning, and
frequent concufTions of the earth, which dellroyed many
houfes in the village of Nkolofi, and difperfed its inhabit-
ants. The old crater on the fummit of jEtna raged for
two or three months before this event, in an unufual man-
ner ; and this was alio the cafe with Volcano and Stromboli,
4.VV0 burning iflands to the weft of it. In the evening of
the iith of March, at the dillance of about twenty miles
from the old mouth, and ten miles from Catania, a chafm was
opened in the call fide of the mountain ; which is faid to
have been feveral miles ( Borelli fays twelve) in length, and
five or fix feet wide. This was not far from the place
where Monte Rojfo afterwards arofe, and extended in the
direftion of the grand crater of jEtna. See PI. i. Nat.
Hill. Jig. 2. V. V. V. On the night following, in the
place where this mountain now (lands, another large cleft
opened, and feveral other chafms were formed in different
parts of the mountalm; and there iflued from all of them
huge volumes of fn-ioke, accompanied with the ufual ph<e-
Bomcna of thunder and earthquake. From the principal
thafm there ilTued the fame night a ftream of lava, which
direfted its coutfe to a lake, c;^l!ed la Hardia, alaout fix
miles from J\lor;J>e//uri, and in its way dcftroyed many dwell-
ing-houfes and other buildings in tlie adjacent villages. The
next day it moved towards a tracl of country called Mai
Pajo, inhabited by about 8co people, which, in the fpace
of twenty hours, waj entirely depopidated and kid walle ;
the lava then changed its direilion, and deftroyed fome
otlier villages. Mor.pdlicri, and its inhabitants, were alfo
deftroyed. On the 23d of March the ftream of lava was
in fome places two miles broad, and extended itfelf to the
Tillage of Ma%%alucia. On this day a new gulf was opened,
from which were difcharged fond and afties, which formed
a lull with two fummits, two miles in circumference, and
150 paces high; thcfe confifted of ftones of different co-
lours. The new mountain of Nicohfi continued to dif-
charge aftics for three months, in fuch quantity as to cover
the adjoining trait of country for 15 miks, ficme of

^ T N

thefe allies were conveyed by the winds as far as Mcflina
and Calabria ; and otliers I'pread over the foutliern country,
about Agofta, l.cntini, and remoter parts. On the 25th of
Marcii tlie whole mountain, even to its highcll fuinmit,
was agitated by a very violent earthquake. The highcft:
crater, or its loftiell eminence, then lunk into the volcanic
focus, and the fpot which it had occupied became a deep
gulf, more than a mile in extent, from which were thrown
up -■norinous malfes of fmoke, allies, ;':k1 ftones. At tliis
time it is faid, the famous block of lava on mount Frumen-
to was difcharged from tiie volcanic focus. The torrent of
lava, which llill continued to flow, diiefted its courfe to-
wards Catania ; it firll palfed under its walls for a confider-
able dillance into the fca, but afterwards accumulated and
palled over them in ieveral places. The gardens and
grounds belonging to the convent of the Ueuedictines were
overwlielmed by it ; and by its taking this direClion many
buildings in the town efcaped. From hence it divided into
feparate channels or ftreams, and flowed chiefly into the lea.
The Englilli merchants fay, that it had overwhelmed in the
upland countiy, 14 towns and villages, fome of which con-
tained 3 or 4000 inhabitants, and ftood in a fruitful coun-
trj', where the fire had not before this time made any deva-
ftation ; and they add, ".there is not now fo much as any
figii where tliefe towns ftood, except the church and lleeple
of one of them, which was iituated on an eminence." The
Earl of Winchelfea, who at this time happened to be there
on his way home from au embafly to Contlantinople, in his
account of this tremendous catalhophe, informs us, that the
inundation of fire, cinders, and burning ftones, advanced into
the fea 600 yards, and a mile in breadth : that it dellroyed
in 40 days the habitations of 27,000 perfons ; and of 20,oco
perfons, who inhabited Catania, 3000 only remained. He
adds, that the fiery deluge, in its progrefs, met with a lake
four miles in compafs, and not only filled it up, though it
was four fathoms deep, but raifed it into a mountain. He
obferves, according to an extraft, cited by Sir William Ha-
milton, that he could fee at ten miles diftance the fire begin
to run from the mountain in a direcl line, and the flame
to afcend in bulk and height equal to thofe of the loftieft:
lleeple in this kingdom, and to throw up large Hones into
the air. He difccrncd alfo the river of fire defcending the
mountain, exhibiting a terrible fiery or red colour, and
bearing ftones, which fwam upon it, as big as an ordinary
table. This fire was obferved to move in feveral other
places, emitting flames and fmoke refenibling thofe of a
furnace of melted iron, and oceafioning a loud noife tfpeci-
ally by means of the great pieces that fell into the fea. He
adds, upon the information of a cavalier of Malta, that the
river was as liquid, when it iffued from the mountain, as
water, and came out like a torrent with great violence ; and
that it was five or fix fathoms both in depth and breadth,
and that no ftones could fiiik in it. Borelli obferves,
that when they threw ftones into the chafm of the moun-
tain, they could not hear tliem ftrike the bottom. Burn-
ing rocks, he fays, 60 palms in length, were thrown to the
dillance of a mile, and ftones of a Jeftcr fize were carried
upwards of three miles, and the thunder and lightning from
the fmoke were not lefs terrible than the noife of the moun-
tain. After the moll violent ftruggles, and Ihaking of the
whole illand, when the lava got vent it fprang up into the
air to the height of 60 palms ; the lun, for many weeks,
did not appear, and the day feemed to be changed into
night ; and it was not till four months from the time when it
began to difcharge its contents, that thefe dreadful fymptoms
abated. This deluge of fire, after dellroying the fineil
vouptry in Sicily, and fweeping away churches, villages, and

couventt

JE T N

iE T N

convents before it, biirR over the lufty walls tif Catania, and
covered five of its balllons, with the intervening cuitains ;
End from thence pouring down on the city, it laid wallc
every obieft it met with, overwhelming and b'.irying uU in
one promifeuou? ruin. He regrets the dellrnftion of many
remams of antiquity ; particularly an amphitlicatre, which he
calls Coi!':J'dO, the Circus Mnximus, the h'r.iimjrh'u!, and ievc-
ral temples. DorcUi has calculated, that the matter dif-
charged at thib eruption was futhcient to fdl a fpace of
03,838,756 cubic paces.

The Englilh merchants, to wliofe account we have al
ready referred, defcribe the lava as a mafs confilling of me-
tals and minerals, which being rendered liquid by the fierce-
iiefs of tlie lire in the bowels of the eartii, boiled up and
gufiied forth as the water does at the head of lome great
river ; and having ran in a full body for a ftone's call or
more, the extreniii) of it became crafted, and formed thofc
h:u-d ftones which the people call /r/arW, and which ref^'m-
bled huge cakes of fea-coal ilvongly ignited. The lava thus
proceeded to the fea, v/hea the conflict between the two
elements occafioaed a noife more dreadful than the loudeft
thunder, which was heard to a great diilance ; the water
retired before it, the fifh on the coaft were dellroyed, the
tranfparency of the waters was loll for feveral months ; and
the clouds or vapours that afcended from it darkened the
fun. The fire, fay thefe gentlemen, fpread about three
miles in breadth,, and 17 miles in length. When they at-
tempted to go up to the mouth, whence the lava ilhud,
they could not advance nearer to it than a furlong, but
they fhould be ovenvhclmcd by a pillar of afhes, which
fesmei to them to exceed twice the bulk of the fteeple of
St. Paul's church in London, and to afcend into the air to
a much greater height. From the mouth proceeded a loud
noife, hke the beating of billows againll rocks, or dillant
thunder, which was at intervals fo violent as to be heard
60 or even 100 miles off; and fo far were the alhes carried.
The hole whence the lava ilTued v/as about ten feet in di-
ameter. Sir William Hamilton informs us, that the lava,
on which there were no figns of vegetation in 1769, is 14
miles in lengt!i, and in many parts fix in breadth, and that
after deftroymg many hundred monuments in Catania it ran
far into the fea, forming a fafe harbour, which was foon
after filled up by a frefli torrent of the fame inflauied
matter.

The eruption of 1682 produced a burning gulf on the
top of the mountain, and it= lav;: was diif'iied over the h;ll
of Mj'z.arra. In 1686 a quantity of this ignited mttter
was thrown off from the fumnit ot the mountain, and after
confuming woods, vineyards, and crops of gra;p through
the extent of four leagues, its co::rfe was ftopptd in a valley
rear the caflle of Majcili. Several people, whofe curiofity
led them to watch the prrgrels of the lava on a id!', be-
tween the v/ood .'f Cr.iania ant the confines of Ctn-'ita
were buried under the hill v.'hi;h fuddenly lunk inwards.

After a long interval of refl, the eruptions of ilitna were
renewed in 1755, when a prodigious toiTent of boiling water
ifTued from the great crater. The difcharge of water was pre-
ceded by fmoke r.nd f" u.ies. fubtcrraneous noife and concuf-
fious of the earth, the ufual figns of an approaching eruption;
at length the toiTen: burit forth, and formed tremendous ca-
tarafts in defcending from one chain of rocks to anoth':r, till
it readied li.e cultivated plains, which it overfpread for
many miles ; and after feparating into feveral deep and n.pid
rive--, it difcharged itfelf into the fea. The ravages of this
inundation, on account of both the quantity and the heat
of the water, were very extenfively injurious: and tliough
the mountain continued to throw up water only for half an

hour, it p-.oducfd r'^t only alarm but very confiderabic
dannge wlierrvcr it flowed. When tiie dilehargc of water
ceafed, the noile, fmoke, and con.molions weie continued ;
and there apj aied two new chafms, from whieli two tor-
rents of lava iilued, and purfaerl their courfe through the
fnow, which covered the funiu-.it of the mountain. The
difchai-;re of v/, *er v/as followed in five days by an ( \pIofioii
of fuiall !loii..s and fand, foine of Wi'jh were carried as far
as the hills of Mufcali ; and the blac'v fai.d was driven to
Meffina, and even over the Ilrait to Reggio in Calabiia.
Some of the fand was conveyed, by the (liifthig of the wind,
to the plains of Agolla. In two days the mountain opciied
again, and difcharged a torrent of lava which moved to-
wards the plain, at the rate of a mile a day,.and continued
for fix days.

Recupero examined the courfe of the torrent of water
above me:itioned. He found that it proceeded from the
bowels of the mountain, and purfuing a channel which
it formed from the fummit to the fea, it gained acceffion
from the melted fnow; and in its progirfs dellroyed a
large forell of trees, which were torn up by the violence
of the current, thougii fome of them were not lefs than
tv.'o and two and a half feet in diameter. The main tonent
divided into four principal llreams, and thefe again icparat-
ed into fmaller currents ; but afterwards reuniting, they
formed iHaiids, and larger rivers, about 900 feet wide, and
of a depth which could not be tafily afceitained. The
channel of the waters, in their farther defcent, was alter-
nately contratled and dilatvd ; and in fome places it was not
lefs than 1500 feet. Fragments of lava, and huge rocks,
were removed by the current, and valleys were filled up by
the fand which the waters depofited. When Recupero
vifited the mountain, after an interval of ten years from the
eruption, the whole fide of the hill bore the mrtrks of the
deluge. In 17G3 there was an eruption, which continued
with^ intenniffions for three months. From the crater,
opened on this occafion, a pyramid of fire iffued ; whick
afcended to a great height in the air, and exhibited an ar-
tificial fire-work, attended with the explofion of a formid-
able battery, which fiiook the earth under thofe who were
fpedators of the fcene. The lava that flowed from the
crater yielded a vei-y brilliant light, retained its heat, and
exhaled its fmoke for two years ; nor did any fnow ap-
pear on the fummit of TEtna for five years. In i 764, a new-
crater w ij, opened at a confiderabic diilance from jEtna ; and
in 1766 another was opened at the grotto of Paterno, which
formed a mountain that after an interval of four years dif-
charged great quantities of fmoke, with loud explofions.
In th.is interval the lava was not cooled, nor was the fire
e-.-.tinguifheu. Its fury was fpent on a beautiful forell,
\Svhich it laid wafte, to the extent of many miles. In 1780,
the convulfions of the mountain were often renewed, and
feveral new craters were formed : and from tiiefe flowed
ilreamsjof lava, which moved with diflTerent velocities, and
in various direftions. The moft confiderabic of thefe flowed
from a crater on Mount Frumento on the fummit of 'iEtna;
and flowing in a llream about 200 paces in breadth, at the
rate of about a mile in a day, fpread through the valley of
Landunza. From another crater red hot ilones were pro-
jeiled, and a current of lava was difcharged, which flowed
over a traft of exjuntry two miles in extent.

The next eruption of jEtna happened in July, 1787, and
has been accurately defcribed by Gioeni, in an account of
it printed at Catania in the fame year, of which we have a
French tranflation, by M. Dulomieu, at the clofe of his.
Catalogue Jialfonrie. It was preceded by the ufual figns of
an appspaching eruption for fever.d days, ;. r. from the I ft

a: T N

to the I7ih of July, when the lava flowed from the hinjci
part of one of ihc two mounuins that form the double head
o» ylitna. On the next d;iy, afi.i- rentu ed lliock» and the

JE T O

,. ^-.. ^,.^ ..../v^ w.t^ , «ji,i iiittv^t-u moi.K.3 aiiu me

ippi-arance of a thick fmoke, a fluivver of fine blaek bril-
-ituit fand defetndcd : on tlie call fide tlierc was a fall of
lloncs; and at tlie foot of the nionntain a deluge of fiaflies
ot hrc, fcorix, and lava. In the evening conical flames
appeared alternately to rife and fall from the volcano ; at
tiiree the next morning the mountain fecmed to be cleft, and
tiic fummit was a burning mafs. Two of the conical flames,
r/a. one on the north and another on the foiith, wcrt: of an
uiunenlc extent ; where thefo feparated, anotlier cone of
flame, compofed of many fnialler ones, appeared to afcend
above the mountain over a bafe of about a mile and a half in
dianuter to a height fuppofcd H> he about two miles. This
cone «-as covered with a thick fmoke, in which were feen
Tcry brilliant flalhes of lightning; a phenomenon v.-hich had
not been obferved in other eruptions. Sounds refembling
the explofions of a Urge cannon were alfo occaiionally heard.
From the cone, as from a fountain, there was perceived a
jet of many flaming volcanic matters, which were thrown to
the diftancc of fix or fcven miles ; and from the bafe of the
cone there ifl"ucd a thick fmoke, which darkened parts of
the flame, at the time when the rivere of lava were dilcharged.
This beautiful appearance continued for three quarters of an
hour. It began the next night with greater force, but lafted
only for half an hour. In the intervals ^tna continued to
throw out flames, fmoke, ignited ftones, and fliowcrs of
fand. From the 20th to the 2 2d, tlie appearances gradually
cealed. The llream of lava flowed towards Bronte and the
plain of Lago. After the eruption, the weftcrn iide of the
top of the mountain was covered with hardened lava, fcoris,
and ftones. The travellers were anno\ed by fmoke,
fliowers of fand, mephitic vapours, and exceffive heat. The
lava that proceeded from the weftcrn point was obferved to
feparate into two branches, one of which was direfted to-
vards Libeccio, and the other, already mentioned, towards
the plain of L.ago.

The lava on the weftem head of the mountain had been
evidently in a ftate of fufion ; and from one of the fpi-
racula, the odour was that of liver of fulphur. The ther-
mometer in defcending was at 40° of Fahrenheit's fcale •
but near the lava, on the plain of Lago, it was 140°.
1 he lava extended two miles ; its breadth was from i 5^ to 2 1
feet^ and its depth i^i feet. There was another eruption
inOdober, 1787; the effefts of which are defcribed bv
the Abbe Spallanzani. The ftream of lava that iftlied on
this occafion, from the great crater, was three miles in
length ; its breadth was in fome places about a quarter of
a mile, and m others one third, and in other parts ftill
greater: its greateft depth was about 18 feet, and the leaft
J u ^"'■'^«"^'* ''''°"R the weft fide of the mountal;, ;
and the effervefccnce that produced it was, like that of
July, extremely violent. The fcoria; were like that of the
torrent in July of a black colour ; but differed from them in
their adheiion to the lava, in their external vitreous appear-
ance, their greater w-eight, and their hardnefs, which was
fuchas to yield fparks with fteel, almoft as plentifully as
ftmts. i hefe differences are afcribed to accidental combi-
nations of the fame fubftance ; the conftituent principles of
both thefe fcorix being the fame. Both contained the
fame feltfpar lamellx. For other particulars, relating to the
caufes and products of volcanic eruptions, fee Basaltes,

t„]p^',;° r''p''"''"'^y'"-"''°- F"'- the places adjacent
to ^tna, fee Catania, Cvcuops, HYBi.A,and Trizza.

Hie7„''^'f'cf """r e!^<^" te a city of Sicily, founded by
Hiero of Syracafe, m the ift year of the 76th olympiad,

6

on the rums of Catana ; which was difpoffenVd of in prlmi".
tive inhabitants. After the death of Hiero, the Catanian.
returned, expelled the new occupiers, and deftroyed the
fepulchre of the Sj-racufan monarch. The yEtneans retired
toJnne/a, or Lmiefa, which was the name given to mount
yLtna, and which was diftant about 80 ftadia from Catana,
called It iEtna, and announced Hiero to be its founder
p.odorus favs, that Dionyf.us of Syracufe perfuadcd the
inhabitants of Catana to remove to Atna, bec-.ufe it was a
fortihed town Authors are now hardly agreed about the
fituation of ^tna. Strabo, torn. i. p. 412 Diod Sic
l.u. c. 76. torn, i p. 461. Lxir. p. 644, &:c. Thucyd.'
Annalcs. p. 31. Ed. Weffehng. '

^TNA fall,fal JEhKr, a°name given by fome authors
to Ihefal ammoniac, which is found on the furface and fides
of the openings of iEtna, and other burning mountains
atter their eruptions; and fometimes on the furface of the
fernigmous matter which thev throw out. This fait makes
a very various appearance in many cafes; it is fometimes
found in large and thick cakes, fometimes only in form of
a thin powder, fcattered over the furface of the earth and
itones Some of this fait is yellow, fome white, and fome
green I ih.

This fiilt is a concrete of nitre, fulphur, and vitriol,
burnt and fubhmed together. BoreUi found once a vaft
quantity of this fait on mount ^tna, and tried many ex-
periments on It ; from whence he concluded, that this fait
IS fo far from occafioning the explofions of the mountain, as
fome have fuppofed, that it does not exift in it, but is
formed during the burning. Phil. Tranf. N° 100.

^rOLIA, in Ancient Geography, a province of Greece,
which formerly comprehended the country now called the
Dejpotcn, or luik Greece, was parted on the eaft bv the
nv-er Evenus, now the Fidari, from the Locrenfes O'zolce,
and on the weit from Acarnania by the Achelous ; on
the north it bordered upon the countn- of the Dorians
and part ol Epirus, and on the fouth extended to tlie
bay of Connth. Its utmoft extent from north to fouth
was about 4S miles ; and from eaft to weft its greateft
breadth was fomewhat above 20 miles. According to
•Vi^bo (Lx. torn II. p. 691) it was-cuftoman- to divide
^toha into two diftrifts, the one caUed the ancient ^tolia,
whicn lay between the rivers Achelous and Calvdon on the
Evenus, and which was a level and fruitful country, and
tile other denominated .^.kI.'o, or the acquired, which was
contiguous to the Locrians, towards Naupadus and Eupa-
hus, and extended northwards towards the mountain
yeta, and which was more craggy and barren. He alfo
informs u. (torn. ,. p. 548. tom. ii. p. 71,.) that it derived
Its name from ^tohis, the fon of Endymion, who bein<.
compelled to leave EUs, removed to this counti-y, and
founded feveral cities in it ; of which the principal were
Thermus, Calydon, and Pleuron. Their only fea-port
was Oenias on the Corinthian bay. Of their kings, who
fucceeded ^tolus, httle more is known than thei? names.
;p. I /I' 'P/'^' by whom it was inhabited before
YLtolus took poft-effion of it ; and its fubfequent hiftorv for
everal ages ,s vp. obfcure and doubtful. Thucrdides
(1... p. 5. Ed. Duker.) Plutarch, (in Thefeo) Sti-abo, and
other anc-ient wnters reprefent the ^tolians, as the
greateft robbers in Greece, and as continuing fuch for many
centuries after Hercules, Thefeus, and other heroes, had
extirpated thofe banditti every where elfe ; to them Strabo
afcribes the invention of the (ling. Livy (1. xxxvi. torn. iv. I
1040 ) defcnbes theni as a proud, arrogant, and ungrateful

Q!' ^''5 "' -r ^™:"°'-^; =^"<i they are faid \o have
tough. >vKn one fiioe, whence the epithet ^o.o.f,^.J.; has

been

iE T O

been applied to tliem. Polybius (Megal. Hift. 1. iv.
palTim p. 270, &c. Ed. Calauboa.) fpeaks of them as a
turbulent people ; feldom at peace among themfclvcs, and
geneially at war with their neighbours ; utter ilrangers to
all fenie of fricndiliip, or principles of honour ; ready to
betray their friends whenever they had the leail profpert of
deriving any advantage from their treachery ; and, in ftiort,
as perfons who were regarded by the other iiates of Greece as
outlaws and public rubbers. In war, however, they were
bold and enterprihng ; inured to hardlhip and labour ; and
jealous of their liberties, in defence of which they were
ready to iacrllice their lives.

The conititutioa of the ^Etolian republic was formed in
imitation of that of the Achnsans, and with a view of
counterafting their growing power. It was governed by a
general aflembly, a prjetor, and other magiftrates of in-
ferior rank and authority. The general alfcmbly ufually
met once a year, and on extraordinary occalions it was
iummoiied by the praetor more frequently ; and this na-
tional council poflefled the whole power of enafting laws,
declaring war, making peace, and concluding alliances with
other ftates. Each city of the JEtoVian alliance deputed
members, compofing a council which was called the Apo-
cleti, and which coniiiled of the moft eminent men of the
nation, whofe office relcmbltd that of the demuirgi among
the Acha:ans. Their chief magiilrates, in fubordination to
the prietor, were the general of the horfe, the public fe-
cretary, and the ephori. The republic of ^lolia, thi.-..
tormed and governed, dilHnguifhed itfelf above all the other
nations of Greece, in oppoling the ambitious defigns of the
Macedonian princes. Having kindled the Cleomenic war,
and that of the allies, called the Social war, in the heart of
Peloponnefus, with a view of humbling tlieir antagonifts the
Achcans, they refilled for three years, with the aihllance
of the Eleans and Laccdxmonians, the united forces of
Achaia and Macedon ; but they were at laft obliged to
purchafe a peace by furrendering to Philip the whole of
Acarnania. But as they gave it up with reluftance, they
were anxious to feize the firft favourable opportunity that
occurred for regaining it. AVith this view they concluded
an alliance with the Romans, Ante Chrift. 2 1 1 ; which was
ratified two years after it was formed, by both nations.
The articles of which it confided were ordered by the
ftnate to be depofited in the capitol, as a hilling monument
of their firll alliance with the Greek nation. Hoililities,
however, immediately commenced, as foon as the treaty
was concluded. Whilft the forces of Philip were employed
in Macedon, the y^itolians entered Acarnania ; where they
found a veiy detemiined and vigorous oppoiition. Not-
withllanding the affillance which they were likely to derive
from Lxvinus, the Roman General, who had projedled the
alliance with them, they were intimidated by the refolution
of the Acarnanians, and returned home without attemptiniT
to provoke a people who had declared their purpofe either
to conquer or die. Diverted from profeeutuig their firil
defign, they turned their arms againfl Anticyra, a city of
the Locri, and aided by the Romans, compelled it to fur-
render. This fucccfs encouraged them to march into
Achaia, and to oppofe the forces of Philip. The hoilile
armies met near Lamia, a city of Piithiotis, where the
jEtolians were twice defeated. After this vitlory Philip
was prevailed upon by an embaffy from Ptolemy Phllopater,
king of Egypt, and by deputies from the iilands of Chios
and Rhodes, and the city of Athens, to grant the iEtolians
a truce of thirty days, and to enter into a negociation for
peace. Polybius has preferved (1. xi. Cf'4. p. 626) one of
the fpeeches which was delivered on this occalion, and

iE T O

which may be confidered as a mafter-picce of the kind.
The negotiation, however, proved iinfuccefsful ; and tlic
war was renewed with confiderable, though temporary, ad-
vantage on the part of tlie ilitoliaiis and their confederates.
During the abfence of Philip, they podefl'ed thcmfclves of
feveral cities : but upon his return, being abandoned by the
Romans, they were under a neceflity of concluding a peace
upon very unfaroin-able terms. Ante Chrill. 204. This
peace was of fhort duration. An extraordinary diet was held
at Naupaflus, in which the friendlhip and alliance of the
yEtoliaiis were folicited by Philip, and alio by the two
powerful republics of Athens and Rome. The Romans,
however, prevailed (Ante Chriit. 201), and the vEtolians,
after fonie previous conquells, entered Theflaly, wh;;rethey
were met by Philip, and, after a conliderable flaughter,
totally routed. Next year they rallied again, and re-en-
tered ThelTaly, plundering and dellroying wherever they
came, and citiier putting the inhabitants to the fvvord, or
felling them for flaves to the bell bidder. The ./Etolians
maintained their attachment to the Romans during the
courfc of the war, and were favoured by the Roman com-
manders above the other nations of Greece ; but after the
battle of Cynocephaloe, in which Philip was entirely de-
feated, their mutual affection abated. The ./Etolians ar-
rogated to themfelves the glory of this vitlory ; and Fla-
mlnlus, the Roman general, mortified their vanity and
excited their refentment, by granting a truce to the de-
puties of Philip without confulting them. When a nego-
ciation for peace between Philip and the Romans com-
menced, the jEtolians obllriifted it ; and it was con-
cluded Ante Chrill. 196, without their concurrence.
DilTatisiied with the conduct of the Romans on this occa-
fn)n, they meditated revenge, and exerted themfLlves in
railincr new enemies againll their former allies. They made
their lirll attempt in tlie affembly of the Amphydlions, but
failing here, they had recourfe to Antiochus king of Syria,
Nabis tyrant of Lacedsmon, and even to Phihp king of
Macedon. They were immediately joined by Nabis ; and
having concerted a plan for feizing on three cities, which
were reckoned the bulwarks of Greece, viz,. Chalcis in
Euboea, Demetrias in Theffaly, and Lacedsmon in the
center of Peloponnefus, they proceeded to the execution
of it. Having fucceeded by llratagem in gaining pofTclfion
of Demetrias, Antiochus, who had declared in their favour,
determined to land in this place; and in the year (Ante
Chrill. 192) he arrived in Greece ; and in a diet held at
I^amia, he was honoured with the title of generahnimo, or
commander in chief of all the Greek armies againfl Rome.
The king of Syria having gained polTefrion of Chalcis, was
joined by feveral of the Greek Hates, who renounced their
alliance with Rome : but Chalcis in the event proved no
lefs fatal to Antiochus than Capua had been to Hannibal.
During his relidence in this city he formed a connection
with the daughter of Cleoptoiemus, one of the chief citi-
zens, and married her. Such was the ardour of his at-
tachnjent to the new queen, that he feemed to forget Rome,
Greece and Syria. The king fpent the winter in feallings-
and rejoicings ; his example infecled the officers of his
army ; the ioldiers abandoned themfelves to idleness and
deba!!chei7 ; and mutiny and diforder nnivorfally prevailed.
The Romans availed themfelves of thefe circumllanccs ; and •
in the year Ante Chrill. 191, declared w:ir againfl him, and
difpatched a powerful army into Greece. The jEtolians
could afford him little afhllancc ; nor was he able to flay
the progrefs of the Roman army, till they compelled him
to take refuge firfl in Chalcis, and afterwards to fet fail for
Alia and retire to Ephcfus. The yEtoUans were flrongly

fortified

M T O

fortifiird at Iln-aclca ; although tlitir number amounted
only to 2000, ttuy held out 40 days againil the incefTaut
attache of the whole coiifular amiy under the virtorious
Acihiis. The town ^ms at length taken by ftratagem, and
delivered up to be piUag'd by the foldiei-s. Lamia, which
had been tor Come til i unfuccefsfiilly befiegtd by Philip,
furrendcred to the Romans. After the loi's of thcfe two
cities, the /Etoliana fcnt ainbafiadors to the Roman conful,
who fued for a peace ; but they could mtrcly obtain a truce
of 10 days. VVhen this truce was near expiring, the iEto-
liaii anibalfadors at Rome were admitted to an audience of
the fenate; and were told, that they mull either fubmit
to the will of the fcnatt, or pay the republic a thoufand
talents, and make neither war nor peace with any other
power, without the confent and approbation of Rome.
The ambafTadois hefitatcd in complymg with thtfe terms,
and were ordtrcd to leave Rome that day, and Italy in a
foi-tnirht. The Atolians upon a fecond application ob-
tained a truce of fix months ; and the confular army was
withdrawn from Greece. But during the interval of ne-
gotiation they invaded the tenitorics of Philip, and re-
duc'.d fevend provinces, which they folicitcd the penniffion
of the Romans to retain. Their ambafiadors enforced their
application by a falfe report, that the two Scipios had
been made prifoncrs by Antiochus, and that the Roman
army was entirely defeated. The fenate, incenfed by this
aitihce, difniifled the ainbafLdors, and forbad their return
without the exprefs confent of the generals whom the re-
pubhc were i.bout to fend for canying on the war in their
countiy. In the year, Ante Chrift.189, the Romans began
their hoftile operations with the fiege of Ambracia, which
was fealonnbly fuccoured by the ^tolians, and which they
vigoroufly defended. The contending armies having formed
two mines near the wall of the citv, fought for fome time
under ground, firft with pickaxes and fpades, and then with
fw-ords and fpears ; and each party fecured itfelf by making
it kind of rampart with the loofe earth. The vEtolians on
this occafion invented a fingular kind of machine, in order
to drive the enemy out of the mine : this was a hollow
vefTcl, with an iron bottom, bored with holes and armed with
fpikes for preventing the approacli of the enemy. They
hlled this velTel with feathers, and having brought it to the
place where the two mines met, they fct the feathers on
fire ; and by driving with bellows the fmoke on the be-
fiegers obliged them to quit the mine ; and by this ftrata-
gem they gained time for repairing the foundations of the
wails. rhe liege, however, was continued, and Ambracia
T" ^" r "* "<=C'--fi'ty of capitulating. After this event,
the .^tohans fent ambaffadors to Rome ; and .their appli-
cation being enforced by the concurrence of the Rhodians
and Athenians, and alfo of Valerius, who was brother to
the conful Fulvius, and the fon of Lxvinus, who formed
the hril treaty of alliance between Rome and yEtolia, a
pc-ace was concluded on the following terms.— i. The ma
jefty of the Roman peopk- Ihall be revered in all ^ toha.
2. /Etoha (hall not fuffer the armies of thofe who are at
war with Rome to pafs through her territories, and the ene-
mies of Rome fhall likewife be enemies, of Atolia. ^ She
ihail in 100 days deliver to the magiftrates of Corcyra all
pvifoners and deferters, both of the Romans and their allies,
except thofe who have been taken twice, or during her
alliance with Rome^ 4. The yEtolians ihall pay to the
Roman general m iEtolia 200 Euboic talents, of the fame
cftairA' "' "'^ i'*^^ ^'''""=^" '^^'^'^' -d engage to pay
fhe conful 40 hoftages of his choice, none of whom IhaU

^ T O

be under it or above 40 years of age ; the prxtor, gcner.il
of the horfe, and thofe who had been nlrcudv holhio-cs.at
Rome, excepted. 6. jEtolia fliall rtnounce all pretenfions
to the cities and teiTitorres which the Romans have con-
quered fince the confulate of Flaminius, though thev had
formerly belonged to the iEtolians, 7. The citv of (Dcnias
and its dillricts, fliall continue fubjeft to the A'carnanians..
8. Cephalenia fliall not be included in tl-.is treatv. Se-
vere as thefe terms were, the jEtolian republic was 'reduced
to a much worle condition after the con<iueft of Macedcn
by Paulus /^imilius ; for thofe who had openly declared fur
Perfcs, and others who had fecretly favoured him, were feirt
to Rome, and there detained, fo that they were never al-
lowed to return to their native countiy. Five hundred and
fifty of the chief perfons of the nation were b^rbaroudy
afiafiinated by the partifans of Rome under a fufpicion of
wifhing well to Perfes ; and though the ^tolians appeared
in mourning habits before Paulus ^miliiis, and complained
of this inhuman treatm.ent, they obtained no rcdiefs. From
this time none Were advanced to ftations of honour or office
ill jEtolia, but thofe who were known'to prefer the intercft
of Rome to that of their own country. In this ftate of
humiliating fubieftion did the .ffitolians continue till the
delli-uftion of Corinth, and the difToIution of the Achcean
league, when yEtolia, with the other free ftates of Greece,
was reduced to a Roman province, commonly called the
province of Achaia. Nevcrthclefs, each ftate and city were
£f0verned by their own laws, under the fnperintendency of
the praetor, who was fent annually from Rome into Achaia.
The whole nation paid a ftipulated tribute, and the rich
were prohibited from poffeffing lands any v,-here except in

their own country. Livy, 1. 26. — 27.J-31 ^2. 7,-:.

35-— 36— 37 — 3^ — 39- t<>m- ">• iv. v. Ed. Drakeub. pJly-

bius Hift. 1. 2. 4 — 9. — 10. — II 17. pp.91. 2"2,— -

560._596._626 743. Excerpt. I.egat. pp. 788.-706.

-802._806._S25._82S. Ed. Cafaub. Paufanias in
Achaic. p. 521, &c. Ed. Kuhnii.

In this ftate, with little alteration, iEtolia continued under
the emperors, till the reign of Conftantine the Great, who,
in his new partition of the provinces of the empire, divided
the AVeftem parts of Greece from the reft, caDing them
new Epirus, and fubjccting the whole country to the ft;<r-
fiaus pnetonl of Illyricum. Under the fucceiTors of Con-
ftantme, Greece was divided into feveral principahties, efpe-
cially after the taking of Conftantinople by the weftcrn
princes. At that time, Thtodorus Angelus, a noble Gre-
cian, of the Imperial family, feized on ^tolia and Epirus.
The former he left to Michael his fon, who maintained it
againft Michael Palsologus, the firft emperor of the
Greeks, after the expullion of the Latins. Charies, the
L-ift pnnce of this family, dying in J430, without lawful
iifuc, bequeathed ^toha to his brother's fon, named alio
Charies, and Acarnania to his natural fons, Memnon,
Turnus, and Hercules. But great difputes ariiing about-
this divihon, Amurath II. after the reduction of Thefl'a-
lon!ca,_ feized fo favourable an opportunity, and expclhd
them ail in 1432. The Mahometans were afterwards dif-
pofTefred of this country by the famous prince of Epiius,
George Ca^lrict, commonly called Scanderbeg, who, with
a fmall army, oppofed the whole power of the Ottoman em-
pire, h?v!;;g defeated thofe barbarians in 22 pitched battles.
This hero, at his death, left great part of vEtolia to the"
Venetians ; but thc)- not being able to oppofe fuch a formi-
dable power, tiie whole country was foon reduced by Ma-
hommtd II, whole fucceffors iliU poll'tfs it. Anc. Un.
Hift. vol. vi. 155 — 205. 8vo.

2 ./Etcha,

A F E

JEtolia, an ancient town of the Peloponnefiis, placed by
Steph. Byzant. in Lacouia. .

jETORCHECUM, a promontory of Bithynia.
jETUATES, a pt-ople of Helvetia, upon the frontiers
of RhtEtia, towards the fources of the Rhine.
^TULANA, a counti^ of Armenia Minor.
iETYiMANDRI, apeople of Afia.

iEVSKAIA, in Gro^rnph, a town of Siberia, fituatcd
on the Irtiih ; 20 leagues north-well of Tara.

iEX, the name of one of the nurfes of Jupiter, who was
placed among the ftars.

MXO^A, a borough of Attica, dependent upon the
tribe of Ceeropides. The inhabitants were fo muchaddiaed
to calnmny, that c^ynvt^^-x, was ufed proverbially for fpeak-
ing evil of another.

^XONIA, was alfo the name ot a city of Magnelia m
ThelTaly. Stcphaii. Byz. • ■ a r

^ZALA, a town of the greater Armenia in Aim.
jEZANlS, a town of the greater PluTgia in Afia.
^ZARI, an ancient people of Africa, who gave name
to a canton of Marmarica.

jEZICA, a country of Thrace.

AFDELLES, in Ichthyology, a name given by the Cre-
tans to the fiih called at Rome, don-zAUmi and zigunlla. bee

JULIS.

AFER, Conjlantinus, in Biography. See LONSTAN-

Afer, Domiihis, a celebrated orator, was born at
Nifmes, in Gaul, in the year before Chnil IJ^ or 16,
and lived under Tiberius, and the three Incceeding em-
perors. After his advancement to the office of pra;tor, his
ambition led him to afpire after higher honours ; and with
this view, preferring fame to virtue, he txerciled his talents
as an accufer. Claudia Pulchra, the coulin of Agrippma,
^^■as the firll obied of hie attack ; and by charging her with
adultery, witchcraft and magical operations agaiiiil the
empero'r, he recommended himlelf to Tiberius, who had
conceived an invincible dcteftation of Agrippina. Agnp-
pina, however, much as Ihe mull have relented his conducl,
Treated him with the contempt he delerved ; ior when Ihe
accidentally met with him after the impeaeliment ot Clau-
dia, and he v>-as endeavouring to avoid her, Ihe pertinently
applied to him the palfage in Homer (11. «. 335-)

<« It is not of you, it is of Agamemnon I ccnnplain :"
Thus intimating ho- dil'dain of him, who was the mei-e
minifter of an iuiullice that proceeded from a higher
poAVL-r. Afer next year directed his acculation agauiil
Quintilius Varus, the Ion of Claudia ; in which he was
aided by P. Dolabella, who was a man of birth and the'
relation 'of Varus. Finding this practice to be a tource of
wealth and honours, at the degenerate period in which he
lived, he adhered to it through life, and incurred the con-
tempt even of his admirers, by periilUng in it when his fa-
culties were impaired by age, and the decay ot hio powa'S
eclipfed the fame of his former eloquence. His advance-
ment at this period depended on his talents for flattery, as
well as on thofe by which he was dillinguillud as a ])ublic
fpeaker. Having erecled a ilatue to Caligula, he intro-
duced into the iiifcription a reanxl, which he undoubtedly
defi'nied as an exprtflion of refpeet, that the emperor was
a fecoiid time coni'nl at the age of 27 years. Caligula m-
terpreted tlie compliment as a ceiifure upon him for violat-
;„•■ the law, and as a reproach of his youth ; and pronounced
a vehement oration againll him in the fenate. Afer, in-
llcad of making any reply in his own vindication, profeffcd
the highell admiration of the emperor's eloquence, and rc-

VOL. I.

A F F

pcated the fci-eattft part of his fpeech in ftiains of rapture.
By this feafonable artifice he not only obtained a pardon,
but induced the emperor to difpoflcfs the coiiluls ot their
office, and by this ad of injuftice to make way ior the ad-
vancement of Ater.

This orator died in the reign of Nero, A. D. 59, m cor-
fequence, as it is laid, of eating to exce's. Quuiaihan alh-
duouny cuhivated the friendlhip ot Ater, and w'as in his
youth a coiillant attendant on his pleadmgs. Of his e o-
quenee he fpeaks in terms of high commendation, as dil-
tii..ri,in,ed by art and vanity, intitling him to rank among
the^ firtl orators of Rome. According to his account,
Afer often introduced pleafant llories and Ilrokes ot_ wit
in his pleadings ; and colleftinns were made ot his jetts.
He difeoura<-ed and condemned the prevailing pradice ot
vociferous Tpphiufe ; and being repeatedly urtcMTupted
whiUl he was pleading flowly and gravely before the Cer-
tnmviri, he paufed, and addieffing the judges, oblerved.
"Gentlemen, our profeffion is ruined." Ater. however,
expofed himfelf to ridicule, by continuing to plead under
the iiifumitiesand decays of advanced hfe : fome, fays
Quinelilian, laughed, others were alhamed ; and he oblerves
that Afer incurred the reproach, " Mah- eu,n drfjcn-r,^
auam Mnerei" or, " that he had rather fail than fiiiilh :
and he grounds on his conduct a recommendation to oi-ator*
to withdraw, when age incapacitates them for maintammg
their former reputation. The orator, he fays, in order to
prevent falling into tliefe fnares of old age, ihoidd found a
retreat, and come into port with a found vclTel.' i acituB,
Annal. 1. iv. c. 66. tom. i. p. 5 1"- 1- "^'^•J'- '9- to™-..'- P-
Q-iz Ed. Gronov. Dion Callius, Hill. Rom. tom. n. p,
02' . Ed. Reiraar. Q^uindilian, lull. 1. v. c. 7. tom. 1.

p. 37S. 1. vi. c. 3. p.' 535- 1- ^- ^- I- P- 9'?: !•='"•

c. II. tom. ii. p. 1107. Ed. Burman. Phny, Epift. h.

^' AFFA, a weight ufed on the gold coafl. of Guinea. It
is equal to an ounce, and the half of it is called cggfku
Moil i.r the blacks on the gold coall give thefe names to

thole weights. , „ , n

AFFACUS, in Geography, a town on the Laroaiy Ihorc,
ci<dit leagues louth-eall from Africa.

''AFFANG, a town of the archduchy of Auftria, three

leagues well of Steyr. • . '

AFFAR, a town of Arabia Felix; 14 German miles

call of Eolieia. ,.,,-,

AFFATOMIA, in y/«c/™/ Laii; a kind ot donation
made by thrufting a wand into the perlon's bolom, to whom
it was liiade. Du-Cange.

AFFECTED, in Algebra. See ADricxiiD.

AFFECTIO lovina, is a difeat« incident to cattle, oc-
cafioned bv a little worm, bred between the flelh and the
Ikin ; which works its way over all parts ot t,ie body.

AFFECTION, in a general lenie, denotes an attri-
nu'rE peculiar to fome fubjed, aad arifing from the very
idea or elfenee of it.

The word is formed from #mr, to afn; the suiijtcT
being iiere fuppoled in fome meafure afcdal, or aded on, by
the thing attributed to it.

In this fenle, nffllon'M fynonymous wuh projurly, or uitl.
what the fehoolmen call /ro/,.W/m-?rwr/(;;/W-3.

Ph.lolophers are divided as to the dodrme and divif.0,1 ol
affedionsf according to Arillotle, they are either yt/ic-Y/- .
nalin^ ovfuborJinalal; under the firlt ot which comes only
„wJe; and under the fecond, fnitcncfs, place, and tune.
The crenerahtv of Peripatetics divide afledions into u^crrol,
asmo'tionandiiniteners; and external, as place ami time.
According to Sperlingius, affedions are better divided into
Ihnpk or rimud, anti dhjnnH or feparoie : under the hill he
■J ^ X X coniprcheno*

A 1' 1'

cotrpreheiids quanl'ily, qualllj, pLicf, and limf ; under tlic fc-
cond, motion, and rz/L

AtFertions are alfo difliiiguilhed into thoftf of iorfy, and
thofc of ir«/i</.

Art ECTioNS o//>oJy, are certa-n mof'ifications of it ; oc-
calior.ed or induced by motion ; in virtue of wliicli, a body
comes to be fo and fo difpofid.

Tlie EtteiTtions of body are fometimes fubdividcd into pr'i-
viary tmii J'eiontiary.

Affections, primary, are thofe which arife either front
the idea of matter, as quantity and figure ; or from that of
form, as q\iahty and power ; or both together, as motion,
place, and time.

AFFECTioss,yr-fon</ijry, or derivative, are thofe which
arife from fome of the primary ; e. gr. from quantity, as
divifibility, continuity, conti;^Hity, finity, impenetrability ;
iromjigurc, as regularity and irregularity ; from qiudily, as
health, ftrength, &e.

Tlie epithet mrcLinical is applied to thofe afl'eftions that
are properties of matter, refulling fiom its figure, bulk or
jnotion.

Affections of mind, are what wc more ufually call pas-
sions.

Dr. Cogan, in his Philofophical Trcr.tife oa the PafTions,
tery properly diftinguifhes between affection and paffion ;
and he accurately difcriminates between both thefe terms,
and that feeling, which is ufually denominated emotion.
The term affeftion, he fays, has a different fignitication
from either of the other two, and reprefents a lefa violent,
and generally a more durable influence, which things have
upon the mind. It is applicable to the manner in which
we are affected by them for a continuance ; and fuppofes a
more deliberate predikftion and averfion, in confequence of
the permanent influence of fome prevailing quality. This
diftinguillies it from the traniient impulfe of pafTion ; nor is
it fo intimately connefted with any external figns, which
diftinguifhes it from emotions. The affeftions fometimes
fucceed to paffior.s and emotions, btcaufe thefe ma}- have
been excited by fomcthing that becomes permanently inte-
relling ; or they may be gradually infpired, by a deliberate
attention to the good or bad qualities of their objefts. In
this philofophic ienfe of the word, affeftion is apphcable to
an unpleafant as well as pliafant flate of the mind, when
jmpreffed by any ohjtcl or quality ; it ir.ay be produced by
any thing that torments or corrodes the heart, as well as by
that which charms and delights it. Cuitom, however,
chiefly appropriates the terra to the kindly and benevolent
affetftions.

In the fame manner Dr. Reid (Effays, p. 143. 167.)
has applied the general name of affeftions to thofe various
principles of action in man, which have perfons for their
immediate objvirt, and which imply, in their very nature,
our being well or ill-affefted to fome perfon, or at leail, to
fome animated being : and whether they difpofe us to do
good or hurt to others. He obfenes, however, that the
word affection feems, by culloni, to be limited to good af-
fetlions. Accordingly, when we fpeak of having affeftion
for any perfon, it is always underilood to be a benevolent
affeftion. In the extenfive fenfe above ftated, our affeftions
are very naturally diviiled into benevolent and malevolent,
;is they refpeftively imply our being v.-ell or ill afvefted to-
wards their objeft. The charafters of love and hatred, re-
fulting from the infinitely various fituations and circum-
ftances upon which their developement and operations de-
pend, entitle them to the denomination of primary or car-
tiinal ajfet:icns.

Our benevolent affeftions, whilft they differ in the feel-

I

A F F

ing, or fenfatlon, which is a cottiraon ingredient in all of
tliem, and in the objeds to which they sure directed, agree
in thefe two refpeftn, viz.. that the feeling which accompa-
nies them is agreeable, and that they imply a defire of hap-
pinefs to their objeft. The firft of thefe affeftions is that
of parents and children, and other near relations, commonly
called nrf/.vra/ affeftions : the fccond, is gratitude to.be-
nefaftors : the third, is pity and compassion towards the
diilreffed : a fourth is esteem of the wife and good : the
fifth is friendship : the fixth, is love between the fexes :
and the lafl, is patriotism or pubhc ipirit ; that is, an af-
feftion to any community to which we belong.

The nji?/i"i)o/i'n; affeftions, commonly called passions, in
the an-angement of Dr. Reid, are emulation and re-
sentment. For the difference between affeftion and dif-
pofition ; See Disposition.

Affection, in Geometry, is fynonymous with property.

Affection, in Medicine, denotes a morbid, or preterna-
tural flate of the body, or fome of its parts. Thus we fay,
an hypochondriacal, an hysterical affeftion ; and, in
like manner, fuch a part of the body is affefted, /". e. indif-
pofed, or feized with a disease.

AFFEERORS, Afferatores, in Laiu, perfons ap-
pointed in court -leets, and courts-baron, upon oath, to fettle
and moderate the fines of fuch as have committed faults
arbitrarily punifliable, or which have no exprefs penalty fet
down by Itatute. See flat. 25 Edw. III. c. 7.

The word is formed, according to Cowel, of the French
affier, to affirm ; by reafon thofe appointed to this ofHce do
affirm, upon their oaths, what penalty they think, in con-
fcience, the offender hath deferved. Others better derive
it from affeurer, a word in the cuflomary of Normandy,
rendered by tlie Latin interpreters, taxare, to fet the price of a
thirtj ; as icf.imare, indicare, &c. — Kitchin joins the three
words Zi'ifynonyma ; ctjjidati, amerciatores, afferores.

AFFENTHAL, in Geop-nply, a valley of.Suabia in
the Ortenaw, near Strafburg, famous tor its excellent
wines.

AFFERI, in L.-^v. See Averia.

AFFETTUOSO, or Con Affetto, in the Itc/ian
Tdufic, is ufed to denote that kind of muiic, which mufl be
performed in a very tender, moving, and affefting manner ;
and for that reafon rather flow than faft. This term, placed
at the beginning of a mufical air, implies,' in point of time,
a movement between andante and lai'go ; and requires a
fwect and affefting expreflion of the melody.

AFFIANCE, in Laiu, the phghting of troth between
a man and woman, upon an agreement in marriage to be
had betw-edn them.

AFFIDATIO Dominorum, fignifies an oath taken by
the lords in parliament : thus called in the Rot. Pari.
Hen. YT.

AFFIDATUS, or Affidiatus, in our La-w Boots,
denotes a tenant bv fealty.

Affidati are not properly vaffals, but q'lafi vaffals, or per-
fons who vow fealty to, and put themfelves under the pro-
teftion of, another.

In this fenfe they amount to the fame with what are
otherwife called coinmendati, and recommendnti.

AFFIDAVIT, an oath in writing, Iworn before fome
perfon who hath authority to take fuch oath ; and.made ufe
of, and read in court, upon motions ; though not allowed
upon trials.

In the court of Chancery is an ^ijjida-oit-ofvm, under
the direftion of a Mtijfer of chancery.

AFFILA, in Ancient Geography, a diftrift of Italy be-
longing to the Hcrnici.

AFFILIANUS .1

A F F

AFFILIANUS nwm, a mountain of Italy, near the Ti-
ber The colony iElula was at the foot of tins mountain.,

AFFILIATION, AcriLiATio, in Mu/dk J;^e H.ihis,
the fame with adoption. See alfo adfiliation.

Amono- the ancient Gauls, affiliation was a fort of adop-
tion onW praftifed among the great—It was peifonned
'°th military ceremonies: the father prefented a battle-axe
to the perfon he was to adopt for his fon, as an mtnnation
that he was to preferve the effeas he thus called him to fuc-

ceed to, by arms. . ^ • t 7> /

AFFINAGE is fometimes ufed, m Jnctftit Law houks,

for the refining of metals. ^ a ^ K,

AFFINITY properly imports a relation contraaed be-
tween one of two parties married, and the kmdred ot the

"^ TlJ'lvord is oiT^rinally Latin, compounded of ad, to, and
fnis, boundary, limit; by reafon as the lawyers fay, that
^neof the families here approaches to the bounds of the
other '^iwd du^ co-ynationcs per tmptuu copuUmtur, iS atteta
ad Jterh^r cognafwncs finan accent. Or, as another ex-
prefles it, ^lod utrhifque cognafwms fnes in unum locum con-

■^""'in' which fenfe the word (lands contradiftinguiflicd from
confarwmnity, which is a relation by blood.

Affinity does not found any real kinnnp ; it is no more
than a kind of fidion, introduced on account of the dole
relation between huihand and wife. It is even iaid to ceafe,
when the caufe of it ceafes. Hence a woman who is not
capable of being a witnefs for her huftand's brother, dvir-
\Z his life-time, is allowed for a witnefs, when a widow, by
reafon the affinity is diffolved. Yet, vvith regard to the con-
trafting marriage, affinity is not dilTolved by death, though
it be in evciT thing elfe. .

In the Mofaical law there are feveral degrees of affinity,
wherein marriage is exprefsly prohibited, which yet ieem
not at all prohibited by the law of nature.

Thus (fee Lev. xviii. 7, &c.) a fon could not marry
his mother, nor his father's feeoud wife: a brother could
not marry his lifter, either by the lather only or by the mo-
ther only, much lefs if related to him both by father and
mother ; a grandfather could not nvarry his grand-dauglitcr ;
no one coufd man^ the daughter of his father s wife, nor
the lifter of his father or mother ; nor the uncle his mece,
nor the aunt her nephew ; nor the nephew the wife ot his
uncle by the father's fide : a father-in-law could not many
his daughter-in-law ; nor a brother the wife of 1"^ brother,
while living, nor after the death .t that brother if he left
children ; if he left no children, the living brother was to
raife up children to his deceafed brother, by manymg his
widow • it was forbidden to marry a mother and her daugh-
ter at one time, or the daughter of the mother's Jon, or the
dauo-hter of her daughter, or two fillers together. itie
patriarchs, indeed, before the law, fometimes married their
half-fifters, as Abraham married Sarah, his father s daugli-
ter by another mother ; or two fitters together, as Jacob
man-ied Rachel and Leah ; but thefe cafes are- rot examples,
becaufe they might then plead neceffity or cuftom, and the
prohibitoiT law as not exifting. If other inftanees occur
before or fince the law, the Scripture exprefsly dilapproves
of them, as Reuben's inceft with Bilhah, his father s concu-
bine, and the conneftion of Ammon with his fifter 1 amar ;
and that of Herod Antipas with Herodias, his liicer-in-
law, or his brother Philip's wife, while her huihand was
living, and that which St. Paul reproves among the Corin-
thians, 2 Cor. V. Calmet. . „- • rri

The Crt»o«//?J diftinguiffi thre£ fpecies of affinity.-- 1 lie
firft, that contracted between the hulband and the relations

A F F

by blood of his wife ; and between the wife and the relations

bv blood of her huPjand. w„i,„l,;«

' The feeond, between the hulband and thofe >-f t^-'J ;° *

wife by marriage ; and the wife, and thofe fo related to her

^'"Thfthird, between "the hufband and the relations of his
wife's relations ; and the wife, and the relations of he. liul-

band's relations. in-,,,,;, ,vi«

By the fourth council of Lateran, held in ' ^ 3- -'»
decried, that none but the fiA kind was any real aflu.ty
the reft being mere refinements, which ought to b. let

'^'llie degrees are reckoned after the fame n-mier in af-
finity as in consanguinity; and therefore d'ft^ently m
the Qanon U'u. from what they are in the Ct^d La^^-

Whatever line or degree of ^°"'=>"g«'""y.^^'^, ^^^tflinc
one of the parties married are in, they are m the fame line
Zl degree 'of affinity to the other. And again in whatever
hue or deo-ree of affinity perfons are, m |1>^ *"/^ '-'"^' ^!*'>
a"^ in the'fame in the lecond and third kinds of afcn,t>.
Hence arife what we may call a dired and collateral, an af-
cendinff and a defcending hue of affinity.

The^omanifts talk ol" a fph-Uual ='ffi>"ty'."X:rctm-ch^
the facrament of baptilm and conl.rmation In that ch 1 ch
a ^od-fathermay not many with his god-daughtei, without

^^:t;^s and term, of affinity are chiefly, father-in-
law, ;. .. hulhand's or wife's father, m Latin, /«m- j itep-ta-
ther, i.e. mother's hufband, a.//nV». ;. mother-m-law, j. ^.
hidband's or wife's mother,/.... ; l^ep-other, . .. fa her

wife, no..rca; fon-in-law, S^^""' '^ . ^f't V^^ 7: Z^X^^v
ftep-dauo-hter, i. e. hulhand's or wife's daughter by anothei
ma ri°,*r4.. ; ftep-fon, ;'. .. hulhand's or wife's fon by

in relation to each other, are called co,nprn„sm_, fon- n-
law, ;. c. daughter's huihand; brother-ni-law, ;. j. hul-
W's brothei-r or fifter's huihand, A..r ; -'f^ j^ J?™ ^ '
bi-olher's wife ; fitter-in-law, ,. e. hulhand's or vMfe s iiilei.

Calv. Lex. Jur. . ,■ • , j • . • •/ .i,.,f

Affinity, in the CivU Laiv, is divided mto r/r;/, that

between free perfons; ^nAfervik, that between flaves

Affinity, %V/m«/., is that contracted by a propei and

legal motrlmony ; or, between flaves, by cmituben,^:,,,.

Affinity, W;,,/^'., that contraaed out ot legal mar-

"^Affinity may be contraaed by an unlawful commerce :
thus a perfon who has impregnated two iifters, is prolii-
bited iiLrying either of them; thus an affinity ma> com-
mence between luAand and wife, by his lying wuh her

r n

' Affinity, /;w, is that/ubfifting while the marriage be-
tween the two parties fubfifts. , j-/r 1

Affinity, yV> that fubfifting either after the d.fl-oh-
tion of the marriage, as between a huihand and his N^fe s
daughter, begot by another after her being divorced from
him ; or before the marriage is folemnized, as that be-
tween a father and a daughter, only elpoufed, or betrothed

^° AffTn'ity is alfo ufed figuratively, for a conformity, or
ao-reemcnt, between one thing and another.
° In which fenfe the word ftands oppofed to diverfity, va-

rietv, oppofition, &c. , . , • 1 n- j

Bifluip Wilkins gives tables, wherein things ai-e claft-ed

according to their affinities. Vide Pveal Charaa. p. u.

'■ Henckelius has a treatife on the affinity between vegetables
aud^/Wfl/x. ^^-^ Affinitv

A F F

A F F

ArnxiTY is more particularly ufcJ iii fpcakiiig of tlie
relation or rmllitude between lascuaces, occafioniil by
tiieir bein;^ Ji-rived from the fame fource.

We ule iihb affinity of words, fouiuis, &c.

Arris IT V, jiffin'tli, Yv. I'tiivnnilfchiifl., Gcnn. Fni-
ntiitt/t, Swcd. yltlruHion of compojUion — Elective tilh-n^liun
iti Bergman.

Tiiis term, wliich in its pi-oper and oripjinal fenfe fignitics
a prc'),i!nity of relationlhip, lias been adopted by niodcni
pliilurnphcrs as tlio expivHion of a foive purely chemical,
bv which fiibllaiices ot dilfereiit natures arc made to com-
bine with i-ach other. Tin's paiticiilnr metnphorical ule of
the word is not, however, of very old Kandinjj. I'archiifcii
is probably the firll who introduced it ; fpcaking; ot the
liitlWiilty of obtaining chemical elements perfectly pine, he
accounts for it in the following way, " Archim cnim atqiie
reciprocam inter fe habent a^imtalem." Boerliaave, how-
ever, contributed more than any other to bring the word
into common uft ; thus we tind in his Klementa Chemix ;
" Particulse folventes et t'ohit;c fe nffimlate fuic naturae,
collignnl in toqiora homogenea." Bergman has preferred
the tenn nllmilion, as more conformable to the precifion
of fcientific language; fince, however, all bodies in nature
attract each other, while chemical afTuiity cxitls only between
particular fnlillanccs, it feenis upon tlie whole more co'i-
vcnient to appropriate a term to the ixpreirion of this par-
ticular force, v.ithout, however, rigoroiidy excluding the
fyuonvmous phr.ife e/eiiive alliacl'rm, which the high au-
thority of Bergman has introduced into the chemical nomen-
flature.

In treating of fo important a fubjeft as chemical affinity,
it will be neeelTar)-, for the fake of clearnefs to divide it
into fix fectioiis.

The full will contain a (l;etch of the progrefs of dilcove-
ries in affinity.

In the fecond the caufe of affinity will be difcufTed.

The third will treat of fingle and compound affinity, and
the conilniiSlion of tables and fchemes.

In the fourth the feveral methods of ellimating numerically
the force of affinity will be conlidercd.

The fifth will contain the laws of affinity.

The iixlh will be appropriated to the confideration of
pertain anomalies.

§ I. H'tjlory of jlfuiily.

The general fart that all fubitances have not the fame
relative degree ot affinity for each other, mull have been
obferved as foon as the fmalleft attention began to be paid
to chemical piienomena, and in the firll rude attempts to
explain the caufe of this difference of force, recourfe was
iiad to the maxim of Hippocrates, 0;lcoi» sfjjslKi ^p-,,- to oijiont,
Jtmilc v-nif ail Jimile. This doctrine of the old fchool we iUU
find in Heccher, who fuppofcd that there was a hidden prin-
ciple of fimilitude in all fiibftances capable of mutual che-
mical combination. Another feci, at the head of whom
was Lemery, endeavoured to explain chenVical agency by
confitieriug folvents as compofed of a multitude of fine
points, and thus mechanically predifpofed to enter the pores
iTid feparate the particles of fublhmces cxpoicd to their
aclion.

Stnhl, h.owever, re'icAing the hypothefis of mere mechani-
cal forces, attributed the power of menilrua to the attradion
of contact or intimate cohelion ; for, to ufe his own lan-
guage, " eombiniiliones quafcumque non alitcr fieri quam

" per arclam appofitionem." " Non per modum cuuei,

"•' neque per modum incurfus in unam particulam feparan-
" d^m, fed putius per modum appreheolionis feu ajctae ap-

" plicationis." Tliis eminent cheu'.ifi alfo diduced from
his experiments a variety of fafts and oblei-vations, tending
to prove that an union cmce formed could not be difiblved
without a luoiv intimate union of one of its conllituent parts
with another lubllance.

It is to Geoffroy, the elder, that chemifliy is indebted for
the happy idea of collecting thefe fcatlered facls, and
Ikctciiing the outlines of the general rules of analyfis and
compolition. In the year 171S, he prefented to the Royal
Academv of Sciences at Paris the firll table of affinity, or
as he calls it, •' Des diflerens rapports oblerves en chymie
entre dilicientes fubllances," (fome of the different relations
obferved in chemilliy between different fubllances). This
table, which merits prefervation, as a curious hiftorical
ineniorial, and the pattern of all that have appeared fince,
coi'.filfed of only feventeen c-olumns very imperfectly filled,
and prefented rules, which for the inoll part have been
changed or coiifiderably modified. With all its errors,
however, it ia jiillly to be confidered as the bafis and guide
to all our chemical knowledge : it has been enlarged and
improved, but llill retains its original form and eflence, and
as the great fabric of experimental fcience advances towards
peifeClion, fi> will this, which is its epitome and model.

Ko very material improvement appears to liave been made
on Crcoifrov's table till C/ellert, the celebrated profeffor of
Frevburg, publilhed, in i^jo, his Ch\inia Metallurgica ;
in this work was contained a new table of affinity extended
to 2S columns, and at the bottom of each was a fill of
fubllances which he had found not to be acled on by the
body placed at tlie head of the column. Rudiger, in 1756,
inferted in his fyllem of Chemillrv a table of affinity reduced
to 15 columns, in which the fixed alkalies and lime are
placed parallel with each other, and before ammonia in the
column of acids : he alfo added, in a fmall fupplementary
table, thofe bodies which refufcd to combine without the
intervention of a third.

In confequence of a prize offered hv the Academy of
Rouen, in 175H, a very important additicui was made to
the table cf affinities bv M. Limbourg ; he extended the
number of columns to 33 ; he afcertained that zinc (hould
be placed at the head of the metals in the column of acids,
and that it preciiiitated them all, even by the dry way ; he
maintained, that lime and the fixed alkaUcs acled by means
of affinity on animal matter ; and pointed out feveral cafes
in which the order of affinities was changed by the in-
fluence of temj)erature or the volatility of one of the in-
gredients.

From this period, the importance of the fubjecl being
fully ellablilhtd, tables were multiplied and the general
fyllem of affinity was invelligated by fome of the ablell
chemills of the age, among whom the names of Erxlcben
and Weigleb Hand eminently dillinguilhed. At length, in
1775, the illullrious Bergman publilhed his diffcrtation on
eleclive attractions, in the tranfaclions of the Royal Society
of Upfal, and fucceffive editions of his tables made their
appearance in 1779 and 1783. Thefe tables may jullly be
confidered as a mallerpiece of Ikill and indutlry ; the
affinities of no lefs than 59 fubllances are afcertained with
gitat exaclnefs, and the dillindlion between thofe that take
place in the inoill and dry way is precifely Hated : the
method of regiltering cafes of compound affinity is per-
fected, and 64 of the mofl important are added to the ge-
neral Hock of chemical fcience. Since the death of Berg~
man, fucceffive impreffions of his tables have appeared with,
little or no alteration, till Dr. Pearfon's in 1799. In this,
the nomenclature is changed, and in part reformed accord-
ing to the French fyfttm, a few articles to be found irk

Bergman.

A F F

A F F

Bergman arc expunged on tlic iuitliority of later inveftiga-
tions, and the iur.nl)cr ot coliiinns is incrcaltd to 62.

It is not, however, to the eonihuttion ot" tables, ini-
^xu'tant a.-i thev are, that the rel'earclies of ehemilU on tlie
inbicct of afHnitv liave hcen tonfnied. Since the dlfcovery
of the great law of attractioji, hy Newton, it lias been the
uniform endeavour ot t'le ahlelt philolophcrs to iltow tiiat
the canfe of chemical phenomena is only a branch or modi-
fication of tliis uiuverlid property ot matter, and the nan\es
of liullon, Macqiier, IJmbourg, and Morvcan, Hand C(m-
fpicuo\is tor then' endeavours in this department : it is to
Kirwan that we owe the able attempt to reduce the force of
contending alhnltics to numerical calculation ; and the
fagacious lierthoUet, m his ^'liviherchesfiir la his ilr I'nJJimIe"
has juft now opened a new held of enquiry on thib moll im-
portant fubjeCh

^ II. Caiifi- (if Clyemical yljfmhy.

There have been only two ways of accounting for che-
inical affinity ; the one is by having recourfe to a gratuitous
;ind inexplicable princi])Ie ot lympathy, and whieii there-
fore is merely the I'ubllitution of one metaphor for another ;
and the other is an endeavour, by the help of experiment
and calculation, to lliew the identity of affinity and the
Newtonian attracHon. The liril ot tliefe, as it does not
profcls to be fupported by any extenial evidence, may be
palTcd by ; the other requires a particular examination.

It was the opinion of Newton, and a very' natural one
in his lituation, that the force of attracTrion which he liad
demonftrated to be the efficient caufe of the planetaiy mo-
tions, of the alternation of the tides, of the defcent of heavy
bodies, and of the ofcillation of the pendulum, was an eden-
tial property of matter, and, as iuch, the caufe of chemi-
cal phenomena : perceiving acids to be feme of the moll
powerlul agents in the production ot tliefe effecfls, he hence
dehned them as bodies that attract ftrongly, ami are Ib'ongly
attracted ( " acu'um didnius quod muJtum atlnthit et altrahi-
tur" J. This however is to be conlidered merely as a con-
jeclure of that great man, fmce no attempt was made by
him to fubmit to calculation any cafes of affinity, or even
to obviate the weighty objeftions that might be brought
againft the theoiy. The effcntlal foundations of the New-
tonian attraclion are, that the force of gravitation is in a
direct ratio to the mais or quantity of ponderable matter ;
and that the increide of the force is in an inverfe ratio to
jlie fquare of the dillance, or, to make this plainer by an
example : If the lead of a phunb-line is fufpended two yards
from the fide of a moimtain, the attractive force exercifcd
upon it will be four times kfs than if the dillance between
the lead and the mountain \vas only one yard ; fo-.'

2 X 2 : I X I : : 4 : I .
Although, however, the iuftnefs of this law be rigoroufly
demontlrated in all cafes where the dillance is capable of
being mealured, how does it apply to thofe inllances in
wiiich bodies are fuppofed to touch each other ? How can
the apparent uniformity of a.ttraction be made .to explain
the infinite variety of chemical affinity ? To this funda-
mental and obvious objection I5uffon has gi>'en the following
reply. Tiie dillances between the feveral heavenly bodie-^s
are fo coullderable, that they may be looked upon with re-
gard to their aiition on each other as fo many gravitating
points, the flight differences in their figure being of little
or no account. If the moon and the earth, iiiltead of beiii"-
fpherical, were each in the form of a (hoit cyhnder, whofe
tranfverfc axis fliould be equal to their prefent diameters,

the law of tlieir reciprocal adlion would not be mattriallv
altered by fuch a change, becaufe the relative dillance of
eacli particle of tlie moon from the earth would, notwith-
fhinding, be nearly the fame as before ; but if tliefe globes
were drawn out into very hmg cylinders, and brought w llh-
in a Ihort dillance of each otlier, the law of their recijirocal
aclion would feem very different, on account of the prodi-
gious change in the fituation of their i)artieles relatively
to each otiier, and to the whole ; tiius in propi>rtion as
figure enters as an clement into tlie calculation of dillance,
the law would aijpear to varv, thoui'-h reinaininir fuiidainen-

y the fame.

\Vhatloevcr ilrels be laid upon this propofition (which ap-
pears to have been acquiefcid in by IVrgman and Macquer),
tiiat in attractions between bodies tliat are nearly in Contact
with each other, tiie force is modllieri by the figure of the
niolecul-.c, it mull be confefied that not a fingle cafe of
affinity has yet been refolved by tlie application of the law
of t)\c fquare of the dillance, modified l)y the figure ; and
feveral eminent mathematicians, at the fame time that they
admit cliemical affinity to be only an effert of attradlion,
maintain it to follow in tlitfe cafes a different law from
tliat which Newton demonllrated, which vet remains to be
inveiligated.

Morveau, in his elaborate treatile of affinity in the D'u-
lioiKiiir Blitljodirjtic, Ims endeavoured to lupport the theory
ot Piutlon, by certain analogical argiiiv.cnts, the fcopc of
which is, that in the iiltractions of adhefion and cohcfion,.
in capillary attraction and cryflalli/.atloii, all of w hich are
generally admitted to depend upon the fame law as th;;
attraction of gravitation, there are cafes equally difficult to be
reconciled with the rule of the fquare of the dillance, as
thole in chemical affinity : he alfo brings to his aid an in-
genious, argument of Macquer, to this effect ;_ Since we
are ign-araiit of the deiifity of the elementary particles of
bodies, it is impoliible to: afcertaln the denfity of the ag-
gregates formed by their union ; it may therefore happen,
that a body, whofe primitive [)articles have little denlitv,
fliould, notwithllanding, be an aggregate of great denlity,
provided thele particles are of fuch a figure as to adiiere in-
timately to each other by all their furfaces : for the fame
rcafon, a compound may have but little denfity, though its
conllitucivt particles have individually a great deal, if their
form is fuch as to allow of but fc\y points of contact.
Thus, although copper in mafs has lefs denfity than filvcr,
it is poffible that its ultimate particles fhould be fuperior
in this refpecl to thofe of lilvcr; or, allowing it to be of
inferior denfity, it may flill be capable, on account of the
figure of its comjKfuent particles, to enter into fuch intimate
contacl; with thofe of a third body, as Ihall more than make
up for its inferior denfity : hence the fuperior affinity whick
copper has tor nitric acid, over that Avhich filver jjoilelies,
may be owing to a fuperior attraiftion, on account of the
greater denfity of its primitive particles, or their better ap-
titude for contad..

It Is obvious, however, that all thefe arguments are merely
hypothetical, and at bell, only enable us to conceive the pof-
fibility of the phenomena of chemical attraction being eq\ially
recoiicil.ible to the laws ot general attraction as thofe cafes
of adhefion, cajujlary attrac'tion, &.c. wiiich liave not yet,
by the ablell mathematicians, been reduced to calcnliitlon.
If a finglii cafe of affinity had been demonllrated by the
rule of the fquare of the dillance, modified by even the
fuppofed figure of the molccuhi', it might be admitted as a
(Irong prclumption, that affinity depended on the fame laws
as gravitation ; but as long as this rcinains a dcfideratum^

wc.

A F F

we muft he content to atqiiicfte in our tut:J ignorance of
the primary caufc of chemiciJ pliciiomena.

§ III, 0/ (Ijfmnt I'inJs of AJfimly, and the Conp-uBion
of Tithht ami Saiemcs,

Whether the attraclions of gravitation, of adbcfion, of
colidJoii, and of compofition,- be or be not coiilidered as
clU-iitially the fame, there is yet difference enough between
them to allow of a very accurate definition of each, and
this is the more neccffary to be done, as tlicre are certain
con-.plicattd cafes of chemical afrinity, in wliich the agency
of all thcfe forces may be dillincUy perceived.

Gravitation tlien is an attraclion between two bodies at
an afcci tainable dilhnce fram eacli other, whofe force is
dlicdly as the mafs, and inverfely as the fquare of the
dillaiice.

Adhedon is an attraftion that takes place at the plane
of eontad, whofe force is peculiar for each fubftance in
nature, and in a dired ratio to the furface of contad.

Cohefion, or aggregation, is an attradion between mo-
lecula; of tlie lame nature, whole force is peculiar for each
fublV>iiee, and in an inverle ratio to the quantity of caloric,
inttrpofcd between the particles.

Affinity, or the attradion of compofition, is that which,
uniting together different homogeneous fubllances, whe-
ther (imple or compound, produces an uniform whole, in-
capable of being refolved by meclianical force, and whofe
charaderillie properties are often different, and fometimes
contrary to thofe of its conilitucnt parts. Tims, if run-
ning mercury is added to melted fulphur, a compound is
produced, which has neither the colour, the fplendour, the
inflammability, the volatility, nor the fpecific giavity, of ei-
ther of itsconflituent parts.

It is this affmity of compofition which is the great agent
in all the operations of nature and art, that are referable to
the fcience of chcnuilry ; not only as an inftiument of
fynthcfis, as might be fuppofed from tlie primary meaning
of the term, but alfo as the fole means of analyfis ; there
being no Avay of refolvlng a chemical compound, but by
expofmg its elements to the adion of ftronger af&nities
than thofe which retain them in union.

All the known inftances of affinity may be arranged un-
der three claffes, according to the number of elementaiy
fubllances, ading on each other at the fame time, and the
number of new compounds thus produced. — \Vhere only
two are concerned, it may be called a cafe of concurrent
affinity, or affinity of compofition, in which, if the force of
their mutual affinity is ever fo httle fuperior to the fum of
their refpcdive degrees of cohefion, combination will take
place. Thus, if a piece of quicklime is put into muriatic
acid, the fiun of their cohefions being lefs than the force
of their mutual affinity, the two fubllances will unite toge-
ther, and there will rtfult a homogeneous compound mn-
riat of lime, poffeffing the properties neither of the earth
nor of the acid. Thofe inftances alfo, in which more than
two bodies unite together into one compound, come equally
under this rule ; as, when fulphuric acid, aluniine and pot-
a(h a e imxed together ; the refult is common alum, a fait
poffeffing peciihar properties, which could never have been
inferred from thofe of its elements. All the cafes belong-
ing to this firft clafs are thofe of concurrent affinities,
where two or more fubftances by virtue of their attradion
-.'>r each other, unite i.ito one homogeneous body. Hence
u appears, that thoui'H every fubftan' ■_• has different degrees
oT affi lity for other fubftai ces, yet the ftrongtfl; does not
neccffarily ad to the exclulion of the reft.

A F F

It is not, however, always, nor indeed generally, tlie cafe,
where more than two fubllances are concerned, that their
refpecllve affimties concur to produce one new fubllanee ;
for it ufually happens that their difference of force pro-
duces one bi.iai-y compound, to the exclulion of the third
element, on account of the weakncfs of its attradion for
the nev/ compound. Thus, if muriatic and fulphuric acid
are mixed togetiier, and an aqueous folution of pure ba-
rytes is then added, an inllant combination will take place
between the fulphuric acid and the baiytes, to the exclu-
iion of the muriatic acid ; and tlr.s lail, having alfo no affi-
nity with the fulphat of barytes thus formed, or at leall
not fufficiently lliong to overcome the fum of their feveral
forces of cohefion, remains permanently excluded. In
tliis inftance, therefore, we fee how two bodies, whofe mu-
tual affinity is very confiderable, may unite together to the
total exclulion of a third fubftance. To make this plainer,
let A B, be two fubllances, whofe feveral affinity for C,
is equal refpedively to 4 and 7 : it is obvious then, that
B, will unite to C, with a force =7 — 4=:;3 ; the firft effcd,
therefore, of mixing thefe fubllances will be the produc-
tion of B C, to the exclufion of A : and if the affinity of
A, for B C, ffiould be inferior to the cohefive attradion
of the feveral particles of B C, for each other, it is clear
that A, mull be permanently excluded, notv.4thllanding its
original affinity for C. This exclufion of the weaker by
the ftronger affinity takes place, not only when the two
forces commence tlieir adion at the fame time, but even
when the weaker affinity has been previoufiy allowed to
exert its whole adion on the bafe ; thus, if muriatic acid
and baiytes are brought into contad, they com.bine and
form muriat of bai7tes, which compound is held together
by the force of affinity between the two ; but when to
this compound we prefent fulphuric acid, whofe affinity
for the earthy bafe is ftronger than that of muriatic acid,
an immediate change takes place, the whole of the mu-
riatic acid is diflodged, and the fulphuric acid combines
with the baiytes with a force equal to their mutual affinity,
minus that of the muriatic acid : or, to recur to our for-
mer illuftiation ; if A C, arc held together by a force = 4,
upon the addition of B, whofe force is = 7, the attrac-
tion of A, to C, will be counterbalanced by ^ of B's
affinity for A, and the remainder of B's force will pro-
duce the combination B C, = f of the original attradion
between B and C. This, and fimilar cafes are naturally
illuftratcd by luppofing C, to have a difpnfitlon to unite
with A and B, A, being at firft the only one prefent, the
combination A C, is produced ; afterwards, when B, offers
itfelf, C, having a preferable aliachmcnt to B, quits A,
and fonns the com.bination or paytnerfl.np B, C. It is this
metaphorical explanation which induced Bergman to call
all thofe inftances where a compound already formed is
feparated by the adion of fuperior af&nities, cafes of
elecli-ve attradion ; and becaufe in the above example only
three fubftances are concerned, one new compound being
foi-med, and the element of weakcft affinity being excluded,
it is properly diftinguifhed as a cafe oi finale elciiive affinity,
which forms the fccond clafs, ranking immediately after
that of concurrent affinity.

From the confideration of fingle eledive affinity, the
progrefs is eafy to that of double, or, more properly fpeak-
ing, compound eledive affinity. Suppofe the affinity be-
tween fulpharic acid and potafli, the conftituent parts of
fulphat of potalh, to be =12, and the affinity of nitrous
acid for potaffi = 9, and that of oxyd of mercury for ful-
phuric acid = 8, it is evidently impoffible to decompofc

fulphat

A F F

A F F

fiilpiiat of potath by cither nitrous acid or mercurial oxyd,
adtiiig fcparately : if, Iiowevcr, their aftion be combined,
fo as that the mcta'hc o>:yd fliall exert its affinity on the
fulphuric acid, whilo the nitrous acid is doing the fame
with refpfdl to the potaft, tlien, as 9 -j- 8 is greater than
12, fo will the afliiiities of nitrat of potafh and fulphat of
niercuiy be fuperior to tliat of fulphat of potadi : hut ul»
trous acid and mercury, the two agents in this decompo-
fition, have alfo a llrong attraftion for each other, tending
to unite them into the compound fait nitrat of Mercury,
let this force be =: 4 ; it is evident then, tliat, upon the
addition of nitrated mercury to fulphat of potafli, th<.re
are four dillinft affinities aAing two by two againll each
other. The qmefcent affinities, or thole which rehft de-
compofition, are the attraftion between fulphuric acid and
potafh = 12, and that between nitrous acid and mercury
=: 4, the fum of which is = 16. The d'lvclknt affinities,
or thofe which tend to break the original combinations,
are thofe of nitrous acid and potafh = 9, and of fulphunc
acid and mercury = 8, which together are =17. Now
as 17 is to 16, fo is the fum of the divellent, to that of the
quiefeent affinities. On the addition, therefore, of nitrat
of mercury to fulphat of potalli, there will be a decompo-
fitiou of both falts, and the formation of two new ones, nitrat
of potafh and fulphat of mercuiy. This is an example of
compound ekSive ajiiiiiy ; wliich may therefore be delincd

a^ the refohition of a compound by rrreans of the u-.'t'd
affinities of its elements for thofe of another comp.)Ui;d.
It is obvioufly inipoffiblc, by means of double eleclivc at-
traiflio!), to obtaii\ either of the elementary parts of a bcdy
in a frparate uncombiiicd (lite; but although in this rcfpeOl
it is inferior to fingle eleftive affinity, it is neverthtlefs in-
finitely fuperior in the vail variety of its application, and
in its rendering not m?rely poffible but even ealy, a number
of deconipoHlions, which are abfohit .'.y impractic 'hlc by
fingle eleflive attraftion. Almoll all the fubllances in na-
ture are compounds, and the changes that we fee conti-
nually operating around us, are brought about by very
complicuLed affinities; fo it is in nearly every proccfs of art
in- which chemillry is concerned, a thorough knowledge,
therefore, of the general principles of compound affinity is
abfolutcly ncccfliiry to be acquired at the very threfhold of
the fcicnce.

From what has been already faid, it is obvious that every
chemical fatt arranges itfelf under one or other of the three
fpecies of chemical affinity ; and hence may be conceived
the obhgation that fcience is under to Geoffroy, for his in-
genious method of arranging cafes of fingle eleftive at-
traction, fo as to enable the enquirer to dileover in an in-
ftant any particular fadt that he is looking for, or to com-
pare, at a fingle glance, the refults of numerous and com-
plicated experiments.

A F F

A F F

___^_— —

1

t

0 u

•

*^

TZi

1

■^

\^

O

1 '-^

1

! 1 1

1

u

"- ■-»

2 *j

o

.~ .n

= 13

•i^

V3

\Z

1

1

1

0

_

^ a. J

i^

.§ >.

o

c

<

H-1

W(3~'

o

H ^ -3

(

-1-

►—1

•i S- f^

«

u.

1

,

V.

-d

-u

H

'-."'

-J3

•—1

o

I

u

>^

u

J. u

OG

ri

c-

■->

^ c

cJ s

1^

3

■y

U

%

b

n

-3

3

s-

-"

'-»

o

1Z

(i.

o

00

S

>-

u

c

6

?

3

y

■J

u

c-

^

-'

FINITY, by

u

S

C

v:

^

O

N

<

C^

3

5

*—*

'2

>

CO

<

3

2

6

U

o

'Ji

<

<

00

= :5

n

r-i

h-)
<
u

>— <

3
CO

%<

<'^

1-1

Acetous
Acid

u i

^<

CO

2-^

1^

-a ^

A cetous
Acid

- t-

tH<

g-^

3<

3

CO'

i ^

■r.

"5 -13

to

»J~«

<-^W

g<

¥

i<

■J

,

X

'

!

•^

,r: :;

tS Ji

3

•J

^

'

^^

r^ -^

^<

1— t

^

v5

1

-J:

r'

^

1

tfi

>»

,

o r^

C

CI.

'^

;^

o
U

h-;

CO

u

i

1_

>-.

»

rl

1^

1

1 ^-

<

o

1-.

)

3

-

■r.

4 B

1

■

TABLE

A F F

A F F

TABLE II.
SiKGLE Elective AmniTtts, from Pearson and Bp-RawAK. — In Water.

Oj

Sulphur.

Bafes of Muriatic
and other unde-
compofcd acids

Carbon

Phofphonis

Hydrogen?

Sulphur

Zinc

Copper

Lead

Iron

Silver

Platina

Mercury

Gold

Nitrous gas

Muriatic acid

Nitrous acid

Sulphureous acid

White oxyd of
Manganefe

Volatile oils

Alcohol

Oxygen
Molybdic oxyd

and acid
Oxyd of lead

tin

filver

mercury

arfenic

antimo-

ny

Potafli

Soda

Bai-j-tes

Strontian

Lime

Magnefia

Pholphorus

Fat oil

Ammonia

Ether

Hydrogen ?

Saline.

SuLPHURETS.

Oxygen
Oxyd of gold
' filver

nefe

■ mercurj'

• arfenic

■ antimony

• bifmuth

■ copper
. tin

. lead

nickel
. cobalt

mauga-

iron

Other metallic

ox yds
Carbon
Water
Alcohol
Ether

4-

SiLf X.

Fluoric acid

PotaOi

Soda

Barytes
Strontian

Alut

6.
Barvtes.

Sulphuric acid
Nitric .icid
Muriatic acid
Fluoric acid
Arfenic acid
Oxalic acid
Tartarcous acfd
Succinic acid
Citric r'.cid
Pliofphoric acid
Formic acid
Laftic .icid
Benzoic acid
Acetous acid
Boracic acid
Sulphureous acid
Pruffic acid
Carbonic acid
Potatti

Sulphuric acid
Oxalic acid
Succinic acid
Fluoric acid
Pliofphoric acid
Saccholaftic acid
Nitric acid
Muriatic acid
Sehacic acid
Citric acid
Tartareous acid
Arfenic acid
Fonnic acid
Laftic acid
Benzoic acid
Acetous acid
Boracic acid
Sulphureous acid
Nitrous acid
Carbonic acid
Pruffic acid
Water
Fat oil
Sulphur
Hydro-fulphuret

Stro>

Sulphuric acid
Oxahc acid
Tartarcous acid
lluoric acid
Nitric acid
Muriatic acid
Succinic acid
Pliofphoric acid
Acetous acid
Arfenic acid
Boracic acid
Carbonic acid
Water
Fat oil
Sulphur
Hydro-fulphuret

Lime.

Magnesia.

lO. II; 12.

Potash — Soda
Ammonia.

»3-
Water.

14.

Sulphuric

ACID.

15. 16. 17. 18. 19,
20.

Nitrous, ni-
tric, MURI-
ATIC, oxy-
MURIATIC,
NITRO-MURI-
ATIC ACIDS.

21. 22. 23. 24.
25. 26.

Boracic, ox-
alic,tarta-
reous,seba-

CIC, PHOS-
PHORIC, AR-
SENIC ACIDS.

Oxalic acid
Sulphuric acid
Tartareou". acid
Succinic acid
Phofphoric acid
Saccho-laftic a-

cid
Nitric acid
Muriatic ncid
Sebacic acid
Fluoric acid
Arfenic acid
Formic acid
l^aftic acid
Citric acid
Benzoic acid
Acetous acid
Boracic acid
Sulpiuireous acid
Nitrous acid
Carbonic acid
PnifTic acid
Water
Tat oil
Sulphur
Pliofphorus

Vol. i.

Oxalic acid
Phofphoric acid
Sulphuric acid
Fluoric acid
Sebacic acid
Arfenic acid
Saccho-laftic a-

cid

Succinic acid
Nitric acid
Muriatic acid
Tartareous acid
Citric acid
Fonnic acid
Laftic acid
Benzoic acid
Acetous acid
Boracic acid
Sulphureous acid
Nitrous acid
Carbonic acid
Pruffic acid
Sulphur

Sulphuric acid
Nitric acid
Muriatic acid
Sebacic acid
Fluoric acid
Phofphoric acid
Oxalic acid
Tartareous acid
Arfenic acid
Succinic acid
Citric acid
Formic acid
Laftic acid
Benzoic acid
Acetous acid
Saccho-Iaftic a-

cid

Boracic acid
Sulphureous acid
Nitrous acid
Carbonic acid
Pruffic acid
Water
Fat oil
Sulphur
MetaUic oxyds

Potarti
Soda

Ammonia
Deliquefcent

falts
Alcohol
Carbonatedam-

monia
EtJier

Sulphuric acid
Non-deliquef-

cent falts

Barytes

Strontian

Potafh

Soda

Lime

Magnefia

Ammonia

Alumine

Oxyd of zinc
iron
manga-

Potafh

Soda

Baiytes

Strontian

Lime

Magnefia

For the reft the
fame as Sul-
phuric acid.

nefe

Yy

Water
\lcolio1

- cobalt

- nickel

- lead

- tin

. copper
. bifmuth
. antimony
. arfenic
. mercury
. filver
gold
• platina

Lime

Barytes

Strontian

Magnefia

Potafh

Soda

Ammonia

For the reft the
fame as Sul-
phuri* acid.

TABLE

A F F

A F F

TABLE 11. Cunl'inued.

27-

Fluoric acid.

28,29. I 30.31.32.
SuLPHURFOus Citric, BKS70-

CARDONIC A- IC, SACCHO-

LACTIC ACIDS,

Succinic

34- 35- 3<5.
Acetous, lac-
tic, FORMIC

37- 37-

Prvssic acid. Chromic acid.

The fame as Do
raic acid.

BaiytiS

Stronlian

Lime

Potalh

Soda

Magnefia

For the rtft thel
fnme as Sul-
phuric acid

Silex

Lime
Barytes

Magiulia

Totalh

Soda

Ammonia

For the re ft the
fame as Sul-
phuric acid

Barytes

I,.imc

Magnefia

Potalh

Soda

Ammonia

For the reil the
fame as Sul-
phuric acid

Barytes

Potafli

Soda

Strontian .'

Ammonia

Lime

Magnefia

Alumiiie

For the refl the
fame as Sul'
phuric acid

Fixed alividi
|Oxyd of lead
copper

l\)talh

Soda

Ammonia

Lime

Barytes

Strontian I

Magnefia

Ahiiniiie

For the rcil the

fame as Sul- vSulphur ?

phuric acid iT'ixed alkalies
Alkaline earths
I Metallic oxyds

38-

MoLYDDlC

39-

40.

42.

43-

44-

45-

46.

CXYD OF ARSE-

OxYD OF

OxYD OF TEL-

OxYD OF

Ox YD

Ox YD

OxYD

NIC.

TITANIUM.

LURIUM.

MANGANESE.

OF NICKEL.

OF COBALT.

OF BISMUTH.

Muriatic acid

Sulphuric acid

Nitric acid

Oxalic acid

Oxalic acid

The fame as

Oxalic acid

Oxahc acid

Nitric acid

Nitro-muriatic a-

Tartareous acid

Muriatic acid

Oxyd of

Arfenic acid

Sulphuric acid

Muriatic acid

cid

Citric acid

Sulphuric acid

Nickel

Tartareous acid

Nitric acid

Pruffic acid

Sulphuric acid

Fluoric acid

Tartareous acid

Phofphoric acid

Sebacic acid

Sulphur

Alkalies

Phofphoric a-
cid

Nitric acid
Sebacic acid

Sulphuric acid

Tartareous acid

Sebacic acid

Phofphoric acid

41.

Mercury

Nitric acid

Phofphoric acid

Muriatic acid

Fluoric acid
Saccho-laftic a-

OxYD OF Ura-

Sulphuric acid
Muriatic acid

Fluoric acid
Saccho-latlic a-

Nitric acid
Fluoric acid

cid

nium.

Sebacic acid

cid

Saccho-la^tic a-

Succinic acid
Citric acid

Arfenic acid
Acetic acid

Succinic acid
Citric acid

cid
Succinic acid

Sulphuric acid

Formic acid

Nitro-muriatic a-

Pruffic acid

Formic acid

Citric acid

Arfenic acid

cid

Carbonic acid

Acetous acid

Formic acid

Laftic add

Muriatic acid

Laftic acid

Laftic acid

Acetous acid

Nitric acid

Arfenic acid

Acetous acid

Pruflic acid

Phofphoric acid

Boracic acid

Pruffic acid

Potafh?

Acetous acid

Pruffic acid

Carbonic acid

Ammonia

Gallic acid

Carbonic acid

Ammonia

Fat oil

Pruffic acid
Carbonic acid

Ammonia

Sulphur

47. Otyd,

A F F

A F r

TABLE II. Cmtinued.

47-

48.

49.

50.

J'-

52.

53-

0)tVD OF

OxYD OF

OXVD OF

OXYD OF

OxYD OF

OxYD OF

OxYD OF

ANTIMONY.

ZINC.

IRON.

TIN.

LKAD.

COPPER.

MERCURY.

J^cbacic acid

Oxalic acid

Oxalic acid

Sebacic acid

Sulphuric acid

Oxalic acid

Sebacic acid

Muriatic acid

Sulphuric acid

Tartareous acid

Tartareous acid

Sebacic acid

Tartareous acid

Muriatic acid

Oxalic acid
\ Sulphuric acid

Muriatic acid

Sulphuric acid

Muriatic acid

Saccho-laftic acid

Muriatic acid

Oxalic acid

Saccho-laftic acid Sacclio-laftic acid

Sulphuric acid

Oxalic acid

Sulphuric acid

Succinic acid

Nitric acid

Nitric acid

Muriatic acid

Oxalic acid

Arfcnic acid

Saccholactic acid

Phofphoric a.

Tartareous acid

Sebacic acid

Nitric acid

Arfcnic acid

Tartareous acid

Nitric acid

Sulp luric acid

Sacciuv-lm'^ic acid Tartareous acid

Sebacic acid

Phofphoric acid

Phofphoric acid

Sebacic acid

Saccho-Iaftica.

Phofphoric acid

Phofphoric acid

Phofphoric acid

Nitric acid

Miiri;itic acid

Arfcnic acid

Tartareousacid

Citric acid

Citric acid

Arfcnic acid

Succinic acid

Nitric acid

Phofphoric acid

Citric acid

Succinic acid

Succinic acid

Fluoric acid

Fluoric acid

Fluoric acid

Succinic acid

Nitric acid

Fluoric acid

Fluoric acid

Succinic acid

Saccho-laitic acid Citric acid

Fluoric acid

Fluoric acid

Arfi-iiic acid

Arfeiiic acid

Citric acid

Citric acid

Formic acid

Citric acid

Acetous acid

Formic acid

Formic acid

Formic acid

Formic acid

Laftic acid

Formic acid

Boracic acid

Lnrtic acid

Laftic acid

Laftic acid

Laftic acid

Acetoua acid

Laftic acid

Pnjffic acid

Acetous acid

Acetous acid

Acetous acid

Acctotis acid

Boracic acid

Acetous acid

Carbonic acid

Boracic acid

Boracic acid

Boracic acid

Boracic acid

Prufllc acid

Boracic acid

Ammonia

I'rulTic acid

Pruffic acid

Pruffic acid

Pruffic acid

Carbonic acid

Pruffic acid

Carbonic acid

Carbonic acij

Carbonic acid

Potafh

Fixed alkali

Carbonic acid

Sulphur

Ammonia

Soda

Ammonia

Fat oil

•

Potaffi
Soda

Ammonia
Compound falts
Fat oil

54-

OxYD OF
SILVER.

53-

OxYD OF
PLATINA

Muriatic acid ]
Sebacic acid
Oxalic acid
Sulphuric acid
Saccho-laftic acid
Phufphoric acid
Nitric acid
Arfcnic acid
Fluoric acid
Tartareous acid
Citric acid
Formic acid
I.aftic acid
Acetous acid
Succinic acid
Pruffic accid
Carbonic acid
Ammonia

Muriatic acid
Nitro-niuriatic

acid
Nitric acid
Sulphuric acid
Ariciiic acid
i Fluoric acid
Tartareous acid
Phofphoric acid
Sebacic acid
Oxalic acid
Citric acid
Formic acid
L.a6tic acid
Acetous acid
Succinic acid

56.

OxYD OF
GOLD.

57-
Alcohol.

58.
Ether.

60.

FiXlD OIL.

Muriatic acid
INitro-murjatic

acid
JNitric acid
(Sulphuric acid
lArfenic acid
Fluoric acid
^Tartareous acid
I Phofphoric acid
|Scbacic acid
i Pruffic arid
jFixed Alkalies
lAmmonia

Water
Kther

Volatile oils
Ammonia
'Fixed Alkali
JAlkalinc fulpbU'
; ret
ISulphur
iMiiriats
Phofphoric acid

lAlcohol
iVolatile oils
fWater

.1

59-
[Volatile oil.

lEther
Alcohol
Fixed oil
iFixed alkali
Sulphur
Hiofphorus

iBarjtes i'

.Strontian ?

ll.iine

'Metallic oxyd«
" Ether

IVolatile oil

[Fixed alkali
_Amnionia

.Sulphur

iPhofphorus

Yv

TABI.F.

A F F

A F F

TABLE IIL

Single Electite Affinities, _/5-o»i Pearson an;/ Bergman. — In Fire.

„ 3-

'

6. 7. 8.

9. 10.

12.

I

2.

Saline

SULPHU-

4-

5-

Barytes,

LIME,

Potash,

II.

Sulphuric

OiYceN.

Sulphur.

RETS.

SiLEX.

Alumine.

MAGNESIA.

SODA.

Ammonia.

ACID.

Carbon

Oxygen

Mangaiiefe

Pota(h

Phofphoric

Phofphoric Phofphoric

Sulphuric a-

Potafh

Ziiic

Potalh

Iron

Soda

acid

acid 1 acid

cid

Soda

Iron

Soda

Copper

Phofphoric

Boracic acid

Boracic acid Boracic acid For the reft' Barytes

Hyrlrogen

jlron

Tin

acid |Arfenic acid

Arfenic acid Arfenic acid

the fame as

Strontian

Maiigancfe

Copper

Lead

Oxyd of lead

Sulphuric a.

Sulphuric a.

•Sulphuiic a.

the pre-

Lime

Cobalt

Tin

Silver

Nitric acid

Nitric acid

Nitric acid

ceeding co-

Maprnefia

Nickel

Lead

Gold

Muriatic a.

Muriatic a.

Muriatic a.

lumn.

/.ircon

Lead

Silver

Antimony

Fluoiic acid

I'iuoric acid

Sebacic acid

MetaUic ox»

Tin

Cobalt

Cobalt

Sebacic acid

Sebacic acid

Fluoric acid

yds
Ammonia

Phofphorus

Nickel

Nickel

Succinic a.

Succinicacid

Succinicacid

Copper

Bifmuth

Bifinutli

Fonnic acid

Formic acid

Formic acid

Alumine

Bilmuth

Antimony

Mercury

Laftic acid

Laftic acid

Laftic acid

Antimony

Mercur)'

Arfenic

Benzoic acid

Benzoic a.

Benzoic acid

MercuryatCoo"

Arfenic

Carbon ?

Acetous acid

Acetous a.

Acetous acid

Arfenic

Uranium ?

Fixed alkah

Fixed alkali

Barj'tes
Lime

Sugar
Sulphur

Molybdena

Sulphur?

Sulphur

Tellurium

Oxyd of lead

Oxyd of lead

Magnefia

Gold

Alumine

Silver

Silex

Platina
Mercury at

Sulphur

above 1000°

Mangaiiefe
white oxyd of

13. 14. 15. i6.;2i. 22. 23. 24.

17. 18. 19. 20.
Nitrous, ni-

25. 26. 27.

28.

29.

30-

3J-

32-

33-

34-

tric, muri-

Fluoric, bo-

atic, oxv-

racic, BEN-

-

MURIATIC,

ZOIC, SAC-

nitro-muri-

CHOLACTIC,

Arsenic.

Manga-

Tellu-

Nickel.

Cobalt.

Bismuth.

Antimony.

ATIC, ACET- SEBACIC,

NES-E.

rium.

OUS, LACTIC PHOSPHORIC,

AND FORMIC

arsenic a-

ACIDS.

CIDS.

Barytes

Lime

Nickel

Copper

Mercury

Iron

Iron

Lead

Iron

Strontian

Potalh

Soda

Lime

Magnefia

Barytes

Cobalt

Iron

Sulphur

Cobalt

Nickel

Silver

Copper

Strontian

Copper

Gold

Arfenic

Arfenic

Gold

Tin

Magnefia

Iron

Silver

Copper

Copper

Mercury

Laid

Potafh

Silver

Tin

Gold

Gold

Antimony

Nickel

Soda

Tin

Alkaline.

Tin

Platina

Tin

Silver

Metallic oxyds

Ammonia

Alumine

Metallic oxyds

Lead

fulphuret

Antimony
Platina

Tin

Copper
P!-.tina

Bifmuth

Ammonia

Gold

Antimony
Zinc

Zinc

Alumine

Platina

Bifmuth

Nickel

Gold

Zinc

Lead

Alkaline- .

Iron

Platina

Antimony

Silver

fulphuret

Zinc

Mercury

Alkaline-

Zinc

Sulphur

Alkaline-

Arfenic

fulphuret

Alkaline-

fu!phuret

Cobalt

Sulphur

fulphuret

Sulphur

Alkr.line-

^ 1

Sulphur

fiilphuret

J

Sulphur

35-

Zinc.

A F F

A F F

TABLE TIL Continued.

35-

36.

37-

3«-

39-

40.

. 41.

42.

^'^3-

Zinc.

Iron.

Tin.

Lead.

Copper.

iMekcury.

Silver.

Platina.

Gold.

Copper

Nickel

Zinc

Gold

Gold

Gold

Lead

Arfenic

Mercury

Antimony

Cobalt

Mercury

Silver

Silver

Silver

Copper

Gold

Copper

Tin

Maiiganefe

Copper

Copper

Iron

Platina

Me-ci,iry

Copper

Silver

Mercury

Arfenio-

Antimony

Mercury

Arfenic

Lead

Bifmuth

Tin

Lead

Silver

Copper

Gold

Bifmuth

Manganefe

Tin

Tin

Bifmuth

Bifmuth

Gold

Gold

Silver

Tin

Zinc

Zinc

Gold

Zinc

Tm_

Cobalt

Silver

Lead

Antimony

Antimony

Bifmuth

Antimony

Antimony

Antimony

Aifenic

Tin

Iron

Platina

Platina

Copper

Iron

Nickel

Iron

Platina

Antimony

Manganefe

Arfenic

Tin

Antimony

Manganefe

Cobalt

Platina

Bifrauth

Platina

Nickel

Zinc

Lead

Arfenic

Zinc

Manganefe

Zinc

Load

Bifmuth

Arfenic

Nickel

Nickel

Iron

Arfenic

Iron

Nickel

Nickel

Lead

Platina

Iron

Bifmuth

Alkaline-

Nickel

Lead

Arfenic

Iron

Alkalinc-ful-

Bifmuth

Alkaline-

Cobalt

fulphuret

Platina

Silver

Cobalt

phnret

Cobalt

fulphuret

Mercury

Sulphur

Alkaline-

Mercury

Manganefe

Sulphur

Alkalinc-

fulphuret
Sulphur

Sulphur

Alkaline-

fulphuret
Sulphur

fulphuret

Alkalinc-
fulphurct

Alkaline-
fulphuret-

Of thefe Tables, the firfl is a tranfcript of the original
one, pubUilied by Geoffroy, and which merits prefcrvation
as an hillorical memorial of an important xra. in chemical
fcience. The fecond and third are, with a few alterations,
copies of- Dr. Pearfon's enlarged edition of Bergman's
tables.

Table II. contains the eleftive affinities, as far as they
have been afcertained, of fixty of the moll important che-
mical fubllances. All thefe take place through the medium
of water, in which one or both the fubftances are diifolved,
the temperature therefore, in all the cafes here mentioned,
cannot exceed 212° Fahrenheit. At the head of each co-
luni, in larger charafters than the reft, and divided from
them by a horizontal line, is the name of the fubftance
whofe affinities are the fubjecl of the reft of the column ;
and thefe are arranged in the order of their intenfity, fo as
that the fubftance of ftrongell affinity with that which is at
the head of the column, ftands the iieareft to it. Thus in
the column of lime, N"^ 8, the fubftances from oxalic acid
downwards, prefent a decreafing ferics of the affinities of
lime : hence the combination of lime with any fubftance in
the column, may be decompofed by any of the bodies tliat
precede this fubllance, but is not broken by thofe which
fucceed it. The ufe and application of this table is obvi-
eus. If, for example, it is required to decompofe an aque-
ous folution of muriat of foda (common fait) by lingle af-
finity ; the firft inquiry is, which of the two componCiit
parts is to be fet at liberty : fuppofe it to be the acid, I
am then to find a fubftance wiiofe affinity with foda is greater
than that of muriatic acid, for this pur;;ofe I turn to the
column of foda N"^ Ii, and find tliat by the addition of
either fulphuric or nitric acid, I (liall be able to decompofe
the fait in queftlon, fo as to obtain its acid in a difengaged
ftate : if, on the other hand, the alkaline bafe is wanted, I
find, upon infpcftiug the column of muriatic acid, N^ 18,
that the atlinity of potafti for muriatic acid is greater than
that, of foda ; and therefore, by this means, I obtain muriat
of potafli and free foda. Again, if citrat of lime is to be
decompefcd, I find, by referring to citric acid, column 30,
that it is impoffible to do it fa as to fet at liberty the lime,

bqcaufe this ftands the firft in the column of citric acid ; but
from the column of lime N^ y, it appears that no lefs than
thirteen acids will each of them feparate the lime, fi) as to
leave the citric acid difengaged. If the decompofition of
fulphat of Barytes is required, it is plain from the column
of Barytes, N° 6, that it cannot be decompofed fo as to fet
the fulphuric acid at liberty ; it is alfo equally obvious from
the column of fulphuric acid, N"^ 14, that the Baiytes can-
not be feparated, iulphat of Barytes therefore is undecom-
pofable in water by lingle affinity.

In Table III. the affinities of forty-three fubftances, with-
out the medium of water, and at a temperature equal to-
tlie fufion of at leaft one of the fubftances in each inftance,
are regiftered : the application and conftrutlion of this
table is precifely the fame as of the former ; to enlarge more
upon it is therefore unneceftaiy : it is curious, however, to
obfcrve how the order of affinities is modified by tempera-
ture ; for we find that fulphat of Barytes which is unde-
compofable by fingle aftinity in water, may at a high heat
be decompofed with fcparation of the Barytes, by potafh or '
foda ; and with fcparation of the acid by the phofphoric,
boracic or arfenic acids.

The conftruttion of GeofTroy's tables, although admirably-
well fuited to cxprefs the general refults of fingle affinity,
is deficient as a metliod of regiftering th.e conclufions from
fingle and unconnected experiments ; on which account the
fchemes of Bergman, either invented or at leall firft brought
into general uie by him, have been univerfally adopted for
this purpofe. The regiiler of an experiment in affinity
ought not to be confidered as complete, except it expreftes
clearly, I4 the refitlt., i. e. whether or not any change is ef-
fefted ; 2d, the merjlruum, whether water, alcohol, &c. is
the fluid in which the fubftances are diftolvcd : jdly, the
tempi-rnture of the fubftances at the time of experiment.
4thiy, xWJlate of the new fubftances, whether they are pre-
cipitated from the menftruum, or remain diftolvcd, or are
fublimcd. Now all thefe circumilanccs are expreffed clearly
and concifely in the following fehemes. Suppoie the ex-
periment is made to decompole muriat of pota(h in water at
the common temperature, by foda, it will be found that no

change

AFP

ch ngc takw place, this is exprefficd by '.he following dia.
giam, orfchcme.

Muriat

of
PoUlh

"Muriatic Bcid

water 60°
Potadu

vSoda

The fubftance to be dceompofoj is placed on tbc left
band, and is imincdiattly followed by a bracket whole point
is liimed towards tiie compound ; within the bracket are
the names of the two finiple fiibllanccs of which tjie com-
pound is formed, and parallel to one of them is the fub-
hance by whofc affinity a deconipofition was expefted : no
change however taking place, the fchenie is kit thus im-
perfiCt ; in the centre is the name of themenllruum and the
ttii'.peraturc in degrees of Falirinheit's iheimoraeter.

Muriat of Potadi.

-- . ^ f Mur. a.
I^^"™' J water lir

Soda. b°^-

l'oia(h

This fchenie expalTes, that if to a boilinf; hot fohuion
of muriat of (oda in water, potadi be added, a decoinpoti-
tion takes place i muriat of potafh being formed, and the
Joda being fet at liljcrty : the llrait line under the ("oda, and
the pointlefs bracket under muriat of potafa, exprels that
both fubltances remain in folution.

Sulphat of Strontian.

Sulphat

of

Magnefia.

Sulph. a. Strontian.

water 60".
Magnefia

Nitrat of Potafh.

Carbonat f Potadi Nitric acid,
of -J water 60°
'otath. (.(

Potath. / Carb. a.

Sulphat of Soda.

Sulphat f Sulph. a. Soda,
of i water 60"^
Magnefia. ^ Magnefia.
< -,

Muriat of Lime.

Muriat

of
Ammonia.

1

Mur. a. Lime.

Fire.
Ammonia.

Proof Spirit.

Sulph;

Solution r Water Alcohol,
of \

at. Soda. (.J

_Sulphated Soda.

A FF

offinipk affinity: in the firft, we fee that rtrontlan added
to fulphated magnefia difTolved in water, at the ordinary
temperature, decompofes it, and produces fulphat of Jlron-
tian, and magnefia, both of which are precipitated. In the
fecoid, the addition of nitric acid, to a folution of carbo-
nated potadi, produces nitrat of potadi remaining in folu-
tion, while the carbonic acid h volatilized. In the third,
fulphated magnefia with foda, produces fulphat of loda re-
maining in fohition, and the m.ignefia is precipitated. lit
the fourth, dr>' muriat of ammonia and lime, heated together,
produce ammonia which is volatilized in the form of gas,
and muriat of lime remains behind. In the fifth, a folution
of fulphated foda being added to alcohol, the water and
alcohol unite together, while the fulphat of foda is precipi-
tated.

It is impolTible to arrange the refults of experiments in
compound afiinity in a tabular fonn ; accordingly, fcliMnet
framed on the fame principles as thofe for fingle affinity,
have been adopted for the convenient regiftering of all the
known facts on this lubjeft. For example, the fatts tliat
fulphat of lime and muriat of putadi do not decompofe each
otlier ; and that muriat of llnmli.in, and fulphat of ammo-
nia do decompole each other, tugethir with the circum-
llanccs of fucli txperirnents are exprcfled in Uic nvg Wluw.
inir fchemcd.

The above five fchemcs illuftratc all the remaining cafes

Sulphat

«f

Lime.

r Sulph. a. Potadi 1
4 water 60° |-
(_Lime Mur. a. j

Muriat

of
Potalh.

Muriat of Ammonia.

Ml
Strontian

urlat rMur. a Ammonia. T Sulphat

of i Water 60^ J- of

antian. (^Strontian. Sulph. a. J ,

jlph. a. J Ajnmonia.

Sulphat of Strontian.

§ IV. Methods of ejlimat'tng numer'tcalh the force of eUdive ■
Affinities.
Notwithftanding the vail importance of Geoffioy's tables,
and of all later ones conftruCled on the fame plan, it is ob-
vious that we can only learn from them the greater or lefs
degree of affinity which different fubftances have for the
fame body, according to the order in v.hich they are ar-
ranged ; and though this is fufficient for foretelling the re-
fult in cafes of fingle elective affinity, yet in more comph-
cated cafes, where the mutual attrafticns of four or more
fubftances are concerned, the want of a numerical exprcf-
fion for the force of affinity, in order to infer with any pro-
bability the refult of an untried experiment, niuft have for-
cibly impreffed the mind of every chemili. Thus, if the
refult of a mixture of nitrat of potafh with acetitc of lime
is required, all that can be learnt from the infpeftion of the
tables is, that the affinity of nitric acid for potadi is flrongcr
than for lime, and that the affinity of lime for acetic acid ia
weaker than that for potafh, or, to expicfs it in a tabu-
lar form.

Nitrat

["Nit. a. w Lime.

) Actiite

of

S 1U

f °^

Potafh.

Potafh. i Acet. a.

\ Lime.

hence we have,
Quiefccnt affinities =/ + ■».
Divellent affinities =j + w.

And

A F F

And it 13 impofTi'jle hence to conclude whether or not any
chemical change will take place : but if we find the affinity
of nitrous acid for potafh = iz, of the fame for lime
= 7 ; of acetous acid for potafli =: 14, of the fame for
lime =i 6,

Nitrat

itrat fNit. a. 6 I.ime T Acetitc
of -J 12 -{-7 = 19 >■ of
italh. (.Potafh 1+ Acct. a. J Lime.

?.o

rtiall then have

Q^uiefccnt affinities = 12 -|- 7 = 19
Divellent affinities = 6 + 14 = 20

and hence we may with certainty infer that a double de-
compofition will take place, with a force equal to the ex-
cefs of 20 over 19.

Chemical philofophers have not, however, by any means
agreed on the method to be followed for the attainment of
this defirable object ; fome with M. Wenzel, confider the
time requifite for cfTei^ling folution as the expreffion of
the force of the afTiiiily bvjtween a fubftance and its mcn-
rtruum ; others with Fourcroy, believe the intenfity of this
to be more accurately mcafured by its reii (lance to decom-
pofition, than by its rapidity in uniting bodies : according
to Macquer the force of affinity is exprelfed by the facility
with which bodies unite, compounded with the force by
which they continue united. Kirwan, on the other hand,
has eltimatcd the affinity of acids for their bafes by the
different proportions of them that they require for fatura-
tion. And from this verj- diverfity of opinions may be in-
ferred the great difficulty of the fubjetl.

According to M. Wenzel, the difpofition to chemical
union between bodies varies with the figure of their conlH-
tuent parts ; and, regarding the adlion of menilrua upon
them as a mere mechanical impulfe, fubjeft to calculation
upon the principles of Italics, he concludes, that the rapi-
dity of folution is an exponent of the force of affinity ;
and therefore, that the aJjinUy of different bodies tvith any
common menjlruum, is in an inver/e ratio of the time required
for their folution. To prove this, he procured equal cylin-
ders of fdver, copper, lead, and other metals in a ilate of
purity, having weighed them, he covered them with varnifli
fo as to leave only one end expofed to the aftion of the fol-
vent : they were then feparately fufpended in equal quanti-
ties of nitric acid, and left to its aftion for an hour ; being
then taken out and freed from their varnith, they were
weighed, and the quantity diflblved of each was foimd to
correfpond with the order of their refpeftive affinities for
the acid. This large conclufion of M. Wenztl's from fo
partial an experiment, is however, mofl ftrikingly contraditled
by fafts : the cyfinders of filver and lead will be fcarce per-
ceptibly afted on in muriatic and fulphuric acids, whereas
thefe will precipitate a nitrous folution of either metal with
the greatefl eafe ; a multitude of fimilar obvious contradic-
tions to the rule might be mentioned, if need were, befides
that M. Wenzel's method, if ever fo accurate, is capable
only of being applied in cafes where one of the fubftances
i« a folid.

The refiftanc^ which the parts of a compound offer to
any force that is employed to feparate them, offers a pro-
bable method of eftimating the degree of their mutual af-
finity : fmce however the union ii chemical, it is plain that
mechanical means of feparation cannot be ufed for this pur-
poXcj and there are very few chemical agents that can be

A F F

mad* the fuhjccl of calculation. The only method pro-
pofed by Fourcroy, and one that he hlmfilf allows, is inap-
plicable to the greatell number of c:'fes, is to afcertain the
thcrmometrical temperature neceffiiry to cITed a feparation.
It is certain that the application of high degrees of^ heat in
many cafes oppofcs the aiftion of chemical affinity : the
force of affinity for caloric (heat) is alfo probably different
in every natural fubllance, we know in many cafes, as in
the burning of lime, the redudion of mercurial oxyds, &c.
that mere caloric is capable of fepaniting carbonic acid from
hme, oxygen from mercun-, &c. it is not therefore a priori
improbable, that the affinity of any acid for the difl'erent
alkaline, caithy, and metallic bafes fliould be truly expreffed
by the various quantities of caloric, as indicated by the de-
grees of the thermometer and pyrometer, required for the
decompofuion of the different falts. But although this rule
certainly holds good in fome cafes, yet the greater number
of compound falts are incapable of being decompofed by
the greatefl quantity of mere caloric that we are able to
apply, and almoft all the cafes of chemical affinity through
the medium of water, are alfo incommenfuratc with the fcale
propofed.

In confequence of thefe difficulties both Fourcroy and
Morveau have agreed in propofmg an arbitrary number as
the bafis of their refpeftive numerical feries, all the other
terms of which are brought by approximation and compa-
rifon with the refults of known experiments, to bear certain
proportions to the (landard term, and to each other.

It is plain, therefore, that a table, conflrufted on thefe
principles, can never be any thing more than an approach
towards the truth ; and even this can only be effeAcd by
repeated correttions according to the refults of a vaft mul-
titude of experiments ; and in all untried cafe,-, it is reduced
merely to an argument from analogy. In order to verify
the numbers in the following (hort table of Morveau, no
lefs than 490 experiments would be necefTary, and probably
more than half thefe would require feparate adjuilments of
all the numbers in the table ; it may be conceived therefore
how many centuries of incelfant labour would be required
to tabulate in this manner with any accuracy, even the
binary combinations of the prefent chemical iubilances.

How far this Table, which has already undergone repeated

corrections by its a-
ble author is to be
depended upon, a
few examples will
(liow.

It acetite of ba-
r)'tes be added to
fulphat of foda, a
detompofition will
take place, and there
will be produced ful-
phat of barytes and
acetite of foda : now
according to the Ta-
ble, the ium of the
Qiiiefcent affini-

ties = 28+78 = 86
DiveUcnt affinities

= 66 -f 25 = 91.
this cafe, therefore,
is refolved truly by
the Table.

Nitrat of Potafh

and acelite of lime

mutuaUy

, Barytes j 66 ' 62 ( 36 i 28

n

H

Potafli

j ;

62 1 C8 32 1 26 9

1^1

Soda

58

5°

31

25

8

Lime

54

44 24

'9

12

Ammonia

46

38

21

20

4

Magnefia

50

40

22

«7

6

Alumine

40

36

18

'^

2

A F F

WMtusUy d*c>»mpor* f«cli other, forming nllr«t of llnw and

atrciiti: of poiadi. but by the Tublc_ _

Q^Licfccnt afiinitiej = 58 + i9=i;77
Divcik'iit afSnities =444-25=70

The Table, ihcrcfort;, in this iiillancc, is erroneous.

Nitnit of foda .ind muriat of ammonia mutually dccom-

pofe each other ; but by the Table,

Qiiicfccnl afTinilies = 50+21=^71
Divellcnt affinities = 384-31=69

Nttrat of potafli and fulphat of ammonia mutually de-
coiiipufe each other ; but by the Table,

Qiiicfcent afTinities = 58+46=104
Divellent affinities = 384-62 = 100

Hence is obvious the great probability of en-or in all cal-
culations and rcafonings founded on thh Table.

Mr. Kirwan's numerical fyftem of affinities is founded on
the proportion of bafe necjflaiy to faturate a given quantity
of acid ; and as no one has treated this important fubjedl
with fuch unwearied abihty and profound invelligation as
the learned prelidcnt of the Royal Iriih Academy, it will
be necedar)- to enter fomcwliat minutely into an examination
of the fundamental parts of his fyftem.

The firll objetl with Mr. Kirvvan was to afcertain exaftly
the quantity of rea/ acitl in each of the three mineral acids, at
a determinate fpccific gravity (by real acid is to be underftood
acid free from all water, except fuch as is necefTary to its
ver)' conilitution). For this purpofe, afTuming that mu-
riatic acid, in the foim of gas, is free from all mixture with
water, he procured 100 cubic inches of this acid gas, and
found its weight to be = 60 grains, the barometer ilanding
at 29.6, and the theixiometer at 57°. The barometical
prelTurc remaining the fame, and the temperature being
= 49°, he found that 10 grains of water abforbed an equal
weight of muriatic acid gas, and the liquid acid thus formed
occupied the fpace of 15. j grains of water ; hence the fpe-
cific gravity of this acid was equal to about 1.5, and that of
a muriatic acid equal in purity to the acid gas, and of the
fame degree of condenfation as the real acid contained in
the above mentioned hquiJ acid, would be equal to 3.03.
Taking this, therefore, as the fpecilic gravity of real
muriatic acid, he next eftablilhed the proportion of this
contained in muriatic acids of different fpecilic gravity.
Not being able to obtain nitric or fulphuric acids in a ftate
of gas, he calculated the proportion of real acid contained
in diele liquors, upon the fuppofition that equal quantities
of the three acids, reduced to the ftate of real acid, required
equal weights of potafti for their faturation : the refults of
thefe calculations being found to accord with the aftual
fpecific gravities of thefe acids, diluted with different known
quantities of water, he hence inferred the truth of the
principle that he had affumed. Proceeding from thefe data
he next afcertained the quantity of real acid, and real bafe,
in all the falls formed by the three acids, with alkaline and
earthy bafcs, and comparing thefe refults with the known
order of affinity of the bafes for the acids, he drew the
general conchuions, " That the quantity of real acid ne-
" ceffary to faturate a given weight of any of the bafes, is
" in an invcrfe ratio to the affinity of the bafes with the
" acid ; and that the quantity of any of the bafes neccffary
" to faturate a given quantity of any acid, is in the direft
" r^tio of the affinity of the fame acid with the bafe." Or
in other words, that, of two bafes, which has the ftrongeft
affinity for any given acid, requires the leaft quantity of
acid for its faturation ; and a given quantity of acid \viU

AF F

tnke up n greater cjiiantltv of one bafe than of another, in
proportion to the force of its affinity for the bafe.

If thefe dedudliona are legitimate, the following Table,
containing the qnantities of bafe required to faturate 1 00
parts of real acid, is alfo a true exprelfion of their vefpeftive
forces of chemical affinity.

Potaffi.

Soda.

Lime.^")"^"-
nia.

Magnes. Alumine.

Sulphuric
acid.

215

165

no

90

80

IS

Nitric
acid.

215

165

96

87

75

65

Muriatic
acid.

215

158 89

79

71

ss

Mr. Kirwan's method has, however, been examined with
much care, by two of the ableft chemical philofophers that
the age can boall of, M. M. Morveau and Benhollet ; and
a number of veiy ferious objtftions have been brought
againll it. Thefe may be divided into thofe v/hich call in
queftion the eflential principle of the force of affinity being
in direft ratio to the quantity of bafe, and thofe which only
relate to the accuracy of particular experiments.

The etfential objeiilions are contained in the following ex-
periments of Morveau. A quantity of fulphuric acid
containing, according to the table of Kirwan, 100 grains of
real acid, required, for faturation, 201 grains of cryltallizcd
carbonat of potafti. A quantity of nitric acid, containing
alfo, according to Kirwan, 100 grains of real acid required
302 grains of the fame fait for faturation. A quantity of
muriatic acid, containing 100 grains of real acid, required
905 grains of the fame fait. Hence it appears either that
Mr. Kirwan's fundamental calculations are erroneous, or
that the very principle of his whole lyllem is falfe : for not
only do equal quantities of real acids require for their fa-
turation different quantities of the potafti, but the quantity of
bafe required is in an inverfe ratio to the force of affinity,
being exaftly the reverfe of the principle that Kinvan lays
down.

Again, according to Kin\-an's correfted tables,

Sulphat of potafti confifts of |^™'j^ ^^

Sulphat of lime
Nitrat of potafti
Nitrat of lime

f Acid 100
\ Lime 80.6
f Acid 100
t Potafti 83.33
JAcid I
(^Lime

00
34-4

Now, if a folution be made in water of fuch a quantity of
fulphat of potafti as contains 100 grains of real acid, and to
this a fufficient quantity of nitrat of hme be added to con-'
vert the whole of the fulphuric acid into fulphat of lime, it-
is evident that 80.6 grains of lime will be required, and
234.4 grains of nitric acid will be fet at liberty ; but this
quantity of nitric acid would require for faturation 105.32
grains of potafti, whereas fhe decompofed fulphat of potalh
will fumiffi only 108.7 grains; there ftiould remain there-
fore 64.87 grains of nitric acid in excefs, or uncombined.
6 with

A F F

willi any bafe. If, however, \vc put this caUuIation to the
tell of cxpeilmeut, we (liall fu.d whether the- !iqut)r be
dikited, or concentrated, or even brou>^ht to cryllalh/atiou,
that tlierc is not the fmallelt trace to be found of any difl'cn-
gaged acid.

Btf;des the above, there are feveral other important ob-
j';ftions to Mr. Kirwan's theor)-, efpeeiully to thai part of
It in which he fuppofes equal quantities of re.il fulphuric,
iiitiic, and muriatic aeidj, to require for their faturation the
Liuic proportion of potarti. The force of thefe objeftions
has been acknowledged by Mr. Kiiwan in his treatife " on
the Jlrcnglh of acids anJ the compofition of neutral fahs ;" he
Jiaf, in confequence, deduced the proportion of real acid, in

A F F

nitrous and fulphuric acid«, from other lefs cxcopftiinabic
data ; fo that hii numerical ta!)l(; of the llrenglli of affinities
is now by far the moft coiiect of any that has yet been
conllrufted; and his fundanicntal principle, diat th« (jtianlity
ot bale required to falurate a given quantity of real acid, is i
true e:;preihon of the force of affinity between the acid and
the bafe, feems to receive additional confirmation in pio-
porlion to ihe advance of chemical knowledge.

The following coneaed table of the quantity of bafe
taken up by loo parts of fulphuric, nitric, muriatic, and.
carbonic acids, is copied fr«n Mr. Kirwan's cfTay on tlir
analyfii of miueral waters.

lOO parts.

Potalh.

Soda.

Amnion. Barytcs.

Strontian.

Lime.

Magncfia.

Sulphuric
Nitric
Muriatic
Carbonic

121.48

117-7
177.6

95-1

78.32

73-43
136.2

149.6

26.0J

40-35
58.48

200.
178.12
314-46
354-5

138.
116.86
216.21
231 +

70.

55-7
118.3
122.

5:92
47.64
89.8
50-

J V. I.a-ivs of AJfinhy.
Before tlie fubjeCl of affinity Wrts fo well underftood as it
io at prefent, or rather while ehemifts were net yet aware of
the extreme difficulty and uncertainty of their refeaiches,
all the known fatls were collcfted and claflitied, and from
them was deduced a mimber of general laws of affinity,
molt of which have been fince overturned, or tffentially
modified by later more accurate invelttgations. The enu-
meration of thefe laws, with fuch reftricfions as have been
induced by modem difcoveries, will form the fubjeft of this
feftion.

1. Chemical affxmty t.-hes place only hetiveen bodies of different
natures.

This necefTarily follows from the definition given in the
third feftion, by which chemical affinity was dilUnguifhed
from the attraction of aggregation or cohefion, by this very
circumftanee.

2. ylfjimty tales place only hclween tie ultimate particles of
bodies.

Where two fimple fubftances enter into combination,
this may be allowed to be the cafe, but certainly Joes not
happen when compound bodies unite with each other : thus
when oxygen and hydrogen combine together into water, and
oxygen and fulphur into lulphurlc acid, there is probably an
affinity between the rltiiiiate particles of oxygen with tliofc
of hydrogen in one cafe, and thoie oi lulphur in the other ;
but when water and fulphuric acid combine together, the
affinity takes place betweeu particles of water and of acid,
each of which is reloLvablc into its chemical elements, and
is, therefore, not in a ftate of ultimate diviiion.

^. The afpnily which uny one body has for a fries of
others, is not equal it force towards each iiutividujl cf that
feries.

It is probable that no t^vo fubftances can be found, xvhofe
feparate affinity for a third is perfeftly equal in fimilar cir-
cu:nllances ; that tuch inftanees, if they ever occur, are at
lead very rare, is obvious from all that has been faid con-
cerning- fingle and compound elective affinity ; the whole of
which effentially depends upun this law, and is at the fame
time a demonilration of its trutli.

4. Chemical affinity may ad upon more than two fubjlances
at the fame time, and unite them into one compound.

A confiderable number of triple falts has lately been dif-
icovered which feein to countenance thii law ; perhaps,

Vol.. I.

however, it is fcarcely yet eftabliflied beyond the rsach of
controverfy. In one fenfe, indeed, almoft all the-fah.s may
be faid to be compoimds of more than two fubftances,.
thus, fulphat of iron confifts of fulphur, iron, and oxygen ;
carbonat of ammonia, of carbon, hydrogen, azot, and oxy-
gen : but in thefe and fimilar cafes, it is univerfally allowed
that the affinity of a binary compound is totally different
from that of its elements : fo, the neutral fait, carbonat of
ammonia, is not held together by the concunent affinities of
its four primary elements, but by thofe of its two immediate
compound parts, carbonic acid and ammonia. Common
alum is ufually confidered as a proper triple fait, in which
the feparate affinities of fulphuric acid, alumine, and pota(h,
are afting on each other at the fame time ; of this, however,
there appears not the Icall evidence, for though the fait in
queftion may be made by adding together fulphuric acid,
alumine, and potaOi, yet the fame refult i-- obtained by
combining acidulous fulphat of alumine with lulphat of pot-
adi. Similar obicrvations m-ay be made on the ammofiaco-
magnefian and other triple i'ahs, as they are called.

y. Chemical action icill not take place betiveen tzL'O bodiet
except one of them, at leaf}, is in ajluidflate.

This, though more accurate than the ancient maxim,
" corpora non agunt nifi fint foluta," is obvioufly borrowed
from it. There are two kinds of fluidity, the elaftic and non-
elailic, and thefe require to be carefully dillingullhed from
each other : the firll, or the gaffeous, is for the moil part
very unfavourable to chemical combination, while the fc-
cond, or tiie liiiuid, (including both fufion and foluticn) is
one of the moll indilpenfablc circuiiifiances in all cafes of
affinity.

a. Cbeniral affinity is in an in-crrfe ratio to the attraSion
of aggre^aiion.

This would feein to be a neceffiiry dedudion from the
preceding law ; it is not, however, to be admitted without
many limitations. The aggregation of bodies may be de-
ftioyed by mete mechanical means to a certain degree ; fuch
is the effect of the operations of cutting, rafpiug, pound-
ing, &c. Now in all thefe, and fimilar cafes, the above law
holds llriAly ti-ue ; the cafe and rapidity with which bodies
are decompoled, or enter into new combinations bcin^r di-
reftly »s the quantity of furface that they prefent, or in-
verfely as their nialfes. Thus fluat of lime (fluor fpar) in
entire crrftals, ii whcJly unaffected by fulphuric acid, but in
O z pioportiufl

A F F

proportion as its furfaccs art multiplied by grinding it do'.vn
to powder, fo in its altradlion of agi!;rt'^atiiin diminillicd ;
and the adioii of tlio fulphuric acid on the lime, to the ex.
cUilion of the tliioHo atid, bcconirs nioif energetic. It
would be more corrett to fay, that the ifficncy of chemical
atriuity is inverftly as tlic attraftiim of iigsjrcgation ; bc-
taufe its .iWoliUc force remains coulhuitly the fame, and it
only appc ars to iiicreaftf on account of the diminution of its
an'.agonilS attraCition. Thus, let the chemical affinity of lime
and fluoric acid be = ic, and the force of its coheiivc ?.t-
tradion, wheli cryllallized = 6, the fnm of its quiefcent
alRnities will be = 16. Let the affinity of fulphuric acid
for lime, or the divellent affinity be := 13 ; it is obvious
that no decompofition cati take place, aliliough the chemi-
cal divellent affinity is fupcrior to the quiefcent one ; but,
thefc continuing the fame, let the attraction of aggregation
be reduced by mechaniciJ triture to be only = 2, then the
ftrongtll chemical affinity will become efficacious, and a de-
compofition will take place.

The aggregation of bodies is, however, more frequently
overcome by the aftion oi fokition by water, or fufion by
fire, and tb.efe menllrua arc fo commonly made ufe of that
the habit is infenfibly acquired of coufuicring folutions of
fubihinces in water or fire, as equally limple with the iame
bodies when in a concrete Hate. It is from this overlight
tliat all the apparent exceptions to this law have originated.
" If, fays Morveau, we apply heat to a mixture of acid
«' and water, or of alcohol and water, v/hich are real chemi-
" c;J combinations, we only augment the degree of their
" rarefaftlon ; but inllead of thus promoting their union we
" fcparate them ; the fame is the cafe with thofe metallic
" oxyds that are decompofable by mere heat, and of all
" thofe co;npound falts, one of the principles of which is
" more fixed than the other." It, however, caloric is capa-
ble of being exhibited in an uncombined Itate, and of being
diilinguiflied from all other fubftances by peculiar fenfihle
pi-opcrties, if thefe are modified and changed by combina-
tion v/jth different bodies, if caloric may be transfeired
from one body to another, according to an afcertaincd or-
der of chemical affinity ; and finally, if it may be feparated
from its combination, and again exhibited with all the ori-
ginal properties that were at firft charafteriftic of it, what
rcafon is there to deny that it is fo far a material fubflance,
as to be capable of chemical combination ? To recur, there-
fore, to the examples adduced by Morveau : if to the com-
pound of alcohol and water a certain quantity of caloric be
added, it wiU be divided between the two ingredients, ac-
cording to their refpective affinities, and in proportion to
the addition of this new fubllance will the original affinities
of the water and alcohol be weakened : the alcohol being
the fooneft faturated with caloric, will afTume a gaffeous
form, and being afiiiled by the attraction of gravitation,
will fcparate from the water. In all this there is nothing
inconfiilent with the general order of chemical agency ;
whereas the realoning of Morveau involves a contradiction
in terms : for if the force of chemical affinity is capable of
being overcome by rarefaction, and if rarefa&ion is no-
tiinig but the greateft poffible refolution of an aegregate,
it follows that the abfohite force of chemical affinity may
be overcome by the negation of the attraftion of aggrega-
tion.

7, IVh^n iiuo or more fiibjlances uiijte to form a chemiml
compound, th.'y lofe their otun peculiar properties, and' thufe of
theneiu compound are r.ot to be inferred from the propertief of its
elements.

It is not meant by this, that the properties of a com-

A F F

pound are always, and in every particular different front
thoie of its conlUtuent parts, only that they arc by no
means intern. ediate between them. Tlie reverie of this
was maintained by the earlier chemiRs, and accordingly
Slahl taught that falts were compofed of earth and water,
becaufe he fancied their properties to be a medium between
thofe of thefe two fubllances. It will probably be thought
at present that the ver)' inllance which Stahl has felected to
prove his maxim is rather conclufive on the contrary fide ;
but niunbeilefs other more unexceptionable examples occur
in cverv department of chemillr)-. Tin and iron arc both
of them very duftile, but if equal parts of the two are
melted together, the refiilt is a brittle alloy. Magnefia is
tallelefs, fulphuric acid is intenl'ely four, con\bine them, and
we obtain a bitter fait. Alkali is colourlcfs, fynip of vio-
lets is purple, the produft upon mixture is green ; carbo-
nic acid and amiuoni'., when fcparate, are gafieous, mix.
them, and they become folid. Amalgam of lead, and of
bifnuith are folid, by combination they form a liquid.

8. The capacity for caloric is akvays changed Ly chemical
combination.

This law is, in faft, only an offset from the preceding ;
and for the explanation of it, fee caloric.

§ VI. Anomalies.

All thofe cafes of chemical affinity, which either really
or apparently contradift the general laws that have juil
been cited, may be reduced to two claffes ; -viz. thofe
depending on the variable force of afihiity itfclf, and'
thofe occafioned by the aftion of other antagonill attrac-
tions.

I . The whole fyftem of Bergman depends on the abfo-
lute uniformity of eletlive attrattion, on its lieing a conllant
force, fo that if (the temperature and menftmum remaining
the fame) the combination A B is deconipofed by C, to
the exclufion of B, the new fubilance A C, cannot b^
again feparated by B, fo as to reproduce A B, and leave
C at liberty. With Hill more rigour does this apply to all
the methods of eftimating numerically the excefs of one
affinity over another, independently of the relative quanti.
ties of the fubftances employed. It appears, neverlhelefs,.
from BerthoUct's treatife on this fubjcd, that in almoft all
cafes of change produced by elective affinity, there is not
a total transfer of the bafe, but a partition of it betweeu-
the two oppofite attracting fubllances in a compound ratio-
of the relative force of affinity and quantity of each. That
in many cafes the excefs of quantity may fupply the defi-
ciency of force, and therefore that the raafs mufl be care-
fully taken into conilderation, together with the fpecific
force in the conftruction of tables of affinity. Barytes is
properly placed by Bergman at the head of the column of the
affinities of fulphuric acid, in water ; not however becaufe it
is impoffiblc for fulphat of baiytes to be decompofe(» by
any other fubftanec, but becaufe, if equal quantitiss are
taken of all the fubftances that combine with fulphuric
acid, barytes will be found to dec* mpofe the greatell pro-
portion of any other fulphat ; and of the fulphat of barytes
the largtft part will remain iindecompofed by a quantity of
any body equal in weight to the barytic part of the fait in
qucRion. Thus, if equal parts of pure potalh and fulphat of
barytes are boiled together to drynefo in a fmall quantity
of water, it will be found that the fulphunc acid has been
divided between the two bales in the compound ratio of
their mafs and their force of affinity ; the greater part of
the barytic fulphat will be found undecompofed, a fmall
quantity of barytes* will be fouiid at liberty, moll of the

potath

A F r

potafh will alfo be uncomhiiied, but a certain proportion
will be imited with tlie fulphuric acid wliicli the barytes
has lotl, in the form of fnlphat of potafli. To make this
matter plainL'r, kt us exsniiue the rclults of the decompofi-
tion of iulphat of barj'tea by potalli, aud of iulpliat of pot-
afli by barytes, as calculated from Mr. Kirwau's data, bul-
phnt of barytes contains 3.33 parts ot lulphuric acid and
6.66 of barytes : it thereiore we take ten paits of this
fait and an equal quantity of potafli we have,

3. 33 fulph. a.
6. 66 barytes

10. pota(h.
and the affinity of equal parts of barytes and potafli for
fulphuric acid being : 2 : 1.2 1 the acid, if Ihared between
them in the compound ratio of their niafs and their affinity,
will be 13.32 to barytes, and 12. 1 to potafli: now the
coniiwlition of fulphat of barytes beins^ as already Hated,
and that of fulphal of potafh being 54 of alkali to 'I J of
acid, there will remain undecompoicd 5.22 parts of barytic
fnlphat; 5.18 of barytea will be fet at liberty; 3.47 of
fulphated potafli will be produced, and y.ll of potalh will
continue uncombined. If, on the other hand, we mix equal
parts of fulphat of potafli and batytes we fliall have
5. 48 potafli

4. 52 i'ulph. a.
10. barytes

and the acid being divided between the bafes in tne com-
pound ratio of their niaffes and force of affinity, will give
6.63 parts to the potaih and 20. to the bai-ytes : there will
then be 2.48 parts fulphat of potafh remaining undecom-
pofed,and 3.24 baiytes uncombined; 4. 12 parts potafh will be
fet at liberty, and 10.14 fnlphat of barytes will be produced.

It is not merely in a few ini^aiices that this partition of
one body between two others, according to their refpeftive
maffes and affinities, takes place, there being fcarcely any
example to the contrary. Lime has a weaker affinity than
potafh for fulphuric acid ; yet lime, when afting on an equal
weight of fulphat of potafli, is capable of partly deconi-
pofing it : the fame happens with phofphat of lime and
potafli, with fulphat of potafhand foda, &c.

From thefe and fimilar experiments it follows, that when
a compound of two fubflanccs is atted on by any third
body, that part of the compound which is the fnbjctl of
combination, is fliared between the two remaining elements,
not only in the proportion of their refpeftive degrees of
affinity, but alfo according to their quantity ; thefe two
fubflances therefore mufl: be confidered as oppofite forces,
dividing between them the fubjeft of combination, accord-
ing to the ratio of their intenfity, and this intenfity depends,
not only on the energy of affinity, but alfo on the quan-
tity, fo that by varying this in cither, the effeft produced
will be proportionably modified.

Another confequence is, that the aftion of a fubftance
in oppofition to any particular combination decreafes, as it
advances towards faturation ; and as the force of this is
continually diminifhing, fo the power of the fubftance
eliminated is enlarging according to its increafed quantity,
and this efTeft takes place till the antagonifl forces txaftly
countei-polfe each other.

A third inference is, that in cafes of precipitation the preci-
pitate neceffarily retains a portion of the iubflance with which
it had before been combined ; for during the inftant of this
aftion, a partition is made of the fubject of combination in
proportion to the affinities and maffes of the fubftances em-
ployed,

2. The variable ratio of the force of affinity between
the two elements of particular coi?ipounds, is another ano-

A F F

maly and occafional fource of error. Thus the black oxyd
of mangancfe readily parts with a portion of its oxygen,
by the aftion of fucii a portion of caloric as will juft niife
it to ignition ; but after it has parted with this excefs of
oxygen, the aOFinity which unites it to the remainder, fol-
lows a Ir.uch higiier ratio, fo that the ntmofl poffiblc ac-
cumulation of caloric is unable to produce any further de-
compofluon : hence the affinity of metallic mangancfe for
oxygen is reiy high, and the affinity of tlie wliite oxyd
ot mangancfe for oxygen is much lower than it ought to
be, provided the affinity of thefe two fubftances was in an
uniform ratio, according to their relative proportions. So
again, the acidulous fulplmt of barytes is deconipofcd by
nn equal quantity of water into the common barytic ful-
phat and fulphuric acid, yet no addition of water can pro-
duce any further decompofition of this earthy fait ; tlie
general tac't, therefore, of mafs compenfating for inferiority
of attractive force does not here hold good. Another
flriking example of the fame is the decompofition of tar-
trite of potafh by acetous acid, into acidulous tartrite of
potafli and acetite of potalh ; and the refift:ance made by the
acidulous tartrite to all further decompofition by any quantity
of acetous acid. The fame may be faid of the affinity of mu-
riatic acid to oxygen, and of its bafe for the fame fubftance.

3. The order of chemical affinities is often modified
by the attraftion of faline vegetation, a power belonging to
all but the dehqucfcent falts, which caufes them to feparate
from the water that holds them in folution, and rife in the
form of vegetations up the fide; of the veflel in which they
are contained ; the efflorcfcent falts are more particularlv-
fubject to this attraftion, and confequently their affinities
are the moft frequently dlflurbed by this force. Muriat
of foda is fcarcely, if at all, decompofed by carbonated lime
in water; but if, according to Scheele's procefs, hnie and mu-
riat of foda are mixed witli only fo much water as will make
the mafs into a parte, and this is expofed to carbonic acid
gas, a faline efllorefcence will fliortly make its appearance,
poffcfling all the properties of carbonated foda, and the.
muriat of lime in a deliquefcent flate will be found at the
bottom of the veflel : but if the carbonat of foda is dif-
folved and added to the muriat of lime, an immediate de-
compofition will take place, and carbonated hme and mu-
riat of foda will be produced. A fimilar cfleft happens
when iron is moiftened with muriat of foda and expofed to
carbonic acid gas.

4. The laft caufe of anomaly that need be mentioned,
arifes from the affinity of water with fubftances diffolved in
it, and this is a very important circumilancc to be aware of,
as it accounts for the otherwife inexphcable phenomenon of
what are called wcompat'ilk falts in certain mineral waters.
Bergman, Kirwan, Cavendifti, and other eminent chemifts,
have difcovered in mineral waters the co-exiftence of fmall
quantities of various falts, which, in common circumftancet^,
deconipofe each other; thus the waters of Rathbone-placc,
according to Cavendifh, contain in the pint 0.9 of a grain '
carbonated ammonia, and 1.2 grains of fiflphat of lime.
A gallon ot Harrowgate water contains 13 grains niuriated
lime, and 5 grains fulphated magnefia. But in both thefe
cafes, on account of the fmall quantity of fait compared to
that of the water, the affinity of this laft, aided by its mafs,
is capable of overcoming the excefs of the divellent, over
the qulefccnt afrinitics of the falts that it holds in folution ;
and is obvioufly the truereafon of the fatt, for if, by e\a-
poration, a confiderable proportion of the water is taken
away, the divellent affinities of the two falts become effica-
cious, and decompofition takes place.

For other fubjeds in fome meafure conncAcd with the
Z z 2 important

A F F

impoitant fiibjf^ of chemical affinity, fee Adhesion, Cry-
ST.\Li.ii.»Tio'>-, Saturation, Solution.

Did. Method, art. AfHiiitc. — Rtclicrches fur Ics lois
de I'Affiiiitt- pur Bortliollct. — Ammles de Chymie, vols,
xiii. xiv. xvii. xxv. — Bergman, on ILlcAive Attrac\io;i. —

Kirvvaa on Min. AVaters Fourcroy Syllcme des coiinais.

Chiniiiju«, vol. i. — Pcarfon on ElcClive Attradion. — Kir-
wan on the llrcugth of -\cids, and the compofition of Neu-
tral ^3.\U.

AFFION, is a name given by the Arabians to opium ;
and alfo to an tlrctary, in which opium is an ingredient.

AFI'IRMATION, qffirwalio, m Lo};l; a pofuive pro-
pofition, alledging the truth or reality of fomcthing.

Affii-mation is delined, by the Lot^.ciant, an ad whereby
we attribute one idea to another ; as fuppoling it to be-
long, or agree to it. — As when, conceiving perfection to
agree to the Deity, we fay, (!od it ptrftil.

This, on other occalions, is called "Enunciation, pro-
position, coMCOsiTioN, and judging.

Affirmation, in Law, fignifies the ratifying or cou-
linning a former law, or judgment.

We fay, to affirm a judgment : the houfe of lords, on an
appeal, aJUrmed the decree of the Lord Chancellor, or of
the lords of fefllon in Scotland.

Affinnance is ufcd in the fame fenfe. 8 Hen. vi. c. 12.

Affirmation is alfo ufed in Grammar, by fonie re-
finers upon that ait, for what is ufually called a verb ;
bccaufe the office of that part of fpeech is to exprefs what
we afiliTn or attribute to any fubjeft.

Affirmation is alfo ufcd for a folemn forir of attefting
the truth, allowed to be ufed by the Quakers, inllead of
an oath, which they hold ablolutely unlawful to take.
See the form of the affirmation, &c. under the article
Quaker.

Affirmation is of divers kinds, tacit, by words, by a
nod, or gcfture, &c.

In a civil law fenfe, affirmation may be divided into_^w-
plc, which is that from which no obligation arifes ; and 'qua-
Kfied, which infers an obligation.

The rcquifites of this latter are, that it be, I. deliberate
and free ; 2. fmcere ; 3. certain and fpecific ; 4. clear and
pcrfpicuous.

AFFIRMATIVE, in Logk. See Affirmation.

There are univerfal ajjirmath'e propofitions ; and fuch>
ufually, are the lirfl of syllogisms.

In Algebra we have alfo ajirmalh<e or pofitive Ql' anti-
ties, which have their appropriated characters. The
term affirmal'n^e was introduced by Vieta.

AffirmativeT!^/), or charafter. See Character.

Affirmative, in Grammar. Authors dillinguifli affir-
mative particles ; fuch is, yes.

The tcnn af&rmative is fometimes alfo ufed fulflanlively.
Thus we fay, the affirmative is the more probable fide of
the qucilion : th*re were fo many votes, or voices, for the
affirmative.

Affirmative is particularly applied, in the Roman in-
Qi'isiTiON, to fuch heretics as own the errors and opinions
w.th which they are charged ; and maintain ttiem in their
cMamination with fimmefs and refolution.

AFFIX, affixus, compounded of ad and^fo, I _fi.\; in
Grammar, a particle added at the clofe of a word» either
to diverfify ita form, or altir its fignification. In which
fenfe, affix is the fame with fiiffix ; though affi-K is fome-
times, but I'efs properly, apphed more generally fo as to in-
ihde prefix particles.

We meet with affixes in the Saxon, the German, and

i

A F F

other northci-n lanj^uages ; but more efpecially in the He-
brew and other oriental tongues.

The Hebrew affixes are finglc fyllables, frequently fingic
letters, fubjoined to nouns and verbs ; and contribute not
a little to the brevity of that language. I'he affixes of
nouns may be called [>ofliifi.x-e ajjixa, as they denote the pof-
feffive pronouns ; and thofe of \erbi, verbal affixes. In fe-
minine noun^, ending in n> '''^^ H is changed into p, before
the nllixes, and » i,, inferted after the plural feminine tenni-
luilion j~|1, probably for fofteniiig the found ; e. g.

TCWPii "'y ^ ''"'"> :""i TPri1"lin' "'"' /"«'■'• The Q of
the plural mafculinc tciiniiiatiun is expelled by the affixes,
and when », ;/;v, is affixed to the plural, atter [^^ is expelled,
the ' of the plural eoaleiccs with the affix ; and they are
diiliiiguilh.able imly by the fenfe, or by other words in the
tcntence ; r. g. >T3Q> "'S books, "IJ'liQ, our bookf.
Plural affixes are not unfivquently fulijoined to fmg-ular
nouns, and vire verfii ; e.g. T"1)3"1 (i Kings viii. 26)
for T13"T llyy word; and Dril^K (Fxod. iv. 5) for
Dn'n HJC' their fathers. As the poffeffive pronouns are
fubjuiiud to nouns, the perfonal pronoims are fubjoined ta
verbs in the fame manner. In this cafe the n of the third
perfon fingular feminine is changed into J^, and the J^ of the
fecond perfon lingular feminine affumes ♦, before the af-
fixes ; e.g. THn^nj^' (l Sam. xviii. 28) he loieJ him,.
for innn.lwS* and T-'nnjI (Ezek. xvi. 19). for
Tnnnj V '""^ i!-"" S"'^^ifl ^•'"■'' I" the fecond perfon plu-
ral, mafculinc and feminine of Kal, the J^ and | final are
ejeclcd, and their place is fupplied by '\, inferted before

the affixes; e.g. "irnn"\.D.!2. '"'•T::rnD-j and unnoa.

ye delivered him. Sometimes the T is wanting, and thus
this perfon is not eafily dilHnguifhed from the third, fecond
and firil perfon fingular ; as '^HOV (Zech. vii. 5'). for
'Jin'Oi' ^''^ ye J'l/^ ''"'" ""■ ■'' Affixes are fometimes fub-
joined to the infinitives, of paffive verbs, in which cafe thefe
infinitives affiime the rank of fubdantive nouns ; as,
Cr{^"|]3n CDV^ (Gen. V. 2). In the day "when they •were
created, or of their creation. When affixes are thus joined
to infinitives, they may be taken either aftively or paffively,
or exprefled by the nominative or accufative cafe, according'
to the fenfe of the pafi'age ; e. g. Tlp*2 DV^' ^^J ^^
underftood to fignify either. In the day in winch be himfelf
delivtred, iyr in which he delivered him. Some adverbs, and
all prepofitions affi.ime affixes ; but as the affixes of verbs
arc generally rendered by the accufative, and thofe of nouns
by the genitive, the affixes of adverbs are expreffi;d by the
nominative, and thofe of prepofitions by the cai'e which-
the prepofition governs. Wilfon's Elements of Heb. Gram.
p. 108. 174. Mafclef, Heb. Gr. vol. i. p. 65, 17 1, 189.

The oriental languages are much the fame as to the ra-
dicals ; and differ chiefly from each oiher as to ciffixes-
and PREFIXES. Mem. Acad. Infcrip. torn. ix. p. 334.

AFFLATUS, formed from ad and _ffare, to How, li-
terally denotes a blall c.f wind, breath, or vapour, flriking
with force again (I another body.

Naturalirts fometimes fpeak of the afflatus of ferpents.

TuUy ufes the word ^i^«r^;//Vf/v, for a divine inspira-
tion. In which fenfe, be afcribes all great and eminent
accomphlhments to a divine ajjlatus. See Pytmia.

AFFLENK, m Geography, a town of Stiria, in Ger-
many ; two leagues north of Pruck.,

AFFLICTION is not itfelf, in propriety of medical
fpeeuh, a diieafe, but it produces nnny , for whatever ex-.
cites envy, anger, or hatred, produces difeafes from tenfe
libres ; as whatever excites fear, grief, joy, or delight, be-,
gets difeafes from relaxation..

Many

A F F

Many chronical difeafe?, particularly the p'.'thifia, fprinp
from aiHiClion. I'or a vciy rcmaikaWc h :' >!y of the cfFtiil
of affliclion, fee Hift. dc 1' Acad. Roy. des Scicnc. ^n. 1732.

AFFLUX, in F.lci^lridty, is oppdftd to efflus ; and
both terms were uleU by the Ahbe Noikt, and alfo by Dr.
^Vatfo^, pre\ioi:ny to the difeovciy of politive and nega-
tive cletlrics. They apprehended, that in all ekrtrieal
operations, there was both an afflux of cleifkrical matter
to the g-lnbe and the conduftor, and likewife an efHiix of
the fame matter from them. Dr. \Vatfon foon coiTcftcd
this miilaken opinion ; but the Abbe Nollet was more te-
nacious ; and he was confirmed in his attachment to this
favourite theoiT by obferving, that bodies not infulated,
plunged in eleiftric atmofpheres, hieued figiis of eleftri-
city ; not perceiving, that the electricity of fuch bodies
was in its nature and efferts -difTrrent from, and diretlly
oppofitc to tiiat of the cleelrified body, in the atmolphere
of which they were involved. See Electricity.

AFFORAGE, in the French Cujioms, a duty paid to
the lord of a diibicl, for permiiTion to fell wine, or other
liquors within his feignory.

AfFoi-age is alio ufed for the rate or price of provifions
laid and fixed by the provoit, or fherifFs, of Paris.

AFFORARE, to affear, in Laiu., is to fet a value on
any thing : and njfuratus denotes appraifed or valued, as
things vendible in a fair or market. l)u-Cange. See Ar-

FEERORS.

AFFORCEMENT, afforclamentim, derived from the
bajbarous Eatin offorc'mre, to Jlrcnphen, confirm, in fome
ancient charters, denotes a fortress, or work of FORTt-

FICATION and DEFENCE.

AFFORESTING, afforcflatlo, the turaing gi-ound into
FOREST. In this fenfe, the word ftands oppofite to deaf-
forestinc.

The Conqueror, and his fucceffors, continued afforefting
the lands of the fubjeft for many reigns ; till the griev-
ance became fo notorious, that the people of all degrees
ar.d denominations were brought to iue for relief ; which
was at length obtained, and commifPions were granted io
furvey and peranibulate the foreft, and feparate all the new
afforefted lands, and re-convert them to the ufes of their
proprietors, under the name and quality of purlieu, op
pouralle land.

AFFRANCHISEMENT. See Manumission.

AFFRAY, in Lanv, is derived from the French word
(Jfrnyci; to n fright, and it formerly meant no more ; as
where perfons appeared with armour or weapons, not ufually
worn, to the terror of others. Stat. 2 Edw. III. cap. 3.
But it now implies a Ikinnifli or fighting between two or
more, in fome public place, to the terror of his majefty's
fubjefts ; and there mull be a flroke given or offered, or a
weapon drawn, otherwife it is not an affray ; but if the
fighting be in private it is no affray, but an atTault. 3 Inlh
158. It is inquirable in the court leet, and punifhable by
juftices of peace in their fefhons, by fine and iniprifonment ;■
and it differs from assault, in that it is a wrong to the
public ; whereas alTault is of a private nature. Lamb. lib.
ii. Affrays may be fuppreffed by any private perfon pre-
fent, who is juilifiable in endeavouring to part the comba-
tants, whatever confequenees may enfiie. But a conltable,
or other fimilar officer, may break open doors to fupprtfs
an affray, or apprehend the pJlrayers ; and he may either
take them before a juftice, or impnion them by his own
authority, for a convenient time, till the heat is over ; and
niay then, perhaps, alfo make them find fureties for the
peace. 3 Inft. 158. i Hawkins P. c. 154, 136, 138. The
offence of affray admits of feveral degrees of aggravation.

A F G

This is the cafe when two perfons deliberately engage in a
DUEL, though no mifchief has actually cnfued. Another
a^^gravation is, when the officers of jullice arc dillurbcd by
an i'.ffray, in the due e>;ecution of tlieir office, or where it
oocurs in the king's court and fuch places. All affrays in
a church or church-yard are deemed heinous oflenees ; and
therefore it is enartcd, by Stat. 5 and 6 Edw. VI. c. 4. that if
auv perfon fhall, by word; only, (piarrel, chide or brawl, in
a church or churcli-yard, the ordinary fludl fufpend lilni, it
a layman, ah ingrcjfu i,:ch-Jiir ; and, if a ckrk in orders, frorn^
the miniftration of his oflice, during plealure. Ar.d, if
any perfon in fuch church or chnrch-y;u-d pi-oceeds to finite
or lay violent hands upon another, he Ihall be excommuni-
cated, Ip/o fiu-lo ; or if he flrikes him with a weapon, or
draws any weapon with intent to ttrike, he fliall, beiidi'S
excommunication, (being convic\ed by a Juit) have one of
his ears cut off; or, having no cars, be branded with the
letter Fin his cheek. Blackll. Cc.m. vol. iv. p. 146.

AFFREIGHTMENT.orArFRKTAMEST, Afitreta-
mentum, in I.aii', fignifies the frfiomt of a (hip.

The word is formed from the French fret, wliicli es--
preffes the fame thing.

AFFRONTE\ French, compounded o^ ml, to, and//on.',
forehe.'.il, in Herald'-y, is underllood of animals borne in an
ESCUTCHEON as facing, or with their heads turned towards
each other. This is otherwife called cmfrontl- ; and (lands
oppofed to adojfe. When a lavage's head is full-faced, it is
faid to be nff'rriiite. The word often occurs in the fame fenfe
with gnrJtirit.

AFFUERA, in Geography, one of the iflands of Juan
Fernaudes, on the South-fea coaft, in the kingdom of Chili.
Its longitude, from the meridian of Callao, is 30* 20', and
it is about 400 leagues to the north of Cape Horn. This
coaft fwarms with lea lions and wolves.

AFFUIAGE, ajfiiiagium, derived from nffuer, q. d. ajfo-
care, to make a Jire, of aj and focus, in jlncient Ciifloms-, a'
right of cutting fuel -wood in a fbreil, or the hke, for main-
t-aining family-fire. Dii-Cange.

AFFUSION, the aft of pouring fome fluid fubftance
on another body. Dr. Grew gives feveral experiments of"
the hiftation arifing from the affufion of divers nienllruums
on all forts of bodies. Divines and church hillorians fpeak
of BAPTISM by iiffiifion ; which amounts to much the fam<
with what we now call Iprinkling.

AFGHANS, in Geography und Hif.ory, comprehend
generally the feveral tribes of Mahometans, who inhabit the .
northern paits of India ; fome of whom are fpread over the
whole of India, andknown by the name of P,t::ans : they
are efteemed the bed foldiers in the country. In a more
reflrifted' fenfe, they are the indigenous poffedurs of a traft
of country, which itretches from the mountains of Tartary
to certain parts of the gulf of Cambay and Perfia, and from
the Indus to the confines of Perfia ; and their principal
fettlcmeuts have been the mountainous diflrifts bordering on
Kandahar, Cabul, Gazna, Peihav.'eer or Peifhor, and Ha-
7aret, &c. The Afghans- are reprefented as a ru<le unlet-
tered people, without a written characler, fays Mr. Forfter
(Journey from Bengal to I'^ngland, through the northern
parts of India, &c.), and fpcaklng a language, called
Pufhto, peculiar to thcmielves. They are a robufl hardy
race of men, and being generally addirled to a Hate of pn-
datory warfare, their manners l.irgiiy piutake of a bar-
barous infolence, and they avow a lixed contempt for the
occupations of civil life. The tcnitory which they, chiefly
inhabit is denominated by Mr. ForlUr /Ifganiftan, and he
obferves that, though the natives are dcno.'iiinattd Tartar*,
in fome hiftories of Afia, they bear no refcuiblancc to thofe

people.

ii

A F G

.fiwlf, in their pcrfont, manners, or langiiagc. Tliey
lavc been fomelimcs fubjeft to the Mot^uls, anj fometimes
to the I'eifuns, but more frequently independent. During
the weak, reign of Shall Snkan lIofTein, and the tyranny
of the eunuchs, bv whom he was governed, they fuITcred
inanv fevere opprcflions ; and under the direction of Mir
I. e. Aniir,Weis, or Vne/., one of their chiefs, a man of a bold
and enterprifing fpirit, they determined to revojt, and to
throw off tiie Periian yoke. Having iiieffedtually peti-
tioned for rcdrefs, and their deputies to the Perfian court
being difmilTeJ as the agents of a feditious and turbulent
people, tiieir leader, Mir Weis, was feizcd and fent as a
priloner to Ifp-nhan. He contrived, however, by his pie-
lents and his eloquence, fo to ingratiate liimfelf with the
king',> miniflers, and with the king himfelf, that he was
not only rcleafed, but acquitted and favoured with the
royal protedtion. This viiit afTordcd him an opportunity
of obfcrving the weaknefs of the Ptrfian monarchy, and
of concerting meafures for the fuccefs of the enterprife
which he had projected. With a view of uniting the
Afghans in his interefl, he obtained leave to make the
pilgrimage to Mecca ; and here he obtained a difpenfation
for effecting the revolt which he had meditated. After the
fuccefsful eTcecution of fevenil preparalor)' meafures, and
the murder of tlie Khan of Kandahar, and his Perfian
and Georgian adherents, he marched forward to the city,
which he fuiprifed and took. He was then joined by the
Afghans, who, after feveral alternate defeats and vidlorics,
obtained peaceable pofleffion of the whole kingdom of Kan-
dahar, A. D. 1713. Mir Weis, however, who had for
fome time afl'umed the title of king, with other enfigns of
fovereignty, died in his new kingdom in the year 17 15, and
was fucceeded on the throne by iiis brother, Mir Abdollah.
This prince was deftitute of talents, ambition, and courage ;
and therefore fonned a defign of reftoring Kandahar to the
crown of Perfia. Whilfl; he was negociating the furrender,
he was killed by his nephew Mir Mahmud, a prince of the
age of 18, who was proclaimed king of Kandahar, within
fix months after the death of his father.

In 1717, \\\i. Mddlces, another tribe of Afghans, who
rcfided in the province of Herat, and who had fubmitted to
Pcrfia, on condition of not being fubjeft to foreign gover-
nors, refolved to follow the example of the Afghans of
Kandahar, and to emancipate themfelves from tlie Perfian
yoke. They fucceeded in their attempt, and Herat became
an independent republic. Mir Mahmud, avaihng himfelf
of the revolt of the Abdollees, and of other concurring cir-
cumftances, which contributed to enfeeble the Pei-fian
government, proceeded to the execution of the defign which
his father had conceived of fubduing the whole of Perfia,
and engaged the Afghans, the Abdollees, and the other
inhabitants of adjacent ftates, to co-operate with him. Ac-
cordingly he began his march in January 1722; and
having advanced within three leagues of Ifpahan, the
capital, he pitched his camp and prepared for battle.
The Peifran army, after fuffering a great fiaugliter, wliilft
the lofs of the Afghans was very inconfidcrable, was betrayed
by one of its own generals, and reduced to the greatefl
diftrefs. Mahmud having gained the fuburbs, invefted the
city ; but feveral unfavoin-able citcum.ftances occurred during
the fiege, and the Afghans muft have withdrawn if Shah
HoITcin had not been deferted and betrayed by thofe in whom
he placed his chief confidence. After enduring the horrors of
famine for two months to fuch a degree that the bcfieged were
under the nectffity of confuming every kind of brnte animal
they could find, and of appealing their hunger by eating
the bodies of thofe who died, and even murdering their fel-
low-citizens and children, the city capitulated on condition

A F G

of Hoffcin's rengning the empire, together with liis perfon and
principal officers of the court, into the hands of the conqueror.
" Such," faid the vanquifiied and diftrefrid monarch, ad-
drefilng the Afghan prince, " is the inilability of human
grandeur : God difpofes of empires as he pleafes, and takes
them from one nation to give them to another ; but I
promife to confider you always as my own father ; and I
will undertake nothing for the future without your advice."
As foon as thcfe words were uttered fourthoufand Afghans
%vere ordered to take pofleflion of the royal palace, and the
gates of the city. Thus, when Hoffein had reigned 28 years,
the dynally of the Seffis, or Safis, ended in the perfon of
this prince, the 10th fucccfior of Ifmael, its founder, after
having killed 223 years. For the manner in which Mahmud
closed his life and reign, fee the article Mahmud. He
was fucceeded by Afin uff, the fon of Abdollah, whom the
Afghans railed to the throne of Perfia, A. D. 1725. The
Afghans at this juncture were mailers of Khorafan, Kenr.an
and Pars ia Perfia ; and under the condutl of AfinufF, they
obtained fome fuccefles againlt, the Turks; but in 1 727,
thev concluded a peace with them, and vVflirufF acknow-
ledged the Ottoman emperor lawful fovereign of Perfia.
About this time, efpecially in 1729, Nadir Shah, otherwife
called Kuli Khan, began to di(linguii^l himfelf. Having
totally routed the AbdoUee Afghans, of whom 5000 were
made prifoners, and near 15,000 killed and wounded, and
having taken pofleffion of Herat, he proceeded to meet
Afhruff, who was marching towards IChorafan at the head
of an army of 30,000 men. The Afghans were terrified by
the prolpeft of encountering the viftorious general of the
Perfians, and wilhed to avoid an aftion. They were, how-
ever, compelled to engage, and the event was a complete
viAory on the part of the Perfians. The lofs fuftained by
the Afghans was about 12,000 men : and that of the Per-
fians amounted to, the number of 4000. Afhruff retreated
towards Ifpahan, and was purfued by Kuli Khan. On his
approach the Afghans quitted their feveral garrifons and
fled towards the capital, where they depofited ample flores
of provifions, with the purpofe of defending themfelves to
the lafl extremity. But Afhruff determined to tiy the
event of a battle before he fubmitted to a fiege. Accord-
ingly he marched out to a convenient fituation about 30
miles from the city, and waited Kuli Khan's arrival. In
the mean while he exercifed the moft wanton cruelty on the
Perfians, ordering all the principal men to be cut off, and
afterwards all they could find in the flreets ; fo that, for
the fpace of 20 days, there was not a Perfian to be feen
abroad, none appearing but women, who came out to buy
the common neceflaries of life. At lafl Kuli Khan arrived
and obtained a complete viftory. Afliruff having loll 7000
men, retired to Ifpahan, and iffued an order, that all the
inhabitants fiiould be flaughtered, and the palace and other
houfes fet on fire. As they were about to execute this
barbarous order, the Perfian army approached the city ;
upon which Afhruff and his men, having loaded their bealls
with money, haflened to fave themfelves by flight ; and in
a few hours there was fcarce an Afghan to be feen in the
city. The Afghans took up their winter-quarters at Shi-
raz ; but they were purfued by Kuli Khan, Jan. 1730;
and after an obllinate refiftance, compelled to ftv, and to
leave behind them a great part of their trcr.fure, and moil
of their women and children. Afliruff, with about 1500
of his men, marched direftly towards Kandriliar ; but moft
of them defert<-d him ; and the reft were lurpvifed by a body
of the Balluches, and after a gallant defence, he and mofl
of his party were cut to pieces. Thus ended the ufurpatioH
of the Afghans in Perfia.

After Nadir Shah was proclaimed emperor of Perfia in

A F G

A F O

1736, he proceeded with his army towatds K;ir.d<ihar, in
erder to reduce to fnhjedion the Afghans, who were the
only entinies of the Pei-f;an empire whom he had not fub-
diud. Havinj;^ fccured Kandahar and Cabiil, and ad-
vancing in his ir.aich towards Peiflior, he was miith iixom-
nioded by thefe hardy n.oiuAiiineers, znil in fcveial ftirinifl'ics
witii tlicm loll niaiiv men, v. ho were either killed or
wounded. The Afghan.i had ft-rtified themfelvcs fo Ifrongly
on the toi)s of the hills, tl'.at this vitlorious general found
k impoflibk- to force tlieir jiafles w-ithout mueh bloodiliLd ;
and he therefore fcnt them ofieiTi of aecomm.odalion, which
they accepted the more readily, as they had not received
for four or five years llie ufual alkv>ance from court for
their ferviccs in defending the pad'esof tlie mounta!-s. Nadir
Shah, upon paying them a ceita'n fum of money, was
allowed to march forward \\ithout molcftation : fevcral of
the Afghans enliilcd in his arniy ; a:id others joined him in
his further pngrefs. 'l"he mountainous refidences of the
Afghans were included in the territories to the wilUvaid of
the river Attek, formally ceded to Nadir Shah by Ma-
hommed Shah, in the year 1739. A body of Afghans,
in the ftrvice of Nadir Shah, was commanded by Ahmed
Khan, who, after the aflaliination of this barbarous con-
queror in 1747, took poiielilon of Cabul, and with the
rtfources iurniibed by the treafure whicli he thus obtained,
laid the foundation of an independent government, including
Afghaniilan Gour, Multan, Sind, and Cafmir. Ahmed
was fuccecded in 177'?, by his fon Timar Shah, who, be-
fides his Afghan and Indian dominions, poffefled a large
divifion of Khorafan. His fuccefTor, who now fills the
throne, carried his arms in 1796 as far as Labor, when he
was recalled by inteftine commotions. Hanway's Hiil.
Ace. of the Britifh Trade, &c. vol. iii. p. 27, &c. &c.
Hanway's Trav. vol. iii. p. 148, &c. Frafer's Hilt.
Nadir Shah, p. 91. Raynal's Revol. vol. ii. p. r>8.

In the 2d volume of the Afiatic Refearches, we have
feme curious particulars relating to the Afghans : they call
themfclves the po/^erity of Mf.lic Talut, or king Saul.
In a war, they fay, which raged between the children of
Ifrael and the Amalekites, the latter, being victorious,
plundered the Jews, and obtained pofTefTion of the ark of
the covenant. Confidcring this as the God of the Jews,
they threw it into the fire, which did not injure it ; and
having incfTcdtually endeavoured by other methods to dellroy
it, they placed it in their temple, and all the idols bowed
to it. At length they fallencd it upon a cow, which they
turned loofc in the w'ldernefs. They are faid to have applied
to Samuel, after their defeat l:)y the Amalekites, for a king ;
and at this time the angel Gabriel defeendcd, and delivered
a wand, with inftruftion, that the perfon, whofe flatnre
conxfponded with that wand, fiioukl be king of Ifrael.
Melic Talut was then a heidfman df inftrior condition:
and having loft a cow, he applied to Samuel for ?.fliftance
to fatisfy the owner. Samuel, perceiving his lofty ft ature,
aflced his name : He anfwered Talut. Upon which, having
meafured him with the wand, he faid to the children of
Ifrael, " God has raifed Talut to be your king." How
fhall we know, faid they, ti'at he fhall be our king ? Samuel
replied, they fnould know, that God had conftitnted Talut
their king, by his reftoring the ark of the covenant. He
accordingly reftored it, and they acknowledged him their
fovereign. After Talut obtained the kjngdom, he feized
part of the teriitories of Jahit, or Goliath, who alTemblcd
a large anny, but was killed by David. Talut afterwards
died a martyr in the war againll the infidels ; and God
conftitutcd David king of the Jews. Melic Talut. ihey
fay, had two fons, one c;ilkd Berkia and the other Inxiia,

who fcrvcd Dnvld and were belov.d by h'.m. The fon of
Berkia was called Afghan, and the fon of Irniia was named
Ufbec. The latttf was eminent for hi.", h aniing ; and 1 lie
former for his corporeal Puength, which llruek terro into
Demons and Genii. Afghan made frtipient txcuifions to
the mountains ; where his progeny, after his deatli, ef-
tahlifiled themfclves, lived in a irate of independence, built
forts, and exterminated the infidels. The late Henty Van-
fittart, Efq. informs us, that a very particular account cf
the Afghans has been written by the late Hrfit:. R/ilimot
Khnn, a chief of the- Rohilla.?, from which the c.irious
reader may derive much infonnatibr. They arc Mufiulmans,
partly of the Sonnite, and partly of the Smiite pe-r-
fuaiion. They boail much of the antiquity of their
origin, and the reputation of their tribe ; but other MufTnl-
mans rcicA tJieir claim, anel confidcr them of modem, and
even bafe extraction. From hillory heiwever, we learn,
that they have diftinguidied themfclves by their conrage,
both iingly and unitedly, as principals and auxiliaiies.
Tiiey have conquered tor their own princes and for foreitni-
ers, and have always been regarded as the chief ilrength
of the army, in which they have ferved. As they have
been applauded for their virtues, they have alfe) been
reproached for vices ; having fometimes been, guilty of
treachery, and even afied the bafe part of aflafTins. They
confilf of four clafi'es, viz. pui~e Afghans, Vifhofe fathers ^
and mothers were Afghans ; thole whofe fathers were
Afghans, but their mothers of another nation ; fuch as had
Afghan mothers, and fathers of another nation ; and th;'
children of women, whofe mothers were Afghans, and
fathers or huibands of a diflerent nation.

The above account is extrafted from the Perfian Abridg-
ment of a book, called The Secrets cf the Afghans, written
in the Pufhto language, a fpecimen of which is added.
The work was communicated by Heni-y Vanfittart, Efq.
to the late Sir William Jones, who was tlien prefident of
the Afiatic fociety. Although their claim to a deleent
from vSaul feems to refemble fome of the fictions borrowed
by Mahomet from the later Jewifh Rabbins, Sir William
Jones has no doubt that the Afghans are defcendaiits of
Ifrael. "We learn, fays he, from Esdras, that the ten
tribes, after a wandering journey, came to a country cnlled
Arfaxeth ; where, we may fuppofe, they fettled. Now
the Afghans are faid by the bell Pcrfian hiftoria'ns to l>e
defcended from the Jews ; they have ame^ng them.felves
traditions of fuch a dtfcent ; and it is even aflerted, that
their families are diftinguiihed by the names of Jcwirti
tribes ; although, fmce their converfion to the IJliim,
they il:udie)nfly conceal their origin : the Puflito language,
of which I have feen a dieflionar}', has a manifeff refemblance
to the Chaldaic ; aiul a coniiderable dillrict under their
dominion is called Hn-nareh, or Haznret, which might
ealily have been changed into the word ufcd by Efdras. I
ftrongly recommend an enquiry into the literature and
hiiton,' of the Afghans."

AFLOAT, in Sea language, denotes the ftate of a fliip
when file is buoyed up by the water from the ground.

AFFOBA, in Botany, a name given by the natives of
Guinea, to a kind of plant, of the genus of the phafeolus,
or kidney bean. They ufe it pounded and mixcel Avith oil,
to cure the itch, and other cutaneous foulncfies. It is more
haiiT than the common kinds, and its leaves are very fm.all.
Phil'. Tranf. N° 232.

AFORE, fignifiesthat part of a (hip which lies forward,
or near the ftcrn. It alfo means farther forward, as the
manger ftands afore the forc-mall, or nearer to the
Hern.

AFRA, '

A 1" R

ATllA, in GiO^'i/ipf.-y, a ftrong callle on the frontier'*
of Oiiai-aiil Africa, built by Chciif Mahoiuincd, kinjj oi
ijur, X. lat. :o" 20'. E. long. 2}^ to'^

A IRA, ill F.iiiomo/ozy, a fpccios of Papilio, with
bnnva wings, lix ocelli, and the hinder wings marked
with cinereous veins; found in the fouthcrn dcferts of
Rull'ia.

A.VR ANIUS, I., in Bi\i;rapky, a Latin comic poet, who
flourillud about the year U. C. 65+, or a century beforeChriit.
Cicero (de CUar. Orat. npud Oper. t. i. p. 434, Ed. Olivet.)
f.ivs, tiiat he imitated C. Titius, and con-miends him for
the acntencfs of his ge^iius and the fluency of his llyle. Ho-
race (Epid. 1. ii. ep. I. V. y;) reprefeuls him as rcfenibling
Menandcr. Qiiim-tiliaii, (1. x. c. I. t. ii. p. gi.?) v.hillt
he c>.lebrate3 his talents for comedy, exprcffes a wifli that he
had nut fullied his performances by impure and unnatural
love-adventures, which were declaratory of his own manners.
Suetonius in his life of Nero, (apud Opcr. t. ii. p. 743. Ed.
Pitifc.) mentions a comedy of Afranius, intitled //jfraf/Zam
or Conffagration, on the exhibitions of which the houfe that
was burned was devoted to be pillaged by the actors. Some
.fragments of this poet's vvarks are preferved in Mattaire's
Corpus Poetarum, Loud. 1713, fol.

AFRICA, in Geography and H\j}ory, was anciently one
of the three parts of the known world, which was divided
into Europe, Aha, and Africa, and called by the Greeks
i:T.'if'i, conthiaits ; and is now one of the four quarters of the
globe. Bochart (Geog. Sac. apud op. tom. i. col. 48S.)
after enmnerating feveral etymologies of the name Africa,
which he difapproves, deduces it from a Punic word fcric,
fignifying an ear of corn, and referring to the fertility of
this country. Dr. Hyde fuppofes it to be derived from the
Phienician or Pvmic Havarca, or Avreca ; i. e. the Barca,
or country of Barca, which was one of the molt remarkable
parts of this continent. Servius in Virgil (^En. v. v. 128.
tom. ii. p. 618. Ed. Burm.) deduces it from avsu ^^doij,
Jim frigore, and the appellation expreffes tlie heat of the
chmate. Africa, called by the ancients Libyi'., was divided
by them into Africa propria, and Africa interior. Africa
propria, or the territory of Carthage, has had various li-
mits affigned to it by the ancient geographers. Mela (1. i.
■c. 7.) and Ptokmy (1. iv. c. 3.) comprehend under this
appellation all the countries fituated between the river
Ampfaga and the borders of Cyrenaica, which, according
to Pliny (H. N. 1. V. c. 4.) were inhabited by twenty-fix
different nations ; and thus they would include Numidia
and the Regio Syrtica, which are countries dillinft from
the proper territory of Carthage. Its true limits feem to
have been (See Cellar. Ant. Geog. tom. ii. p. 85.) the river
Tulca, or boundary of Numidia, on the well ; the Medi-
terranean, or African Sea on the north ; the frontiers of the
Garamantes and dcferts of Libya interior on the fouth ;
and the Mediterranean, with the Leifer Syrtis, on the call.
It comprehended two provinces, t/'z. the Reglo Zeugi-
TANA and Byzacium, with which the kingdom of Tunis,
as it is divided by Dr. Shaw (Travels, p. 73.) into the
fummcr and winter circuits, nearly corrcfponds. The chief
likes of this region, noticed by the ancientSj are Hipponttii,
the Paliis Sifara, the Palus Tritonis, the Palus Pallas, and
the Palus Libya: the moft famous river was the Baqrada;
and the principal illands on the coaft. of Africa propria were
the Cossyra, thcTARicHiff, Lopadusa, Agvs&, the
Larunesi/e, Dracomtia, Galata, and JEgimurus.

Africa was firft peopled, principally by Ham and his de-
fcendants. Mizraim peopled Egypt. (See Gen. x. 6. 13.)
The Pathnifim, the Naphtalim, the Cafluhim, and the Ludim
took poffcffion of other parts : though their refpedive fitua-

A F R

lions are not precifcly known. Some have fuppofjd that
the Lehabim fettled in Libya, and Pluit betwcea Numidia
and Libya, along the Mediterranean, and that many of '

the Canaanites, when they were driven out of th^ir country
bv Jolhua, retired into Africa. At a later period, tl:e in-
habitants of this connti-y were the Aules, whofe chief city
was AuzA, the Maxyes and Machlyes both Libyan na-
tions, the Zaueces, and the Zygantes, who cultivated bees,
and made honey. All thele were, probably, a mixture of
old Libyans and Phanicians, and in feveral refpeds refem-
bled both thefe nations.

Africa interior comprehended thofe remoter and more
fouthern countries of Africa, luoll of which were little
known to the Greeks and Romans otliei-wife than by un-
certain and fabulous report. The wcftern part of this di-
vifion was called Libya interior, and it was chiefly inhabited
by the Gitiuli, Garamantes, Nigrit^, and Hefperian JEthiop>i-
ans. The eaftern part was denominated by Ptolemy JEthi-
opia fub JF.gypto. See Abyssinia, Egypt, and Ethi-
opia. The Romans do not feem to have extended their
conquefls and intercourfe beyond the tropic of Cancer>
The kingdoms with which they were more immtdiately
connefted were Numidia, Mauritania, and Gxtulia. As
for the inhabitants of the more retired and foutherly parts,
they were ignorant even of their names, and much more of
their charader and manners. Some account will be given
of the notions that prevailed refpeding them in their pro-
per places, under the real or fabulous appellations by which
they were dillinguifhed, as AJlacuri, Blemmycs, CaJupi, Do-
lopes, Elephantophagi, Ichtkiopliagi, Lotophagi, &c. &c.

The ignorance of the ancients, concerning the extent of
Africa, appear.s from their difagreement in afcertaining its
jull limits ; whilft fome, as Sallull, (Jugurth. Bell. c. 20.
toiu. i. p. 26. Ed. Haverc.) Mela, (1. i. c. 8.) Phny (1. iii.
c. I. tom. i. p. 135. Ed. Hard.) Dionyims, (Perieg. v. 18.)
Hirtius, (De Alex. Bell. c. 14.) Polybius, (Hill. 1. iii.
p. 191. Ed. Cafaub.) and Solinus, have preferred for this
purpofe the weftern branch of the Nile, or even the great
Catabathmus or defert ; which laft would aflign to Afia,
not only Egypt, but part of Libya : others, as Ptolemy,
(1. iv. c. 5.) and Strabo, (1. i. tom. i. p. 61.} with the mo-
dern geographers, fix the ifthmus of Suez, aiid the Ara-
bian gulf, as the boundaries of Afia and Africa. This,
fays Strabo, is a more natural limit than the Nile ; and •
thus, fays Ptolemy, the whole of Egypt is included lU Af-
rica. But the knowledge both of Ptolemy and Strabo
comprehended only a fmall part of Africa. Strabo was
only acquainted with that part of it which the Roiuans had
reduced under their power, and this was fcarcely a tenth
part of it, and he feems not to have knov/n any thing with
certainty concerning the form and ftate of the fouthern
parts of Africa (1. xvi. t. ii. p. 1 180. ); and though Ptokmy
was acquainted with fome other parts, which were not
known to the Romans, yet by the divifion which he hath
made of it into twelve regions, we may conceive that nearly
one half of it was unknown to him. This mquultive and
learned geographer appears to have been unacquainted with
any part of Africa, fituuted a few degrees beyond the
equinodial line ; for he fuppofes that this great continent
was not furrounded by the fea, but that it II retched, with-
out interruption, and increaCng in its breadth, towards the
fouth. Geog. 1. 4. c. 9. Leo Africanus, who was an
eminent African geographer, after all his (Indies, travels,
and refearches, appears to have been impcrfedly acquainted
with this country ; for by dividing it merely into four parts,
tv'a. Barbary, Numidia or Biledulgerid, Libya, and Nigritia
or Ncgrcland, he txcludcs from it the whole kingdom of

Egypt

A F R

A F R

E'^vpt, and the two Eihiopias. It was not known for
many ages, that Afiica was a peninfula, every where funound-
ed by the fea, excepting at tlie iflhnnis of ,Suez, which joins
it to Afia. The knowledge of the Romans wasrellridled to
thofe provinces which ftreteh along the Mediterranean fea,
from Egypt weftward to the flraits of Gades. The Phoe-
nicians, however, at an earlier period, feeni to have been ac-
quainted witli both the fouth-eall and weftern coalls of
Africa. A Phccnician fleet, as Herodotus informs us, (1. iv.
c. 42. p. 298. Ed. WcfTeling.) fitted out by Necho, king
of Egypt, took its departure about 604 years before the
Chriftian ira, from a jiort in the Red fea, doubled the
fouthern promontory of Africa, and, after a voyage of
three years, returned by the ilraits of Gadts, to the mouth
of the Nile. Eudoxus of Cyzicus, is faid to have held the
fame courfe, and to have accomplilhed the fame arduous
undertaking. Plin. H. N. 1. ii. c. 67. tom. i. p. 106. Strabo,
(1. ii. tom. i. p. 155.) mentions this voyage of Eu-
doxus, and treats it as a fabulous tale. Dr. Vincent, in his
Periplus of the Erythrcan fea, publllhed in iSoo, argues
with great ingenuity againft the pohlbility of an African
circumnavigation previoufly to that of the Portuguefe ;
and he afferts, that there is no evidence of a farther progrefs
to the fouth, on the wellern eoall of Africa, than that of
Hanno ; nor on the eaflern, than that of tlie Periplus. An
anonymous writer is difpofed to credit the voyage, related
by Herodotus, till it can be proved that tlie circumnaviga-
tion, in fuch vefTels as the Phccnicians then pofleiTcd, was
phyiically impofhble ; and in fupport of this opinion, he
alledges the fimplicity of the narrative, unblended with mi-
raculous adventures — the difcovery of two important truths,
I'iz. the falling of the fliadow to the fouth, and the penin-
fular form of the African continent ; one of which could
be afcertained by no other means, and the former of which
was difbeheved by the writer who relates it ; and the con-
fideration, that the navigators only put to fea when cir-
cumftances were favourable ; and though the attempt was
hazardous, and fuccefs improbable, ftill no infurmountable
impediment to its completion exifts. Month. Rev. New
Series, vol. xxxiv. p. 122. The Carthaginians alfo, imbibing
the fpirit, and following the example of the Phcenicians, ex-
tended their intercourfe with this country-. Whilll they
made confiderable progrefs, by land, into the interior pro-
vinces of Africa, trading with fome of them, and fubjecl-
ing others to their empire ; they failed along the weilern
coaft of this great continent, almoft to the tropic of Can-
cer, and planted feveral colonies, in order to civilize the na-
tives, and accuftom tliem to commerce. In the profperous
age of the Carthaginian republic, Hanno, with a fleet
equipped by authority of the fenate, and at the public ex-
pence, was directed to ileer towards the fouth, and feems to
have advanced much nearer the equinoctial line than any
former navigator. Major Renaell fuppofcs his navigation
to have terminated at Sherbro' river, or found, which was
alfo the limit of the knowledge of Ptolemy. Phn. H. N.
1. V. c. i.t. i. p. 241. Hannonis Periplus apud Geograph.
minores ed. Hudfon, vol. i. p. i. The authenticity of this
work has been queilioned by Mr. Dodwell ( uhi fuprn ) , and
vindicated by M. de Montefquieu (Sp. of Laws, b. xxi. c.
8. v. ii. p. 44.) and M. de Bougainville, in a DifTertation
publiftied in tom. xxvi. of the Mem. de I'Acad. des Infcrip-
tions. Sec. The voyage, it is faid, was perfoniied in fmall
veffels, which kept near the eouft ; and the obfervations
made on the appearance and ftate of the countries on the
coail of Africa have been confirmed by the relations of
modern navigators. Neverthelefs, Polybius, (Hift. 1. iii.
p. 192. Ed. Cafaub.) long after the period afiigned to
Vot. I.

thcfe voyages, afHrms, that it was not known in his time,
wlicther Africa was a continued continent, ftretching
to the foutli, or whether it was cncompafTed by the fea ;
and Pliny (II. N. 1. ii. c. 6S. t. i. p. 107.) afTcrts, that thwe
can be no communication between tiie loutheni and noi-lhern
temperate zones. In order to obviate thefe diflicultics,
Dr. Robertfon obferves, (Hill. Amer. vol. i. p. 15. 8vo. )
that the Phoenicians and Carthaginians concealed any know-
ledge they acquired concerning the remote regions ot the
earth, with a mercantile jealoufy. Many of their difco-
veries feem to have been Icarcely known beyond the pre-
cinfts of their own ftates. The navigation round Africa
is recorded by the Greek and Roman writers, rather as a
ilrange amiifmg tale, than as a real tranf;>6Hon. As neither
the progrefs oi the Phoenician and Carthaginian difcoveries,
nor the extent of their navigation, were communicated to
the rell: of mankind, all memorials of their (liill in naval
affairs feem, in a great nieafure, to have periflied, when the
maritime power of the former was annihilated by Alexan-
der's conquell of Tyre, and the empire of the latter was
overturned by the Roman arms. It was not till a century
after the invention of the mariner's compafs in 1302, that
navigation began to advance beyond 'he ilate to which il
had attained before the downfal of the Roman empire.
The firil regular plan for difcovering unknown countries was
formed in Portugal by John I. furnamtd the baftard, after
he had obtained fecure poflefTion of the crown, by the peace
concluded with Callile, A. D. 14H. Whiltt an armament was
equipping, in order to attack the Moors who were fettled
on the coaft ot Barbary, a fleet, confiiling of a few veflels,
was dcllined in 141 2 to fail along the wellern fliore of
Africa, and to difcover the countries that were fituated oa
that coaft. This fleet doubled Cape Non, which had been
the formidable boundary of the Portuguefe navigation be-
fore this period, and proceeded i6o miles beyond it to Cape
BojADOR. The rocky cliffs, adjacent to this cape, de-
terred any farther progrefs. In 1418, a new attempt was
made for doubling this cape, but though the attempt proved
unfuccefsful, it terminated in the difcovesy of Porto
Ranto ; and another expedition, in 1419, was recompen-
ied by the difcovery of Madeira. The Portuguefe, by
their voyage to this ifland, were accuftonied to quit the
coaft, and venture into the open fea. By purfuing this
courfe they fucceeded, A. D. 1433, in doubling cape Bo-
jADOR, and in advancing within the tropics ; io that in a
few years they diicovered the river Senegal, and the whole
coaft extending from Cape Blanco to Cape de Verd.
As far as the river Senegal they found the African coaft
inhabited by people refembling the Moors of Barbary ;
but to the fouth of that river, they beheld men with ikins
black as ebony, with fliort curled hair, flat nofes, thick lips,
and all thofe peculiar features which are now known to
diftinguifh the race of negroes. The iearch for unknown
countries became now an objedl of general attention ; and
it was encouraged firft by the difcovery of the Cape de
Verd iflands ; and foon after, toV. in 1449, by that of tlic
Azores. So llow and gradual, however, was the progrefs
of difcovery, that the Portuguefe, durir.g the life of prince
Henry, who had projedled and patroniled undertakings
of this kind, and wiio died in 1463, did not advance nearer
to the cquinoftial line than five degrees ; and after their
continued exertions for half a centuiy, they had not dii-
covered more than i ijoo miles of the African coaft. From
Cape NoN to the Senegal, the country along the coaft
was found to be a fandy, barren traft, thinly inhabited by
a wretched people, profelling the Mahometan religion, and
fubjeft to the exteiifive empire of Morocco. But to the
3 A fouth

A F R

foiitli of ilut I Ivor, tlic power and religion of the Malio-
mctaiis were unkiiowii ; tlic couiitry was JiviJcJ into fnuiU
irnli-piiuKiit piiini])-.ilitii-i5, the pupiilation was conliJcniblc,
the foil fiTtilc ; aiiil tin- Portugwclc loon cUfcovercJ thai it
proiliicid ivory, rich ^unis, goUl, and other vahi -Lie com-
modities, wlii'cli affoidod tlic profpecl of a hicrativc com-
merce, as well as the gratilicatiou of curiofity. Having
ventured to crofs the line in 1471, they found that region
of the torrid zone, which was fnppofed to be icorclicd witli
iiitoKrahle heat, to be not only hahital)le, but popnUnis
and fertile. In 14^'4, a powerful fleet was fitted out, which,
after difcovering the kingdoms of Benin and Congo, ad-
vanced above 15CO miles beyond the line ; and in order to
fecure tlic poirelTion of tlic countries which they difcovered,
and to derive commercial advantages from ihem, forts were
ereifted on the coall of Guinea, colonies were fettled, and
bv various meafures of policy, the Portuguefe power and
commerce in Africa were cilabhflied npon a iolld foundation.
By conilant intercourfe with the Africans, the Portuguefe
gained increafing knowledge of the country ; tlicy found, that
contrar)' to the doiflrinc of Ptolemy, the continent inclined
towards the eall ; and they beg-an to indulge a hope, founded
on the report of the ancient Phoenician vorrtgcs round Africa,
of proceeding by the fame route to the Eall Indies,^ and of
engrofTing that commerce, which has been the fouree of wealth
and power to every nation by which it lias been polFelTed.
In i^Xf), a voyage of difcoveiy was projetled, and the con-
duft of it was committed to Bartholomew Diaz, an experi-
enci d and brave officer, who ftretched faitlier towards the
foutli tlian any of his predeceffoi-s, and difcovered near looo
miles of a new country. After encountering many difficul-
ties and hazards, in an unknown and tempelhious ocean, he
at length defcried tliat lofty promontory which bounds
Africa to the fonth ; but having made the difcoveiy, he
was compelled, by the fliattered Hate of his (hips, and the
turbulent difpofition of l>is crew, to return home. This
promontory he called Ciito 'Tormentofo, or th.e ftormy cape ;
but the king, his mailer, extending his views by this courle
to India, gave it a name of better omen, which it has ever
fince retained, — ihe Cape of Gond Hope. In 1497,3 fqua-
dron was equipped for profecuting the fcheme of opening a
palfage to the Eail Indies by this cape ; and the command
of it was entruiled with Vafco de Gama, a man of noble
birth, and pofTclTcd of talents adapted to the enterprife.
Ignorant of the courfc of the winds in the Atlantic ocean,
he fet fail in July, an improper feafon of the year ; and
bearing towards the fouth, he llruggled with contrary winds
for four months, before he reached the cape. During an
interval of calm weather, he doubled this fonnidable promon-
tory, and purfued his voyage towards the nortii-eall, along
the African coall. After touching at feveral ports and
various adventures, he came to anchor before the city of
Melinda. From hence he proceeded to Calecut, where he
arrived May 22, 149S ; but as he had neither force fuffici-
ent to attempt a fettlement, nor commodities pioper for
carrying on any commerce, he haftcned back to Portugal,
with an account of his fuccefs in performing a voyage the
longetl, as well as the moil: difficult, that had ever been
made fince the firft invention of navigalion. He landed at
I^ifbon, Sept. 14, 1499, two years, two months, and five days
from the time he left th.at port. To this voyage we are
indebted for tlie difcoveiy of the fouthern and wefteru
boundaries of the African continent ; and from the Por-
tuguefe we alfo derive our earliefl knowlege of many of its
interior parts, and of the moil coTifiderable k-ngdoms and
empires of which it confiib, particularly thofe of Habefli
or Abyssinia, Mosomotapa, Monolmugi, the eallern

A F R

kingdoms of Cos-co, Angola, Metamba, Loango, and
others on the wellern fide; thofe of Sofala, Mozam-
liniUE, QuiLOA, Mombaza, and Melinda, on the
eailcrn coall. Their niiflionaries collected and recorded
manv particulars with refpett to their various religions, go»
vernments, laws, cutloms, products, and commerce, at a
time when the means of information conceniing the interior
of Africa were very fcanty and imperfect.

Africa, at a former diftant period, contained feveral king-
doms and flates, eminent for the liberal arts, for wealth ami
power, and for the moft extenlive commerce. Almoll aU
tlie northern parts of this continent were full of people,
fnmi the Red Sea to the Atlantic Ocean. Ilie kingdoms
of Egvpt and Ethioima were much celebrated, and the
rich and powerful Hate of Carthage extended her com-
merce to every region of the then known world ; and even
tlie Britifh Ihoreswere vllited by her Heets. At length tin;
Romans, after a contell which hilled for more than 100
years, totally fubdued this famous republic and deftroved
their city, and then reduced under tlieir power other king-
doms and ftates of Africa. See Numidia, Mauritanma,
G^TULIA, &c. The Roman empire retained its poffeflions
in this countiy for feveral ages, and found them an ample
fouree of revenue, as well as neceffary fupply.

The 10,000 Euboic, or Phoenician talents, amount-
ing to about four milUons fterllng, wliich vanquilhcd *
Carthage was condemned to pay within the term of
fifty years, as Polybius informs us, (Hifl. 1. xv. c. 2.
p. 706.) were a flight acknowledgment of the fupcriority
of Rome, and bear a very fmall proportion to the taxes af-
terwards raifed both on the lands and on the perfons of the
inhabitants, after the fertile coall of Africa was reduced
into a province. It would be tedious to recite tlie oppref-
fions which the Africans fuffered from the rapacity of the
Roman governors, and the dillractions wliich were the con-
fequences of their religious dilputes, after the introduction
of Chrillianity, and which were rather augmented than ap-
peafed under the unfeafonable interference of the civil
power. Of the latter, fome account will be given under
the articles circumcelliones and donatists ; and with
ivlpecf to the former it will be fuffieieut to feleCt a finglc
inltanee.

About the year of our Lord 366, Count Romanus pof-
fcffed the militaiy command of Africa. At this time the
three flourifliing cities of Oea, Leptis, and Sabrata, which,
under the name of Tripoh, had long conflituted a federal
union, were invaded and pillaged by the barbarians of Gx-
tulia ; and feveral of their molt honourable citizens were
iurprifed and malfacred. In this ftate of diflrefs they ap-
plied to Romanus for fuccour ; but the price of his afTift-
ance was fo enormous, that they \»'ere incapable of purchaf-
ing it. Their application by two deputies to the emperor
Valentinian was equally unavailing ; for though he deputed
Palladius to examine the flate of Africa, and the conduft of
Romanus, he behaved in fuch a manner that, for concealing
1.13 own guilt, he was under a neceffity of attefting the inno-
cence and merit of tlie Count. The charge of tlie Tripo-
litans was declared to be falfe and frivolous j the citizens of
Leptis were compelled to contradift the truth of their own
decrees, and to cenfure the behaviour of their own depu-
ties ; the prelident of Tripoli, who had prefumed to pity
the dillrefs of the province, was publicly executed at Uti-
ca ; four diftinguillied citizens were put to death, as accom-
plices of the imaginary fraud, and the tongues of two others
were cut out, by the exprefs order of the favage emperor.
Romanus was continued in the command, till tlie Africans
were provoked, by his avarice, to join the rebcllioiis Itandard

A F R

•f Fiimiis tlie Moor, A. D. ^572, FiVmiiS was tlie Ton of one
of tlie liclicK and mod; powerful of the Moorifli priiu-es,
who acknowledged the liipremucy of Rome ; and luiviiifr
llniii his brotlier in a domeiUc qLiaiTel, lie hecame obnoxi-
ous to the dilpleafuic of Romaniii:. Unable to conciliate
liim, he appealed agavnil the tyrant, who was an objeiit of
imiverlal contempt and hatred, to the fword and to the
jieople. Haviu;! ellahliflrcd his power in the provinces of
Mauritania and Numidia, and whiUl he was helitating whe-
ther he fliould alhime the diadem of a Moorifli kinjr, or
the purple of a Roman emperor, Theodofuis the famous
Koman general, with a fmall band of veterans, unexpeft-
cdly arrived on the African coall, and quelled the rebellion by
Jiis prudence and aftlvity ; and Firmus, deprived of all hopes
of elcapc, difappointed the infnltiug triumph of tlie Romans,
hj ilrangling himftlf in the night. Romanus, who was
the original caiil'e of this rebellion, efca])ed with impunity,
liy fraud and forgery ; and Theodofius, the reflorer of Bri-
tain and of Africa, on a vague furjiicitm that his name and
fervices were fuperior to the rank of a fubjeft, was igno-
iiiinioully beheaded at Carthage. Gibbon's Hill. vol. iv.
go I — 308, 8v/j.

The Romans, howeva-, did not long retain their domi-
nion in Africa. It was loft in confequence of a quarrel
between Boniface and ^tius, two Roman generals,
who were rirals in reputation and power. The former
was fupreme governor of the Roman territories in this
countiy ; but in the year 427, he was induced to revolt,
by the treachery of the latter : and in order to avenge
liis quarrel and maintain his authority, in oppoiltion to his
rival, he lought the affillance of Gcnferic, a warhke prince
of the Vandals, who left the kingdom of Gallicia, where
he had fucceeded his brother Gonderic, and failing over the
ftraits of Gades, landed on the a)afts of Barbary, A. D. 429.
The army, which he commanded, amounted at firft only
to 50,000 e.Teftivc men : but his own dcxteritv, and the dif-
contents of Africa, foon fortified the Vandal powers, bv the
acceflion of numerous and aftive allies. The wandering
Moors of Mauritania precipitated thenifelves into an alli-
ance with the enemies of Rome ; and a crowd of naked fa-
vages ruflied from tjie woods and vallies of Mount Atlas,
to fatiate their revenge on the poliflied tyrants, who had
injurioufly expelled them from the native fovcreignty of the
)and. The perfecutions of tlie Donatists favoured the
defigus of Gcnferic, who avowed himfelf an enemy of the
orthodox communion, and who led them to cxpeft a repeal
of the odious and opprcffive edicts of the Roman emperors.
The conqueft of Africa was facilitated by the aftive zeal,
or the feeret favour, of a domeftic faftion ; and the intole-
rant fpirit, which difgraced the triumph of Chriftianity,
contributed to the lofs of the moll important province of the
iveft.

Boniface having vindicated his innocence at the im-
perial court, and regained the favour of the emprefs Pla-
cidia, repented of the application which he had made
to Genferic, and attempted, by various conciliatory means,
to induce him and his adventurers to return to Spain.
But all his efforts for this purpofe were ineffeftual. Al-
though Carthage, and the Roman garrifons, returned with
their general to the allegiance of Valentinian, the reft
of Africa was diftraCted with war and faftion ; and the in.
exorable king of the Vandals difdained all terms of aceom-
jnodation, Boniface and his veterans, with the haftv levies of
provincial troops, were defeated with confiderable lofs ; the
victorious barbarians infultcd the open countrj- ; and Car-
thage, Cirla, and Hippo Regius were the only cities that
iliU adiicretl to the declining intertft of Rome. The long

A F R

and narrow tra£l of the African coail to wliicli tlie Roman
power extended was fertile and jiopulous ; and belides the
iupply wliich it afforded to the inhabitants, the annual ex-
portation, particularly of wheat, was fo regular and plentiful
that Africa deferved the name of the common granary of
Rome and of mankind ; and it was called by an ancient writer
the foul of the commonwealth. On a fudden, the feveii
fruitful provinces, from Tangier to Tripoli, were over-
whelmed by the invafion of the VLndals ; and where they
found reliftanee, fuch were their difpofitions and iiabits,
they feldom gave quarter. Boniface, diilreffed beyond mea-
fure by the view of the ruin which he had occafioned, and by
his inability to Ibiy its progrcfs, retired into Hippo Regius,
which was immediately belieged. By the flvill of this dil'-
tlnguiflied commander, the ficge was protracted above 14
months ; and thus Boniface was recruited by a powerful ar-
mament from Conftantinoiile. As foon as he obtained liiis
help he marched out againll the Vandals ; and the lofs of a.
fecond battle irretrievably decided the fate of Africa ; upon
which lie embarked for Italy with the precipitation of delpair,
and loon after, A. D. 4,2, fell in a rencounter witli hij
rival yEliits. In the year 439Cartliage was reduced, 585 years
after the deftruOition of the city and republic by the younger
Scipio : the licentious troops of the vidor were permitted tt>
fatiate their rage and avarice, and all perlons were enjoined
by an edift, and under the threatened penalty of death and
torture, to deliver their gold, filver, jewels :ind valuable fur-
niture or apparel, to the royal officers. The lauds that
formed the immediate diftrict of Carthage were divided
among the barbarians ; and Gcnferic relen'ed for his owu
domain the fertile territory of By/.aeium and the adjacent
parts of Numidia and G;etulia. Genferic was no leis ar-
bitrary and intolerant in *he government of the church than
of the flate. He would not allow tlie Africans, who fled
before him in the field, to difpute his will in fynods and
churches ; and therefore, as he himielt had renounced the
orthodox communion, he opprefled his catholic fubjedts by
fevere laws and punilhmcnts. His fon Hunn^ric, who fuc-
ceeded him, A. D. 477, inherited his vices, and tormented the
catholics with the fame unrelenting fuiy. The tlirone of
Africa was fucceffively filled by the two nephews of Hunnc-
ric, by Gundamund, A. D. 484, and by Thrafimund, A. 1).
496 ; both of whom emulated the cruelty of their uncle,
and the laft of whom even exceeded it : for in the hour of
death he exacted from his fucceffor a folemn oath, that he
would never tolerate the fectaries of Athanafius. Hilderic,
the gentle fon of the favage Hunneric, afcendtd the throne
A. D. 523, and his acceffion was dillinguiflied by the rellor-
atlon of peace and univerfal freedom. In 530, the govern-
ment was wrefted from him by his coufm Gclimcr ; but the
Vandal kingdom, before he could enjoy or abufe his power,
was fubverted by the arms of Belifarius ; and the orthodox,
party retaliated the injuries which they had ruffcred. The
recovery of Africa was intrulled by Jnftinian with Beli-
farius ; and in 533 he landed 011 the coall with an army,
well chofen and properly equipped for the important fervice
to which they were dellined. As the Romans approached
Carthage, the mind of Gelimer was filled with an-.viety and
terror. The battle that cnfued terminated in the defeat of
the Vandals, who, accuilomed only to a Moonfli enemy,
were incapable of withlhuiding the armsand dil"ei])liiie of the
Romans. Gelimer fled towards the deferts of Numidia ;
and Belifarius pi'.chcd his camp on the field of victory at the
diilance of ten miles from Carthage. When he drew near the
city, he found it bla/ing with torches, as fignals of the public;
jov ; the gates were thrown open ; and the inhabitants, with
aceiamutions of gratitude, hailed and welcomtu their Roman
3 A 2 .Jeliverers,

A F R .

deliverers. When the Imperial fleet arrived, the mariners
were immediately landed to unite with the military in the
triumph of their conqucft ; and they were dirtftcd by Bcli-
farius to remember, in their niardi through the city, that the
Vandah liad been the tyrants, but thai they were the deli-
verers of the Africans, who mull now be rer|)ected as the
voluntary and affedioiiate iubjecls of tlieir common fove-
rrign. " The voice of menace and complaint was filcnt ;
the trade of Carthajje was not interrupted ; while Africa
changed her mailer and her frovernmcnt, the (hops continued
open and bufy ; and the foljiers, after fufficient guard, had
been polled, modcrtiy departed to the houfes which were
allotted for their reception. Bclifarius fixed his refidence in
the paLice ; fcafed himfelf on the throne of Genferic ; ac-
cepted and dillribnted the barbaric fpoil ; granted their lives
to the luppliant \'andals ; and laboured to repair the damage
which the I'uburb of Mandracium had fuflained in the pre-
ceding night. At fuppcr he entertained his principal officers
with the form and magnificence of a royal banquet."

Gehmer, who endeavoured to rally his fcattered forces,
encamped within four days' joumey of Carthage, and was
joined by his brother Zano, who returned to him, at his
earned requell, from the conquell of Sardinia. In their
march towards Carthage, their army increafcd, and fur-
palfed, in a tenfold proportion, that of the Romans, com-
manded by Bclifarius. After a fevere engagement, Zano
fell ; and the pufiHanimous flight of Gehmer expoled the
vanity of his recent declaration, that, to the vanquilhed,
death was a relief, life a burthen, and infamy the only objeft
of terror. The Vandals, defeitcd by their king, hailily
difperfed ; and the Romans entered the camp without re-
lillance, and diigraced themftlves by the maflacre and plun-
der which followed their viftoiy. Bclifarius, with the
dawn of the next morning, recalled them to order and obe-
dience ; and he extended his proteclion to the fuppliant
Vandals, exerciling a proper vigilance, that they might nei-
ther dillurb the public peace, nor become the viftiins of po-
pular revenge. Gehmer had fled to the inaccefllble coun-
try of the Moors, and Behfarius, defiiling from the pur-
fuit, refolved to fix his winter-quarters at Carthage. From
thence he conveyed information to the emperor, that, in the
fpace of three months, he had atchieved the conqueft. of
Africa. The emperor received the news v;ith devout gra-
titude ; and proceeded, without delay, to the full eftablirti-
ment of the catholic church. " Her jurifdiftion, wealth,
and immunities," fays Mr. Gibbon,'" perhaps the moft eflen-
tial part of epifcopal religion, were reftored and amplified
with a hberal hand: the Arian worfliip was fuppreffed ;
the Donatifl; meetings were profcribed ; and the fynod of
Carthage, by the voice of 2 1 7 bifliops, applauded the jufl:
meafure of pious retaliation." Gelimer was traced to the
mountain of Papua, in the inland countiy of Numidia,
where he had ilniggled with the hardfliip and mortification
of the moll abjeft condition, and brought captive to Car-
thage. When the royal captive accolled his conqueror,
he is fad to have burll into a fit of laughter. Some might
have inferred from this fingular circumftance, that he had
been deprived of his fenfes by extreme grief ; but to more in-
telligent obfervers, this unieafonable mirth infinuated, that
the vain and tranfitory fcenes of human greatnefs are un-
worthy of a ferious thought. Bclifarius returned, A. D.
5.H> to Conftantinoplc, and obtained a very fignal and
fplendid triumph. Gelimer advanced flowl;' in the train of
attendants on this occafion ; and maintained the majeily of
a king. Not a tear nor a figh efcaped him ; but he repeat-
edly pronounced the words of Solomon, Vanity! Va-
nity! ALL IS Vanity! The departure of Bclifarius

A F R

from Africa was followed by new troubles, which continued
for feveral years, and accelerated the ruin of its moil flou-
rifliing provinces. The taxes were multiplied by arbitrary
afTcirmcnts ; the crown lands were refumcd, and the Roman
ioldiers, who had married the widows and daughters of the
Vandals, claimed the eftates which Genferic had afiigned to
the vitlorious troops. The diP.atisfadlion and mutiny in-
creafcd ; and they were aggrava:cd by foldiers, who hi'.d
imbibed tiic doctrines, and were inlligatcd by the clergy
of the Arian feet. A confpiracy was formed at Carthage,
againft the life of Solomon, the fuccelTor of Bclifarius ;
and a furious fedition was kindled in the Circus which de-
folated Africa above ten years. The head of the infur-
gents was a private foldicr, whofe name was Stoza. When
he fell, another perfmi, called Gontharis, promiled to divide
Africa with the Moors, and afpired to the throne of Car-
thage. His reign, however, killed only 30 days. The re-
bellion of the Moors continued for fome time ; but their
infolence was checked by a battle, in which 17 of their
princes were flain, and the fubmilTiou of their tribes was ce-
lebrated with lavifli applaule by the people of Conftanti-
noplc. Such, it has been obferved, was the defolation of
Africa in the reign of Juftinian, that, in many parts, a
flranger might wander whole days without Iccir.g the face
either of a friend or an enemy. The nation of the Van-
dals, amounting to 160,000 warriors, exchifively of chil-
dren, women, and Haves, had difappeared. Their number
was much exceeded by that of the Moorifh families, extir-
pated in a relentlefs war ; and the fame deftruftion was reta •
liated on the Romans and their allies, who perilhed by the
climate, their mutual quarrels, and the rage of the barba-
rians. Procopius confidently affiiTns, that five millions of
Africans were confumed by the wars and government of
the emperor Jullinian. Tlie conqueft of Africa, by the
Saracens, was firll attempted by the arms of the caliph
Othman, A. D. 647 ; and the conduCl of the war was cn-
trufted to Abdallah, his fofter-brother. After fome partial
fucceffes and very confiderable lofTes, in a campaign of 15
months, the Saracens retreated to the confines of Egypt,
with the captives and the wealth of their African expe-
dition. Their weftern conquefts were fufpended near 20
years. At length the fearlefs Akbah plunged into the
heart of the country, traverfed the wildernefs, in which his
fuccelTors crefted the fplendid capitals of Fez and Morocco,
and penetrated farther to the verge of the Atlantic and
the Great Defert. The career of Akbah was reftrained by
the profpeiil of a boundlefs ocean. Spurring his horfe
into the waves, and raifing his eyes to heaven, he exclaimed
with die tone of a fanatic — " Great God ! if my courfe
were not ftopped by this fea, I would ftill go on, to the
unknown kingdoms of the weft, preaching the unity of
thy holy name, and putting to the iword the rebellious na-
tions who worfliip any other gods than thee." But this
ardent conqueror was recalled from the fliores of the At-
lantic by the defection of the Africans ; and overpowered
by a multitude of infurgents, he had only left the refource
of an honourable death. His fate was avenged by his fuc-
csflbr Zuheir, who vanquilbed the natives in many battles,
and was himfelf overcome by a powerful army, fent from
Conftantinoplc to the rehef of Carthage. The conqueft of
Africa was refumed by the caliph Abdalmalek ; and after
fome progrefs, his farther advances were obilrufted by the
forces of the eaftern empire, under the praefeft and patrician
John, a general of experience and renown. But in the en-
fuing fpring, he was compelled to evacuate the fortifications
of Carthage ; and after a fecond battle in the neighbour-
hood of Utica, the Greeks and Goths were again defeated,

and

A F R

APR

and compclltrd to embark, and make tlicir cfcnpe. The
conqueii; of Africa was finally eompltled lu-t\vcen tlic years
698 and 709. To the progrefs and ellablifhrncnt ot the
Saracens, we may aferibe the decline and extinftion of
Chrillianity, on the northern coaft of Africa. Gibbon'sHiil.
of the Decline and Fall of the Roman empire, vol. iv. 301.
vol. vi. u, &c. vol. vii. 168. — 186. — ;^49. vol. ix. 449, &c.

When the Saracen empire was divided into feven king-
doms in 93f), the African llatcs retained their indejiendence
long after the others were fubducd by the Turki ; but in
the beginning of the i6lh century, being afraid of falling
und-jr the yoke of Spain, they invited the Turks to their
affiltance ; who firll protected, and tlien enllaved them.
They are Hill dependent on the Ottoman empire ; not as
fubjedls of the Grand Seignior, but as acknowledging his
protedion by an annual tribute. On the coalls piracy pre-
vails to fueh a degree, that fome of the chief princes in
Kurope have been gl.id to procure liberty to trade in the
Mediterranean without muleftation, by a pecuniary com-
penfation.

Africa, as it is defcribed hy modern geographers, is a
large peninfula, eonnefted with Afia by the illhmus of
Suez ; bounded on the north by the Mediterranean, which
feparates it froni Europe ; on the eaft by the above-named
ifthmus, the Red Sea, and the Indian Ocean, which divides
it from Afia ; on the fouth by the Southern Ocean; and on
the weft by the Atlantic, which icparates it from America;
and extending from Cape Bona in the Mediterranean, 37°
10' N. lat. to the Cape of Good Hope, 34° 29'. S. lat. or
about 4980 miles, and from Cape Verd 17° 33'. \V. long.
to Cape Guardafui, near the ftraits of Babelmandcl, 5 1 ''
20'. E. long, or about 4790 miles. Its figure is that of
a triangle or pyramid, whofe bafe is the northern part,
reaching along the Mediterranean from the mouth of the
Nile to the Itraits of Gibraltar, and vertex the Cape of
Good Hope ; but the fides, extending along the Atlantic
to the weft, and the Red Sea or Indian Ocean to the call,
are very irregular. As the equator paffes nearly throngli
the middle of the country, the greattft part of it lies
within the tropics ; and therefore the heat, augmented by
the refleftion of the fandy foil of the interior parts, is hardly
tolerable to any befides the natives. Thoie parts, however,
that lie near the coalls or in vallies, and on the banks of
the rivers, are very fertile and produflive ; and the country
in general is capable of great improvement by^cultivation.
Its fituation for commerce is preferable to that of any other
quarter of the globe ; as it has a more eafy communica-
tion with Europe, Afia and America, than cither of thefe
has with the rell. Its coaft is oppofite to that of Europe,
for almoft 1000 miles from eaft to weft, and the diftance of
one from the other is no where too leagues, ' and in fome
places not more than 20 leagues. It is feparated from Afia
only by the Red Sea for a confiderable intei-val from north
to fouth, and their diftance is from 5 leagues to 50 : it
alfo fronts the fouthern coaft of Afia, though at a greater
diftance, and it is adapted for commerce by the interpo-
fition of iflands from Madagafcar. to Malabar, and by the
alternation of the trade winds. Its coall for 2000 miles
lies oppofite to America, and the weftern iflands, at a dif-
tance of 500 to 700 leagues. Befides, it has many large
and navigable rivers, which interieift the country in various
direftions, and form a communication between the internal
parts and the furrounding ocean ; and its harbom-s are very
numerous and commodious, and capable of being rendered
fecure by fortifications. The principal rivers of Africa,
which we ftiall more particularly dcfcribe under their feve-
ral names, are the Nile, Niger, Morocco, G.iMBiA,

SiiNrcAi., SiF.RRA Leona, Benin, Congo, Zaire,
Wanza, Bravahvl, Rio del Spirito Santo, Kun-
ENi, Macumbo, Lores /.o, Sabla, Kvama or Zam-
BESE, Coavo, Zeuee, and Magadoxa. There are
many other rivers which will be mentioned in the detail
of the feveral countries to which they belong. On
the banks of feveral of thefe rivers there are villages and
towns, which carry on a confiderable traffic, and exchange
their valuable commodities, as gums, elephant's teeth. Haves,
civet, be/.oar and gold duft tor European trinkets, glafs
beads, bugles, or, at beft, fome bruts or iron tools, and
frequently for brandy and other Ipirituous liquors, of which
the inhabitants are fo fond that they will part even with
their children in order to obtain them. Another fource of
commerce is found in the mines with which the mountains
abound. The mountains of Africa arc the Atlas, the
vtoutt'aiiis of the MooN, llic niounlains of Sii- rr.\ JLeona ;
the mountains of Cryftal near the lake of Zafiaii, fo called
from their mines of that beautiful mineral, and thofe of fak-
petrc, Kretcliing eaftvvard from the kingdom of Congo, the
Pico-franco running through the middle ot Callrana, and
part of the counti-y of the Hottentots, the Table mountain at
the Cape of Good Hope, fo called from its fquare figure, and
other mountains of Abyssinia. From the difcoverics of
Mr. Park, a late traveller in Africa, we learn, that a belt
of mountains, extending from weft to eaft, occupies the
parallels between 10 and ii degrees of N. lat. This great
ridge of mountains is very produftive in gold, and more
particularly in the parts oppofite to MandinG and Bam-
BouK on the weft, and to Wangara ou the eaft. See
ToMBucToo. — Moft of the countries bordering on the
mountains ftiare in their wealth hy means of the rivulets that
flow from them. There is no country in the world, fays
Leo Africanus, richer in gold and filver than fome kingdoms
in Africa ; as thofe of Mandlngo, Ethiopia, Congo, Angola,
Butua, Quiticui, Monomotapa, Cafati' and Mocnemugi.
Father Labat alfo minutely fpecifies a great variety of
rich mines, of Vv'hich the negroes have not been able to avail
themlelves fufficiently, on account of their ignorance of the
operations of mining. Copper is a valuable ore found in
this part of the globe ; and in fuch abundance, that an
opinion pervails, that the mountains called Atlas are all
copper. On the northern coafts, the fields, though im-
perfeftly cultivated, produce very large crops of grain : and
it is very reafonably luppofed, from the qualities of the foil
and climate in diff'erent parts of the country, that the
richeft articles of the Eaft and Weft-India commerce might
be obtained from Africa. The fpices of Banda, Ternate
and Amboyna, might be produced on the rich and fruitful
ftiofes of Melinda on the eaft fide, or on thole of the fiave
coaft on the weft fide of the countiy. The cinnamon of
Ceylon, the tea of China and Japan, and the coffee of
Mocha, might be produced on the fame coaft ; and it has
been affirmed, that the fugars of Barbadoes and Jamaica,
and alfo the ginger, cotton, rice, pepper or pimento, with
the cocoa, the indigo, and every other plant which is now
obtained from thefe iflands, would be as eafily produced in
Africa, and that the crops would be equafly profitable, if
they were cultivated with the fame ikill and induftry as in
America. Notvvithftanding the capability of cultivation
and the advantages for commerce which Africa pofleffes, it
is lamentable to refleft, that a country which has near
1 0,000 miles of fea-coaft, many large rivers and good har-
bours, a prodntlive foil and exteniive population, (hould
remain deftitute of the benefits which arts and induftry, and
commerce, might aft'ord them. It is a reproach to neigh-
bouring nations, that fuch a country fhould be fo long

jieglected;

APR

«eglcf\cJ ; and that the- iniiitipiil advanf.ige derived from it
fliouia bo of ih.u kind, which entails war and wrctchedaofj
on the Africans thfrnfelrcs, which perpetuates the digra-
dation and miU-ry of fo great a part of the human fpeeies,
and u-hicl\ reflects indehble difgrace on thole enhglitened
and chrillian empires of the globe, that, aniidll all tiw;
improvements of modern times, and various laudable attempts
i'or amehurating the condition of mankind, have not, at the
couimincement of the mneUcnlh century of the christian
a-va, abolilhed \ traluc, long known and long lamented,
under the denomination of the S L A v E -//W<:. 01 the nature
of thie trade, and of the ciTortr. that have been made for
rellraining, regulating and abolilhing it, an account will be
given under that article. The principal branches of the
African trade are Haves, gold and ivoiy, which is earned
on with the Gimkk.\ or wellern coall, by the exchange ot
u-ooUcn »nd linen manufiiAures, hard-ware and ipirituous
liquort. The Dutch and Frendi, as well as the Englilh,
-have their different fettlements for this purpofe. See

^jVuM CoMPAtJV; GOLD, GRAIb), IVORY and SLAVE

..foajlf, and Sikrra Leona. The Pomiguefe are in pofleilion
^f"'tli« eaft and well coalts of Africa, from the tropic of
fapiicorn to tlie Equator; which immenfe tract they be-
iC-anie mailers of by their fuccellive voyages and fortunate
^ifcovcry of the Cape of Gotid Hope, From the coall of
Zanguebaj-, on the eaftern fide, they trade not only for the
aiticlet above-mentioned, but likcwiie for feveral others, as
iciia, ^ocs, civet, ambergriie and frankincenfe. The Dutch
■jiavc had alfo fettlements towards the fouthern parts of the
jcoiitinent, in the country called CafTraria, or the land of
the Hottentots ; and they were long in pufTcffion of the
tape Town, which is we'll fettled and fortified, till it was
icaptured by the Engliih in 1797, but rcllorcd and made
a free port' by the peace of 1801 ; and here their ftiips
iiound for India were accullomcd to pat in, and trade with
the nativi-s for their cattle, in exchange for which they
jijave them fpirituous liquor:*. Some laudable attempts
have been lately made for etlablifliing colonics on the weilern
/■oatt of Africa, with a view of civilizing the inhabitants,
ihtroducing commerce among them, and graduallj abolilhlng
the (lave-trade. M. Wadftrum in his Eflay on Colonization,
pul.'liihed ill two parts in 1794 and 1795, has given a par-
ticular account of thcfe attempts ; but we are forty to
obferve tliat their permanent utility is very doubtful and
precarious. See Aquapim, Bulam, Sierra Leona,
and SLA\E-tra</e. — With refpecT; to the inland parts of
Afnca, ibey feem in all ages of the world to have been in
the fame barbarous and tincivilizcd ilate in which we find
them at prefent. Tn account for this fact an ingenious
writer oblerves, that there are in Africa none of thofe great
inlets, fuch as the Baltic and Adriatic feas in Europe, the
Mediterranean and Euxine feas in both Europe and ACa,
;md the (r.ulphs of Arabia, Pcrija, India, Bengal, and
Siam, in Alia, for carrying maritime commerce into the
interior parts of that great continent ; and the great rivers
of Africa are at too great a diftance from one another to
give occafion to any confiderable inland navigation. Befides
the commerce v.hich any nation can carry on by means of
a river, which does not break itfelf into any great number
of branclits or canals, and which runs into another territory
before it reaches the fea, can never be very confiderable ;
becaufe it is always in tlie power of the nations who poflefs
.that other territory to obftru£l the communication between
the upper country and tiic fea. Smith's Wealth of Na-
tions, vol. i. p. 32. The chief capes on the African coaft are
Box, Blanco, Cantik, Geer, Nok, Bojador, Barbas,
Vjcap, MoKTE, P.iLMAs, 27j/w Points, Coast, Fok-

'3

A r R

M05A, Lo?r7, Nlcro, Good Hope, Fumoe, Co-
RiF.NTKs, Sp.dastias, Delgado, ajid Guardafui.
There is but one llrail in Africa, vhich is called Babel-
MANDEL. Modern geographers are not agreed about
the divilion of Africa. Some have divided it into two
genieral parts, under the denominations of the countiy of the
wliites and that of the blacks. The former comprehend;
Eg)'pt, Barbary containing fix fubdivifions, viz. Barca,
Tunis, in which is Tripoli ; Tremecen, in whicli is Algiers ;
Fez, Morocco ; Dara, Biledulgerid, and Zaara or the Defert.
The countiy of the blacks contains the following provinces
on the fea-coaft, viz. Nigritia, Guinea, Congo, Cafiraria,
Sofala, Abcx, Ajan and Zangucbar ; and in the interior
parts, Nubia, Ethiopia or Abyflinia, Moenomugi and
Monomotapa. Tiie following general dillribution will.di-
reft the reader to thofe articles in this diftionaiy, where he
may find a further account of the feveral kirigdoms and
ilates of which it confills, viz. 1. Egypt. 2. Upper Ethio-
pia, comprehending NuiiiA, Abyssinia and Abex.
3. ZANOt'EiiAR, with Anmaw Or Ajan, which lie on the
tall of Africa. 4. Loiuer Ethiopia, in the interior
part, MoESOMUGi, Monomotapa and Caffraria,
callcdbyfome the land of the Hottentots, which lie oil
the fouth. 5. Guinea, upper andlower,'on the fouth-weft.
6. Nigritia or Neoroland, in die middle of Africa,
extending ahnoll quite through the couRtry, from eaft to
weft, on both fides of the river Niger. 7. Sahara or
Zaara, or the Defert, to the northward of Nigritia. 8.
Biledulgerid, to the northward of Sahara. 9. The
empire of Fez and Morocco, containing the north-welt
part of Africa. 10. The coall of Barbary, on the north,
containing the countries of Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli
and Barca. Major Rennell in his Geographical Illullra-
tions of Mr Park's journey, reprefents north Africa as
compofed of three diftinft parts. The firjl and fmalleil is a
fertile region along the Mediterranean, commonly diftin-
guilhed by the nnme of Ba'bary ; and which, on the fuppo-
lition that the Mediterranean was once dry land, with the
exception of a lake for the furrounding rivers, might be re-
garded as a part of Europe ; becaufe it poflefTes more of
the European than of the African charafter. The fecond
part is what may be deemed the body of nortli Africa,
comprifed between Cape Verd and the Red Sea, on the well
and ea'.l ; and having the Great Defert or Sahara and its
members, on the north ; the Ethiopic ocean and fouth
Africa on the oppofite fide. The prominent feature of
this immenfe region is a vail belt of elevated land, generally
running from well to eaft about the tenth degree of latitude,
and extending from CapeVerd, its weftern extremity, to the
mountains of Abyfiinia, the eaftern extremity ; which has
on the north fide a lofty tract, that turns the Nile to the
noi-tluvard beyond Abyifinia, and on the fouth a multitude
of rivers, ioine of them very large, that defcend from
that fide, and join the Atlantic and Ethiopic feas, from the
Rio Grande on the v.eft to Cape Lopez on the eaft. A
fimiiar ridge ilretches to the fouth, through the middle of
fouth Africa, and forms an impenetrable barrier between
the two coafts ; on this account the Portuguefe in Congo
and Angola have never been able to penetrate to the coaft
of the Indian Ocean. From Mr Bruce (Travels, vol. iii.
p. 668.) we alio learn, that a high chain of mountains from
6° runs fouthwards through the middle of Africa ; and he
fuppoles the gold of Sofala to be drawn from thefe moun-
tains. Major Rennell fuppofes, that the furface of the Sa-
hara has a general dip to the fov.thward, whilll it declines
alfo to tlie ealtward ; and that the rivers receive all their
fupplies fio«i the fouth, no Ih-eams of any bulk being col-

lecled

A F R

lecled in th^ DtTti-t, Hence he infers, tliat there muft be a
laijfe lioUow in the interior of Africa, between the hij^li
land of Nubia on the cull, and Mandinjr on the well, and
of wbicli the mountains and Defert form the other two fidi-S ;
fnnilar to the cavity in Afia, to whofe waters the Cafpian
and A::il ferve as recipients. The l/jir//, part of north Africa,
Jn the dillribution of Mr. Rennell, is the Great Defert or
Sahar.i, and its members, confifting of the lefFer deferts of
]5orno',i, Bilma, Ikuea, Sort, &c. For the defcriplion of
this part, fee S.^hara.

Many laudable attempts have been lately made, under the
encouragement ■afiorded by the African ylffoaalion, for
difeovering the interior, and hitherto very much unknown,
parts of Africa. Mr. Park, a very intelligent and intrepid,
and it may be juilly added, a very fuceefsful adventurer in
this miffion, has made feveral important difcoveries. Having
left Pi SAN 1 a, N. lat. 13°. 35'. about 200 miles from the
mouth of the Gambia, Dec. 2, 1 795, he returned thither
after an abfence of eighteen months. In this long interval
of time, he explored the interior of Africa to the dillance
of I :oo miles, in a direifl line from Cape Verd ; proceeding
in a trac^ bounded by the 15th and returning by the 12th
parallel of latitude. His firft. llation was Medina, the
capital of the kingdom of Woolli, whence he purfued his
journey by Kolor, to Koojar, the frontier towns of this
counti-y. Here he refrellied himielf with a liquor made from
corn previoully malted, with bitter roots inftead of hops.
After palling a wildernefs of two days journey, he reached
Tallika, the frontier town of Bondou, and at Fatte-
CONDA, the capital, he was introduced to the king Almami.
From Bondou Mr. Park proceeded to the kingdom of
Kajaaga, and having been ill treated at Joag, the frontier
town, he profecuted his journey to the kingdom of Kasson,
and puffing Tessee, the frontier town, arrived at Koonia-
kary, the capital. Here he was treated kindly by the
king ; and having remained here for iome time, he refumed
bis journey, andarrived at Kemmoo, tlie capital of Kaarta.
Following the route which Daifi, the king of this country,
prefcribed, through the kingdom of Ludamar to that of
Bamdarra, he paffed Marina, on his way to Simbing,
the frontier town of Ludamar.

Having left Jarra, the frontier town of this country, he
pmfned his journey and reached Sampaka. He was after-
wards feized by a party of Moors, and condufted back to
Benowm, the refidence of Ah, king of Ludamar, where
l\e was treated with great feverity by the big'ottcd and ma-
licious Moors, and efcaped death only by a piilol's twice
miffing fire. At length he fortunately efcaped, and reached
a negro town called Wawra, belonging to Manfong, king
of Bambarra : and paCing through feveral towns of this
kingdom, he arrived at Sego, on the banks of the Niger,
which he found to be as broad as the Thames at Wcilmin-
fter, and flowing /lowly to the eajlnvard. Purfumg his
courfe in this direction along the banks of the river, he
paifcd through the towns of Kabba, Modiboo and Kea,
and reached Moorzan. Here he crofled the Niger to
SiLLA, which was the termination of his journey to the
call. In his return \'.tflward on the northern bank of the
river, he arrived at B.'.mmakoo, the frontier of the king-
dom of Bambarra, and quitting the Niger at this place, he
proceeded to Sididooloo, the frontier town of the king-
dom of Manding. ■ Hence he purlued his journey to
Kamalia, where he remained feven month?.. In his pro-
grefs fitjm Kamalia he traverfed the Jalonko wildernefs,
by an interval of 100 miles, and having eroded the Black
River, a principal branch of the Senegal, he arrived at
Malacotta; and after a journey of 500 miles reached

A F R

Medina, the capital of the king of Woolli's dominions, nn
the 4tli of June 1797, which he had left in December
1 79 J. From hence he proceeded to I'iiania, and afterv.ards
returned to Kngland.

All tlic inhaijitants of the African continent, tlioughdif-
tinguiflied n;ider a variety of denominations, according to
tiieir different fituations, origin, tribes and governments, are
commonlv included under the twofold dilliutlion of Africans
and Arabs, or ^Vhitcs and Blacks. The white Africans, ac-
cording to Leo Africanus, (1. i. c. 9.) and Marmol, (1. i.e.
24.) are divided into five nations or tribes, iva;. the Z as-

HAGIANS, MuSMUDANS, ZkNET/U, Gu MKR AN ) A S S, and

HoAREs ; and to thefe Coo capital families of Berbers,
and the mofl conllderable ones in Africa, owe tlieir origin,
lliey lirll fettled in Barbaiy, and from thence gradually
dlfperfed themfelves over the greattft part of Africa. Far an
account of theblack Africans, fee Blacks and Negrokr.

The Ancients and Moderns have concurred in giving a
vei-y unfavourable reprefentation of the dlfpofition and clia^
racter of the native Africans. Lucan (1. iv.) Virgil (yEn..
viii. cum not.Scrvii) andmany others, defcribe them as proud,
indolent, thievilh, revengeful, addicted to all kinds of lull,
cruel, inconllant, fuperilitious and cowardly. So general
has been the unfavourable opinion entertained concerninj^
thefe people, that it has given oceafion to a common proverb,
that all the inhabitants of the globe have fome good as well
as ill qualities, except the Africans. But this degeneracy
of charafter is owing more to their bad education, their
tyrannical governments, and their unfettlcd Rate, than to
their country ; for this has produced feveral dilliuguiflie J
perfons, among whom we might enumerate St. Cyprian,
Auguilin, and Tertullian, in the clafs of diniK's ; Hanno,.
Hannibal and Afdrubal,. in the lift of heroes ; Terence
among the poets, and many others. We might alfo appeal
to the indutlry with which they have formerly cultivated
their lands, and applied to commerce and tlie nfeiul arts. IT
they are novi', too generally, ignorant and depraved, idle,
dl'lionell or fuperilitious, we are to feek the eaufe of the
evil in the nature of their governments, and the inatt-entiou
and neglec~t with which they have been treated. The rei
ligion of the native Africans has been the groffeft kind of
idolatry, blended with the magical and fuperilitious rites of
the antient Egyptians. Neverthelefs we difcover many relics,
of Jwdaifm not only in Abyssinia, but in many other paiti
of Africa ; where many Jews, driven there at a very early-
period, or by the difperfion after the dcftruftion of Jeru-
falem, or by the perfecutions of later times, have fettled and
maintained their religious woriliip and ceremonies. Clirif-
tianity was alio introduced at an earlv age of the Chrilliai\
a;ra into this countr)^ and has fubfifted, under one fonn or
other, and amidll great diffenfions and corruptions, in various
dillricls of Africa to the prefent day. The interior parts of
Africa remain Hill in the darknefs of Pagamfm, as tkey have
been in a great degree inaeceinble to the moll adventurous
of the Europeans. Indeed, in the maritime provinces of
this great peninfula, and efpecially v,-l;ere the Portuguefo
have their fettlements, there are feveral diftrifts in whieli the
religion of Hemic has prevailed over the favage fiiperflitions
of that barbarous region. But the ingenuous hillorians,
even of the Roman Catholic perfuafion, who have given
accounts of the African colonies, acknowledge, that of the
profelytes made to the faith of the gofpel fevi- deferve the
denomination of Chriilians ; as mofl of them retain the
abominable fuperftltions of their anceftors, and the belt
among them difhonour their profeffion by various praiiliees
of a moll vicious and eorrujjt nature. The millions in Africa
have been much neglecled by the Portuguefe ; and the few

tnliliunories

APR

mifTionaries that were font thither were men void of learning,
and dcditute almoft of every qualification that was nccefl'ai-y
tow:ird<; carr)i;iir on fiicli an important uildi'rtal:ing. What
maybe the rcfult of Protcflant mifTions, more lately under-
taken and profecuted with a conridcrahlc degree of zeal, time
aio:ie riuft dilcover. Thofe who lihcrally patronize and CJi-
courage them, aiigiir from circum'.lances tliat have already
occurred incrcafrng fucccfs. But the moil prevalent nligioii
in Africa (if we except Paganifm) is that of Mahomet,
which is blended and intermixed with tenets and practices,
that are more orlefs of Pagan, Jewilli and Ciiriilian original.
SccMarabouts. Of the habits and manners of theAfritans,
an account will occur under the appellation of Araus, under
the different denominations by which they are dilHngui(hed, as
Moors, Negrofs, &c. and in the defcription of the difierent
countries in which they refide.

The interior parts of Africa are inhabited, according to
Mr. Parle's report, by three diftinA races of men ; viz. the
Mandingoes or proper negroes, native children of Nigri-
tia ; the Foulahs, or white ./Etliiopians of Ptolemy
and Pliny, who have neither the crilped hair, the thick
lips, nor jetty blacknefs of the Mandingoes ; and the
Moors, natives of Arabia, who, in their perfons and com-
plexions, exadlly refemble tlie Mulattoes of our Well
Indies, and who are devoted followers of Mahomet, and
tlie mod intolerant, perfidious and fangiiinaiy of the human
race. Though thefe three nations are frequently inter-
mixed, yet the negroes, whether Mandingoes or Foulahs,
generally iniiabit to the foutli of the moors. The negroes
are for the moft part huftiandmen : the moors, like their
Arabian anceftors, are roving (hepherds, or wandering
merchants ; who feem, from the earheft times, to have
overfpread the habitable parts of tlie great African Defert,
and tiie Oafes or fertile iflands, thinly fcattered through that
fandy ocean. Hence they extended their arms fouthwaids,
and made themfelves mafters of feveial of the negroe king-
doms on the Niger ; fo that tlieir dominions form a narrow
belt nmning from welt to eaft on the flvirts of th? Defert,
from the Atlantic coaft to the mountains of Abyffiiiia.
The common boundary of the moors and negroes forms a
ftriking feature in the moral, as well as in the political and
phyfical geography of Africa. Herodotus (compare Eu-
terpe, c. 32, and Melpomene, c. 197 — pp. 117 and 36!?.
Ed. WefTel.) fixed the boundarj- of the Libyans and Ethi-
opians, i. e. of the moors and negroes, near the banks of
the Niger ; and in this refpeft circamftances do not feem- to
have been materially altered fince his time.

Mr. Park obferves, that the population in the countries
which he vifited was not very great, conildering the ex-
tent and fertility of the foil, and the eafe with which lands
ivere obtained. He found many extenfive and beautiful
diftrifts entirely deftitute of inhabitants; and, in general,
the borders of the different kingdoms were either veiy
thinly peopled, or entirely deferted. Many places, fuch
as the banks of the Gambia, the Senegal, and other rivers
towards the coaft, were unhealthful, and on this account
unfavourable to population. To this circumftance, it is
chiefly owing, that the interior countries abound more
with inhabitants than the maritime diftrias; for the negro
nations, obferved by this traveller, though divided into a
number of petty independent ftates, fubfift chiefly by the
lame means, hve neariy in the fame temperature, and poffefs
a wonderful fimilarity of difpofition. Perhaps the circum-
Itance ot the flave-trade may fugged another caufe of the
poverty of native inhabitants towards the fea-coaft. Our
traveUer concurs with others in reprefenting the difpofition
ot the women as uniformly benevolent ; in proof of this
10

APR

the following incident is related. When Mr. Park was pro.
hibited by the kin^ of Pjambarra from croffing the Niger,
and ordered to pais the night in a dilhmt village, none of
the inhabitants would receive him into their hoiifes, and he
was preparing to lodge in the branches of a tree. In this
flate, exhaulled with hunger and fatigue, and unprotefted
from a ilorm, he was relieved by a woman who was return-
ing from the labours of the field. To her hut he was
kindly invited ; and his diftrefs was alleviated by the tender
attention which he experienced. The female jjart of the
family, fays Mr. Park, lightened their labour by fongs, one
of which was compofed extempore ; for I was myftlf the
fubjed of it. It was fung by one of the young women, the
re!l joining in a fort of chorus. The air was fweet and
plamtive ; and the words, literally tranflated, were thefe :
"The winds roared, and the rains fell. — The poor white
man, faint and weaiy, came and lat under our tree. He
has no mother to bring him milk ; no wife to grind his
corn. — Chorus. Let us pity the white man ; no mother
has he, &c. a:c." Thefe words have been fince formed
into verfc by the Dnchefs of Devonlliire, and let to mufic
by Ferrari ; and the long is as follows :

I.
The loud wind roar'd, the rain fell fall ;
The white man yielded to tile blaft :
He fat him down, beneath our tree ;
For weary, fad, and faint was he :
And ah I no wife or mother'3 care.
For him, the milk or corn prepare :

CHORUS.

The 'white man Jliall our pity Jhare :
jllas ! no •wife or mother'' s care.
For him the mill or corn prepare.

IL

The ftorm is o'er ; the tempeft pad ;
And mercy's voice has hufh'd the blall ;
The wind is heard in whifpers low,
Tlie white man far away muft go : —
But ever in his heart will bear
Remembrance of the negro's care.

CHORUS.

Go, white man, go ; — lut 'with thee hear
The negro's 'wijh, the negro's prayer :
Remembrance of the negro's care.

From Mr. Park we further learn, that vrith refpeft to
the property in the foil, the lands in native woods were
confidered as belonging to the king, or, where the govern-
ment was not monarchical, to the (late. When any in-
dividual of free condition had the means of cultivating more
land than he aftually poffeffed, he applied to the chief
man of the diftrift, who allowed him an extenfion of terri-
tory, on condition of forfeiture, if the lands were not brought
into cultivation by a given period. The condition being
fulfilled, the foil became vefted in the poflefTor ; and, for
aught he knew, defcended to the heirs. The Africans
appear to have no aftronomical knowledge ; and the little
geography to which they pretend is erroneous ; for they
luppofe, that the earth is an extended plain beyond which
is the fea, or river of falt-water ; and on the farther Ihores
of which are fituated two countries, called Tobaudo doo,
and Jong fang doo, " the land of the white people ;" and
" the land where flaves are fold." Park's Travels in the
interior diftrifts of Africa in 1795, 1796, 1797. pajjlm.
Africa, the name of a fea-port of Tunis on the coaft of

Barbary,

A F R

Karbnry, 30 lenjfucs fciitli-e.-ift from Tunis, N. lat. ^j° $6'.
F.. long, n'^ 10'. The fortifications were demolilhcd by
Cliarles V.

Africa, \n jlnt'iquily, is reprefentcd on nicdnls by the
head of a woman, drcflcd in the flcin of an elephant, with
the trunk projecting forward in front. This kind of attire
is pccuHar to fcme queens of liyypt. Near tiie figure of
Africa we fretpiently lee a fcorpion, ferpent, or lion, animals
belonging to this part of the world, and mountains alluding
to the feven mountains of Mauritania Ting-itina.

AFRICAN AJjoc'mtiGii was formed in 17S8, with a view
of promoting the dlfcovery of the interior parts of Afriea.
Out of 95 members, of which this fociety appears to have
coiififted, a committee of five gentlemen was elefted, for
directing its funds, conducling its correfpondence, and the
choice of the perfons to whom t!ie geographic mifiion was
to be afllgned. Thele gentlemen were Lord Rawdon, the
Bill'.op or I^andaff, (Dr. Watfon) Sir Jofeph Banks,
H. Beaufoy, Efq. and Mr. Stuart. The two firll per-
lons that were appointed for accompliihing the laudable ob-
ject of the fociety were Mr. Ledyard and Mr. Lucas.
Tiie former undertook, at his own defirc, the perilous tafl-c
of travcrfing from call to well in the latitude attributed
to tlie Niger, the wideft part of the- continent of Africa.
AVith this view he arrived at Cairo in Auguit 1788 ; but
death difappoiuted the hopes that were formed from his
projefted journey. For a Ihort account of the fingular ad-
ventures of this extraordinary man, lee Lebvard. Mr. Lu-
cas embarked for Tripoli in Oftober 1788, with inflruftions
to proceed over the defert of Zaara to Fezzan, to colleft,
and to tranfmit by way of Tripoli, whatever intelligence he
could obtain refpefting the interior of the continent, and
to return by way of Gambia, or the coaft of Guinea. The
peregrinations of this traveller terminated at Mefurata, in
JFeb. 7, 1789 ; and he was able to tranfmit to the fociety
only the refult of his conferences with perfons who were
travelling with him to Fezzan. See Ff.zzan, Bornou, and
Cashna. The objeft. of Mr. Park's miflion was to afcertain
the courfe, and, if poffible, the rife and tcnnination of the
"Niger, and to ufe his utmoft exertions for vifiting the
principal towns in its neighbourhood, particularly Tom-
BOCTOO and Houssa; and of the refult of it fome ac-
count is given in the preceding article, and will be farther
found under the feveral heads to which we have referred.
African Company. See Company.
African IJlands are diilributed into thofe which lie in the
Eallern or Indian Ocean, and thofe of the Weftern or At-
lantic Ocean. The former are Zocotra or Socotora,
Babelmandel, Comorra iflands, Mauritius, Mada-
gascar and Bourbon, The latter are St. Helena, As-
cension, St. Matt hew, St. Thomas, Ann a boa, Prince's
iiland, Fernando Po, Goree, Cape Verd iflands, Ar-
GuiN ifland, Canary iflands, Madeira, Porto Santo,
and the Azores.

AFRICANUS, Julius, in Biography, an eminent chrif-
tian writer and chronologer, who flouriflied in the beginning
of the third century. It is not certain, whether he was a
native of Paleftine, or of Africa ; but as he was employed in
an embalTy to the emperor Heliogabalus, between the years
218 and 222, for the reftoration of Emmaus, which was
afterwards called Nicopolis, and as he attended the IcAlires
of Heraclas, at Alexandria, fbmc time before the year 231,
there can be no doubt concerning the time in which he lived.
Suidas fays he was of Africa ; but his more conftant relidence
feems to have been in Paleftine, where he was probably born.
The works afcribed to this author by Euftbius and Phoiius
Vol. L

AFT

are " the Coli," a colleftion of paflTages from variou?
authors, chiefly on phyfical topics, of which only a few
fragments remain ; " Chronology," in five books, containing
a recital of events from tlie creation 10 tlie year t>f Chrilt
221; and two letters, "one to Origen," concerning the
hiflory of Sufanna, annexed to the book of Daniel, which
he confiders to be a forgery, and " another to Arillides," for
reconciling the difagreemcnt between Matthew and Luke,
on the genealogy of Chrift. The Cetli is afcribed by Valefivis,
J. Scahger and Du Pin, to another perfon called Scxtus,
who was an African and a Gentile philofopher. Jerom doe*
not include it in tlie lift of the works of Africanus ; but
Vofiius and Wetftein beheve it to have been written by him.
Julius Africanus was undoubtedly a chriftian, nor does an-
tiquity juftify the opinion that he was originally a heathen.
The chronology is much commended by Photius, as concifc
and yet comprehending every thing necefi'ary to be related.
Some fragments of it are prcferved ; and have been freelr
ufed both by Eufebiws in his chronicle and byothcr hiftorians.
Of the letter to Ariftides, there is a large fragment ia
Eufebius's Eccleliallical Hiflory, and the entire letter to
Origen is extant, which is learned and critifal, and doc*
great honour to its author. Africanus affordi a valuable
atteftation to the two Gofpels of St. Matthew and St. I^uke ;
and we have fufficient reafon to believe, that this great and
learned man received as fcripture the books generally received
by Chriftians in his time. " We may glory," fays the ex-
cellent Dr. Lardner, " in Africanus as a chriftian. For it
cannot but be a pleafure to obfei-ve, that in thofe early days
there were fome within the inclofure of the church of Chrifl,
whofe Ihining abilities rendered them the ornament of the
age in which they lived ; when they appear alio to have
been men of unfpotted charatters, and give evident proofs
of honefty and integrity." Lardner's works, vol. ii. p. 431
— +41.

Africanus, Leo. See L.t.o Africanus.
Africanus, Scipio. See Scipio.
AFRICERONES, a people, according to Ptolemy, of
Libya, a province of Africa.

AFRICTA denotes a kind of wafers, which the ancients
ufed in their facrificts. Arnob. lib. vii.

AFRIQUE, in Geography, a firall town of France,
in the department of Aveyron, fix miles eaft of Vabres.

Afriqj/e, a mountain of France in Burgundy, extendinpj-
between Dijon and the fmall town of Chagni about ten
leagues. At the foot of thefe mountains the vines are found
which yield the Burgundy wine.

AFSHAR, the denomination of a Turcoman tribe,
vhich is divided into two or three clans, of one of whicll
the father of Kuli Khan was chief.

• AFSLAGERS, perfons appointed ty the burgo-mafters
of Amfterdam, to prefide over the public fales made in that
city. They muft always have a clerk of the fecretai-y's office
with them, to take an account of the fale. They correfpond
to our BROKERS, or auctioneers.

AFT, the hinder part of the fhip, or that neareft the
ftern. See abaft.

AFTER, is a term applied to any objeft in the hinder
part of the fhip, as after-hatchway, after-fails, &c.
After-birth, in Midwifery. See Placenta.
AFTFR-_fri7/j, or AFTER-maZ/i, in Agriculture, denotes
the fecond crop, or grafs which fprings up after mow-
ing ; or grafs-math that is cut after tome kinds of corn.

AFTER-«5on, the latter half of the aitificial day, or that
fpace between noon and night.

The aucicHt Roinws dedicated their sfternoons to diver-

3 B

fion,

AFT

fion, as their forenocms to bufinefs ; and their ufiial divcr-
fions were the game called pila, and ottier txercifcs of the
body, cfpceially walking or riding. Thcfe lalted till the
eighth or ninth hour, anfwcnng to our three o'clock, which
was the time for the baths. After bathing, they anointed
and perfumed themfelvcs ; and, about tlie tenth hour, went
to cana, fupfxr, about three hours before fun-fet ; which
done, the clay wai! ended at the public fpeftacles, theatncal
or amphithcatrical fports ; with mufic, finging, and the
like.

ArTitL-faih ufually comprehend all thofe which are ex-
tended on the mizen-maft, and on the Hays, between the
/hizen and main-mafts.

ArTKR-r/vowj-, or paliu, emxtis pojleri, dolores pojl par-
turn, in Midiv'tfery, are pains refembhng labour pains, though
ordinarily lefs violent, which occur after the cxpulfion of the
foetus and placenta. They are occafioncd by the conti-aftion
of the uterus to expel congealed blood, parts of the mem-
branes, or other foreign bodies from its cavity, as well as
to reduce the capacity of the blood vcffcls, which during
pregnancy acquire a confideiable magnitude, to the fize they
had prior to conception. They are more or lefs fevere m
diilerent women, but are found very rarely to occur after
iirll labours. They are more frequent, fevere, and lading,
after the birth of large, than of fmall or middling fizcd
children, or after labours that have temiinattd in an un-
ufually quick and rapid manner, particularly if the placenta
has been extrafted almoft immediately after the birth of the
child. Mr. White, of Manchefter, to whom we are in-
debted for many valuable praftical obfervations, on the
manner of condufting labour, is of opinion, that after-pains
are almoft entirely occafioned by extracting the fhoulders and
body of the child, immediately after the birth of the head,
inftead of waiting and fufFering them to be expelled by the
pains ; and fays, that by purfuing a different courfe, and
feaving the whole of the procefs to nature, in ordinary'
cafes, he had been fo fortunate, that, in the courfe of feveral
years, he had neither been under the neccffity of introducing
his hand into the uterus to extraft the placenta, nor to give
opiates or other medicines to quiet after-pains, except in a
fingle inftance, " the after-pains having been fo trifling,
\inder his management, both with regard to violence and
duration, as not to deferve notice." Treatment qn the ma-
nagement of pregnant and lyhig-in women, p. ill. See more
on this fubjeft, under the word labour. After-pains, even
when moft fevere, are ftill unattended with danger. They
are bell reheved by the application of warm cloths, with
gentle friAion to the abdomen, by giving internally twenty-
five or thirty drops of the tinfture of opium, or by affiduoufly
rubbing upon the region of the uterus, a mixture compofed
of four parts volatile liniment, and one of the tincture of
opium, by adminiftering frequent draughts of warm gruel,
aad giving caftor oil, or fome other gentle purge on the fol-
lowing day. See labour.

Am?i.-Jhvaniis, in fpeaking of bees, are fecondaiy or
pofterior fwarms, frequently found to quit the hives within
a fortnight after tlic iirft.

Butler tells us, that the after-fwarms differ from the prime,
in that the latter are direfted by the vulgar, or crowd of
bees, whofe only rule is the fulnefs of the hive ; whereas
the former are appointed by the ruling bees, and indicated
by a noife or call, which thcfe make for the fpace of two or
three days, as it were to give waniing to the common heid
to prepare for a march. Within eight or ten days after the
prime fwarm is gone, if the princcfs next in order find a com-
petent number fledged and ready, Ihe begins to tune her

A G A

treble voice, in a mournful and begging note, as if fhe
prayed the queen-mother to let them go ; to which voice, if
ihe vouchfafe a reply, by tuning her bafe to the other's
treble, it marks her confent ; in confeqiience of which,
within a day or two after, if the weather allow, the new
fwarm appears. If the prime fwarm be broken, the after
will both call and fwami the fooner, perhaps the next day ;
in which a third, fomctimes a fourth, fucceeds in the fame
feafon : but all ufually within a fortnight after the prime
fwarm. See Swarm.

AFTO, in Botany, a name given by the natives of Guinea,
to a plant of the eryfimum kind, which they grind to powder,
and take as fnuff, to cure the head-ach. Petiver has called
this plant the woody and wooly eryfimum, or hedge-muftard,
of the coafts of Guinea. Phil. Tranf. N" 232.

AFUERA, in Geography. See Affuira.

AFWESTAD, a large copper-work, belonging to the
crown of Sweden, fituate on the river Dal-Elbe, in the pro-
vince Thailand or Dalecarlia. It refembles a town in its
extent, and has its own church. Copper-plates are manu-
faftured, and the fmdl copper money is coined in this place ;
which has alfo a royal poft-houfe.

AFZELIA, in Botany, a genus of the dlJynamia
angiofpermia clafs and order ; the chara6lers of which are, that
the calyx is quinque-partite, the corolla campanulated, and
the capiule rotundated, acuminated, double -celled, gaping
at the apex and polyfpermous ; with hemifphcric receptacles.
There is one fpecies, ij/z. the y^sf/w Caffioides. This is the
AfzeUa of Gmelin, which Dr. Smith fays is too uncertain
to. be honoured by fuch a name, after that of Adam Afzclius,
profeffor of botany in the academy of Upfal; and therefore he
lias appropriated it to a new fpecies of the dccandr'ia mcnogynia
clafs and order, near the Hymen/ta, and of the natural order
of leguminofic : the effential charafters of which are, that the
calyx is tubulofe with a limb quadrifid, deciduous ; the
petals are four, unguiculated, with a very large head ; the
filaments are two, fuperior, fterile ; the legumen many-
celled ; the feeds arillated at the bafe. It is found in Africa,
near the equiuoftial. Linnaean Tranf. vol. 4. p. 221.

AGA, in the language of the Moguls, &c. fignifies a
great man, lord, or commander.

In this laft fenfe, the term is alfo ufed among the Turks ;
thus, the Aga of the Janizaries is their colonel ; and is the
only perfon who is allowed to appear before the Grand
Seignior, without his arms acrofs his bread, in the pofture
of a Have. The capi aga, is the captain of the gate of the
feraglio.

The title aga is alfo given, by way of courtefy, to feveral
perfons of didinftion, though not in any office, or command,
to entitle them to it ; as to the eunuchs of the feraglio.

The chief officers under the khan of Tartary are called
by this name. And among the Algerlnes, we read of agas
chofen from among the boluck lajlns (the firft rank of mili-
tai-y officers), and f^nt to govern in chief the towns and
gan-ifons of that date. See Algiers.

On fome occafions, in lieu of aga, they fay agaji, or
agajfi. Thus the aga, or governor of the pages, is called capi
agaffi ; and the aga or general of the horfe, fpahilar ageiffi.

Aga, or Adja, in Geography, a village about half a
mile from Anamaboa, on the golu coajl of Africa, where
the Dutch formerly had a fort ; and where, it is faid, they
have now one fadlor. Its fituatlon is by no means favour-
able to commerce, as the landing is difficult and dangeious ;
but the adjacent country produces feveral valuable commo-
dities, and among others a very fine cotton.

Aga Cretenjium, in Botany, fignifies the Spaniftimilk-thiftle.

Aga.

A G A

A G A

AcA. See Agar.

AGAAZI, or Agagi, in Gengraphy, a denomination
given ill Abyiriuia to a clafs of thofc sni-pni;Rns, who are
laid to have been employed by tlic dcfccndaiits of Ciifh, the
firfl inliabitants of the country, in difperliiig the produce ot
Aivbia and tlie eafteni coiill of Africa over the Continent,
and who thus acquired wealth and ijiflucncc. The nobloil
and moll warlike of all the llieplicrds ws;re thofe that in-
habited the mountains of Habab, a coniiderahle ridge reach-
ing along the Red Sea, from the neighbourhood of Maluah
to Suakem, and who by degrees extended themfelves through
the whole province of Tigrc. yl\^-ag, fays Mr. Bruce, denoted
the nobles and chiefs of the armed (heplierds, whence came
their title, king of king! ; and the plural of this is ylgtigi, or,
as it is written in the Ethiopic, Agaa%t. Tlie king of
Amalek, mentioned i Samuel, ch. xv. and flain by Samuel,
was, according to this writer, an Arab (hepherd. Brucc's
Trav. V. i. 387. Of this appellation, Ludolf (Hift. jEthiop.

b. i. c. 1.) gives a different etymology. The Agaa/.i af-
fumed this denomination, and called their country Geex,
either on account of the liberty they enjoyed, or bccaule
they tranfported themfelves from one place to another : the
radical word Geeta admitting both thefc fignifications. Their
language is Gees ; they have always had letters among them ;
and they are all circumcifed, both men and women. This
right they profefs to have derived from the family of Idimael
and his defcendants, with whom they were connecT.ed at an
early period in their trading voyages.

AGABENI. SeeAcuBENi.

AGABUS, in Scripture h'ljlory, a prophet, and as the
Greeks fay, one of the 70 difciples of our Saviour (Afts
XI. 28) A. D. 4-;. He predifted a great famine, which, as
St. Luke informs us, occurred in the 4th year of Claudius,
A. D. 44. It is alfo mentioned by profane hiftorians, Sueton.
in Claud, c. xvni. t. i. p. 668 ed. Pitifc. Jofephus, ant. 1. xx.

c. ii. Oper. t. i. p. 960. ed. Haverc. On this occafion the
Chrillians at Antioch fent their contribution by Paul and
Barnabas to Jerufalem, for the rehef of their diftrefled
brethren. Helena, queen of Adiabene, alfo alTiilied the
Jews with corn and other provifions from Egypt and Cyprus,
as Jofephus (^tili fiipra) informs us. Several years after this
period [viz. A. D. 58) Agabus had an interview with St.
Paul, at Casfarea, and foretold the fufferings that awaited him
at Jerufalem, whither he was determined to proceed, Afls
xxi. 10. From the Greeks we learn, that Agabus fuffered
martyrdom at Antioch, and they obfcrve his feftival,
Ivlarch 8. The Latins, fince the 9th century, have kept
it, Feb. 9.

AGABRA or JEGA.'&^k,\n^nctent Geography, z.\.0'via of
Boetica, in Spain.

AGADEK, one of the Fox iflands in the Northern Pa-
cific Ocean.

AGADEZ, \n Geography, a kingdom of Africa, placed
by Leo Africanus and Marmol, direClly eail of Yguida, and
by De Lifle, fouth and fouth-eail of it. On the eaft it
has the kingdom of Bornou ; on the north-north-eaft,
the defert of Lempta, and Yguida ; on the fouth, Cano ;
and on the weft, the provinces Zapara and Guber, and a
lake north of the Niger. This province is divided into two
diftridls, the northern, called on account of its fterility, the
Defert, and the fouthern, fertile in grafs, corn and cattle.
De Lifle mentions three confiderable towns in the latter divi-
fion, viz. Agad, the capital of the whole province, Deyhir
and Sccmana, little inferior in wealth and population to the
metropolis. He adds, that fena is produced here in great
abundance, and that the principal trade of the natives confifts
Ui tiiia article and manna. The fouthern inhabitants feed

cattle, live in the open country, and refemble in their manners
the wandering Arabs. Agad, the capital, called alio by
the Arabs Aiidcgalt, isfituatcd in a valley between two high
mountain^, and at the fpring of a confiderable river that
waters the fouthern country and difcharges itfclf into the
Niger. According to La Croix's account, the inh.abitants
arc chiefly merchants, and flrangcrs, who have fettled there,
enclofed the town with walls, and built tlicir houfcs in the
Morefco fafliion. The fovercign is laid to be tribulai-y to
the king of Tombufto, and yet to picierve the ilatc of a
powerful, independent and defi)Otic prince. Mod. Un. Hift.
vol. xiv. p. 260. 8vo. The province of Agadez is placed by
Major Rennell, in his map ot North Africa, in the eaRern
divifion of the Great Defert, or Sahara, and the capital in
N. hit. 20° 15'. E. long. 13" 14'. In the proceedings of
the African afTociation, Agadez is made a province of the
Calhna empire, and the inhabitants arc faid to load their
immenfe caravans with the fait of Bornou, and to engrofs
the profits of this invaluable trade. The only acknowledg-
xuent they make for it is the trifling price which they pay in
brafs and copper (the currency of Bornou) to the neigh-
bouring peafants.

AGADNA, a fmall town in the ifland of; Guam.

AGAG, or Agaga, a kingdom of Africa, which de-
pends on the empire of Monomotapa. It is bounded on the
eaft by the countiy of the Negroes, and on the north by the
kingdom of Tacua. The capital is of the fame name.

AGAGEER, a name given in Abyflinia to thofe whofe
bufmefs it is to hunt and kill elephants. Their appellation
is formed from the word Agar, which fignifies to hough or
ham-ftring with a fliarp weapon, Thefe perfons dwell con-
ftantly in the woods, and live entirely upon the flelh of the
beafts which they kill, chiefly on that of the elephant and
rhinoceros. They are light and agile, both on horfeback.
and on foot ; of a fwarthy complexion ; and have Europeaa
features. None of them are woolly-headed. The manner in
which they kill the elephant is as follows : two men, alto-
gether naked, mount the fame horfe ; the foremoft manages
the horfe, and the hindmoft has a broad fword, fuch as the
Sclavonians ufe, and procured from Triette ; the handle of
which he grafps with his left hand, whilfl with his right he
takes hold of a part of theblade, round which whip-cord is
twifted. The edges of the fword are as fliarp as a i-azor,
and yet he thus carries it without a fcabbard. When the
elephant is found feeding, the horfeman runs before him,
and when he flies, croffes him in all direftions, ufmg at the
fame time a variety of expreflions and exclamations, which,
he is foolilh enough to beheve the elephant underftands.
The animal incenfed by this noife, attempts to feize the
horfe and rider with his trunk, or probofcis ; and for this
purpofe he turns himfelf about in every direftion, inftead of
making his efcape. The horfeman after fome evolutions of
this kind, rides up to the fide of the elephant and drops his
companion on the oH-fide ; and whilft the rider engages the
attention of the animal, the other perfon gives him a llroke
above the heel, in that part which in the human fnbjedl is
called the tendon of Achilles. At tliis moment the horfeman
turns round and takes up his companion ; and runs with full
fpeed after the reft of the herd ; and fometimes an expert
Agageer will kill three out of one herd. The blow com-
monly feparates the tendon, or at leaft wounds it to fuch a
degree that the weight of the animal breaks it. In this
ftate the horfeman, and his companions, fpeedily difpatch
the animsl with their javelins and lances ; when he is fliiin, the
fiefli is cut off the bones into firings, and thefe are hung on
the branches of trees to dry, without fait ; and are then
luid by for their ftock of provifion in the feafon of the rains.
3 B 2 The

A G A

The elephant fomctimes reaches the mofl dextrous riders
with his probofcis ; and having daflicd the horfc to the
ground iVti his feet upon him, and loon tears him hmb
from limb. Brace's Travels, vol. iv. 297. &c. See Ele-
fH.xsr.

AGAT. Rce Aoio.

Ac4i, in dogr.jphy, a fma'.l port of Provence, about two
lc3j;uc;from I'rcjiis.

AGALACTIA, in Phyfic, fignifies a deficiency of milk
in a mother, who is therefore called by Hippocrates ufa.-

AGALLF.GA. See Gallkga.

AGALLOCHUM, a medicinal wood imported from
the Eaft Indies, ufually in Imall bits, of a very fragrant
fccnt. The word is derived from ihe verb a!'x\>.ou.xi, I koajl.,
in allufion to the eNcclkncy of its odour. This wood is
othcrwife called lij^num aloes, and xyloaloe, q. d. aloc-iuood,
not that it is produced from the common aloe-plant, which
yields the infpilTatcd juice of that name. It is the produce
of a tree of a very different kind, growing in the Eail Indies,
particularly Sumatra and Cochiiichina, or the Ex.ccARiA
Jgallocha of Linnasus. Some call it likewife lignum faradijt.
It yields a concrete oil. See its chemical hiftory in Neumann's
Works, p. 420.

It is of a bluifh purple colour, marked with veins and
fpots, very heavy and bitter ; when burnt it yields drops of
an aftringent liquor, and a fweet aromatic fume. It is hot
and drying, and eflecmed a great ftrengthenerof the nerves
in general, but particularly of the head and ftomach.

The various names and accounts given of the agallochum
are fo very different, as well as the fpecimens of it common
in our (hops, that it does not feem to be properly known
amongft us.

Bauhin and the Moderns diftinguifh three forts of agallo-
chum, which differ either as to the excellence of their
quahty, or to the country that produces them ; accordingly
they call the^/y^ calambac, which is the moil excellent
agallochum, denominated alfo calambac Indorum, kanam
Cochinchenfium, and fokio. The /econd is the agallochum of
the (hops, denominated lignum aloes. The third is alfo
called CALAMBAC, agallochum fylveftre, and lignum aloes
Mexicanum.

M. de Loureiro, whofe long refidence in Cochinchina,
whence the real and moft efteemed agallochum is exported to
aU the Aijatic markets, led him to an acquaintance with
this fubflance, has defcribed the tree which produces it, and
gives a hiftory of its formation. To the genus of plants,
of which this is a fpecies, he gives the name of aloexylum,
and the particular fpecies he calls aloexylum verum. The
Tcfmous concretion which is found in thefe trees, when in a
decayed (late, is the true agallochum, the hiftory of which
is fatisfaftorily detailed in a Memoir, on its true nature and
origin, in vol. i. of the Memoirs of the Royal Academy of
Sciences, at Lifbon.

AGALMATA, in Antiquity, originally denoted the or-
naments of temples and ilatues ; but came afterwards to be
popularly ufed for the ftatues and temples themfelves, and
for the impreffions and images on a feal.

AGAMA, in Zoology, a fpecies of Lacerta, with a
long round tail, the upper part of the neck and under part
of the head aculeated, with reverfe fcales. There is a variety
of this called iguana falamtmdrina, with the tail imbricated
by large fcales, as the former is denominated iguana cordylina.
It is founil in America.

AGAMASKA or ViKtRs, in Geography, an ifland in
James's bay, in North America.

AGAMEDA, in Antient Geography, a place in the iile of

A G A

Lefbns, near Pyrrha. Here was a fountain of the fame nam?,
which had been alfo that of a woman, who was diilinguilhed
by her (kill in preparing poifons.

AGAMEMNON, in Cii/Jical Biography, one of the
heroes engaged in the Trojan war, was the fon accordinjr
to Homer, and according to Herodotus, the grandfon of
Atrcus, whom he fucccedt-d in the government of Argos
and Myconar. Homer calls him and his brother Menclaus
Atridcs, the fons of Atreus ; but Heftod and others fay,
they wire the fons of Pliilhcnes, the brother of Atreus.
Agamemnon, having engaged the fuccour of Tyndarus,
king of Spwita, drove Thyetles, his uncle, frijm Argos ; killed
his fon Tantalus, and married Clytemneftra, his wife, by
whom he had four daughters, but according to Euripides
only two, iv'z. Iphigenia and Eleftra, and one fon, the fa-
mous Oreftes. To him was entvuilcd the command of the
confederate army againft Troy, which expedition com-
menced, according to the chronology of Blair, 1193 years
before Chrift. At Aulis, where the fleet was detained by
contrary winds, Calchas, the foothfayer, enjoined the fa-
crifice of Iphigenia, the daughter of Agamemnon, as a pro-
pitiatory olTering to Diana ; but his compliance with this
fuperllitious and cruel order, produced a fatal hatred between
him and his wife Clytemneftra. In the Trojan war, he dif-
tinguiflied himfelf as a prince and general ; though his unjult
treatment of Achilles, from whom he took lirileis, occa-
fioned many evils to the Greeks. Upon his return he
brought with him, as a concubine, CaflTandra, the daughter
of Priam, and was infidioufly received by Clytemneftra, wha
had formed a criminal connection with Egifthus, and who
aflifted that prince in affaflinating him. His fon Oreftes after-
wards took revenge on the murderers ; and the calamitous
events that marked the hiftory of thii family have been fa-
vourite fubjefts of the tragic mufe of ancient Greece, and
of its imitators in modern times. The death of Agamejn-
non is the fubjeft of a tragedy of iEfchylus and of
Seneca.

Agamemnon, in Entomology, a fpecies of PapnTio, with
black wings, fpotted with green, and the hinder ones having
on the under part a lunated ocellus and red fpots. It is
found in Afia.

Agamsmko-h's fountains were (ituated in Ionia, about
5000 paces from Smyrna.

AGAMENTICUS, in Geography, a high mountain of
America, in the diftrift of Maine, diftant about fix miles
from Bald-head and eight from York harbour, which is a
noted mark for feamen, particularly in the entry of Pafca-
taqua harbour. It is covered with wood and fhrubs, and
affords pafture to its fummit, whence the profpeft is en-
chanting. N. lat. 43' 16'. W. long. 70° 39'.

Agamenticus is alfo a river in the center of York
county and diftrifl of Maine. It receives its waters from
the ocean through the bay of Pafcataqua, and has only a
fcanty fupply from ftreams of frelh water. Its mouth is
about four miles fouth from Cape Neddie river, and admits
fmall vefTels.

AGAMI, in Ornithology, a name given by the French
at Cayenne, and applied by Buffon to the Psof hi A crepitant
of Tinnseus, the grusp/ophia o{ Palhs,the Phajlanus y/ntillarum
of BrifTon, and the gold-breajled trumpeter of Latham ; the
fpecific charafter of which is, that its head and breaft are
fmooth and (hining green. This bird is 2 2 inches long,
with a (hort tail concealed by the upper coverts and not pro-
jefting beyond the wings, and legs five inches high, covered
with fmall fcales, reaching two inches above the kneer, which
are not feathered. Its head, throat, and fuperior half of the
neck, are covered with a ftiort, clofe and fofv dovn ; the
5 fore-.

A G A

fore-part of the lower furface of the neck nnd brcnfl are
covered with a beautiful gorget ot brilhant colours, varying
between green, goki green, blue and violet : the upper part
of its back and adjacent portion of the neck black, and the
plumage of tlie hinder part of the back changes into a
tawny-rufous ; but the under-lide of the body, and alio the
wings and tail are black, the great feathers which extend on
the rump and tail are light a(li-coloured ; and the legs arc
grecnifli. The moR charaCterllHc property of thefc birds
is the fingular noife, called trumpeting, which they make, as
fonie have commonly fuppofed bv the anus, but as others
have aicertained, by jneans ot their lungs and the capacity of
their membnuious cells. The wind-pipe, before its entrance
into the breail, is about the thicknefs of a fwan's quill, bony
and cylindrical. In the brealt it is more llendcr and carti-
laginous, and divides into two femicircuhir canals, formed of
membranes, and capable of extenfion. The air-bag on the
right fide defcends to the pelvis, and within the brealt is
divided into three or four cells by ti-aufverfe membranovis
diaphragms. That on the left fide is much narrower, and
terminates in the loins. The common food of tliefe birds is
grain ; buttliey alfo eat fmall filh, flelh and bread. In their
natural ftate, they inhabit the torells in the warm climates
of America, and affociate in large flocks on the mountains ;
and they efcape, when furpriied in their haunts, by the
fwiftnefs of their feet rather than by the ufe of their wings,
as they never rife higher than a few feet. They form a bed
for their eggs, of which they lay from loto i6, byfcraping
the earth at the roots of large trees, but conftrutl no neil.
In their domeilic ftate, they manifeft a wonderful attach-
ment to their benefaftors, and are no lefs fond and faithful
than dogs. By their intercourfe with men, their inftintts
are moulded like thofe of dogs ; and it is faid that they may
be trained to tend a flock of fheep. They arejealous of
rivals ; fight with dogs, cats and birds of prey, and keep
the poultiy in great fubjeftion. They follow perfons through
the ilreets and out of town, and it is difficult to get rid of
them. Of all the feathered tribes the agami is the moil
attached to the fociety of man, and indeed is the only bird
that has a loctal turn. In this refpecl it is as eminently dif-
tinguifhed above other birds, as the dog is above quadrupeds.
Eilffon's Birds, vol. iv. p. 390, &c. Eng. Tranf.

Agami is alfoafpecies of Ardea, in the Linnsean fyftem
by Gmelin, found in Cayenne, about 31 inches long, and
having long feathers in the tail. Thefe feathers are of a
deep blue ; the under fide of the body is rufous ; the neck
is of the fame colour before, but bluilh below, and dark
blue above- The head is black, the occiput bluhh and
crefted, the temples and the portion above the eyes white.

AGAMIA, in Ancient Geography, a promontory and port
cf Afia Minor, near Troy. Steph. Byz.

AGAMINA, or Agamana, Kahem, aborough of Mefo-
potamia, fituate, according to Ptolemy, on the Euphrates,
towards 33" 55' lat.

AGAMUS, a town of Afia Minor, nearHeraclea.

AGAMIUlVr, a borough of Italy, belonging to the
Infubres.

AGAN, in Geography, one of the Ladrone iflands. Here
Magellan, the famous navigator, was aflaffinated in 152 i.

AGANAGRA, in yincier.t Geography, a town of India
beyond the Ganges, according to Ptolemy.

AGANGTNvE, a people of Ethiopia.

AGANIPPE, a fountain of Helicon, facred to the
Mufes, whence they derived the appellation of ylga-
nippides. Ovid (Fall. 1. v. v. 7.) makes Hippocrene and
jigamppe the fame ; but Solinus, and others, diftinguifh them
and afcribe their being united to poetic licence. The water

A G A

of this for.ntain was, to thofe who drank it, the left of tlie
furor poeticus.

AGANLY river, a branch of Kuban river, which falls
into the fea of Afoph from the ffiuth.

AGANZAVA, a town of Afia, in the interior part of
Media, fituate, according to Ptolemy, in long. 89° and
lat. 39"^ 30'.

A G AP/E, or Aga r r s, formed of the Greek afarn, h-oe,
in Church HtJ}rir\', a kind ot religious feilival, celebrated, in the
ancient church, tu keep up a harmony and concord among its
members. To thefe agapai, we have a reference by St. Judr,
V. 12. and alfo by St. Peter (2d EpilUe c. ii. v. 13.) if with
the Alexandrian copy, vulgar Latin and Arabic verfions,
we read o.yx.mA; tor aTxIai,-. Ttrtullian is the firft author
who has particularlj- defciibed thefe fealls. Apolog. c. xxxlx.
Oper. p. 35. Ed. Rigalt. Having taken notice of fome
luxurious luppcrs among the Heathens, he adds, " the
nature of our fupper is indicated by its name ; it is called
by a word, which, in the Greek language, fignifies love.
We arc not anxious about the expencc of the entertainment ;
fince we regard that as gain which is expended with a pi<nu
purpole, in the rchef and rcfrcfhment of all among us that:
are indigent. — The occafion of our entertainment being fa
honourable, you may judge of the manner of its being con-
ducted ; it confills in the difcharge of religious duties ; it
admits nothing vile, nothing immodcft. Before we fit down,
prayer is made to God. The hungry cat as much as they
defire, and every one drinks as much as can be ufeful to fober
men. We fo feaft, as men, who have their minds impreffed
with the idea of fpending the night in the worlhip of God ;
we fo converfe, as men, who are confeious that the Lord
heareth them. — Prayer alfo concludes the feaft ; and every-
one departs to his own concerns, &c." Pliny alfo (Ep.
xcvii. cited by Tertullian, Apolog. c. ii. uli fupra p. 3.)
evidently refers to thefe feafts, when he informs Trajan, that
the whole fault or error of the Chriftians was this, that it
was their cuftom, on a ftated day, to hold their alTemblies
before the morning-light, and to bind themfelves by a facra-
ment (or oath) to do no wickednefs, &c. ; which things
being performed they departed, and came again to partake
of a common and innocent meal ; from which however they
defifted, after I publifiied my edicl againft clubs or affemblies.
Lucian (de Morte Peregrini (J xii. Oper. t. ill. p. 335. Ed.
Reitzli) fays, that when Peregrinus, a Cluiilian, was in
prilon, various fuppers were brought in and their facred dif-
courfcs were delivered. Thefe fuppers feem to have been the
agapas of the ancient Chriftians. It appears, therefore, that
they were of early original, and had been long in ufe ; but
they were not confidcred as an inllitution of the Gofpel, or
obferved in obedience to a divine command. If this had
been the cafe, they would not have been difcontinued in con-
fequence of the editt of a Heathen magiftrate, or difufed
in future times. They were conducted with decorum, and
afforded opportunities for the exercife of devotion and cha-
rity ; and therefore do not warrant the reproach infinuated
by a celebrated hiftorian,who,in his ufual farcaltic manner,fays
(Gibb. Hift. vol. ii. p. 346. Svo.) that " the feafts of love or
agap3e, conftituted a very pleafing part of the public worfliip."
The ingenious Mr. Hallett in his difcourfe on the agapae
(Notes on feveral texts of fcripture, &c. vol. lii. p. 235, &c.)
maintains, in oppofition to fome other writers, that thefe
agapse, being fuppers, were not concomitants, or appendarres
of the ciirharill. They were entirely diftincl and inde-
pendent things, celebrated about twelve hours after the
eucharift, which was celebrated in the morning. To which,
jnay be added the tcftimony of Jviftin Martyr, who, in his
account oi the public worlhip of the chuich, and partlcu-

A G A

larly of tlie eticharift, does not fiiy one word of the agnpa,
or lovc-feafts, as conncftcd witli it either before or alter.
Tlic)' continued in the church dining the four fit II centuries ;
but the council of Laodicea, about the middle of the fourth
centur)-, bani(hcd them from the churches, and ilill allowed
thcin in private houfes. The third council of Carthage,
A. D. 397, ordains by a canon, which is repeated by the
African covuicil, in the beginning of the tilth century, that
they (hould not be held in churches, except in cafes of pe
cuhar neeeflilv : with which tlie decree of th

cidiar neeeflily

Auxcrre, in the beginning of the feventh century agrees.
Piiotius, about the middle of the ninth century, and Ar-
feiiius, ill ll>e middle of the thirteenth centuiy, reprefent
the matter accordingly ; or that the aga,p3e were prohibited
in churches, but allowed and encouraged in private houics.
When they were totally abolilhed, we have no account

A G A

African blue lily. This is the African tubet-ofe hyacinth,
with a blue umbellatcd flower. •

'Jlie root of this plant is compofed of thick flefliy fibres ;
from the fame head arifes a duller of leaves, which are thick
and fucculent, and ot a dark green colour. Between thefe
idues the flower (lalk, fupjjorting an umbel of blue flowers
in a (heath, and each flower fl;aiiding on a pedicle, about an
inch long. The umbel being large, the flowers numeroui,
and of a light blue colour, make a fine appearance. They
he council of come out at the end of Auguftor beginning of September,

and frequently continue in beauty till fpring. The flowers
are thofe of the henierocallis, but this genus is dillinct from
it in its fpathe. It is a native of the Cape of Good Hope,
from wlienceit was brought to Holland, and in 1692 it was
cultivated at Hampton Court.

This plant is propagated by offsets, taken off at the latter
When they were occafionally charged with impunity by the end of June, planted in feparate pots, with light kitchen-

Heathens, they were reilrained and regulated

The kifs of charity, with which the ceremony ufed to
end, was no longer given between different fexes '; and it
was exprcfsly forbidden to have any beds, or couches for the
conveniencv of thofe who fliould be difpofed to eat more at
their eafe. ' Notwithilanding thefe precautions, it was found
iieceflary to difcontinue them ; for as they were introduced
when Chriftians had all things common, or with the com-
munitv of goods, which under wife retlric\ions their firft
circumftances required, they remained long after the difufe
of the cuilom, which was the original occafion of them.
See Abyssinia.

Some authors imagine the agapx to have been, not a
commemoration of our Saviour, but a cuftom borrowed from
the Heathens : Mos -vera tile, iit refirunt, fays Sedulius, on
the xith chapter of the Epiftle to the Corinth, de Gent'di
adhuc Juperjlitione ■venieiat. And Faullus, the Manichee, is

garden earth, and placed in a fliady fituation. In five weeks
the offsets will put off new roots ; and the pots ihould then
be removed to a more funny fituation, and have more water.
In September they will put out their flower ilalks, and toward
the end of the month the flowers will begin to open, and
fhould be removed under fhelter in bad weather, but in good
weather expofed to the free air. Toward the end of Oftober
they fhould be removed to the green-houfe and have the
benefit of free air, and be occafionally watered during winter
in mild weather, but in froft they fhould be kept dry. It
requires only proteftion from frofl: and moiilure ; and (hould
not therefore have any artificial wannth in winter, and in
fummer it fhould be placed in the open air. Martyn's Miller's
Diet.

A.G &.ft.,'vfL Antiquity, fignifies an afternoon, or evening's
meal.

AGAPET.^, in Ecclefiajlical Wijlory, a name given to

reprefented, by St. Auguftine, as reproaching the Chriftians certain virgins and widows, who, in the ancient church, aflb-

with converting the Heathen facrifices into agapEe : to which ciated themftlves with, and attended on ecclefiaftics, out of

he replies, we do not borrow our love-feafts from the facri- a motive of piety and charity.

fices of the Gentiles ; our love-feafts feed the poor. Cont. In the primitive days there were women inftituted dea-

Fauft. Manich. 1. xx. c. 20. Some have thought that St. conesses; who, devoting themfelves to the fervice of the

Paul fpeaks of the agapse, when he reproves the Corinthians church, took up their abode with the minifters, and afTifted

for their diforderly praftice. I Cor. xi. 17, &c. Thefe agapas, them in their fundtions.

as Chryfoftom, Theophylaft, Pelagius, Oecumenius, Sec.
imagined, immediately fucceeded the eucharift ; and at thefe
fcaits the diforders happened. Mr. Hallett {itb'i fupra)
contends, that they occurred in celebrating the eucharift;
itfelf. It may be obfer\'ed, that the Chriftians did not con-
fider the agaps as religious or divine inftitutions, like the
Lord's fupper. If they had, their councils would no more
have baniftied them out of the churches than the eucharifl
itfelf.

AGAPANTHUS, (^w/t/T ayaxnV a^^c, pkafanlfoiver)
in Botany, a genus of the hexaridr'nt mono^^ynia clafs and order,
of the natural order of LUiiiceit, the Spathacea of I^innxus, and

In the fervour of the primitive piety, there was nothing
fcandalous in thefe focieties ; but they afterwards degene-
rated into libertinifm : infomuch, that St. Jerom aflts, with
indignation, unde agapetarum pejlis in ecclejtas introiit ? This
gave occafion to councils to fupprefs them. — St. Athanafius
mentions a prieft, named Leontius, w-ho, to remove all oc-
cafion of fufpicion, offered to mutilate himfelf to preferve
his beloved companion.

AGAPETUS, in Biogrjpb\', a deacon of the church of
Conftantinoplein the 6th centuiy, who addrefTedaletter,called
a-x'-'>'n /3x<riXix>i, Scheda Rfgia, to the emperor Juftinian, on the
duties of a prince, and thus obtained rank among the moit

the Narcijft of Juffieu. Its characters are, that the calyx is judicious writers of the century. This letter was printed
a Spathe common gaping at the fide ; the corolla is one- at Baiil by Frobenius in 152 1, 8vo., and atCologn in 1604.
petalled, funnel-fhaped and regular; tube cornered, as if It is included in the Bibliotheca patrum. Mo(heim, Eccl.

compofed of fix claws, the border fix-parted, with the parts
oblong and fpreading ; the ftamina are fix filaments inferted
into the throat, fhorter than the corolla, declinate ; the
anthers kidney-fhaped and incumbent ; the piltillum is a
fuperior germ, oblong, three-cornered : the flyle filiform,
of the length of the llamens and declinate ; the fligma fimple
or trifid ; the pericarpium is an oblong capfule, three-iided,
three-celled, three-valved : valves navicular, with contrary
diffepiment ; the feeds numerous, oblong, comprefTed and en-
larged with a membrane. There is one fpecies, viz. aga-
patuhus umbeUatus, the crinum ylfiicanum of Linnaeus, or

3

Hiil. V. ii. p. 120. Fabric. Bibl. Grcec. t. vi. p. 570.

AcAPETt's, Pope, was a native Roman, and raifed to
the papal fee by the interefl of Theodotus, king of Italy,
in ^■i,^. This pope refilled the interference of the emperor
Juftinian, in ecclefiaftical concerns, alTerted the fupremacy
of the papal autlwrity in the church, and maintained its in-
dependence on the civil power. He was firm and refolute,
notwithftanding the threats of the emperor in oppofihg a
meafure which he difapproved, and boldly faid, " when I
came to Juftinian, I hoped to meet a Chriflian prince, but I
have found a Dioclefian." He died at Conllantinople in ^■^,6,

aad

A G A

A G A

and was enrolled among tlic faints ; and tlif Roman fee was
at this time fo poor, that in order to defray the expeuces of
his journey thither, he was oblij^ed to pawn the facred Vv;frels
of the chtuch of St. Peter. 15o\ver and Dupin.

AcAPK TVS II. Pope, a Roman by birth, obtained the
papacy in 1^46, and lield it till the year 956. Pie exerted
liimfelf in terminating the did'enfions of Italy, and ftnt for
the emperor Olho to oppofe Berengcr II. who aHunied the
regal power in this country. He was »epnted a man of ex-
traordinaiy fanitity. Dupm. Fabrie.Bibl. (inec. t. vi. p. 570.

AGAPHONOVA, in Geogmphy, a river of Siberia,
which runs into the Frozen Ocean.

AGAPIS lapis, in Nalunil Hijlory, a name given by an-
cient writers, to a Rone of a dulky yellow, or the colour of
a lion's ll-;in ; it was held in great eileem in many nations,
on account of its fuppofed virtues, as an anodyne and vnl-
nerary.

AGAPIUS, in B'lography, a Manichsan writer, mentioned
by Photius, who is fuppofed to have lived about the middle
of the 4th century. Some fay, that he was a difciplc of
Manes towards the clofc of the third century, that he op-
pofed the fentiinents of Eunomius concerning the Trinity,
and that he wrote three books in defence of the Manich-i-an
principles ; one a w^rk of twenty-three books, another
confifting of 102 chapters, infcribed to a won. an of the
fame feft, napied Urania ; and a third, intitled Heptalogus,
preferved in the Anathemas agaiuft the Ma-iichces, or form
of abjuring Manichxifm, by Fabricius, Cotelerius and Toi-
lius. His work, fays Photius, was fo abf;;rd and impious,
that it could only (hame and confound thofe who followed
him and the Manichrean dott lines ; and he is denominated
by the fame writer, a deteftablc and impious man, auddiftin-

fuifhed as one of the twelve difciples of Manes. Gen. Dift.
■ardner's works, vol. iii. p. 306. Fabricius (Bibl. Grsc.
t. X. p. 383) has mentioned feveral other perfons of this
name ; fuch as a monk of moimt Athos, who lived about
the year 1640, and publiflied a book entitled ajj.cif\ai>.'M aJln^ic,
the falvation of finners ; Agapius, a bilhop of Cxfarea, the
predecefforof Eufebius ; Agapius, an Athenian philofopher,
a difciple of Proclus, and fuppofed to be the fame with the
eminent phyfician and rhetorician of Alexandria and Con-
ftantinople, whofe diftinguiflied talents are noticed by Suidas.

AGAR, in Ancient Geography, a town of Byzacium,
defcvibed by Hirtius, a few miles weflward of Lcmjjta or
Leptis parva, and fixteen miles from Thapfus. It was one
of Csefar's ftations ; the village which now occupies the
rocky fituation in which it flood is called by the Arabs Boo-
Hadjar, ;. c. the father of a ilone, or the ftony city. Shaw's
Trav. p. 109.

AGAR A, a town of the Phylliatcs, in India, on this
fide of the Ganges, according to Ptolemy.

AGARAF'FO, or Axaraffe, a fmall, pleafant and
fertile country of Andalufia, in Spain. Its principal town
is San-Lucar-la-Major, erefted into a duchy by Philip IV.
in favour of Count d'Ohvarez.

AGARD, Arthur, \n Biography, a learned antiquary
of this country, was born at Tofton, in Derby fhlre, A. D.
1540 ; and having been educated for the law, was appointed
deputy-chamberlain of the Exchequer in 1570, which office
he held 45 years. By means of this office he was enabled to
purfue thofe curious rcfearches, of which he pi-oduced feveral
valuable publications. Having direfted his particular atten-
tion to the Dooms-day book, he wrote a learned treatife on
the ufe and true meaning of the obfcure words that occur
in it ; he alfo compiled a book, containing " a catalogue of
the records preferved in lus Majefly's four treafunes," and

" an accoimt of all leagues, treaties of peace, intcrcourfcs
and marriages with foreign nations." This work, with
eleven other Ireatifes in MS. relating to matters of tlie Ex-
chequer, he ordered by his will to be delivered to the oifice.
His other colleftions, amounting to twenty volumes, were
bequeathed to Sir Robert Cotton, and depofited in his library.
His elTays read to the Antiquarian Society were publifhed
by Mr. Hearne, in his " coUeflion of curious difcourlcs by
eminent antiquaries," and arc as follow, viz. " Opinion
touching the Antiquity, &c. of Pariiament," thegenuine-
nefs of which is doubted : — " The Antiquity of Englifh
Shires :" — " On the Dimenhons of the Land of England :"
— " Of the Authority, &c. of Heralds in England :" — Of
the Antiquity and Privileges of the Inns of Court and of
Chancery : — " Of the Diverfity of Names of this lOand."
By his cflabllflicd reputation for the knowledge of antiquities
he was one of the moll conf)iicuous members of a Society of
Antici^u ARIES, which fublifted from 1572 to 1604. He
died in 161 1;, and was buried in the cloiller of Weilminfter
Abbey. Mr. Camden denominates him a moil excellent
antiquary. Biog. Brit.

AGARENI, or Agarenians, a name given by fome
to the followers of the rehgion of Mahomet.

Tlic word is derived from Agar, or Hagar, handmaid of
Abraham, and mother of Iflimael ; and properly denotes
the Arabs, called alfo Ilhmaelltes, and more lately Saracens.

AGARENUM, the capital of the Agarenians, in
Arabia ; it was attacked by Trajan, but without fuccefs.

AGARIC, Agaricus, called ylmanila by Dillenius,
in Botany, a genus of the order of fungi, and clafs of cryp-
togamia; the characters of which are, that the pileus or cap
has gills underneath ; that the gills differ in fubftance from
the reft of the plant, being compofed of two lamina ; and
that the feeds are in the gilk. Gmelin, in the 13th edition
of the Linn^an fyftem, 1 79 1, enumerates 390 different
fpecics ; and Dr. Withering, in the third edition of his
arrangement of Britifli plants, 1796, (vol. iv. p. 154, &c.)
afcertains and defcribes 282 Britifh fpecies, befides feveral
varieties. He diftributes them into three general claffes,
comprehending thofe which have central ftems, thofe with
lateral ilems, and thofe which have no ftems ; and he again
fubdivides the two former claffes into fuch as have folid,
and fueh as have hollow ftems, with dccurrent, hxed and
loofe gills refpeftively. Under thefe heads he arranges the
fpecies, by the colour of the gills, into thofe whofe gills
are white, brown, red, buff, yellow, grey, green, and purple.
As this ingenious author has formed a fyftem, that ferves
to facilitate the inveftigation and defcription of the feveral
fpecies of agarics, we ftiall here give a brief flietch of the
principles upon which it is founded. Agarics are compofed
of a cap or pileus, with gills underneath, and are either
with or without ftems. The ftems are either central or la-
teral. They have alfo a root, which is more or lefs appa-
rent, and fome of them, in their unfolded ftatc, wholly en-
clofed in a membranaceous or leather-like cafe, called 3
lurcippcr. Some of them have alfo a curtain, or thin mem-
brane, extending from the ftem to the edge of the pileus,
which is rent as the pileus expands, and foon vaniftics ; but
the part attached to the ftem often remains, and forms
roilnd it a ring, which is more or lefs permanent, as its fub-
ftance is more or lefs tender. Thefe parts are feen in Plate
V. Botany, fg. F, which exhibits the vertical feftion of
an agaric in its egg-ftate. The wrapper is feen at m, m,
m, m, m ; the pileus at n, n ; the gill at o, o ; p is
the ftem before it flioots up ; and q, q, the curtain. On
the fedjen of a ftem at B, may be feen the remains of a

curtain^

A G A

curtain, tV.eti called a riii}^. The curtain, ring and wrapper
are of lilile ufe in the difcriiaination of the Iptcics. The
two former arc common to all the fccondary fubdivifions
of agarics with central llems ; but the latter is confined
to pbnts with folid ftems.nor does it pertain to thofe whole
gills arc dccuiTent. Tlie fttin of an agaric is either folid or
hollow : the former is repivlented at A ; the latter at B.
In examining an agaric, it will immediately appear whe-
ther the ftcm be folid or hollow, by cutting it acrofs about
the middle w ith a fharp knife. Next to the gills, the Hem
of an agaric is the part leail liable to variation. Tlie gills
are the flat, thin fubllances, found undtnicatli the pileus,
and attached to it, and are of a diifcrcnt texture from that
cf the fteni or pileus. They afl'ume different colours in
different fpecies, and vary much in their refpeftive lengths.
Each gill conlitls of two membranes, between which the
feeds are formed. The gills ate always attached to the pi-
leus, and fometimes to that only, as at Jig. E. c, c. They
often flioulder up againll the ilem, and are Jlxed to it, as
at Jig. A, b ; and they are alfo extended along it down-
wards, as at a. This is called a Jecurrent gill. Tlie fxdd
and decurrent gills arc attached to the ft em only by their
ends, which are next to the center of the pileus, and not
by their edges, as is fometimes the cafe in agarics, whofe
pilei are nearly cylindrical. The gills, as they contain the
fruftification of thefe plants, are peculiarly important.
They var)- in length, always extending to the edge of the
pileus, but feldom reaching to the Hem ; and they are fome-
times forked or divided, and fometimes connefted or anaf-
toniiling with one another. Thefe circumftances are illuf-
trated by jf^'. C. and _/7^-. G. The gills are unlfomi at
d ; and below it they are conncfted at the edge of the pi-
leus ; at e they appear in pairs, at f there are four, and at
g eight in a fet ; at h they are feen irregular, or without
any determinate number ; at i they are branching, and at k
branching and anaftumifing. Fig. C exhibits the gills loofe
from the ftem, with the inner end fixed to a collar which
furrounds the top of the ftem, though not in contaft with
it. Thefe feveral circumftances are fubjecl to fuch variation,
that they do not fcrve to diftinguifti the different fpecies.
The colour of the gills, however, is obvious and permanent ;
and as the colour is principally, if not folely, caufed by that
cf the feeds within thtm, this affords the moft fixed and
certain charafteriftic, on which to found the diftinftions of
the fpecies ; and together with the ftrufture, the colour,
particularly of the flat fidcs of the gills, will be at all times
fufflclent to furnilTi permanent fptcific diftiniflions. The
ftem is a lefs variable part than the pileus ; its fliape, the
proportions of its length to its breadth, and of both to the
pileus, afford tolerable diftinfLlve marks ; and its colours,
though more changeable than thofe of the gills, are perhaps
rather more fixed than thofe of the pileus. The pileus, or
cap, is the part of an agaric, that is the leaft certain. Its
(hape is either conical (as at E), convex (us at D), flat, or
hollowed at the top like a funnel, and is conftantly vary-
ing in the fame plant, though it is much the fame in the
fame fpecies, when the plant is in perfeftion, or when it is
fully or almoft. fully expanded. Its colour is uncertain ;
and fo is alfo the vifcidity or clamminefs on the furface
of the pileus and ftem, which has fometimes charaftcrlfed
agarics. The laifiefcence of fome agarics, or their pro-
perty of yielding a milky juice, which in fome fpecies is
mild, and in others acrid, is vei-y precarious and inconftant.
Such as we have briefly recited, are the principles upon
which Dr. Withering's fyftem is founded ; and it feems
veil adapted for extending Qur acquaintance ^vith tlie va-

A G A

rious fpecies of agaric that occur, and rendering the know-
ledge already acquired more accurate. Withering's Ar-
rangement, vol. i. p. 375 — 380. See Chyptogamia,
I'uNCUs, and Mushroom.

Of all the fpecies of agaric, one only has been felefted
for cultivation in our gardens, •u'l'z. the A. campejlrh, or
commui mujhioom, or champignon. The gills of this fpecies
are loofe, pinky red, changing to a liver-colour, in contail
with the item, but not united to it ; very thick fet, irregu-
larly difpofed, fome forked next the ftem, fome next the
edge of the pileus, fome at both ends, and in that cafe ge-
nerally excluding the intermediate Imaller gills. The pileus
is white, changing to brown when old, and becoming
fcurfy ; regularly convex, flefliy, flatter with age, from two
to four inches, and fometimes nine inches in diameter, and
liquefying in decay ; the flelh white. The ftem is folid,
white, cylindrical, from two to three inches high, half an
inch in diameter ; the curtain white and delicate. When
this muftiroom firft makes its appearance, it is fmooth and
almoft globular ; and in this ftate it is called a button.
This fpecies is efteemed the beft and moft favoury of the
genus, and is much in requell for the table in England.
It is eaten frefh, either ftewed or boiled, and preferved ei-
ther as a pickle or in powder ; and it furniflies the fauce
called KETCHUP. The field plants are better for eating
than thofe raifed on artificial beds, their flefli being more
tender ; and thofe who are accuftomed to thtm can diftin-
guiflt them by their fmell. But the cultivated ones are
more fightly, may be more ealily collefted in the proper
ftate for eating, and are firmer and better for pickling.
The wild inulhrooms are found in parks and other pallures,
where the turf has not been ploughed up for many years ;
and the beft time for gathering them is Auguft and Septem-
ber. Dr. Withering mentions four varieties. The A.
Georg'ii of Linnasus refembles the former, but is much in-
ferior to it in flavour. Its gills are yellowifti white ; the
pileus yellow, convex, hollow in the center ; the ftem yellow
thlckilh and fmooth ; the juice yellow, which flows plenti-
fully from it when wounded. It is gathered in Septem-
ber in woods and paftures. A variety of this is found
on the fea coaft of Cornwall, of a large iizc, with the but-
ton as big as a potatoe ; the expanded pileus 1 8 inches
over, the ilem as thick as a man's wrift, the gills very pale,
the curtain tough, and thick as leather, and the juice yeU
lowifli. A plant of this kind, as Dr. Withering informs
us, was gathered on an old hot-bed in a garden in Birming-
ham, which weighed 14 pounds. T\\i A., procerus, or tall
muftiroom, is not uncommon on hedge banks and dry paf-
tures, and is fometimes expofed to fale in Covent-garderi
maiket. It may be diftlnguiflied from the genuine fort
by the fponginefs of its flelh, and from others by its fine
and large horizontal ring. The gills are white, uniform,
and fixed to a collar ; the pileus is a broad cone, boffed,
white brown, and fcaly ; the ftem is fcaly, and the ring
loofe. This plant, when preferved in pickle, is very apt to
run into the vinous fermentation. Dr. V/ithering enu-
merates fonr varieties of this fpecies, one of which is
the A. e.scorlatus of Schocffer and Hay, which is a
beautiful plant, approaching in ft;rii6lure to the former,
but of a fmaller fize. It is gathered in September. A.
xeranipeUnus is the moft fplendid of all the agarics. Its
gills are fixed, bright golden yellow, and nearly orange
under the edge of the pileus, regularly difpofed four in a
fet ; fleftiy, brittle, and ferrated at the edge with a paler
cottony matter: the pileus is a tine lake red, changing with
»ge 10 a rich oritnge and buff, and every intermediate ftiade

•f

A G A

of tl'.tTo culoiirs, v.liii'h ivnckr it very heautifiil ; fonvcS,
cciittr boiled, edge tvinu-tl down, three to fuur inches
diumetcr, cliitliy to tlie toncli ; flefli pale buff; ilem folid,
nearly eylindrieal, but gradually tapering upwards, ricii
buff, fnaded with fine role red, three to live inches liigh,
half inch in diameter ; flelh pale, buffy, ipongv and
clailic. This is common in Italy, and broujrht to the mar-
kets for fale. The ancient Romans eileemed it one of the
greatcll luxuries for the table. It was made the vehicle
for poifon to Claudius Cxlar by his wife Agrippina, and
lias therefore been celebrated by Juvenal and Martial.
Schitfferand Clulius have recited fcveral curious cireiunttan-
ccs refpefting it. Dr. Withering apprehends that thcfe
authors have miftaken the fpecies, and that their accoimt
fliould be transferred to the A. cleHdofus. The A. xernm-
pi-linus is eatable, but its tafte is not at all agreeable. It is
the A. crfiirms of Schaeffer, and firft found by Dr. ^^'i-
thering's daughter, on the red rock plantations at Edg-
ballon, July 6th 1791 ; and afterwards in Sept. 1793: and
in July 1792, amongil: moi? in the fir planl-ations at Tetten-
hall, Staflordlhire. Dr. W. enumerates five varieties.

A. delic'iofiis has gills decurrent, flame-coloured, narrow,
regularly branched ; pileus rich red brown ; flefh nearly flat,
but fomewhat hollowed at the centre and the edge turned
in, from one and a halt to three inches over ; orange-coloiu" ;
Hem orange, folid, tnpering downwards, from one to two
inches high, and a quarter to three-eighths inch diameter :
hollow with age. The juice is rich yellow, which foon
turns green. It is found in the fir-plantations of Scotland,
and in thole of the barren hills at Barr, in Staffordlhire
Dr. Smith alio found it at HiUingdon, Mtddlefex, under
fome fir-trees, and it alio grows near Guildfoi'd. It is much
tlteemed in Italy, and cxpofed in the markets, and fuppofed
to have been the A. cafar.us mentioned by the autliors cited
under the preceding article. Dr. Withering enumerates three
varieties, one of vvhieli afi'ords, from every part of it when
ivoundcd, a copious diiciiargc of yellow acrid juice. They are
gathered in woods and Ary paftures in Sept. and Oct.

A. cinnamomeus has gills, four in a fct, broad about the
middle, deep tawny red, and fixed by claws ; pileus convex
but boffed, of a rich cinnam.on colour, from one and
a half to three and a h:;lf inches diameter ; the ilem hollow,
cylindrical, filky, (liining, two inches high, thick as a goofe
quill, of a fine full yellow colour. This is a fpecies that
is readily diftinguiflied by its cinnamon-colour. It is found
in woods in September and Ottober ; and has a good fla-
vour. It is the A. annamomeus of Bolton. The A. cy-
elhiform'is of Schxffer is a variety of this.

A. bulbofus has white, loofe, iiTcgular gills ; pileus con-
vex, white, fmooth, fometimes fringed at the edge, four or
five inches over ; flefh white, fpongy and very thick ;
flem folid, cyUndrical, fmooth, \\hite, four inches high, and
half inch or more in diameter : ring permanent, broad,
and white. This fpecies poffeffes all the parts belonging
to the genus, and is well adapted to inllruft the learner in
underilanding them. It is foiuid from Qjring to the end
of autumn in rich foil, and alfo in gardens, on the fides
and at the bafe of hot-beds. Dr. Withering enumerates
four varieties, found in woods about the roots of trees,
and in paftures : and he refers the A. Liilbofiis of the Fl.
«ingl. to the A. glaucDpiii of Schosffer, with brown gills,
from four to eight in a fet, chefnut and femi-globulnr pi-
leus, thick fteni of a white or pinky colour, and curtain
refembling a cobweb, white flefli with a pinky tinge, folid
whitifh ftem, and very large bulbous root. The A. hul-
lofus of Hudfon and Ray is referred by this author to A.
I'iolaceus of Linnxus; which has fixed purple gills, numerous,
tight in a fet j long gills fometimes cloven, and a fe'.v of them

Vol. I.

A G A

(L-eurren! ; puip'.e ji'Ieus, fofi, finooth, firm, convex, b'jt
ccntraliy d.preii'ed with age, and cracking at the edg?,
which is iomcwhut turned down, fiom half inch to five inches
over : ilem folid, cylindrical, purjilc, bulbous at the bafe,
from one to four inches \\vA\, and from a quarter to one
inch in diameter ; and curtain like a cobweb. In maturity,
it plentifully emits a powder of the colour of Spnniili
fnuir. It is not uncommon from Oi^ober to December,
in Edgbailon and Bair plantations, in the woods near
Bath, and at Powick near Worccder. With much broil-
ing and duly fcaioned, it is eileemed delicious as an
oyiler. A. canJ'ulus ot I^innxus is fmall and white, with
an hemifpherical pileus ha\nng its margin turned inwards
and flexile gills, and ilem cylindrical and flexuous. Dr.
Withering refers the A. canilidus of Hudfon to the Mi;ru-
Liv« vmhdlifcrus. A. nstais has gills decuiMcnt, white, few,
fliort and in pairs; pileus white; bofs yellowifli, at fii-ft co-
nlcal, then flat, and lailly inverted, tv.-o inches in diameter;
Ilem folid, whitifli buff, bending, three inches high, and a
quarter of an inch in diameter. The whole plant is veiy
vifeid, but dries when gathered. Dr. W. fufpetts it to
be an unufually large plant of the A. ebunieiis. It is found
in autumn in Packington Park, Warwickfliire. A. mu-
tnbilis of Schreft'er has loofe, yellow brown gills, four in a fet;
brown orange pileus, convex and boffed ; item hollow, cy-
lindrical, red brown arid fcaly below, and whitifli above
the ring ; curtain thready ; ring permanent and imperfett.
It is common in Auguft, on decaying and rotten
wood. The A. mutabUis of Hudfon, Ray, &c. is referred
by Dr. W. to the A. vefutlpes of Ciu'tis, with pale ycUov?
gills, eight in a ftt ; pileus brown orange, nearly flat ; flem
yellow above, velvety and dark brown below. It is not
uncommon in April and Odtober, grows in clufters, and is
geneiiiily attached to rotten wood. A. craffijws has gills white,
brownifli at the edges, flclhy, diftant, four in a fet ; pileuj
reddifli brown, boffed and cracking ; ftem tapering down-
wards and ribbed. It grows in cluilers, at the bale of de»
caying trees. The A. craffipes of Schaffer is made by Dr.
W. a variety of the A. elajlicus with white gills, four in
a fet ; pileus chefnut and femi-globular ; ftem buffy, white
and tapering. This agaric is tough and ilrong, with a con-
fiderable elailicity, and found under oak trees in Auguft,
September and Oftober. A. varitts has white gills, not
numerous, two or four in a fet ; pileus conical and fcored ;
ftem cylindrical, glofl'y, ftifl", and about the fize of a crow-
quill. Of this fpecies Dr. W. has enumerated eight va-
rieties, moil of which are found at the roots of filberd trees.
The A. varius of ScliEffer is in Dr. W .'i an'angement a
variety of the A. glaucopus, and that of Bolton a variety
of the A. fimi-Jyiitns of Bulliard, which has gills dark
brown to black, iour or eight in a fet ; pileus jiale brown,
conical, blunt, with polifhcd apex, and white item. It \<=
found in October, in gardens. A variety of it, with foui
gills in a fet, and a pileus grey to black, is found among
rotten leaves rn grafs-land. Another variety, which is the
A. I'arius of Bolton, is found on grafs-platn and new niowa
fields in July. It has chocolate gills from brown to black,
mottled, and in pairs ; pileus moufe -colour, conical and
pointed ; ftem of the fame colour, cylindrical and firm.
This, though a common, is a very beautiful fpecies. In
a fummer morning it is covered with a bloom like that of
a plumb, having often a glittering ii.angled appearance ;
its form is regular, and the fringe of the curtain peculiarly
delicate. Another variety, with the ftem of a dark m-j'-
berry colour, is found in wet gravel where no grais grows,
and fometimes on cuw-dung, in vv'hich cafe the ilem, under
the flicker of long grafs, is covered with a white hoarhiefs,
which is cai'jly rubbed off.

3 C A. sn'.g^r

A G A

t

A. mlfgfr of Linnxus lias gills wliiti', tnoflly uniform ;
pileiis of various tints, cninfon, pink, liljc, or tinvny brown,
chaniring to dirty yellow or lokad colour ; l\cm folid, cyliu-
dnfal and white. It is vciy common ard bcautihil ; lo'.md
in woods and pafturcs, under trees, and fnalh art very fond
of it. Dr. Withering tniiincrates nine varieties. A. or-
tades has loofc jrills, with the part attached to the pilcns
jutting up very clofc to the Hem, fo as to jjivc thtm aimed
the appearance of being fixed, watery bro^vuilTi white, two
or four in a ftt» the fmall ones veiy minute, and the large
ones fometinies fplitting at the outer end ; not numerous,
rather broad for the fi/e of th.c plant j frequently conncftcd
to the pileus by ligameuts; pileus pale buffy brown, con-
vex, irregular, with a fudden depreHion of the border at
fome ditlance from the center, often giving the appearance
of a large rounded bofs in the middle ; central colour
generally deeper ; from one to one and three quarters
inch o^'er; and the edge turning up with age: ftcm
folid, white, changing to watery brown, cylindrical, but
thicker and flattened jud under the pileus, very tough,
mollly crooked, tv.ifted when dry, rarely central, one and
half inch high and thick as a crow-quill. This is the
2-th fungus of Ray's fynopfis, .ed. 3. p. 6. A. pra-
ttnfu of HtidfoM, and coriaccus of Lightfoot. There are
two varieties ; one with cream-coloured gills, buff pileus,
and mealy llcm, and another with yellow brown, more
flefliv arid more regularly convex pileus, found in groves.
Mr. Woodward fays, that this fpecies has a much liigher
flavour than the common mufliroom, but he fuggeils, that
from its leather)' nature it is indigeltible, except in the
form of powder, in which it is admirable. Dr. Withering,
however, obfcrves, that he has feen the pileus and gills of
this agaric ver;^ brittle and tender, when fully fatuvated
with moillure in rainy fcafons, and in that ilate it is fufli-
ciently digcftible. ProfelTor Martyii informs us, tliat he
has eaten thefe munirooms for 40 years without injury,
and without perceiving that toughnefs like kiither, of
which others have complained, except in very dry weather,
or when they are in too advanced a ftate. They fliould
be gathered young and early in a morning, and properly
drcfled. They are found in hedge banks, upland pallures,
and (heep commons, particularly in thofe patches called
Fairy rings. Thofe that are found in woods and hedges
are of inferior fla>Oir to lucli as are gathered in dry paf-
turcs, which have a very pleafant fmell and lufcious flavour,
either when itewcd alone, or in ragouts, &c. This fort
makes excellent ketchup, and is much valued in the form
of powder. It is in feafon during September and Odober,
but may be dried lo as to be in ufe for table all the winter,
'Mr. Lightfoot fuppofes that this fpecies is the mouceron of
the French, who ufe it in ragouts, i.iftead of that, and
acknowledge it to be equal in flavour, but more tough.
The mouccron, however, has a very thick and flelhy pileus,
its gills are very narrow and numerous, and fixed to the
ftem, and the fteni is thick and (liort. Dr. Withering has
carefully diftinguiHied feveral other fpecies from tliis fairy-
ring agaric, or Scotch bonnets, as it is called by Mr. Ray.
A. chanlartUns oi Linna:us, is the merulius ccinthanUus
fif Dr. WiUiering, and may be eaten with lafety ; but it
is more tough and lefs highly flavoured than cither the A.
arcades or A. campcf.rls. Allione enumerates the following
fpecies as edible, viz. A. caiuUdiis — hdbofus — chanlarcUus —
tiltens — deiiclofus — niuiaLllls — bninneus — excorlatiu — georgil —
tr^Ljftpes — wirlus — vlolaceiu — -Jylvatlcus. But he has omitted
A. campcflrls. In many parts of Europe feveral other
forts are eaten, which are thought with us to be poifonous.
Of this number we may reckon the A. plperaius, which,
though it be the moft acrid and fufpicious of all the agarics,

A G A

is eaten in <»reat quantity by the Ruffians. They fill !arg«
vclicls with tiiefe inufnrooms in the autumn, feafon or pickle
tluiri with fait, and cat them in the eniuing Lent. The
A. pip.rnlui ot Linnxus has gills, pale phiky red, nume-
rous, in pairs ; pileus dirty yellow white, woolly, deprclftd
in the centre ; and ilem pale yellow. This is the A. tur-
piiiiofus of Schaifftr. The A. pljicralus of F;i/lton, and A.
hUhjhiUS acrls of Bulliaid is refen-ed by !)•:. W, to the A.
l.ljtcrl, which hvs gills whitifli, numerous and narrow : pi-
leus fmoolh, irregular, flaltifli, deprelfed in the cent.'r ;
item white, ecceiitric ; and juice like milk. Liiler iirft
found it in England. This plant, with its varieties, is met
with in plantations of wood. It is much eaten by infects
and fnails. A. clypetxtas is defcnbed by Dr. W. as having
gills fixed flightly to the Ilem, greyiflt watery brown, four
or eight in a fet : pileus brown, convex, boiTed, border
fcorcd, very vifcid, lo that flies lighting upon it cannot
efcape ; paler in colour when diveiled of this vifcid matter,
one to one inch and half over ; ftem hollow, white, vifcid,
tender,, eallly br:jken, iplitirlr.g, three or four inches high,
and thick as a crov; quill. This ipecies is found in wood-
land pallures in September. Dr. Pcrcival, in the lafl
vol. of his Eflays, p. 267, relates the cafe of a man, who
was poifoncd by eating a muflu-oom, which Mr. Hud-
fon thinks was one of this fpecies. A. miifcorlus, or red-
dilh mufiiroom, has a large pileus, varying much in colour,
white, red or crimfon, convex, fpriukled with downy warts,
which are raifcd, compacl and angular, or thin, flat, and
nigged, turning up with age, from two to feven inches
over ; flefli white, reddilh in decay : gills tixed, white, yeU
lovvifli with age, moHly uniform, but a fliorter one fome-
times intervening ; the fliorter gills varying much in length,
but rarely lefs than one third the length of the long ones :
the ftem lolid and cylindrical, but the internal fubllance
flirlvclling with age, leaves irregular hollows ; fcaly, bul-
bous at tile bafe, Irom three to live inches high, and from
three quarters to one and a half inch in diameter ; ring,
broad, permanent, and turned down upon the ilem. This
])iant rifes out of the ground iuclofed within its brown
Itiiddcd wrapper. It is found in pallures. The juice rub-
bed on the walls and bed-polls deilroys bugs ; and in the
north of Europe the inhabitants infule it in milk, and fet
it in their windows, in order to poifon the flies who tafte
it. This is the moticho-more of the Ruffians, Kamtfchadales,
and Koriars, who ufe it for intoxication. They foine-
times tat it dry, and fometimcs immerfe it in a liquor made
with the epilobium ; and when they drink this liquor, they
are feized with convulfions in all their limbs, followed with
that kind of raving which attends a burning fever. They
perfonify this mulhroom ; and if they arc urged by its
effetls to fuicide, or any dreadful crime, they pretend to
obey its commands. To tit themftlves for premeditated
alfairination, they recur to the ufe of the moucho-more.
A powder of the root, or of that part of the ftem which
is covered by the earth, is recommended in epileptic cafes,
and externally applied for diffipathig hard globular fwel-
lings, and for healing ulcers. The dofe is from half a
fcruple to one, taken thrice a day in water ; and a dram
adminiitered once a day in vinegar, has been thought more
eflicacious. Murray, App. ^led. vol. v. p. 560. Dr.
Vvntheriiig eaumerates ten varieties of this fpecies.

The agarics, with Literal ftems, and thofe without ftems,
are chiefly found on rotten wood, or (lumps and fragments of
decayed trees. Of the latter fort we flinll mention only
the A. qiierchnis, or agaric of the oak : the gills are brown,
very much branched and anallomifing, thick, forming ob-
long angular, and nearly circular cavities, efpecially towards
the t'dgcs ; the pileus bro>s'n, woody, nearly feuiicircular,

4 or

A G A

A G A

or of no rcgiilaT nijpe, niaiked with circular tiled ridges,

lis well as with different fliadiis of colour, foft to the touch
like buff kuther or fine cork, frona one to live inches over,
or more. 'Fills fpeclcs, of which Dr. \V. enumerates two
varieties, feems to connedt the agarics with the noLF.Ti.
For a further account of tlie dixtetical and medical qualities
c>f agarics, and for the metiiod of cultivating and propa-
gating thofe which are chiefly ufed, fee Mushroom.

Araric, in Pharmacy, a kind of fungous excrefcence,
growing on the trunks and large brandies of feveral trees ;
but, chiefly on the larch-trees and upon lome kinds of oak,
iviien old and decayed. Three-fourths of it confill af a
retinous fubllance, and the remainder is a (limy mucilaginous
earthy matter, fo tenacious, as fearecly, by any method,
to be diffolved by water. It comes forth on the tree in tlie
beginning of tlie Iprlng, and continues to iiiereafe till
autumn. The bell is ealily cut with a knife, friable be-
twixt the fingers, and has no hard, or gritty, or coloured
veins. It has no pedicle, and is internally of a fimple uni-
form ilruclure throughout its whole fubllance. Agaric is
brought from different places ; the bell comes from the Le-
vant ; that which comes from Savoy and Dauphiny being
Icfs eJlcemcd. Holland alfo fupplies fome, but that is
reckoned the worll ; becaufe it is grated, and whitened at
top with chalk. By a chemical folution it paffes almoft:
wholly into oil ; it yields no volatile ialt, but abounds with
a fort of flaky earth, and acid phlegm ; as to texture, it
feems much to refemble colocynth. Agaric is an ingre-
dient in the thenaca Andromachi , where it is admitted in
quality of a cordial : though its cardiac virtue is excepted
to as much as its purgative. Agaric was a purge in much
cfteem among the ancients, but has defervedly fallen into
difrepute of later years, as it occafions unfupportablenaufeas ;
and as no preparations of it appear to be equal to the more
common and experienced cathartics. The druggllls confider
only that which grows upon the laieh-ttee to be the right
fort. For its chemical hiftory, fee Neumann's Works,
p. 349. The Agaric of the oak, f;) denominated, becaufe
the bell is fuppofed to be produced on the oak, fometimes
alfo called falle or baftard Agaric, is the Boletus hm-
arlus of Linna:us. This fungus has been fpecifically named
Igniarlus, and alfo touch-wood or fpuiik, from its readily
catching fire, and from its being ufed in fome places as tinder.
For this purpofe the Germans boil it in ftrong ley, dry it,
and boil it again in a folution of falt-petre. It is externally of
an a(li-co!oar, and internally dufl^y-coloured, foft and
tough. In FraHConia pieces of the inner fubllance are beaten
fo as to refemble leather, and fewed together ior making
garments : this agaric has been much ufed by furgeons
as an external ilyptic. The mode of preparing tliis fubllance
is as follows : Take a piece of freih agaric, which has been
removed from the oak or larch-tree in autumn, and pare
off its exterior rind ; the coat underneath, being of a com-
pact texture, is then to be feparated from the porous part,
and well beaten with a hammer until it becomes extremely
pliable. The outer hard pail, and the inner loofe furfaee,
are of very little ufe ; but the middle portion, thus pre-
pared, mull be kept dry in flices of a convenient fize. A
fmall piece is to be laid exadtly over the bleeding artery,
and over that a fecond, or even a third, fomewliat larger ;
and kftly a coinprefs, to retain the whole in its place. Its
application to tliis purpofe was derived from the French,
and it was fucceifivcly recommended, firll by Broffard in
1 750, afterwards by Morand, Bouquot, Fagct, Roehard,
and De Mey, who employed it not only to rellrain the
bleeding of wounds, but to prevent ha? mon-hages after am-
putations, which it is reported to have done as effetlually as
tJie iigature. Several Englifli furgeoas have alio publillicd

cafes in which the agar! • was fviccefsfully tifcd, as Sh^irpi
Warner, Gooch and others. Some have remarked that,
where it fceined to fucceed, the fubjeCls were brought fo
low before the operation, that little danger was to be ap-
prehended from the haemorrhage, thougli no other applica-
tion had been made than that of dry lint and flour. Neale's
Obf. on the' ufe of agaric, &c. It has now loll its reputa-
tion both in France and England ; nor docs it appear, from
its fenlible qualities, to be poffeffed of any truly Ilyptic
power, at leall to any conliderable degree. This finr^ud
probably aC\s no otherwife than as a pliable foft fubllance,
adhering to the orifices of the veffels, till they have con-
tracted fpontaneoully. Some other fungi have been cm-
ployed with the fame intention ; fuch as the lycopcrdon, or
dully mulhroom, and the fungus vinofus, found on the
calks and walls of wine-vaults. I^ewis's Mat. Med. Wood-
ville Med. Bot. vol. iv. p. 160. Since it poffeffes no
efficacy without a firm comprefs, we believe the Ligature
will be generally preferred, as more fecure, and lefs trouble-
fome to the patient. See Hemorrhage.
Agaric, Female. See Boletus.

Agaric Mineral, Bergw'ikh, Bergmr/j/ Gevm. Creta
far'.iiacea. — This mineral fubllance is always found in a
loofe or femi-indurated flate in the fiffures of rocks or
at the bottom of lakes ; it almoil floats on water, is en-
tirely foluble in nitric acid with effei-vcfcence, and pro-
bably confiils wholly of carbonat of hme : it is not ap-
plied to any particular ufe. There are two varieties of tlife
fpecies, of which the following are the elientiid charaifters.
Var. I. Bergmileh of Werner.

Dully — colour whitifli red or yellow ; veiT friable; of a dry
feel, does not adhere to the tongue, and gives no glofs tu
the Ikin when rubbed on it.

Var. II. Colour white, compofed of fcaly particles, veiy
friable ; of a greafy feel, and communicates a glofs to the
ll<in ; falls to pieces in water, and adheres to the tongue.
Mr. Kirwan (Elcm. Miner, vol. 1. p. 76) mentions a third
variety, of a filvery wiiite colour, refembling mica in its
ftrutlure, of a foft feel and fomewhat uniiluous like talc,
ahnoll entirely foluble in nitrous acid ; and the fuhition lias
all the properties of a folution of calcareous earth. This
fubftance was formerly ufed internally againll Ircmorrhages,
llrangury, gravel, and efpecially in ^yfenteries ; and ex-
ternally to dry and heal old ulcers, ilop defluxions of the
eyes, S:c. See Silvery Chalk.

AGARICITES, in Natural Hijlory, a fpecies of Ma-
drepora, llemlefs, and furrowed, with carinated furrows and
concatenated liars. It is found in the fea, between the
iflands of America.

AGARICUM, a fpecies of Aleyonium, with a filifornj
ftem, and a kidney-fliaped cafe. This is the kiduey-lhaped
purple .y.a-PEN of Ellis, found in the fea that walhes the
coall of South Carolina. Its body is about an inch long,
and half an inch aerofs the nan-oweft part, with a fmall
roundilh tail, an inch in length, proceeding from t!»c mid-
dle of the body, full of rings from one end to the other,
like an earth-worm, with a fmall groove running along the
middle of the upper and under part, from one end to ths
other. The upper part of the body is convex, and near a
quarter of an inch thick ; the whole furfaee is covered with
minute yellow ilany openir.gs, through which are protruded
little fuckers, like polypes, each furniflied with fix tentacles
or filaments, wiiieh feem to be tlie proper mouths of th«
animal. The under part of the body is flat, and the furfaee
is full of the ramifications of flefliy fibres, which, proceed-
ing from the infertion of the tail, ai their common centre,
branch out fo as to communicate with the Harry openings on
the cjitsuios edge and upper furfaee of .the animal, .'v.-a
3 C z ^iate

A G A

riatt 1. CoralPiMSt kc. fig. u Phil. Traiif. vol. lili.
p. 427.

AGARICUS S'l'ias, in Jucieiit Gtcgraphy, a gulj))! of
India, on this Cde the Gan^^cis, according to PtoUniy.

AGARON, in NuturarBijhry, a name given iiy Adan-
f'.n to a fpecies of voluta; the ifpidula oi Gnuhn's edi-
tion of th,- L:;ina-an Syllcin.

^AGARRA, in yhcliit G.csrafhy, a town of Snfinna,
m Alia } placed by Rolemy in lon^. Ss*" 40' ; and lat.
33" 20'.

AG.-\RUM, a pr&mcntor)' of Atiatic Sarmatia, near
the river jigiirus, which rail from north to fouth, and dif-
chargrd ilfclf into the Pi:!us Maolis. According to Ptolemy,
itwa's lituated in long. 63°, and lat. 49° 40'. Ovid. (Pont.
jv. 10.) c.'ills the river, Sagaris ; and it is now Sa^ir.

AGASUS, a -port mentioned by Pliny, fituate between
the promontoiy of Garganus and the river Cerbalus; and
fiippofed to be the fame with Por:o Greco. Agafus, or Agafla,
was alfo a town of Macedonia in Europe.

AGASYLLIS, in the MaUria Mcdka, a name given
by fome of the ancient Greek writers to gum ammoniac ;
and by Diofcoridcs, to the tree which produces that gum.
By their dcfcription of this medicine, it appears not to have
been the fame which we know by this name.

AG ATA,iny/««V«/ Geography, a fmall town and bilhop's
fee of Naples in the Principato Ultra.

AGATE, A'/a.'!i<i yichaUs, of Theophrallus and Pliny ;
Agalh, Fr. Achat, Germ. Agakr, Swed. This wcid
is ufed by modern m.ineralogiils not as denominating any
particular fpecies of ftone, but a filiceous mixture of quartz,
hornftone, flint, calcedony, amethyll, jafper, carnelian, cr
heliotrope, aggregated into binary or more complex combi-
nations. It has nevertlielcfs feveral peculiar charaftcrs by
which it may readily be dillinguillied from other minerals.
Although it confifts of paits differing in colour and tranf-
parency, yet thefe poffefs a certain uniformity of arrange-
ment, and Hide into each other by fuch nice gradations as
(how them to have been all of limultaneous formation ; and
hence it differs from filiceous Breccia, in which angular
fragments of filiceous pebbles are cemented by a filiceous
paite : for in all thefe the cement, whether quartz, calce-
dony, or flint, is wholly diftinft from the fragments that it
inveils, and the arrangement of the whole is merely cafual.
As it differs in tlie colour of its conftituent parts, fo it does
in their tranfparency ; it is never wholly opaque like jafper,
nor tranfparent as quartz cr^-ftal : it takes a very high
polifh, and its opaquer parts ufually preient the appearance
of dot-s, eyes, veins, zones, bands, or ramifications. Its
colours are yellowifh, reddiih, bluifh, or milk white, honey-
orange, or ochre yellow, fleih blood, or brick red, reddifii
brown, violet blue, and brownilli green. Specific gravity
from 2.55 to 2.7. It gives fire with fteel very plentifidly.

It is found in the form of irregular rounded nodules,
from the fize of a pin's head, to more than a foot in dia-
meter; orin ftrata, and fometimes, though rarely, ilalaftltic.
Several varieties of agate are diftinguiflied by the lapidaries :
the finer femi-tranfparent kinds, confilling principally of cal-
cedony, are called oriental : in the banded agates the co-
lours are difpofed in ftrait parallel lines or bands ; while in
the fortification agate, the mofl beautiful of all the varie-
ties, they are arranged in waved and angular concentric
zones : the landfcape agate, by the name alone, fulKciently
declares its irregular appearance : the n.ofs agate, or Mochoa
ftone, is filled with dendritical cryftailizations of iron ore,
fo nearly refembling fome kinds of mofs, as to have been
aftually mifi;aken for real vegetables by Daubenton.

Agates are foimd, for the moft part, in argillaceous por-
phyry, occafionally in gypfum, near the river Wolga they

A G A

occur between the ftrata of fecondaiy limeftone, and certain
rocky tracts in Siberia confill almoll entirely of a pudding-
ftone, of which agates and calcedony form an effential con-
llitUvUt part. The aigiUaceous porphyry being a rock
that is eailly difintegrated by the aftion of the air and moif-
t'uc, the agates and other liliceous pebbles that it contains
Tail out and are walhcd by the rains into the beds of rivers ;
here, by friiiion upon each other, t'.ic afperities on their fur-
face are worn off, and in this ilate they are generally found
on the fea-(hore and in gravel beds. The mofl beautiful
agates that this ifland produces, are commonly known by
the name of Sccich pMLs; thefe are met with in various
parts of Scotland, but principally in the vicinity of Dunbar.
The agates of (iennany are the largeft, efpecially thofe
from Kunerfdorf in Saxony. The Dutchy of Deuxponts,
the Palatinate, Plcffe, Thuringia, Wirtemburg, Bavaria,
Bohemia, and Sik-fia alfo furnifli them in great abundance.
The river Achates in Sicily was of old celebrated for thefe
pebbles, and hence they have acquired their name : the
other parts of Eui-ope, where they are found, are principally
Tufcan)', Candia, and Iceland. Some cxquifitely fine fpe-
cimens have been brought from Siberia, and the ifland of
Ceylon ; and they have lately been difcovered in great
plenty in the bed of a river at the eaflern extremity of the
fettlement at the Cape of Good Hope.

The ufes of agate are principally for ornamental works ;
the engraved gems, thofe precious remains of ancient art
are principally agate, and much ingenuity has been fliewn in
the accommodation of the natural veins and marks to the
figures engraven upon them ; it is alfo mvich ellecmed by
modern lapidaries for feals. Small mortars are made of
agate, and are ufed by the enameller, and in the laboratory
for grinding fubflances that are too hard to be triturated
any other way.

A dark i1:ain approaching to red, or red purple, may be
communicated to agate, by heating it in warm aflies, and
then moiftening its furface with nitro-muriat of gold, or
nitrat of filver ; when the ftone is become dry, it muft be
fet for a day or two ip a dark moift place, and then expofed
to the full fun : by this method tlie moft delicate zones
and ramifications, which are not vifible in the natural uate
of the ftone, are made to appear in a very beautiful manner ;
this tinge is, however, deftroyed by nitrous acid, or a mode-
rate heat : and thus artificial trains may be diftinguiflied
from the native col;)U"3. A deep black is given to agate
by foaking it when heated, in boiling nitrat of copper, and
then heating it nearly to redncfs in a covered crucible.
Mochoa ilones are imitated by fpreading a folution of ni-
trated copper over the furface of a plain agate, and then
fetting a fmall iron nail on its head in the middle ; the ni-
trous acid unites with the iron, and depofits the copper in
beautiful arborefcent radiations from the centre ; the nail
muft then be removed, and the furface carefully wafted, by
dipping the ftone in warm water ; afterwards on the appli-
cation of a moderate heat, the copper becomes black. —
This depofition, however, being merely fuperficial, requires
to be covered with a plate of polifted ciyllal, in the man-
ner of a doublet. If the ramifications are required to be
very fine, the agate fhould be moiftened with a dilute nitrat
of filver fujierfaturated with the metal, or a folution of
lunar cauflic in water, a fmall piece of zinc is to be placed
in the middle till the ramifications are fufficiently far ad-
vanced ; the ftone muft then be waflied carefully in warm
water, and afterwards expofed to fulphurated hydrogen gas,
till the filver is become black.

Agate is faid to be imitated very fuccefsfully in glafs ;
and Nt-ri, in his " Art de la Verrerie," gives three different
receipts for this puipofe : of thefe the following is recom-
mended

A G A

mended both by the author aiut by Kiinkcl, as prodnciiipf
a compofkioii for i'pleiulour and vividncfs of colour often
fiipcrior to real agate. Take feven ounces of gianulatid
filver, and five ounces of mercury, four drams of minium,
one ounce of verdegns, and Icales of copper, crude anti-
mony, and black manganefe, of each iialf an ounce ; didolve
the filver by itfelf in nitrous atid, and having ground the
rell of the materials together, add firll two pounds of nitrous
acid, and tlien the nitrated lilvcr, mixing both litjuors evenly
and intimately with the other fubllanees ; then difPolve
two drams of gold in nitro-muriatic acid, and grind together
the following ingredients ; viz. cinnabar, twelve drams ;
fulphuraled oxyd of copper, twenty drams, fulphurated
oxyd of iron, four drams, and white oxyd of tin, oxyd of
iron, iron fcales, zaffrc, orpiment, and white arfcnic, of
each lialf an ounce ; mix the lolution of gold with this com-
pound powder, and then add thrice its weiglit of nitro-
m\iriatic acid : digeft in fcparate glafs veffels for twenty-
four hours in a fand-bath the above nitrous and nitro-mu-
riatic mixtures, then add them together, and diftil to dry-
nefs ; there will remain a powder of a reddifli green colour.
Alfo take twenty pounds of clear flint glafs, and reduce it
to a fine powder, in a clean fteel mortar, add to this two
ounces and a half of the above colouring cmnpofition, and
flux them together ; when the whole is in clear fufion, flir
it up from the bottom and let it continue melted for twentv-
four hours, then IHr it again, and allow it to cool very
gradually ; its colour will then be a middle tint between
yellow and blue. Place the crucible again in the fur-
nace, and when the glafs is melted, add, at five or fix diffe-
rent times, the following mixture ; calcined tartar, eight
ounces, vitrified wood foot, two ounces, and half an ounce
of perfect oxyd of iron : this will make the glafs fwell con-
fiderably, and therefore requires much care to prevent it
from flowing over : when all is quiet, heat it well for
twenty-four hours longer without touching it, and it will
then be fit for ufe. Kirwan Mineralog. — Kirwan Geolog.
Efs. — Lametherie Theorie de la Terre. — Lewis's Commerce
of Arts. — Neri fur la Verrerie.

Some writei-s have diilributed agates, with regard to
the objects that are reprefented upon them, into arbo-
refcent, as dendrackates and dendrites ; horned
or cERACHATEs ; aphrodifian, a term given by Velfchius
to an agate in his cullody, of a flcfli colour, with a half
moon on one fide i-eprefented by a milky femicircle, and on
the other, the phafes of Vefper, or the evening-fl:ar ; cor-
foid, witii human hair ; arithmetical, with the numbers
419 1, 191 (Settala. Muf. 81.) ; aflronomieai, with the
hemifphere and its feveral orbs, and the earth in the middle;
anthreipomoi-phous, with the figures of men or women, one
of which, mentioned by Kircher, reprefents a heroine arm-
ed ; and another, in the libraiy of Francfort, exhibiting
the heart, lungs, and part of the veins of a man ; but the
moft celebrated of this kind is that of Pyrrhus, reprefent-
ing the nine Mufes with their attributes, and Apollo in the
iniddle, playing upon the harp (fee Plin. 1. xxxvii. c. 3.
Hard. Not.) ; leucophthalmous, bearing the figures of eyes,
as of birds, firties, and wolves, called by Cardan and others
lycophthalmi, of goats denominated aegophthalmi, of oxen
boophthalmi, &c. ; the Tiberian agate in the treafury of
the French king's chapel, reprefenting the apotheofis of
Auguilus, and the feries and portraits of the family of Ti-
berius and Julia, with divers foreign nations fubdued in v>-ar,
concerning which, many different conjeftures and explica-
tions have been advanced by the learned ; and the luac
agate, a curious antique at Rome, fo called, becaufe it re-
prefents the head of Ifis, and dillinguifhed by the epithet
annularis, as being fet in a ring. However, in this kind of

A G A

diHribution, and in the denominations to which it has giveit
occafiou, the imagination has often mifled the judgment.

Beccaria obfervcs, that the cleftric fparks will not be
conducled by the fiirface of poliflied agates ; and M. Bofe
has fliewn, that the agate was very early known to poffefs
eleftiical powers.

Agate, among y^iitiquaries, denotes a ftonc of this kind,
engraven by art.

In which fenfc agates make a fpecies of antique gemr. ; in
the workmanlhip whereof, we find eminent proofs of the
greatell flcill and dexterity of the ancient fculptors. Se-
veral agates of exqulfite beauty are preferved in the cabinet*
of the curious. The fafrts, or hillories, reprefented in
antique agates, with how much addrels foever condufted,
are become, at this diilance of time, many of them ob-
fcure and dubious, and their explication difficult enough ;
whence divers millakes have been committed, and numcron*
conjeftures and difputes raifed. Hill. Acad. R. Infer, tom. i.

Agate, is alfo the name of an inllrument ufed by gold-
wire drawers ; fo called from the agate in the middle of it,
which forms its principal part.

AGATHA. See Achates.

Agatha, St. in Cvo^^vrpby, a fmall town of Naples, in
the farther principality, on the confines of Terra di' Labora,
between Capua and Bencventum, eight leagues, north-eaft
of Naples. N. lat. 40" 55'. li. long. 14°"2 2'.

Agatha, in ylndcnl Geography, a city of Gallia Narbo-
nenfis, built by the MafTylians, mentioned by Pliny, (lib. iii.
c. 4.) and by Strabo, (tom.i. p. 272. 276.) See Agde.

Agatha, \i\ Natural H'ljhry, a fpecies of the Papilio
Nymphalis, with dentated wings, the upper part yellow,
the under grey ; and the poflerior wings have one black,
fpot above, and three fpots beneath. It is found in
India.

AGATHARCHIDES,orAGATHARrHus of Cnidus,
in Biography, a Greek hillorian, grammarian and rhetorician,
mentioned by Jofephus, (antiq. 1. xii. c. 1. tom. i. p. 585.
Cont. Appion. 1. i. tom ii. p. 457. Ed. Hard.) Diodorus
Siculus, (Bibl. Hift. tom. i. p. 50. p. 181. Ed. Wefl"el.)
Strabo, (tom. ii. p. 969. p. 1 125. Ed. Cafaub.) Lucian,
(tom. iii. p. 222. Ed. Reitz.) and other ancient writers,
was contemporary with Eratotlhenes, though younger than
him, and flouriflied under Ptolemy Philometor, about 177
years before Chrill. He was reader to Heraclida, and pre-
fident of the Alexandrian Library, and wrote feveral hif-
torical treatifes ; of which Photius mentions 49 books,
concerning the affairs of Europe, 10 of Afia, five of the
Red Sea, and an epitome of what had been v/rlttcn on this
fubjeft in one book. Some fragments of his writings may
be found in Jofephus (uh'i fvpra), and Photius in his Eiblio-
theca, 213. 250. Fabric. Bib. Grcec. tom. ii. p. 207.
The teflimony of Agatharchides is alledged by a learned
writer to prove, that in the reign of Ptolemy Philometor,
146 years after the death of Alexander, the Greek fo-
vcrcigns of Egypt had not yet traded direii'ly to India, but
imported the commodities of India from Saba, the capital
of Yemen. This ancient vv.'ter's defcription of the wcftern
coafl of the Red Sea doles at Ptolemais, as if there were
no regular commerce beyond that point. See Vincent's
Periplus of the Erythrean Sea, part i. p. 31.

AGATHEMER Orthonis, a geographer, who lived, as
fome fay, near the time of Septimius Severus, and accord-
ing to others, in the 15th centuiy. Pie wrote in Greek two
books of a compendium of Geography for the ufe of his
pupil Philo, which is commended by J. Vofidus, L. Plolfte-
nius and G.Wendelinus, and which was firfl publiflicd in Svoi
with a tranflation and notes, by Tennulius, at Amfterdam, in
167 1 ; afterwards by Gronovius in 410. at Leyden, 1697 ;

and

A G A

and by Hiidfon in the 2J vol. of the Gcographi Minorcs
Oxun. 170^ Fabr. Bib. Gi-xc. torn. iii. p. 40.

AGATHIAS, one of tlic By/antine hillorians, vnl
bom at Myriiia, a city of vEohs ; and having Ihidicd the
law at Alexandria, exeicifed the proftdion of an advocate
ut SmvTna, and acquired the appellation of Scholnftiius, from
the fcliooU in which lawyers were inllriiAed. Allhongli in
the intvodudion to his hiftoi7, he fpcaks favourably of
the Cliriilians, it docs not appear that he himfcU" was of
this number : Vollius and others believe that he was a Pagan ;
Pagi and Fabricius maintain, that he was a Chriitian. It is
certain tliat no inveftives againll Chriillanity have efcaped
either him or Procopius. He was undoubtedly a man of
candour and moderation. In fpeaking of the Germans, who
had a multitude of deities, and ofiercd cruel facrifices, he
fays, they w ho are in error are rather objecls of conimifer-
ation, than of contempt and hatred; for all men aim at truth :
jf they are in error, it is not the fault of their will but of
their judgment, as they are attached to opinions once cm-
braced by them. He alfo laments, in the introduftion to
bis hillory, that wars and battles are fo much the iubjefts
of poems and hiilorics ; which, as he fays, he cannot
afcribe to the liars, nor to fate, as fome do : for if the
world were governed by fate, there would be an end of
choice ; and there would be no longer virtue an'.ong men,
l!or any room for inllrudlion or improvement in arts and
fciences. Nor are wars and contentions, he adds, agreeable
to the mind of God, who is iupremcly good : they mull
therefore be afcribtd to the avarice and ambition of men.
His hiitory was written after the year 565, when Juftinian
died, and pubhfhcd after the year 593. It was undertaken
at the delire of Eutychianus, fecretaiy of (late, who is
fuppofcd to have furniilicd materials ; commences with
the 26th year of the emperor's reign, A. D. 553, where
Procopius ends, and clofes with the flaughter of the Huns
in 559. He invelligates the caufes of the events which he
records, and often gives his opinion of them without dif-
guife. His ftyle is eafy and florid, though Sigonius has re-
prefented him as a low and unpoliflied writer. He alfo
■ivrote 80 Epigrams, whicii are preferved in the Antholo-
gia ; and, as Suidas informs us, other pieces, partly in profe
and partly in vcrie, intitltd, " Daphniaca." Agathias's
hiitory was publiihed by Vulcanius, with a tranilation and
Botes, at Ley den, in 4to. A. D. 1594 ; and elegantly
reprinted at Paris in fol. in 1660. Fabric. Bib, Grxc.
torn. vi. p. 260. Lardner's Works, vol. ix. p. 85.

Ag AT Hi AS, a very famous Grecian ftatuary, bom at
Ephefus. According to fome accounts, this was the
fcnlptor who executed the celebrated Apollo Belvidere ;
and the Gladiator Repelkns ; but other accounts, more to
be reUed upon, ftate, that the artills who produced thofe
works are certainlv unknown.

AGATHO, the Athenian, a tragic and comic poet,
was the difciple of Prodicus and Socrates, applauded by
Plato, in his Protagoras, (Oper. torn. i. p. 315. Ed. Ser-
rani) for his beauty and virtue, and defcribed by Arifto-
phanta in his comedy of the Fro,";s, (p. 124. Ed. Kufteri) as
a good poet and the darling of his friends ; but feverely
cenfured for his morals in the comedy, intitled Thefmopho-
riazufic, (p. 483.) He is rcprefented as the favourite of
Euripides, and alfo of Paufanias the Ceramian, whom he
accompanied, as /Elian infoi-ms us (Var. Hift. 1. ii. c. 21.
torn. i. p. 120. Ed. Gronov.), to the court of Archelaus,
king of Macedon, where he continued till his death. jElian
fays, that he often qtnrrelled with Paufanias for the fake of
enjoying the exquifite pleafiire which a reconciliation afforded
bim. His firfl tragedy obtained the prize j and he was
crowned iii the prcfencc of 30,000 perfoiis, in the Alh year

A G A

of the 90th olympiad, B. C. 417. There is nothing no\T
extant of Agatho, except a few quotations preferved by
Arillotle, Athenius, iElian and others. His compo-
fitions abounded fo much with antithcles, as to give him oc-
cafion for faying to a perfon, who wilhed him to expunge
them, " you do not confider that you would rend Agatho
from himfelf." See ^lian (Var. Hill. 1. xiv. c. 13. tom. ii.
p. 947.) Athcmvus (Deipnofophiil. 1. v. p. 211. Ed. Ca-
faiib.) cites the following antitliciis : " If I tell you the truth,
1 fliall not pleafe you ; and if I pleafe you, I (hall not tell yon
the truth." The antithefes recorded by Ariftotle, (Eudtmi-
orum. 1. V, c. 2. and c. 4. tom. ii. p. 243. 244. and Rhetor.
1. ii. c. 24. tom. ii. p. 58 1. Ed. Du Val.) are the three
following : " The only thing impoITible to God, is to caufe
that not to be made that has been made : " " fortune loves
art, and art loves fortune : " " it is probable, that a great
many improbable things may happen to mortals."

AGATHO, Pope, a native of Palermo, who was ad-
vanced fr»m a moiiafteiy to the papal fee, in 679. At this
time the controverfy occalioned by the Moxothflitks agi-
tated the Chiillian church, and the hrll exercife of Aga-
tho's pontifical authority vras that of convening fynods in
the wcftern provinces, to decide concerning their doctrine.
Thcfe fvnods having declared the Monothelitc doclrine to
be heretical, Agatho fent legates on behalf of the wtdem
church to the general council held at Conftantinople in 680.
At this council the Monothehtes were folemnly condemned.
Thus Agatho, by his legates, renounced a doftrine which
had been coufimied by the edict of a former council, and
fanftioned by the approbation of his predeceffor, Pope Ho-
norius ; and he concurred in the condemnation of Honorius,
and enforced by penal laws the fenttnce of the council. In
this inftance the infallibility of Honorius, and that of Aga-
tho and the fixth council, are in dirett oppofition. Tt is
obferved, hkewile, as a fatl worthy of notice in the hiftory
of the papal power, that this council was fummoned by the
emperor ; that no appeal was made to the decifion of former
popes ; and that no pecidlar deference was manifefted to the
authority of the biliiop of Rome. After the diffolution of
this council, Agatho direfted his attention to the temporal
interell of his fee, and particularly to the remiffion of the
fine paid to the emperors on the election of a new pope.
He died, A.D. 682. His fanftity was held in fuch vene-
ration that, if we credit the account of Platina, his kifs
was an inftant cure for the leprofy. His letters againft the
Monothehtes, addrefled to the emperors Conitantine, He-
radius, and Tiberius, Gr. and Lat. ; and to Ethelred, king
of the Mercians, and Theodore, archbifhop of Canterbury,
Lat. ; and the abbot Sexulphus, which lalt is faid to be fup-
pofititious and written by fome Englilh monk, are prclened
in the records of the fixth council, A. D. 68©, Harduin's
Concilia, tom. iii. Another letter, granting peculiar privi-
leges to the monafteiy of Weremouth, may be feen In
Dugdale's Monallicon Anghcanum. Dupin's Hift. Seventh
Centuiy, vol. iii. p. 37. Bower.

AGATHOCLES, king, or tyrant of Sicily, was the
fon of Carfinus, a potter, oi Rhegium, and born at Therms
in Sicily. In confequence of lirange dreams of his mother,
whilit (he was pregnant, to which the father paid a fuper-
ftitiuus regard, the infant was expofed in the fields, as foon
as it was born, and committed to the care of a perfon who
was to watch it till it died. The mother, hearing of his
condition, took the child and entnifted it with her brother
Heraclides, and called it, after her father's name, Agatho.
cles. At the age of feven years, he was introduced to the
father, and the iecret of his prefenation was communicated
to liim by the mother. The diilreffi occafioned by felf-re-
proach in the recolleftioa of hiu ccndacl, wai foon fucceeded

by

A G A

by tlif joy of luivlnc; n Ton, who was fmgulnr!y beautiful,
ri.lliircd to lilm. Soun atttr the dlfcovtry, Cr.'finus, with
Ills fiimily, removed to Syraciifc, and brought up his fon to
his own trade. Having joined Timoleon, who had routed
the Cartliaginiansi both the father and fon were enrolh-J
among the Syracufan citizens. Upon the death of Carfi-
nus, Agathocles was recommended to Demas, a rich citizen,
by whofe favour and intereft he was hbcrally fupphcd, and,
in due time, advanced to the dignity of a chiliarch, an
oiliee which gave liim the command of a thoufaiid mcji.
Agathocles, having diltinguilhed himfclf by his mihtarv
talents, married the widow of his patron, Dcmas, and thus
became the moft wealthy citizen of Syracufe. When the
fupremc power in this city was ufurped by SohftratuB, Aga-
thoeles retired to Italy ; but alpiring to the fovereigntv,
firll of Crotona, and afterwards of Tarentum, he became
an objeft of genenJ hatred and terror ; and being expelied
from thefe cities, and ii'iding no admiffion into any other,
h-; affembled a band of e>;iles and robbtra, and plundered
the countiy. At Rhegium, he unexpectedly attacked So-
fllliatus, and compelled him to abandon his enterprife.
When this ufurper was forced to abdicate the fovereigntv of
Syracufe, and to quit the city, he and. the exiles who ac-
companied him, had reccnnfe to the Carthaginians, who
efpoufed their caufe. The Syracufians recalled Asjathocles,
and appointed him to the chief command of the forces that
wer.: raifcd for repelling the attack of Sofiftratus and the
Carthaginians. Having fuecefstuUy dileharged the trnil
that was repofed in him, he afTumed a lovereign power, and
by the meafure he purfued convinced his fellow-citizens that
he was afpiring to the monarchy. The Syracufans, in
thefe circumilanccs of alarm and danger, applied to the
Corinthians for a commander ; and they deputed Acellori-
des to this office. Agathocles faved his life by a ilratagem ;
and having made bis cfeape, he proceeded to raiie troops in
different parts of Sicily, and was ioon in a condition to
approach the city at the head of a confiderable army. The
Syracufans, dreading a civil war, fent ambadadors to treat
with Agathocles, who difbanded his forces ; and being con-
duced by the citizens to tlie temple of Ceres, took a folemn
oath, according to the eitablilhed cuftom, that he would do
nothing to- the prejudice of the democracy. Being again
rellored to the chief command of the army, he indulged liis
ambitious views without regarding his oath, courted the
favour of the populace, and maflacred the nobles and chief
citizens, fo that in a few hours, more than 4000 of thera
were killed, and the llreets were covered with dead bodies.
Although he preterided to refign the command and to retire,
he conducted his artifice with fo much (lull and fuccefs, that
he was unanimoufly proclaimed king, and appointed to
govern with an ablolute and uncontrouled power. In order
to render himfelt popular, the iirft law he enacted was, that
all foniier debts fliould be cancelled, and the lands equally
divided among the rich and the poor ; and fuch was his
behaviour, that he gained the attachment and coniidence of
his fubjefts. AVith their cordial concurrence he reduced, in
ty.'o years, the whole ifland ; a few cities held by the Cartha-
ginians excepted. His progrefs alarmed the Cartiiaglnians,
and they deputed Hamilcar, with a powerful fleet and army,
10 reitrain it. The tirft encounter, near the river Himera,
terminated in favour of Agathocles ; but the lofs which
Hamilcar had fuilained by a ilorm in his voyage, and by the
tiift engagement, being repaired by a powerful reinforce-
ment, the attack on the part of the Carthaginians was re-
newed, and Agathocles was compelled to lave himfelf, firit
in Gcla, and afterwards within the walls of his metropolis,
to which they laid clofe fiege ; propoling by the reduilion of
this city to gain poUclliou of the whole iiland. Thus prefied

A G A

by the Carthaginians, and abandoned, on account of hn
former cruelties, by all his allies in Sicily, Agathocles formed
the bold ddign of transfeiTing the war into Airica, and
befieging Cartilage, wlien he himfclf was befuged in the
metropolis, which was the only city of Sicily in his poffef-
iion. \A'ithout communicating his defign to any coniiden-
tial perfon, he informed the Syracufans in general tenns,
that he had conceived a plan which would be eflectual for
their refcue : and collecting together tiie molt intrfpid of
thefoldicrs and citizens, and incorporating the Haves, whom
he emancipated, among his troops, he em'iarked all his
forces on board 60 gallies, failed dircdly for Africa, and
landed on the coall, in the third year of the ll7ih olym-
piad, B.C.;! 10. Here lie difclofed his views to the army,
and animated them to vigorous cflorts by airurances ot fuc-
cefs. The foldiers received his addrefs witii loud acclama-
tions. He then determined to burn all his (liips, except one
or two, which he referred for canying difpatches. When
he communicated this daring refolution to tiie aimy, he told
them, that when they left Syracufe and were purfued by the
enemy, he applied in the moment of danger to Ceres and
Proftrpine, the tutelary goddelfcs of Sicily, and promifed
to burn ?.ll the vefTels of his fleet, if they delivered his men
from the enemy, and enabled them to land fafe in Africa.
" Aid me, therefore, O fellow foldiers!" faid he, "to
dlfchargc this vow ; for the goddelTes can ealily make us
amends fortius facriiice." AVhen thefe words were uttered,
he allowed no time for deliberation ; but taking a torcli in
his liand, he fet lire to his own fliip ; the officers imitated
his example, and were chearfully followed by tiie foldiers.
He tiien led tiiem againil an important place, called the
Great City, tiiat was fubjeft to Carthage, which tiiey
took by florin : they tlien proceeded to Tunis and took it.
Having enriched themfclves with the plunder, he caufed
botii cities to be levelled with the ground, that there migiit
be no place of retreat, and no hope of fafety but in vidtory;
aod encamped in the open fields. He next proceeded to-
wards Cartilage ; and charging the Caitiiaginiau army with
incredible vigour, killed Hanno, one of their chief ge-
nerals ; and at laft, by the treachery of Bomiicar, ano-
ther general, obtained a complete vidtoiy. When tiie news
of this viclory was conveyed to Syracufe, Hamilcar raifed
the fiege, and was afterwards taken by the Syracufans, wlio
made an unexpefted fally and routed his army, conliiling
of 120,000 men, and put to a cruel death. His head was
fent to Africa, as an acceptable prefent to Agatiiocles.
Wliilil Agathocles was. preparing for the fiege of Carthage,
he was joined by Ophelias, prince of the Cyreneans, who
had been one of Alexander's captains ; but the deluded
prince was perfidiouflv murdered. The favage tyrant,
being now at the head of a numerous anny, alFumed the
title of tlie king of Africa ; and inverted Carthage, witli a
view of reducing it by famine. During this interval, he
pafTed over into Sicily with a detachment of 2000 men, in
order to reduce thofc inhabitants of tiie cities, who had
taken up arms and aifociated in defence of their liberties.
His purpofc was fpeedily accomplilhed ; and he haflened
his return to Africa. He found his army in great dillrefs ;
and in an attempt for obtaining relief, lie was defeated, and
tlien dcferted by the Africans, fo that he was under a ne-
ceffity of lea\ing the countty. Upon his return to Sicily,
he perpetrated the moft horrid fl£ts of cruelty. He iirft
marched againft the Egeflines, v.-ho had revolted in his
abfence, and having taken their town by florm, he put all
the inhaiiitauts to death, without difUndtion of age or fex,
and with circumflances of the moft favage barbarity. He
alfo ordered all tiiofe to be mafTaered wiio were related to
the Syracufans, wiio attended hun in the Carthaginian ex.,

peditioHi

A G A

»»<1 t-'^p, or to any rj the Afr;cr.n army, fi-om the grcat-
j"- -..iidrutlicr to till.' fucking child. Diiiocratcs, however,
wliom he had baniihid, gaiiifd fome temporaiy r.dvantagcs ;
but he was at Icntjtii fubducd ; and being of a fimilar dilpo-
jTtion 'vith AjrathoL-les liimfelf, admitted into his intimate
frierdihip and confidence. Having totally reduced the
ifland, except ihofe cities which, by a treaty, he had re-
ilortd to tlie Carthaginians, he padld over i'.ito Italy and
fubducd the Brutii. From Italy he crofTcd over to the
J,iri'i:T illands, and obtained a tribute of lOO talents of
gold : he alfo ftrippcd the templca, and fet fail for Syracufe
with 1 1 flilps laden with the gold and fpoils, which were all
lofl: in a ftorm, that excepted in which he himfelf efcaped.
He was rcfcrvcd for a more miferable end ; for, at the infti-
gation of his grandfon Archagathus, he was poifoned by
means of ail envenomed tooth-pick, prepared by one Moenon ;
and, ns liillory reports, if it may be credited, hurried away
to the funeral pile, and burnt whilll alive, in the 28th year
of his reign, and 72d, according to Diodorus Siculus, and
according to others, 95th of his age.

Agathocles was dillinguithed by his intrepidity and va-
lour, and by a certain greatnefs of mind, which forbad his
being alhamed of his mean extra£lion, and .which induced
liim, at public entertainments, to ufe earthen-ware, whilft
his guclh were ferved in gold and filvcr plate ; alledging,
that though he wore a diadem, yet he was flill a potter.
Polybius (1. XV. p. 720. Ed. Cafaub.) deduces from the
mcannefs of his condition an argument to prove his capa-
city and talents ; and when Scipio Africanus was afkcd,
who were the mod prudent in the conduft of their affairs,
and moft iudicio\:flv buld in the execution of their defigns,
replied — Agathocles, and Dionyfius the elder. Neverthe-
lels, h:9 a<ils of cruelly were fo iiu.iierous and fo atrocious,
that they obfcure the luilre of his talents and exploits ; and
whilft we admire his conduct on many occafions, we cannot
forbear execrating his m.emoiy. Diod. Sicul. 1. xix. t. 2.
p. 317, &c. 1. XX. t. ii. p. 408, &c. p. 492. Ed. Wclfcl.
Jultin. 1. xxii. Anc. Univ. Hilt. vol. vi. p. 455. 470.

AGATHOCLIS infiJ.r, in y/iinait Geography, two fmall
rflands of the Red Sea, plactd by M. d'Anville, at a fmall
diitance to tlie weft of Diofcorides, or Socotra ; and north-
eall of the cane Aromata.

AGATHOD^MON, in Mythology, a beneficent ge-
nius, or D.^MOS. The word is compounded of a'y.^o;,
good, and y.MiuM, damon. This name was given to the divi-
nity, which the Eg)-ptians called Cneph, by the Greek
writers who travelled into Egypt ; and Vulcan was the
emblem imder which the Greeks reprefented Cneph in
their temples. The Egyptians gave alfo the fame name to
the Nile and to its fymbols.

Among ancient writers, agathodicmon is a denomination
given to a kind of ferpents, bred up and revered by the
Egyptians, from an opinion of fome fanctity refiding in them.

They are alfo called dragons, Dracones, or draciinciiJi,
and fabuloudy delcribed as having wings. — Thev appear to
tc the fame with thofe otherwife called sirenes. Lamprid.
in Heliog. cap. xxviii. Cafaub. Not. in Suet. ed. 2. Bochart.
Hiero. p. ii. lib. iii. cap. 14. We find upon the abraxas and
fome medals of Adrian the reprefentation of a ferpent,
bearing the head of Serapis inftead of its own : which is an
evident aUufion to the Serapis of the Nile, or divinity of
Canopus, and a fecond emblem of that river which was firft
reprefented by Agathodaemon. The head of the Agatho-
daemon is often covered with rays on the abraxas. The ap-
pendages to the head of the agathodsemons remind us of the
unguis cerajles of Linnaeus.

Agathod^emok, in Biography, an artift of Alexandria,
prcpaj-ed a ftries of maps for the illuftration of Ptolemy's

A G A

Gi'O^raphy, in which tlie pofi'.ioii of all tV.e p'acea m?n-
tiontd by this eminent geograpi-.er, with their latitude and
longitude, is laid down precifcly according to his ideas. Fabr.
Bib. Giic. torn. ii. p. 412.

AGATHONIS infula, in Anrlent Geography, an idand
of Africa, in the Arabian gulf; accoi-ding to Ptolemy, in
long. 65=" 15', and lat. 2<;° 20'.

AGATHONISI, a fmall idand of the Grecian Archi-
pelago, about a league fouth of Samos.
. AGATHOS-D.T MON, was a name given by Ptolemy
to the left brancii of the Nile, which extended from the
upper part ot the Delta where was the town of Cercefura,
to the canopic mouth, fituate to the eaft of the tov.-n of
Canopus. This is alfo the name given by Steph. Bvz. to
an idand in the Indian fea.

AGATHOPHYLLUM, in Botany, a name given by
Profefibr Martyn to the Ravensara of the Linnaean fyftem.

AGATHOPOLIS, in Geography, an epifcopal city of
Thrace, under the archbifliopric of Adrianopolis.

AGATHYRNUM, or Agathyrsum, in Jncient Geo-
graphy, a town of Sicily, built, according to Diodorus, (torn,
i. p. 337.) by Agathyrnus, the fon of -iEolus, in the time
of the Trojan war. It is iuppofed to have ftood near the
place now called San-Mareo, at a fmall diftance from the
promontory, called bv the Sicilians Capo d'Orlcmdo.

AGATHYRSIANS, in Ancient Kijlory, the inhabitants
of a diftritt of Scythia, or European Sannatia, mentioned
by Herodotus (lib. iv. c. ir4. p. 328. Ed. Wefleling.) who
were very rich, and who had their women in common, for
the fake of binding the men more intimately to one another,
and preventing jealoufies and other ill eifefts of matrimony.
In other refpects they conformed to the culloms of the
Thi-acians. From Virgil (iEneid. iv. v. 146.) who calls them
" — [jicli Agathyrfi," it appears, that tl-eyhadthe common
practice of painting their bodies. They alfo are faid to have
ufed gold in their ornaments. They pretended to be de-
fcended from Agatliyrfis, the fon of Hercules the Libyan.

AGATTON, in Geography, a town of the kingdom of
Benin, in Africa, fituate on a fmall eminence, forming an
idand, at the entrance of the river Formofa, near the fea.
It is more healthy than any other part of the country, find fur-
rounded with fruit trees. It has feveral circumjacent villages,
whole inhabitants refort to it at ever)- principal market,
which is held for five days. It was formerly veiy con-
fiderable, but has fuffered much from wars. N. lat. 6° 30'.
E. long. 5° 44'.

AGATU, one of the Fox iflands, in the Northern Pa-
cific Ocean.

AGATY, the name of a Malabar tree, bearing a fruit
in tafte and diape like the kidney-bean. Ray's Hift.

AGAU, or Agaw, in Geography, a fmall kingdom of
Africa, dependent upon Abyflinia. It lies between the
lake Dembea and the Nile.

AGAVA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa,
placed by Ptolemy in the Pentapolis, or Syrtis.

AGAVE, formed from ctjavor, admirable, in Bofanv, a
genus of the hexandria monogynia clafs and order, of the
natui-al order of coronarid, and of the bromcli,e of jfufflcu.
Its characters are, that it has no calyx ; that the corolla is
one-petalled, and funnel-fiiaped, with a fix-parted equal
border, and lanceolate eredt parts ; the ftamina are filiform,
ere£t filaments, lonprer than the corolla ; the anthers linear,
Ihorter than the filaments and verfatile ; the piftillum is an
oblong germen, growing thinner towards both ends, inferior ;
the ftyle filiform, of the length of the ftamina, and three-
cornered ; the ftigma headed and three-cornered ; the peri-
caipium is an oblong, three-cornered, three-celled, three-
valved capfide j and the feeds are numerous. The fpecies

enumerated

A G A

A G A

enumerated by Martyn sire fix, ami in the I.innynn fyllem

bv Gmelin ieven. The- firft is the A. y/iiurifiim't '"' tJre;it

American aloe, whofe ftems, when vijrorous, rife upwards

of twenty feet hijrli, (one in the king of Pruffin's garden

rofe to 40 feet), and brancii out on every fule, fo as to form

a kind of pyramid, compoied ot greenilh yellow flowers,

which ftand ereft and come out in tliiek chifters at every

joint. The iecds do not come to malnnty in England.

NVhen this plant flowers, it makes a beautiful appearance ;

and if it be protcfted from the cold in autunm, a fuccefiion

of new flowers will be produced tor near three months, in

favourable feafons. It lias been a common error, tliat this

plant does not flower till it is 100 years old : the truth is, tlrdt

the flowering depends on its growth ; fo that in hot countries

it will flower in a few years ; but in colder climates the

growth is flower, and it will be much longer before it fhoots

up a ftem. The firft European who pulflfled an American

aloe, is f^id to have been Cortufus, who had one in 1561 ;

and Parkinfon reports that it was firft brought into ?jpain.

The firfl that flowered in I'^ngland is laid to have been Mr.

Cowell's, at Hoxton, in 1729, but they have occurred (o

often lince that time, that they are now fcarcely confidered

as rarities. Few of the variety with yellow-edged leaves

have yet bloflbmed. There are hedges of the common agave

in Spain, Portugal, Sicily and Calabria ; it flourilhes alfo

about Naples, and in other parts of Italy. The juice of

the leaves, ftrained, and reduced to a thick conliitence by

being expofed to the fun, may be made up into balls, by

means of lye-afhes. It will lather witl\ lalt-water as well as

frefli. The leaves, inflead of pafTmg between the rollers of

a mill, may be pounded in a wooden mortar, and the juice

brought to a confiftence by the fun or by boiling. A gallon

of juice will yield about a pound of fott extratt. The leaves

are alfo ufcd for feouring pewter, or other kitchen uten-

fils, and floors. In Algarvia, where paflure is Icarce, they

are cut in thin tranfverfe llices, and given to cattle. The

inward fubtlance of the decayed ftalk will ferve for tinder.

The fibi'es of the leaves, feparated by bruillng and fteeplng

in water, aud afterwards beating them, will make a thread

for common ufes. The proeefs for this purpofe at Louie, in

Portugal is as follows : Having plucked the largely and bcfl

leaves, one of them is laid on a fquare board whitli a perfon

prefTcs obliquely between his breall and the ground, and he

fcrapes it with a fquare iron bar held in both hands ; thus

all the juices aud pulp are prelTed out, and the nerves of the

leaf only remain, wliich may then be divided into very fine

threads. Thcfe are hung over a thin cord to d, /. This

thread is not flrong, and catily rots in water, but it conlills

of ftraight fibres, and is applicable to many purpofes.

I^ink's Travels in Portugal by Hinckley, p. 445. Varieties of

the common American agave, with gold and I'llverilripedleaves,

are not now uricommon in the Englifli gardens. The Ka-

ratto agave is a variety brought from St. Chrillopher's, and

the name is given to other fpeeies of this genus, and has leaves

from 2^ feet to ^ long, and about 3 inches broad, ending in a

black, fpine, and more erect than thofe of the others. Tliis

fort has not flowered in England. 2. A. vivipara, or childiii^

agave or aloe, flemlefs, witli toothed leaves, never grows to a

kirge fize; as it produces no fuckers from the root, it cannot

be increnfed till it flowers. This plant grows in St. Domingo

and Jamaica, and its rcfinous juxe forms a part of the

caballine aloes of the fhops. It was firfl cultivated bv Mr.

Miller, in 1 73 I. 3. A. ■I'/V-if/K/iv; relcinbles the tlrll fo much

as not to be dillinguifliable from it, except bv good judges.

The leaves are narrower and of a paler colour ; the flems are

not io high, nor do they branch in the fame manner ; but

the f.owcrs arc colleclcd into a clufe head at the top. It

Vou I.

was introduced in l7»')j, into the Kew garden, by Mr. J.
Cree. 4. A. luriJa has two varieties, •vm. the Vera-Cm-:.
agave, which refeinbles the firfl, with thinner leaves, in-
dentures at the edges much clofer and not fb deep, and
blacker fpines ; and the ri^^ii/ ov ruirrotu-/eairrf ag'Ave, w th
long, narrow, flifl" leaves, entire and terminated by a flirt"
black fpine. It was cultivated in 173 I, by Mr. Miller. 5.
A. tuhrofii, or tuberous-rooted agave, has the leaves in-
dented at their edges, and each indenture tenninates in a
fpine ; the root is thick, and fwells e-loie above the fuili.ce
of the ground ; in other lefpeC^s it agrees with the 1. il
fjiecies ; it has two varieties, viz. \\\i: fiigl<-lhonii-d and dvittU-
thrirncd :\g'A\i:. It grows in the Antilles, and has been cul-
tivated at Pans under the name of A. an^ufi'ifoUa. 6. .'\.
fostlihi has long, narrow, flifV leaves, of a pale green colour,
waved on tlieir edges, thofe on the fide fpread open, and
thofe in the centre clofely folded over each other, and encom-
pafling the bud. The juice of the leaves has a bad iiiiell.
It is feldom more than 3 feet high, but the Hower flem
rifes near 20, and branches out in the manner of the firll,
but more horizontally, and the flowers are fmaller and of a
greener colour. This fpeeies grows in the woods of St.
Domingo. A plant of this fpeeies, which flowered in 1755,
and then died, was cultivated in if'oo in the Royal garden at
Hampton Court. Of the leaves are formed ropes and various
kinds of cloth, which fervc for garments and oth.er purpofes.
7. A. cubeiijh has ciliato-fpinofc leaves and an hcxapetalouii
corolla. M. La Marck makes this a variety of the A.
mexicana, X.\\i Metl, or Maguei of the Mexicans; it grows in
Mexico and the illand of Cuba. The mucilaginous juice
is ufed as foap for wafliing, and the leaves are formed into
a thread, which fenes them for ropes, cloth, and other ufes.

The firll and third fpeeies are hardy. Thofe of the
fonner fort will bear the open air in mild feafons ; but
require being flickered in the winter. They are propag.ited
byofffets. The third fpeeies generally puts out fuckeis
enough for propagation. They fliould be planted in pota
filled with light fandy earth, houfed in winter, and have
little wet. In the fiimmer they may be expofed totheope.i
air, and remain thus tUi October. The Vera-Cruz agave (liould
be longer in the houfe, as it is more tender. The fecond,
fourth and fixth, never produce off-fets or fuckers from
the root ; but when they flower, there will be abundance of
them ; but they may be propagated by taking off fome ot
the larger roots, when the plants are fhifted. The ieconc.,
fifth and listh, with the Karatto and rigid agavef, aie
more tender than the others, and cannot be prefcrved in
winter, unlefs tliey are placed iji a warm flove, nor will t!i;y
thrive if fet abro:'.d in the funimcr. They require a light fandy
earth, and fliould have little wet in winter; but in fun iner tluy
maybe gently watered twice a week. They muft be Ihifh d
every furamer into frcfli pots ; but the pots iliould Lj lm:ill,
that their roots may be confined ; otherwife t'ji plants wjl!
not thrive. I^iniueushas feparated this genus fiomthe .\rOf:,
becaufe the Itamiua and ftyle are extended much longer than
the corolla, and the corolla refts upon the geim. Beiidis,
all the agaves have their central leaves, elofelv folding over
each other, and embracing the fluwcr-ftem in tlie centre ; fo
that thcfe never flower till all the leave? are expanded, ar.d
when the floweris paft, the plants die. Whereas the fiovvcr-
flem of the aloe is produced on one fide of the centre, an-
nually from the fame plant, aud the leaves are more expanded
than in this genus. Ivlartrn's Miller's Di^t.

Ac Av t, in Ahtholrj^^y, the name of one of the 50 Ntreids.

AoAvF, in Niilurtil Hiflorv, a fpeeies of Papilio 2i?-
naus, with roundifh yellow wings ; the anterior black above
and brown below. It is found in Cayenne.

3 D AGAVI,

AGE

AGAVI, in jinclent Gfography, a people of Masfia, or of
Thrace.

AGAUNA, now St. Maurice, a burgh of the Vallais, in
the s'allcy of Pciinin, celebrated on account of the martyrs
of the Thebaii legion, who luffeied ileciiiration rallur lliaii
renounce Chriflianity. Sigifmond, kiug of Burgundy, ereded
a monaller\- here in 5 1 5.

AGAUPE, in Bolavy, a name ufcd by fomc authors for
the common white ct'rt.vr-Lii v.

AGAZZIRI, in Gea^raphy, an ancient people near tlit
mouth of the \'ilhila.

AGBIENSIUM mun\c'if:uni, Be'iffoiu, a municipal town
of Africa, built upon a hill, about halt a league from
Thucca. Here are found the ruins of ancient toiii])lLS.

AGDAMI, a town of Arabia Felix, placed by Puilemy
in long. 73° 30'. and lat. 21° 20'.

AGDE, anciently Agatha, a fmall but populous city
in the department of Her.^ult, and late province of Lan-
guedoc in France, in a diocefe of the fame name, fituate on
the rivet Herault, at the dillance of about half a league from
the fea. The diocefe is one of the richeil diltricls of the
country ; it is within the province of Narbonne, and contains
1 8 parifhes. The ancient Agatha was a fmall ifland ; but
the accumulation of fand at the mouth of the Heraul thas
r.ow joijicd it to the continent. It produces fine wool,
wine, oil, com, and filk. The town has a harbour for fmall
veffels, defended by a little fort at the mouth of the river.
Moil of the inhabitants are tradefmen or feamen. The
houfes are mean, the cathedral fmall, and the bifhop's palace
an old building. The bifliop is lord of the city, and ftiled
Count of Agde. The chapel of Notre Dame de Grace, in
the vicinity of the town, attrafts a great number of pilgrims
and devotees. The Capuchin convent is alfo much retorted
to on account of the image of the Virgin Mary, which is
placed in a diftinft chapel adjoining it : the convent has
apartments for the accommodation of the pilgrims, who
repair hither to perform their nine days' devotion. The
vicinity of Agde abounds with extinguiflied volcanoes.
Cap d'Agdc is one of them ; and the rock of Agde is
nothing but a hard lava, fo that the town is built and paved
with this lava, which is very black. Buffon's Nat. Hill.
by Smellie, v. ix. p. 201. N. lat. 43° 18' 57". E. long.
3°28'u".

AGDENAS Bny, is a part of that of Drontheim, in
Norway : in the neighbourhood the foil produces plenty of
grain.

AGDENITES, a name given te a people of Cara-
mania. •

AGDERUINE, a fmall town in the ifland of Minorca,
fituate near a mountain fouth-eaft of Cape Bajoles. N. lat.
40° 15'. E. long. 4° 14'.

AGDISTIS, a mountain of Afia Minor, near the town
•f Peffinus.

AGDU <•• a rock on the frontiers of Afia Minor, famous
in ancient mythology.

AGE\ in AnUqmty, a word which was proclaimed by a
public crier whilft the Roman magiftrates were taking the
aufpices, or whilft they were facrificing, in order to com-
nsand the attention of the people. The word was alfo an
order to the prieft or other perfon, for immolating a vi6lim, as
«?'■, or hoc age, in reply to his queftion, agon ? or agone ? ihall
1 ftrikc ? Thus Ovid Faft. i. 32 1. torn. iii. p. 33. Ed. Burm.
" Qiii calido ftriftos tinfturus fanguine cultros
Semper agone? rogas ; nee nifi juifus agis."
9fe Agon.

Age, in the moft general fenfe of the term, denotes the

AGE

duration of any fubllance, animate or inanimate ; and is
applied either to the whole period of its exillcnce, or to that
portion of it which precedes the time to which the dcfcrip-
tion of it refers. In this fenfe it is ufcd tu fignify either the
whole natural dtu-ation of the lifk of man, or any interval
of it thai has elajifed before the period to which we refer.
The ordinary age of mankind has been obfei-ved to vai-y in
fuch a manner as to allord an inilrudtive and plcafmg difplay
of the wifdom of divine Providence. When age is under-
Hood of a certain portion of the life of man, its whole
duration is divided into four difTcrent ages, viz. infancy,
youth, manhood, and old age : the {w^ extending to the
14th year; the fecond, denominated youth, adolefcence, or
the age of puberty, commencing at 14, and teirninating at
about 25 ; manhood, or the vinle age, concluding at 50 ;
and the laft ending at the clofe of life. Some divide
the firft period into infancy and childhood, and the laft hke-
wife into two ftages, calling that which fucceeds the age of
75, decrepit old age. Shakefpeare has admirably defcribed
thefe different ftages in his comedy of " As you like it."

-" His afts being feven ages. At firft, the infant.

MewHng and puking in the nurle's arms :

And then, the whining fchool-boy, with his fatchel.

And ftiining morning face, creeping like fnail

Unwillingly to fchool : And then, the lover ;

Sighing like furnace, with a woful ballad

Made to his Miftrefs' eyebrow : Then, a foldier;

Full of ftrange oaths, and bearded like the pard.

Jealous in honour, fudden and quick in quarrel,

Seeking the bubble reputation

Even in the cannon's mouth : And then, the juftice ;

In fair round belly, with good capon lin'd.

With eyes fevere, and beard of formal cut,

Fidl of wife faws and modem inllances.

And fo he plays his part : The fixth age ftiifts

Into the lean and flipper'd pantaloon ;

With fpeftacles on nofc, and pouch on fide ;

His youthful hofc well-fav'd, a world too wide

For his flirunk (liank ; and his big manly voice.

Turning again toward childith treble, pipes

And whiftlcs in his found : Laft fcene ot all,

niat ends this ftrange eventful hiftory,

Isiecond childiftmefs, and mere obHvion ;

Sans teeth, fans eyes, fans tafte, fans every thing.

See I^ONGEVITY.

Age is applicable to the duration of things inani-
mate or faftitious ; and in this ul'e of the term we
fpeak of the age of a houfe, of a country, of a ftate or
kingdom, &c. It is likewife ufed in reference to vegetable
fubftances, as of roots, leaves, corn, wine, &c. Trees are
faid, after a certain age, to wafte and decay. An oak, at
100 years old, ceafes to grow. The ufual rule for judging
of the age of wood, is by the number of circles which ap-
pear in the fubllance of a trunk or ftock cut perpendicularly,
each circle being fuppofed to be the growth of a year \
though fome rejecl this method as precarious, alledging, that
a fimple circle is fometimes the produce of feveral years :
befides that, after a certain age, no new circles are formed.
Phil. Tranf. N= 43. Adl. Erud. Lipf. 1713.

Age, in Chronology, is ufed for a century, or a period
of 100 years: in which fenfe it is the fame with yf«//a7w,
and differs from generation. It is alfo ufed in fpeaking
of the time paft fince the creation of the world.

The feveral ages of the world may be reduced to three

grand epochas, -u'lz. the age of the law of nature, called by

the Jews the Toid age, from Adam to Mofes.— The age of

\ the

AGE

AGE

the Jcwilli law, from Mofes to Chrifl, called by the Jtws the
prefeiit age. — And the nge of gnice, from Chrlil to the
[ircfeiit year. The Jews call the third ajre, the age to come,
or future age ; denoting by it the time from the advent of
the Meffiah to the end of the world, tjce Incarnation
and ErornA.

The Romans diftinguilhtd the time that preceded them
"into three ages : the obfcure or uncertain age, wiiich reached
down as low as Ogyges king of Attica ; in whofe reign the
deluge happened in Greece. — The fabulous, or heroic age,
which ended at the tirll olympiad ; and the hiilorical age,
which commenced at tke building of Rome. Varro calls
the period preceding the deluge, an age entirely unknown.
The fecond he calls fabulous, on account of the numerous
fables, with which the accounts of it, that have been tranf-
mitted to pofterity, are interwoven. Diodonis Siculus,
(torn. i. p. 8.) extends the ftibulous age no farther than the
Trojan war ; from which time the milt which had ovcrcail
the preceding periods begins to clear up, and fome rays of
truth to break out. The commencement of the hiftorical
age is ufually referred to the firft olympiad, in the year of
the world 322S, and iHll contiuues. This divifion, it is to
be obferved, only holds good with regard to the Greeks and
Romans, who had no hiftories earlier than the firll olvm-
piad. The Jews, Egyptians, Phoenicians, and Chaldees,
not to add the Indians and Chinele, pretend to much higher
antiquity.

Among the poets, the four ages of the world are, the
golden, the lilver, the brazen, and the iron age. See the
Metamorphofis of Ovid, lib. i. or rather Hciiod, in his
poem, Ef.7axai r.fj-r.fxi. Opera el Dies, ver. 108, &c. He is
the firfl that has defcribcd thefe tour ages.

inuring the golden age Saturn reigned, and imiverfal
harmony and plenty prevailed. See Saturn. The fdver
age commenced when men began to deviate from the paths
of virtue, and their lives- became Icfs happy. The brazen
and iron ages denote periods of greater degeneracy. A late
author, however, inverts the order of the poets ; and thinks
the liril, which was a period of ignorance and barbarilm,
might be more properly denominated an iron than a golden
age ; when cities and llates were founded, the fdvtr age
commenced; and fmce arts and fciences, navigation and
commerce, have been cultivated, the golden age has taken
place.

Bochart (Geog. Sac. 1. iv. c. tz. t.i.col.226. Ed. Villem.)
has defcribed thefe four ages of the poets in the following
manner. The firft, or golden age, lallcd under the govern-
ment of Saturn, or Noah, 100 years from the flood to
Phaleg, in which period there was no divifion of the land.
Thus TibuUus reprefents it, (lib. i. eleg. iii.)

Non fixus in agris.

Qiii regerct certis finibus arva, lapis."

.And Virgil (Gcorg. i. v. 126.)

" Nee fignare quidem aut partiri hmite campum
Fas erat."

In the filver age, the lands were divided and cultivated,
houfes were built, and the tower of Babylon was ereftcd.

" Turn prlmum fubiere domos, &c."

The third, or brazen age, was marked by the infurrcftion
of Nimrod, the Bacchus of the ancients, firft a hunter and
afterwards a warrior, who transferred his power from wild
beafts to men, and eftablifhed a tyrannical government.
Thus defcribed by Virgil, (ubi fnpra. v. 139.^

*' Turn Inqueis captare fera<;, et fallere vlfco,
Inventinn : et magiios canibus circumdare faltus."^

And by Ovid : Metam. lib. i. v. 125.

" Tei'tia poft illas fuccefiit acnea proles,
Saevior ingeniis, et ad hotrida promtior arma.'"

And alfo by Hefiod, (Op. and Dies. v. 143. p. 1^4. Ed.
Robinf.) thus tranllated :

" Tertia deinde a^tas fummi Jovis cdita nutu,
Vilior argento, de duro conllitit xre.
Fraxinca. et vehemens robuftaqut, Martis amoic
In pugnas et bella ruens."

This was fucceeded by tlie iron age in which we live.
On fome ancient northern monuments we find the rocky
or ftony age, which corrcfpoiids to the brazen age of
Hefiod, and the Greeks ; being called rocky, on account of
Noah's ark, which refted on mounf Ararat. The northern
poets alfo dencmiinate the fourth age the aftien age, from a
Gothic king, Madcnis or Mannus, who, on account of his
great ftrength, was faid to be made of afli ; or becaufe ia
his time people began to make ufe of weapons made of that
wood. Phil. Tranl. N'^ ^01.

Age is fometimes ufed among the ancient poets in the
fame feiifc with gin'Fration, for a period of 30 years.
Thus Neftor ia faid to have liv^d three ages, when he was
90 years old.

The Eaft Indians alfo reckon four ages fince the begin-
ning.— The firft, which they reprefent as a fort of golden
age, lafted according to them, 1728000 years: in this the
god Brahma was born, and th^ men were all giants ; their
manners were innocent: they were exempt fmm difeafes,
and lived 400 years. — In the fecond age, which lafteJ
1296000 years, their rajas were born : vice now crept into the
world ; mens lives were fallen to 300 years, and their fize
retrenched proportionally. — Under the third age, which
lafted 8064000 years, vice being more increafed, men only
attained to 200 years. — The laft age is that wherein we
now live, of which 4027213 years are already gone; and
the life of man funk to one fourth of its original duration.

The period preceding the birth of Jefus Clirift has been
generally divided into fix ages. The firft extends from the
creation to the deluge, aad comprehends 1656 years. The
fecond age, from the deluge to AbraJiam's entering the
land of Promife, A. M. 2082, comprehends 426 years. The
third age, from Abraham's entrance into the promifed land
to the Exodus A.M. 2512, includes 430 years. The fourtli
age, from the Exodus to the building of the temple by So-
lomon, A.M. 2992, contains 480 years. The fiftli age,
from the foundation of Solomon's temple to the Babyloiiifli
captivity, A. M. 3416, comprehends 424 years. Thefixth
age, from the Bahylonith captivity to the birth of Jefus
Chrift, A. M. 4000, the fourth year before the vulgar
tera, includes 5S4 years. Thofe who follow the Septuagint,
or Greek verfioii, divide this period into fevcn ages, -viz.
I. From the creation to the deluge, 2262 years. 2. From
the deluge to the confufion of tongues, 738 years. 3. From
this contufion to the calling of Abraham, 460 years. 4.
From this period to Jacob's defcent into Egypt, 215 years ;
and from this event to the Exodus, 430 years, making the
whole 645 years. 5. From the Exodus to Saul, 774 years.
6. From Saul to Cyrus, 583 years. 7. From Cyrus to the
vulgar a-ra of Chriftians, 538 years ; the whole period from
the creation to this period, containing 6000 years. See
Chronoi.ot.y.

The Sib} Uine oracles divide the duration of the world into
3 D 2 tsn.

ACE

ten aj:<'S ; and, arconllnfr to Jofcphws, each age contained
600 years ; aiic! it appears by Virjjil's sth. eclogue, and by
otiier ttllinioiiits, that .ilie age of Aiiguihis was reputed the
tnd of thofc ten ages; aiid.confequciitly, as the period (f the
World's duration. The age of Augiiilus was appropriated
by the fenators in a petuliar manner to the time in which
this emperor lived.

Other liillorians reckon from the creation to the taking
of Troy, 283c yeai-s ; and to the foundation of Rome,
3250; from tlie conqueft of Carthage, by Scipio, to Jefus
Chrill, 2CO ; from JelusChrift toConftantine, 312; and to
the re-c(liblilhmcnt of the empire of the Wcit:, 808 years.

Thedenoihination of mit/dL- n'^f is applied by fome to the
fpace of time, wiiich commenced from Conilantine, and
ended witli the taking of Coniiantinople by the Turks,
in the 15th century; or, to the interval that elapfed be-
tween the fall of the wellern or Latin empire, near the
dofeof the fourth century, and that of the cafterii or Gre-
cian about the middle of the fifteenth, coniprelieiiding near
1000 years. Others date the miilJJe axe from tlie divilioii
of the empire by Theodofius, at the clofe of the fourth
centurv, and extend it to the time of the emperor Maxi-
milian!, at the beginning of the 1 6th century, when the
empire was fird divided into circles. But this feeins more
accommodated to the llate of Geimany in particular, than
to that of Europe in general. The nihl.Ue is by fome de-
nominated the barbarous age, and the latter part ot it the
lovjfft at'e. Some divide it into the non-acadcm'^caJ and aca-
dtmkal. The former comprehends the inter. al from the
6th to the 9th century, during which fchools or academies
were loll in Europe. The latter den-jtes the period from
the 9th century, when fchools were reftored, and univer-
fities ellabhdied, chiefly by the care of Charlemagne.

Age, in the H'sjhry of Literature and the ylrts, is ap-
plied to a period peculiarly dilUnguiilicd by the cultivation
of learning, and the extraordinary produftlons of genius.
Accordingly learned men have marked out four or theie
happy ages. The iiril is the Grecian age, which com-
menced near the time of the Peloponnefian war, and ex-
tended till the time of Alexander the Great ; within which
period we have Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon, So-
crates, Plato, Ariftotle, Demoilhenes, iEfchines, Lyfias,
Ifocrates, Pindar, iifchylus, Euripides, Sophocles, Arif-
tophanes, Menander, Anacreon, Theocritus, Lyfippus,
Apelles, Phidias, Praxiteles. The fecond is the Roman
age, included nearly within the days of Julius Cslar and
Auguilus; affording us, Catullus, Lucretius, Terence, Virgil,
Horace, TibuUus, Propcrtius, Ovid, Phiedrus, Cnefar, Cicero,
Livy, Salhift, Strabo, Dionyfius of HalicarnafTus, Varro,
and Vitruvius. This period, or at leall a confidcrable por-
tion of it, has been denominated by way ot eminence the
AiiguQan age, or the age of Ajiguflus, which has been re-
garded as the age of genius, elegance and politenefs. The
third age is that which followed the taking of Conftanti-
nople by Mahomet H., or that of the reftoration of learn-
ing, under the popes Julius IL and Leo X., which pro-
duced the foUowmg eminent charafters, wz. Ariofto,
TafTo, Sannazarius, Vida, Machiavel, Guicciardini, Da-
■»2a, Erafmus, Paul Jovius, Michael Angclo, Raphael,
Titian. The fourth age comprehends that of Louis XIV.
and Queen Anne, when France was diflinguilhed by Cor-
Beille, Racine, De Retz, Moliere, Boileau, Fontaine,
RoufTeau, Bofluet, Feneion, Bourdaloue, Pafcal, Male-
branche, MaffiUoa, Brayere, Bayle, Fontenelle, Vertot ;
and when England exhibited Dryden, Pope, Addifon,
Prior, Swift, Pamell, Arbuthnot, Congreve, Otway,
y«ung, Rowe, Atterbury, Shaftlbury, Bolingbroke, Tillot-

AGE

fon, Temple, Boyle, Locke, Newton, Clarke. Thofc
who lived in the two firft of thefe periods are generally
dilUnguilhcd by the appellation of the antients, when a
comparifon is inftituttd between the antients and the mo.
derns, including alfo under the tiril clafs one or two wlui
lived in a more early age, as Plomcr in particular \ and the
moderns comprehend thofe who llourilhed in the two lalt
of the ages above-mentioned, including alio the eminent
writers down to our own times. Voltiire's Age of Louis
XIV. vol. i. p. I, &c. Blair's Ledlures on Rhetoric and
Belles Lettres, vol. iii. p. 4.

There are othtr periods, which, on account of the extreme
ignorance that prevailed, have been denominated agis aiigno'
ranee. Such are the 9th, ic th, and I ith centuries, in the mo-
dern hittory of Europe ; when few kings and nobles, much Icfs
the common people, were able to write or read. Thele were
ages of flavery, civil and religious, as well as ignorance.

A CI- of Mi'dals. See M L D A L .

Age, in Horfeuiuiifiiip, forms a vei-y important branch
of knowledge, and cor.liih in be-.ig enabled to judge of the
progrcfs of a horfe's years from correfpondent alterations in his
bodv. The teeth are ufually examined for this purpofe, as
they exhibit in almoft all horles the fame changes in appear-
ance and form at Hated periods. Tliis becomes necelfary,
as there are but fev/ whole knowledge is fufficientlv cxten-
five to enable them to judge of the age by any other means ;
but where it can be done it is more ulcful than by this ordi.
nary mode ; for in this countiy, wheie horfes are ridden
very hard, and confequeiitly earlv ruined, it is not uncom-
mon to find a horfe at fix years old, feeble, debilitated, and
exhibiting all the marks of old age, except in his mouth ; oil
the contraiy, when the animal falls into other hands, at
10 or 12 he has all the vigour of youth, and his teeth are
the only parts that prefent an indication of age : it is there-
fore more ufeful to examine the general appearance of the
animal, than to be guided altogether by the marks in the
teeth ; for, provided the horfe has not been too early worked,
nor too hard rode, and has no natural nor accidental defects,
his nominal age ftiould be but a fecondary confideration.
It is the cuftom of iome excellent horfemen never to hunt
their horfes, till they are eight or nine years old, a period at
which other horfes are ufually refufed as aged, and unfit for
fatigue. — Horfes, when aged, ufually become hollow above
the eyes, the hoofs become rugged, the under lip falls, and
if grey, they become white. La Fofie, the younger, reca-
pitulates tlie appearances of the teeth nearly in the following
manner. — The horfe is foaled with fix molar or grinding teeth
in each jaw ; the tenth or twelfth day after the two front
nippers appear above and below, and in fourteen or fifteen
days From this, the two intermediate are pufhed out ; the
corner ones are not cut till three months after. At ten
months the incifive or nippers are on a level with each other,
the front lefs than the middle, and thefe again lefs than the
corners ; they at this time have a very fenfiblc cavity. At
twelve months this cavity becomes fraaller, and the animal
appears with four molar teeth on each fide, above and below,
three of the temporaneous or colts, and one permanent or
horfe tooth ; at eighteen the cavity in the nippers is filled
up, and there are five grinders, two of the horle, and three
temporaneous ; at two yea- s, the firft of the colts molar teeth
in each jaw, above and below, are difplaced. At two years
and a half, or three years, the front nippers fall and give
place to the permanent ones ; at three and a half the middle
nippers are hkewife removed, at which period the fecond
milk-molar falls ; at four years the hoiie is found with fix
molar teeth, five of his new fct, and one of his laft ; at four
years and a half the comer nippers of the colt fall and give

plac«

ACE

plare to tlie permanent fet, and the l.ift temporaneous pjrindet'
diliippears. At live years old the tullit;-! in the hoi-fc uriiully
i-.ppcai-; at five and a half thcv arc completely out, and the
internal v.all of the corner nippers, which before was in-
Cj;iipltatlv formed, is now on a level with liic reU ; at this
period the incilive or nippers have all of them a cavity formed
in the ful)ftai:ec hclween the inner and outer wall-, and il is
the difappearancc of this that marks the ajfe. At fiK years
thule in the front nippers below arc filled up, the tiilhes are
likeu'ite fliirhtly blunted ; at feven years the mark or cavity
in the middle nippers is filled up, and the tulhes a little more
worn. At eight years old the corner nippers are likewile
plain, and the tallies are round and fliortencd. At this
period the horfe is faid to be a^cd, and to have loll his mark ;
but among ^ood judfjcs the teeth llill exhibit fufiicient indi-
cations. At nine the groove in the turtles is worn away
nearly, and the nippers become rather rounded ; at ten
thefe appearances are Hill ilronger ; at twelve the tuihcs only
exhibit a rounded Hump, the nippers pufli forward, become
yellow ; and as the age advances, appear tiiangular and ufu-
ally uneven.

Moniieur St. Bel, the late profelTor of the Enghfti Veterinary
College, ufed to afTert, that after eight years the cavities in tlie
anterior or upper incifive teeth filled up with equal regularity;
tluis from eight to ten the front ones were filled up, from ten
to twelve the two middle, and from twelve to fourteen i'lofe
of the eorner ; but though fome pains have been taken t(J
alcertain this, it does not appear that the difappearancc of
tlie cavities in thefe teeth is attended with fulheient regu-
larity to warrant contidence. It is a cuftom with dilhoneft
dealers to draw the colts nippers, particularly the corner
ones, by which means the permanent let which are under-
neath, immediately appear, and the horfe is confidered much
older than he is ; but if the other appearances detailed here
are attended to, this may be readily detefted. See Plate
■where the age from the appearance of the teeth is accu-
rately reprelcnted. See alfo Teeth, and Anatomy of
the Horfe.

Age, in Hunting, is an article of confequence. — Deer, and
other beails of game, have different denominations accord-
ing to their age.

The age of a hart, S:c. is chiefly judged of bv the furniture
of his head, which is annually enlarged both in height and
thicknefs, from the fecond to the eighth year, and then
continues nearly in equal beauty during the vigour of life.
But, when he grows old, /. e. fiom eight years forward, his
horns decline.

The firil HEAD, called, in fallow deer, Iroches, and, in
red deer, pricks, does not come till the fecond vear of their
age: the next year, they bear four or fix fmall branches;
the fourth year, eight or ten ; the lifth, ten or twelve ; the
fixth, fourteen or fixteen ; the fcventh year they bear tlieir
heads beamed, branched and fumed, as much as ever they
will be. The number of antlers or palms is by no means
conftant, when the animal is in the highcft degree of vi-
gour and perfeftion ; for it varies according to the quan-
tity of nourifhment and repofe the animal has enjoyed, and
the fiz.e of the horns depends upon the fame caufe. The
huntfmen have feveral other marks, whereby to know an
old hart without feeing him ; as, the flot, entries, ahatures,
foils, fevvmets, gate, and fraying ports. Sec slot, &c.

The age of other beafts that arc chafed, is ellimated by
their appearance : as a fox and a hare by their colour. In
birds of the game kind, it is ufually dilkinguifhed by the co-
Icur of the legs and wing-feathers.

Age of neat cattle, viz. the ex, caw, and buU, i( known

AGE

by their tetih and horns ; but from long habit and the

greater conveinence, the horns lire more ufually Ihidicd ;
but in that breed without horns, the teeth nuill be nearly
the fole criterion. The ox iias no upper incifive teeth, but
a few days after calving eight nijipcrs appear in the lower
jaw, which remain till ten inoilhs, when the fecond den-
tition conimences by the difplacement of the two front
teeth, to which fuccced two permanent ones, larger but ■*

not fo white At 12 months, the grinders arc fome of

them changed; at lyor 16 months, the incifive on each
fide next the front is changed ; at two years the third in-
cifive on each fide ; and at three years the corners are re-
placed by the permanent, which complete the fct. Thefe
are for the lirll years of the animal's life, even, long,
and white ; but in advanced age become ycllov.-, or black,
and uneven : between thefe periods all the grinders arc
changed.

Tile horns are likewife a permanent, and a temporaneous
pair. The temporaneous pair are changed at the end of
three years, and the permanent pair appear Imall, fmooth,
and terminated at the end with a fmall tubercle or button.
In the following year this button grows from the head,
and tiie line of growth is marked by a horny circle ; the
horns continue grov. ing through lite, and every fuccceding
year adds a circle, fo that the age may be readily gained
by counting three years for the firll button, and an addi-
tional one for every remaining circle.

Ac.F of fheep is learned likewife from the horns in thofe
which have them, in others from the teeth. M. liuffon fays
they have, in the third year, four broad teeth before, in the
fourth year fix broad teeth, and in their fitth year eight of
the fame kind : but our famicrs reckon, that when a fliccp
is one (hear, or year, it has two bioad teeth before, wlien
two fliear, it will have four ; when three (liear, fix ; and
when four (hear, or years, it will have eight. The age of
the horned fheep is moll conveniently lea-ned by the horns,
which ihew theinfelves in the firit year, foon after birth,
and are not changed, but continue to protrude a ring or
circle annually, as long as they live, fo that as many circles
as their horns prefent, fo many years are they old. In
goats, the teeth and horns follow tlie fame laws; and there-
fore their age may be learned in the lame way.

Age of the moon, in Aflronainy, is underftood of the num-
ber of days elapfed fincc the lall conjunftion, or new moon ;
called alio her quarter. The method for dilcovering her
age is mentioned under the article moov.

Age, in Law, is paiticularlv underllood of a certain
ftate or time in life, wherein a perlon is qualified lor certain
offices of civil fociety, of which before, for want of years and
dilcretion, he was incapable.

By the Roman law we find different ages afcertained for
different purpofcs ; as, confdar age, or that wherein a per-
fon might regularly hold the confulfhip, which wai the
43d year, fo that he might fue for it in the 42d. Where
it is to be obfervcd, that it was not necellaiy either of
thofe years ftiould be expired, but only begun : befides,
that men of extraordinary merit towards the republic,
were in this matter exempt from the ordinary laws. Hence
Corvinus was conful at 23 years. Scipio jEmilianus at
36, and Pompey at 35 : others broke through the laws
bv violence, as Caius Marius the younger, and Oclavius
Cxfar, who procured themfelves to be made consuls, be-
fore 20 years of age. Machiav. Difc. in Liv. lib. i. c. 60.
p. 210.

J'uiUcieiry age, or that wherein a perfon was capable of
fitting as judge, was not always the ^rae ) for by the

AGE

AGE

l.ex Sz-rvU'ra Glaiiche, none wci-e allowed to be chofen
liniler t^O years of age, or above fio. By foine otlier laws
tliat age fecins to have been limited to ;;5, but reduced
afterwards by Aiij^uilus to 30 ; though Pitifeus fuppofes
a miftake here in the text ; and that, iuftead of 35 and 30,
it ought to be read 25 and 20. Lex. Ant. torn. i. JWi-
Ftlary n^f, or that wherein the Romans were obliged to en-
ter "the'mfelves in the army, was at 17 years; at 45 they
mifrht demand tlicir difmiflion. A(|uin. Lex. Milit. torn. i.
This age was fubjccl to confuleiable variation. The an-
cient pradlicc, as Vegetius informs us, was to arm young
men when they attained the age of puberty : and this lub-
fifttd before and under the firfl kings. Servius Tullius
(abo\it the year of Rome 178) fixed the period of mili-
tary fervice from 17 to 46 years : tliofe who had not reach-
ed this lad term were called junicres, and tliofe who had
paffed it ftnioirs. Manlius, however, who faved the Ca-
pitol, had fen-ed from the age of 16 years. Adrian com-
menced his militaiy fervice at the age of 15 years; and
inllances occur, in the Roman liiilory, of perfons who were
called forth to militaiT fervice within the age of 50 years.
But the age ellablilhed by Servius TulUus was confirmed
by Caius Gracchus, A. U. C. 632. The Gauls and
Germans ferved from the age of puberty to extreme
old age. The Perfians fixed the period of military
fervice from 20 to 50 years. The Scythians and La-
ctd'.emonians extended it from the age of puberty to 60
years. The Athenians commenced at 18 years to guard
the city and frontiers, and at 20 they engaged in foreign
fervice, and continued to the age of 40 years. Ariftotle
fixed the military age at 1 7 years; (Polit. hb. viii.), and
I'lato in his Republica determines it from 20 to 60 years.
Among the Lombards, the age of entry was between iS
and 19; among the Saxons at 13.

The ii';!' for hald'itt'^ offices in the cily, as quxftor, xdile, tri-
bune of the people, &c. is not detei-mined by the annual laws
of Villius, but appears to have been the 27:;! year. For
it was neceflar)' that the perfon who claimed any urban em-
ployment, had firil ferved ten years without interruption
in the army, commencing from the 1 7th year. Though
fome think the quaeftorfliip might have been held at 25
years. Polyb. lib. vi. cap. 17. The prietorian age, or
that wherein a perfon might fohcit for the pnetorlhip, was
at 40 ; two years earlier than the age requii'cd for conful.
But M. Brutus was pi-aetor with Caihus, two years before his
death ; /'. e. at the age of 35 years ; and Dion (Hi. p.
477) fixes this age at 30 years. I.egitimttte a<^e, denotes the
age of 25 ; fo called, as fome imagine, becaufe youth were
then by law allowed to take the direftion of their affairs
into their own hands. BriiT. Select. Ant. ex Jur. Civ. lib.
iii. c. 2. D'lfpenfat'mn of age, ittatis •venia, is a right which
a perfon obtained from tlie prince, or fovereign, of fetting
alide a tutor or curator, and taking the adminiftration of
his affairs into his own hands, before the legitimate age.
Calv. Lex. Jur. The adoptive age ; called alfo plena pit-
bertiis, requires the adopter to be eighteen years older than
the perfon adopted, that there may appear a probability of
his being a natural child. Pitifc. Lex. Ant. See Adop-
tion.

By the common law, there are two principal ages in a
man : at 14, he is at the age of difcretion ; at 21 years,
at full age.

With refpecl to a woman, there were anciently fix ages
obferved : at feven years, her father might diftrain the te-
nants of hi:- manor for aid to marry her ; for at thofe years
flie may confeht to matrimony. — At nine years oW me is

dowablc ; for then, or within half a year after, die is faid
to be able promereri dotcm, iff virum fufl'inere. — At twelve
years, (lie is able finally to ratify and confirm, or annul her
former confeut to matrimony ; and, if pros-ed to have fuf-
ficieut difcretion, may be<iU(ath her perfoiial ciVate. — At
14, file may take her lands into her own hands; and
fliould be out of ward, if fhe were at this age at her an-
ceftor's death : at this period (he is at years of legal difcre-
tion, and may choofe a guardian At 16, flie fhould be

out of ward, though at the death of her anceflor flie was
under 14: the reaion is, that then flie might take a hufband
able to perform knight's fervice : flie may be executrix, at
17 — At 21 years, fhe may difpofe of herfclf and alienate
lands and tenements.

As for a man : the age of 1 2 years binds to appearance be-
fore the flieriff and coroner for inquiry after robberies, and
impowers taking the oath of allegiance; 52 Hen. IIL 14.
At the age of 14, he may chute his own guardian, and
claim his lands held in focage ; though Bratton limits
this to 15 years; with whom Glanville agrees. — At 14, a
man may confent or difagree to marriage. — At that age,
likewife, he may difpofe of perfonal eflate by will, if his
difcretion be actually proved, though not of lands until
21: at 14 alfo, perfons may be witnefTes, though in fome
cafes they have been admitted much younger. 2 Hawk.
434. Perfons under 14 are not, in general, punifhable for
crimes ; but tliey muft anfwer for any trefpafs. i InlL
247. — At 15, he ought to be fworn to the peace, an. 24

Edw. L flat. 3 At 17, he may be an executor At the

age of 21, a man was obliged to be a knight, if he had
20 pounds land per annum fee, or for term of life, anno

1 Ed. n. flat. I. But this flatute is repealed, 16 Car.

L cap. 20. The fame age alfo enables him to make con-
tracts and manage his own eilate ; which, till that time,
he cannot do with fecurity to thofe who deal with him; fo
that at this age he is at his own difpofal, and may claim his
lands, goods and chattels. Full age, in male or female, is

2 I years ; and this age is completed on the day preceding
the anniverfaiy of a perfon's birth (Salk. 44. 62 j. Lord
Raym. 480.) who, till that time, is an infant, and fo
filled in law. Among the antlent Greeks and Romans
women were never of age, but fubjcft to perpetual guardian,
fhip, unlefs when married ; and when that perpetual tu-
telage wore away in procefs of time, we find, that, in fe-
males as well as males, full age was not till 25 years. By
the conflltutlon of different kingdoms, this period is fixed
at different times. Scotland agrees with England in this
point ; but in Naples they are of full age at 18 ; in Hol-
land at 25 ; and formerly in France, with regard to mar-
riage, not till 30.

With regard to capital crimes, the age of 12 years was
eflablifhed, by the ancient Saxon law, for the age of pof-
fible difcretion ; and from thence till the offender was 14,
it was ittas puhertat'i proxima, in which he might, or might
not be guilty of a crime, according to his natural capacity or
incapacity. Under 12 it was held, that he could not be
guilty in will, neither after 14 could he be fuppofed inno-
cent of any capital crime which he committed. But by
the law, as it now ftands, and has flood, at leafl ever fince
the time of Edw. HL, the capacity of doing ill, or con-
trafting guilt, is not fo much eftimated by age, as by the
delinquent's maturity ofunderftanding, fo that malitla fupplet
tttatem. Under feven years of age, an infant cannot be
guilty of felony ; but at eight years old he may be guilty.
Under 14, though an infant fhall be /»'/;«a y^aV adjudged,
to be doli incapax, yet, if Jt appear to the court and jut)',

that

AGE

thnt he was rloVi capax, and could difcern between good and
evil, he may be coiivifted and ruffcr death. Thus, ;i jriil
of 13 has been burnt for killing her miftrcls ; and one boy
of ten, and another of nine years of age, who had killed
their companions, have been fentenced to death, and the
boy of ten years of ajre was aftually hammed ; beeanfe it
appeared upon their trial, that the one hid hinifelf, and the
other hid the body of the perfon he had killed. An iu-
ftaiice occurred in the 17th century (/f a boy eight years
old, who was tried for firing two barns ; and it appearing
that he had malice and cunning, he was found guilty, con-
demned and hanged. In later times a boy, ten years old,
was convicted on his own confeflion of murdering his bed-
fellow, and by the unanimous opinion of all tlie judges
capitally puiiilhed. In fuch cafes, however, the evidence
of that malice, which is to fupply age, ought to be clear
and ftrong beyond all doubt and contradiftion.

The age of 24 years enabled a man to enter into an or-
der of religion, without confent of parents, anno 4 Hen.
IV. cap. 17. At 24, he maybe ordained a priell ; and at
30, he may be a bilhop. No perfon can be a member of
parliament under the age of 21 years. Though the age of
21 is the full age of either man or woman, yet they may
under that age contraft for neceflaries fuitable to their
quality and proper inllruftion, and the contraft fliall bind
them. An infant, who has an advowfon, may prtfent to
the benefice when it becomes void. He may alfo purchafe
lands, though the purchafe be incomplete ; and when he is
of age, he may agree or difagree to it, without affigning
any reafon ; and fo may his heirs after him, if he Ihould
die before the completion of the agreement. In fome cafes,
he may bind hinifelf apprentice, by indenture, for feven
years, j Eliz. c. 4. — 43 Eliz. c. 2. and he may, by deed
or will, appoint a guardian to his children, if he has any.
12 Car. II. c. 24. If either man or woman do auy acl:
before the time prefcribed by law, they may retracl it
when they come to the proper age ; but if they do not,
they are fuppoied to ratify it, and it Ihall be deemed valid.
Thus, if a man marry before fourteen, or a woman before
twelve, they may either agree or difagree to the marriage,
when they attain thofe rei'peftive ages. See Marriage.
But the age of marriage has undergone divers modifications:
in princes, it is iJlowed earlier than in private perfons ; in
fome countries than in others. In Perfia, girls are mar-
ried at nine, boys only at thirteen : in Holland, males are
not allowed to marry without confent of parents or cu-
rators, before twenty-five ; girls not before twenty : the
Romans chofe to marry their wives young, for the ad-
vantage of having them innocent and tradable. Others
declaim againth premature marriages. Some have pre-
tended to fimit the other extreme of marriageable age to
forty-five ; but this too will be variable in diflerent
conltitutioiis. We meet with inftances of generation from
Co to 104, or even 121 years of age. Plott. Nat. Hift.
Staff, chap. viii. § 3.

Various metliods have been in ufe for determining this
age. One fett of ancient Roman lawyers, called Caffiani,
fixed it by the Hate of the body, which Jullinian and
others after him, fuppofe to have been done by fcarch, or
infpeftion of the genital parts, at leall in the male fex ; for
as to the female, it is pretended the twelfth year was the
only guide, though others alledge that the eruption of the
nienfes ferved inltead of it. The Proculiani, on the con-
trary, determined the puberty of males by the expiration
of the fourteenth year. Javolenus took a middle courfe,
and made ufe of both methods.

The Canon or EcclefiaJUcal Law alfo denotes divers ages,

AGE

viz. of baptifm ; of ordination to pricfthood, and confir-
mation to epifcopacy.

The Civil I.aiv diftinguinied the age cf minors, or thofe
under 2; years old, into three tlages : iiifiinliti, from the birth
till feven yeai-sof age ; /•neriliii, from feven to 14; and fuier-
l,is, from foiuteen upward.s. The period oi piicrilia, was
again fubdivided into ,rl,u injhnlij prnxiimi, from feven
years to 10!, and rtlns /uderliili />roximn, Irom loj to 14
years. During the firit Itage of infancy, and the next halt"
Rage of childhood, iiifimti.e pnxima, they were not punidj-
able for any crime. During the other half ilage of child-
hood, aiiproachiiig to puberty, from lo* to 14, they were
indeed puniihable, if found to be t/o/i in/xices, or capable of
mifchief ; but with many mitigations, and not with the ut-
nioil rigour of the law. ' Diuing the lall ftnge (at the age
of pubertv, and upwards) minors were liable to be punifiied,
as well cajiitally, as otherwife. Dlackll. Com. vol. i. 463.
vol. iv. 22.

Agf. pritr, alatem precat-i, a petition, or motion made in
court, by one in his minority, having an action brought
againll him for lands coming to him by defcent ; requeilmg
that the action may rell till he come to full age. — This the
court, in moii cafes, ought to grant. — But minors, as pur-
chafers, (hall not have it : nor intent of affile, dower, or parti-
tion ; though they may in debt. Hob. 342. 1). Air. 259.

It is othenvife in the Civil Law, which obliges childreo
in their minority to anfwer to their tutors or curators.
See Parol Demurrer.

AGEA, in Gtoxrap/jy, a town of Irak, in Perfia, 35
leagues ealt of Ifpahan.

AGED oflhe mounlain, is a title, or denomination, give«
to the chief, or prince, of the people called assassins.

AGEDA, in Geo^^rciphy, the name of a plain about 30
leagues from Buda iu Hungary, on which was held a ge-
neral alTembly of the Jewilh Rabbies, A. D. 1650, in
order to examine and debate the quellion, whether the
Mefiiah was come. Three hundred Rabbies, with a great
multitude of other Jews, from different nations, were col-
lefted together on this occafion ; and R. Zachariah, of the
tribe of Levi, v/as chofen their pvelident and Ipeaker. The
negative of the quellion was carried by a majority of voices,
and it was agreed that the advent of the Melliah was delayed
on account of their fins and impenitence. They alfo agreed,
after fomt debate, in the circumllances that would attend
his appearance : and they were of opinion, that he would
appear as a great conqueror, and deliver tliem from every
foreign yoke — that he would alter nothing in the Moiaic
religion — and that he was to be born of a virgin ; and that
his miraculous birth was to be a charafteriific, by which he
fhould be known to thofe who were ilrangers to the cove-
nant. Some ecclefiailics, deputed from Rome, attended
this meeting ; ar.d when they began to extol the worlhip,
ceremonies and authority of their church, they excited a
tumidtuous outcry of " no Clirift ! no God-man ! no iii-
tercefhon of Saints ! no worfhip of images ! no prayers to
the Virgin" ! accompanied with loud clamours, rending of
clothes," &c. and thus the conference of that day teimi.
iiated. On the 8tli day, they agreed to hold another coun-
cil, three years after this, in Syria. Some of the Jewilh
doftors are faid to have hcfitated in their opinion, and ex-
prefTed a defire of converfing with protellant divines ; but
the interference of fo many monks deterl-ed them, and made
them fear fome tragical conclufion to their affembly. Brett's
Narrative in the Phoenix, torn. ii. p. 554.

AGEDAMA, a fmall ifland on the coaft of Canr.aniai
AGEDINCUM, Sim, a town of Gaul, the capital of
the Senoues. See Agendicum.

AGEEG,

AGE

AGEEG, a fmall ifland on the coal\ of the Red Sea.
N. lat. iS^ 5'. E. loupf. 38" 30'. which gives name to a
nation inliabitinj,( the adjoining dillrid of the country.

AGELASTA.in /Inliquily, formed ofa/>r;r.and 7i>ji^a<i
to laiigl), and <\i:noi\ag forroivj'u!, a famous tlone in Attica,
near the well called Callichoras, upon which Ceres relied,
vhcn flie was fatigued in t!ie fcarch for her daughter.
Here, accordinp; to Paufanias, (Attic, p. 93) they commen-
ced the Elculniian fealls,

AGELNOTH, or yEcELNOTH, /Ichehotus, in Bio-
graphy, fuccecdcd Eivingiis, in the fee of Canterhury, in
the reign of Canute the Great, A. D. ro2o; he was the
fon of carl Agilmer, and obtained the appellation of t^ood, for
his ads of piety and henevolenee. liy his interell and in-
fluence with Canute, he rellrained fome of his e>cce(les, and
induced liim to beiiow large fums of money for the iupport
of the forcii^n churches. In his way to Rome, for re-
ceiving his p;ll from pope Benedicl VIII. he pnrchafed
at Pana, with a large fnni, a relic, which was the arm
of St. Auguilin, and, tranfmitted it to England as a prefent
t9 I-eofiic, earl of Coventi-y. By other more important
fervices he is faid to have given luflre to the Archiepilcopal
fee. Upon CaTiute's death, he refuUd to crown his Ion
Harold ; alledging a promife which he made to the late
king, that he would place the crown only upon one of the
iliue of queen Emma. Neither threats nor promiles could
prevail with him to violate his engagement ; and he laid the
crown upon the altar, with an imprecation agalnll thole
biihops who fliould dare to perform the ceremony. He died
in the year 103*^. His writings were "a Panegyric on the
)ile(rcd Virgin Mary," — "a Letter to earlLeofric, concerning
■St. Augullin," — and " Letters to fevcral perfons." Biog.
Brit.

AGEM, in Botany, is a name given to the Perfian

LILAC

AGEMA, in the /Irir'nnI Alililarv jirl, a kind of foldieiy,
chiefly in the Macedonian armies.

The word is Greek, and literally denotes vehemence ; to
esprefs the ftrength and cagernefs of this corps ; or it may
be derived from a-y^, to lead ; becaufe it confifted of ele-
phants, horfe and foot, which preceded the king, and
formed, as it were, the royal guard.

Some will rather have agema to hawe denoted a certain
number of picked men, aniwering to a legion among the
Romans, which is authorifed hv a paflage in Livy, (1. xlii,
C. yi. c. 5!*. torn. V. p. 673. 6S2. Ed. Drakenb. Not.);
Arrian (De Exped. Alex. 1. vii. p. 287. Ed. Gronov. ) on
the contrarj', fpeaks of the agema as a wing of horfe ; but
the term is alfo applied to foot. This body of troops is
alio mentioned by Q^ Curtius, (1. iv. c. 13. tom. i. p. 271.
Ed. IV.ikenb.) and by Polybius, (1. v. p. 372. 408. Ed.
Cafaub.) vid. Suidas in voc.

AGEMOGLANS, or Azamoclass, children of tri-
bute, railed ever)- third year by the Grand Seignior, among
the Chriltians whom he tolerates in his dominions.

The word, in its original, fignifics a barbarian's child ;
that is, a child not a Turk. — It is compounded of two
Arabic words, I. DjfJ, a^^cm, which among the Turks
fignifies as much as barbarous among the Greeks ; the for-
mer people dividing the world into Arabs or Turks, and
agem ; as the latter divided it into Grecians and barbarians.

The commiffioners appomted for this le%y take them by
force even out of the houfes of ChrilHans ; always claiming
one in three, and pitching upon fuch as feem the handforacft,
and promife to be the moll fer^ieeable.

Thcfe are iraraediately conveyed to Gallipoli, or Conftan-

A G E

tinoplo ; where they are fn-ft circumcifed, then iuftrucled m
the Mahometan faith, taught the Turkifn' language, and
the cNercifes of war, till iuch time as they become of age
to bear anus : and out of thefe the order of Janizarii;s is
formed.

Such as are not judged proper for the army, they employ
in the lowell and moll fcrvile offices of the fcraglio ; as in
the kitchen, ftables, &c.

The agemoglans only differ from the ichoglans, as the
foniier are bred up for the lower, and the latter referred
for the higher offices of the empire. Their pay does not
amount to more than feven afpers and a half, or threepence
halfpenny, a day.

AGEN, in Geography, an ancient large and well inhabited,
but ill built, city of Trance, the capital of Agenois, in
the late province of Guienne, and new department of the
Lot and Garonne, and the epifcopal fee of the department
of Aveiron. Its fituation in a fertile country on the banks
of the Garonne, is favourable fur trade ; but the indolence
of its inhabitants deprives them in a degree of the ad-
vantage of it. Prunes are a conlidcr.ible article of com-
merce ; and the hemp which grows in the neighbourhood
is manufactured into table linen, and fent from hence to
Cadiz, and afterwards exported to the Spanilh idands.
Here are alio manufaftories of caniblets, Icrges, and fail-
cloth. The gates and old walls, which remain, mark the
antiquity and extent of this town. The palace, which was
formerly the cafiile of Montravel, and where the fejjionp is
held, is ikuated without the walls of the old city ; and there
is another caflle, called La Sagne, of which the ruins only
exift. Agen is 108 miles fouth-eall of Bourdeaux. N. lat.
44° 12' 7^ E. long. 0° 35' 49".

AGENABAT, a town of Tranfylvania, ten miles north-
eall of Hermanftadt, N. lat. 46° 32'. E. long. 24° 50'.

AGENDA, in a general fenfe, denotes things to be
done or performed, in confequence of a man's duty.

The word is Latin, foimed from ogirc, to do ; and di-
vines Ipeak of the agenda of a Chrlilian, meaning the things
to be pi'aclifed, by way of contradiftinclion from crcdencJn,
or the things to be believed ; the tonner imports the arti-
cles of obedience, the latter of faith.

Agenda is alfo ufed for a book containing notes or me-
morandums of things ncccfTaiy to be done; in which fenfe
agenda amounts to much the lame with table-book, &c.
An anonymous French author has publiilied the agenda of
a man of the world, containing maxims, or rules, proper
for the conduCl of life. Tablcttes de I'Komme de Col-
mop. 1715.

Agenda is more particularly ufed, among Ecrhfioflical
Writers, for the fervice or office of the church. We meet
with ngerida nwtiitina cf •vefperlir.a, moriimg and cvtii'mg
prayers ; agenda die'i, the office of the day, whether feail or
fall day ; agenda moriuonim, called alfo finiply agenda, the
fervice for the dead,

AcrxDA is alfo applied to certain church-books, com-
piled by public authority, prefcribing the order and manner
to be obfer\-ed by the minillers and people, in the principal
ceremonies and devotions of the church.

In which fenfe agenda amo\ints to the fame with what is
otherwife called ritual, liturgy, acalouthia, vi'ffal, formulary,
direitory, ifjc.

AGENDICUM, in /Indent Geography, the chief city of
the Senones beyond the Alps, thus written by Ca-far, but
called Agediaim by Ptolemy, and by others /igradicum.
See StNS.

AGENFRIPA, in Ancient Cuflams, denotes own lord,

or one who has the abfolute property and dominion of a thiiig.

4 The

AGE

AGE

Tlie word is alfo written agenfriga, and agenfiie. It is
derived from the Saxon «^i7;, o'ivn, and /ivv/, lorJ.

AGENHINE, in our Uld IVrilos, lignillcs a gucft that
lias lodged at an inn for three niglits, atier whieh time he is
accounted one of the family ; and it he offended the king's
peace, his holl was anfwerable for him. It is alfo written
hogrnlnnc and hogenhyne,

AGEN'OIS, in Geography, a country of France, in the
late province of Guiennc, (now department of the l,ot and
Garonne) comprehending about 120 fquare leagues. It is
a very fertile and healthy countiy, and was formerly inha-
bited by the Nitriobriges, mentioned by Cxfar. It formed
a part of the kingdom of Aquitania, and was aftenvards
potTelTed by the counts of Touloufe, and iucceilively by the
Englilh and French. See Agen.

AGENOR, in Fahuloiis Hijlory, was the fon of Neptune
and Lybia, and the father of Cadmus. He reigned in
PhccniciT and married Thelepaffa, by whom he had three
fons, Cadmus, Phosnix and Cilix, and a daughter called
Europa. Jupiter carried away the da\ighter, and Agenor
ordered his three fons to leek for her, forbidding them to re-
turn to his court without her. Their fcarch was fruitlefs,
and they were banilhed, and fettled in different countries.

ActNOR, iu Natural H'ljlory, a fpecics of Papilio
Eques, with black wings, fanguineous at their bafe ; the
poilerior having a white difc with black fpots. It is found
in China.

AGENORIA, foi-med of aymiii, Jlrong, in Mythology,
the goddefs of induilry and courage, as Vaciina was of in-
dolence.

AGENT, Agens, in Phyfics, that whereby a thing is
done, or eflcfted ; or that which has a power whereby it
afts on another ; or by its aftion induces lome change in it.
The word ag^tit is uled promiieuoufly with EmciENT,
and in contradilliniition to patient.

The ichools divide agents mio natural znd free.
Agf-Nts, natural or plrjical, are thofe immediately deter-
mined by the Author of nature, to produce one fort of
effect ; with an incapacity to produce the contrary.

Agents, natural, are again fubdividcd into vnivocal,
which are fuch as produce effefts of the fame kind and
denomination with the agents themfelves ; and equivocal,
whofe effefts are of a different kind, 5:c. from the agents.

The fchoolmen reckon the following circumftances ne-
ceffary to the being of an agent ; viz. that it be contiguous
to the objeft, dillinft from it, have a power over it, a fphere
of activity, and a proportion or rate of afting.

Agent, J'ree or voluntary, is that which may equally do
any thing, or its oppofite ; as acting not from any prede-
termination, but from choice Such is the mind iv.ppofed

to be, which has a fpontaneous power of chuiing or rcfuling.
It is a celebrated quellion among philofuphers and divines,
■whether man be a free, or a neceffary agent ? It may be
thus Rated : man is a necellary agent, if all his actions are
fo determined by the caufe preceding each action, that no
one palt aftion could poffibly not have come to pafs, or
have been otherwife than it was ; nor one future aftion can
poffibly not come to pafs, or be otherwife than it Ihall be.
On the contraiy, man is a free agent, if he be able at any
time, in certain circumltances, to do different things ; or,
in other words, if he is not ever unavoidably determined in
every point of time, by the circumltances he is in, to do
that one thing he does, and not polfibly to do any other.

Which of thefe two definitions agrees to man, is a
queilion of fadl to be determined by what we experience in
ourfelves, with regard to the operations of our own minds.
See Liberty, NfcCESsiTY, and Will.
Vol. I.

The term agent evidently implies a power of feH"-detf nni-
nation ; and the epithet iieajfary, applied to agent, forms
a lolccifm both in fenfe and language. Price's Re»iew, &c.
p. 315, &c.

Agent is more particularly ufed for the miniller of a
prince, or ftatc, at another court.

In which fenfe, agents are commonly reputed a fpecies of
public miniilers, Or ambassadors: but they differ effen-
tially, as agents are not inverted with any reprelentative cha-
racter, although eutrurted with the affairs and interelts of
their princes. See Envoy.

Agent is alfo uled for a perfon intiufted with the ma-
nagement of aflairs, either of a corporation, or private perfon.
In which fenfe the word coincides with deputy, procurator,
fyiuric, faflor, &c.

Among the officers in the excheojilr, there arc four
agents for taxes.

Agents oi liauk and exchange, are p\iblic ofFicei'S, efta-
blilhed in the trading cities of France, to negociate matters
between merchants relating to bills of exchange, and the
buying and felling of goods : the fame whh thofe who,
among us, are called i xch ANCr-BROKERS.

Agents of the viehtaHing ojjice, are officers under the
commiffioners, appointed to buy and contraCi for proviliona,
&c. Some of thefe are fettled in tlve ports, where they
have much the fame ofhce and authority as the commiffioners
in Eondon.

AG-e.-HT-vhlualhr, is ufed in the fame fenfe.
Agent and patient, in Common Laiu, is where a perfon
does, or gives, ibmcthing to himfelf ; fo that he is at the
fame time both the doer and giver, and the receiver or party-
it is don« to. — Such is a woman, when (he endows herfclf
with pait of her huiband's inheritance.

Agent, in Chcmijlry. According to the ancient chemifts,
fubftances were compofed of aftive and paffive principL. » ;
the latter of which received impreffions from and were mo»
dified by the foniier, without exerting any reciprocal action.
Spirit, oil and fait, were confidered as the attive, and earth
and water, as the paffive principles. This diftinc^ion evidently
arofe from the phenomena of folution, and the apparent
energy which acids and other fluids exhibit in their com-
bination with metals and fohds in general. It is now how-
ever univerfally allowed, and indeed neceffarilv follows from
the doctrine of afhnity, that whenever two fubftances com-
bine together, it is in confequence of a mutual attraftion,
which belongs as much to one element as to the other of a
compound ; this definition therefore^ of chemical agent is no
longer adhered to, and though we ilill continue io ufe the
expreifion of one body having a powerful a6tion on another,
it is by no means intended to deny the equal reciprocity of
chemical attraftion.

The general term agent fignifics, therefore, in ftriftnefs,
any fubftance capable of producing chemical aftion ; and
when, in explaining a proccfs, the quality of agent is attri-
buted to a body, it is only ufed as a defignation of the fub-
ftance whofe prefence determines the combination or decom-
pofition. In which fenfe it is fomeiimes attributed to men-
ttrua, or fuch bodies as in mixture have thegreateft iliaix- of
aftivity and motion ; and it is fometimes alfo ufed for what
we more ufually call injlrument. Thus fire, water, air,
earth, and menftrua, are chemical agents.

That internal agent in man, whereby all the vital motions
^neceffary to the prefervation and reftoration of the body are
managed, is by fome called nature; by others archncus,
calUdum innatum, animal foul, vital fpirit, or principle, &c.

AGENTE, in Mufic, a term which, in the infancy of coun-
terpoint, was given, by the Italians, to the note of percuffion,
3 E that

AGE

AGE

t!iat occafions and accompanies a prepared difcord upon a
binding note ; whicli note was termed \.\\c pailenU,

In the preceding example, C is the patient, E prepares the
difcord, 1) is the moving note or ci^ait, and B its refo-
lul'fon.

Agentes in rebus, one of the ranks of officers, in the
court of the Conllantinopolitan emperors, whofc buHnefswas
to collect and convey the corn, both for the aniiy and houf-
hcld ; cany letters and mcflages from court to all parts
of the empire; regulate courieis, and their vehicles; to
make frequent journeys and expeditions through the pro-
vinces ; infpcft any motions, difturbances, machinations
tending that way, and give early notice thereof to the em-
peror. Aquin. hc\. Mil. torn. i. Pitifc. Lex. Ant. torn. i.
Calv. Lex. Jur.

The agentes in rebus, are by fome made fynonymouswith
our poll-mailers, but their function was of great extent.
They corrcfpond to what the Greeks call irvfo^oco-,, and the
Latins veredarii.

There were divers orders or degrees of agentes in rebus,
as tribuni, primicerii, fenatores, dticenarii, biarchi, circitores,
etfuites, lyroiies, &c. through all which they rofe gradatim.
Their chief was denominated pr'mceps, which was a poll of
great dignity, being reckoned on a level with that of pro-
conful.

The pr'mceps agentium in rebus refided at Conftantinople,
othcis of them were lettled in every part of the empire ; and
are alfo faid to have fei-ved as interpreters.

AGEOMETRL'\, a defect in point of geometry, or
a deviation trom thellricl principles and conclufions of that
fcience.

This is otherwife called ageomelrefta.

Som.e haye complained of tlie ageometria of the Scrip-
tures, in refpeft of the proportions of the brazen sea, ark,
&c.

ACERveffigaHs privattis, in Roman jintiquity, thatwhofe
property was granted to private perfons on the referve of a
certain rent, or tribute.

Ageh vcRigalis publicus, that whofe property vvasreferved
to the public, and being let out to farm, the rents or profits
accrued to the pubhc treafui-y.

Acer is alfo ufed for a certain portion or meafure of
land, antiently allowed in the divifion of grounds to each
citizen.

In the early days of the Roman ftate, tlie agerwas only
\^Kojugera, amounting to ij Englifh acre. After the ex-
pulfion of the kings, (even J:igcra were allowed a plebeian.
— Under the tribunate of C. Licinius Stolo, in the year of
Rome 379, a law was made to limit ellates to 500 jugera, or
330 Enghfh acres, and to decree the diilribution of the fur-
plus in the poffefTion of any individual amoiigft thofc wlio
had no land. Under Juhus'Cafar another a'grariam law
was publiihed, by which thofe who enlarged their pittance
of land were to pay 50 aurei^ to the public.

Agi.r is alfo ufed in AffdJL- Jge H^riters, for what we
now call an acre.

AGER, or Aguer, in Geography, a fmall town of Ca-
talonia, m Spain, near the river Segra, north of Lender,
and 25 leagues well of Barcelona. N. ht. 41° ^k'. E.
long. 0= 34'.

Acer, a river of Auflria, which runs into the Traun,
about a league north from Schwannaftatt.

Agtm. 18 alfo a diftridl in a fief of Aggerhuvs, \a

Norway, called jiggers- Herred.

ActR Piccnus. See Picenum.

AGERATUM, compounded of the privative a and
yff »,-, old age, and denoting never-old or ever-green, in Botany ,
a genus of plants, of the fyngenefa polygamia aqualis clafs and
order, of the natural order of comp'Jitte. dijcoideee, and corym-
lifer f of JulTieu ; the charafters of which arc, that the com-
mon calyx is oblong, with many, lanceolate, fub-equal fcales :
the compound corolla is uniform, corollets hermaphrodite, tu-
bulous, numerous, equal, fcarcely longer than the calyx ;
proper monopetalous, fuanel-ihaped, border quadrifid and
fpreading ; the llamina are capillary filaments, very Ihort,
the anther cylindric and tubular ; the plllillum is an oblong
germ, (lyle lilifonii, of the length of the ftamina, the ftigmas
are two, vei-y (lender and ereCl ; no pericaqiium, calyx un-
changed ; the feed folitaiy, oblong, angular, crowned with
a chaffy, five-leaved, upright awned calycle ; the receptacle
naked, convex, and very fmall. It differs from Eupatorium
in the crown of the feeds ; and from Bidens in the naked-
nefs of the receptacle. iMartyn enumerates two fpecies,
tj/a. I. A. cony%oides, hairy ageratum, with ovate leave*
and hairy ftem, which flowers in July and Augufl, and is a
native of Africa, the iilands of America, and the ifle of
Tanna, in the South Seas. This fpecies is propagated by
fowing the feeds on a hot bed in the Spring ; and when the
plants are flrong enough to bear removing, tranfplanting
them into another moderate hot-bed ; where they fhould bv:
watered, and fiiadedtill they have taken root. In June they
(liould be inured to the open air, and tranfplanted towards
the middle of the month into the open ground, where they
will continue flowering from July till the froits in Autumn
deilroy them. The feeds ripen in September and October.
2. A. cV.iare, with leaves ovate, crenate, obtufe, andhnootli
ftem, which is a native of the Eail Indies, and of China,
near Canton. The A. Houjlon'umurn of Miller, found wild
at I^a Vera Cruz, by Dr. Houiloun, does not differ from the
iirfl; fort. In Gmelin's edition of Linnaeus, we have a third
fpecies, i)/«. A. Gitianenfe, with cordated, ferrated, and
petiolated leaves. See Achillea, Athanasia, Conyza,
Erin'us, Eupatorium and Senecio.

Ageratum, in the Materia Medica, is a fpecies of
Achillea, with numerous, fiAall, oblong, nan-ow leaves, called
in Englifli_/7i.'fc/ milfoi/ znd maudlin, it bears a near refem-
blance to the coltmary, and is denominated btdfamiia famina,
as that is called balfamita mas. It is alio called eupatorium
mefues, on account of its fuppofed virtue in difeafes and ob-
ftrudtions of the liver. It is a native of Italy, the Souttx
of France, and of Spain ; and is found by the road fides,
where it f.owers from Augufl to October. As it is leldoni
ufed with us for medicinal purpofes, it is not cultivated in
the gardens for fnle. There are two varieties of it, one
having longer and more compait corymbs, the other with
broader leaves and Imaller flowers. It is fweet to the fmell,
and of a bitter tafte, and aromatic. Linnsus reckons it
obfolete and fuperfluous. Allione, on the contrary-, thinks
it an efficacious plant, and recommends it in all diforders
arifing from a debility of the nerves. Dr. Lewis fays of
this and the coflmary, that thefe herbs have been ufed as
mild coiToborants and aperients, in weakneffes of the llomach,
obflrudtions of the vifcera, and cachectic dlfpofitions ; and
though at prefent difregardcd, they promife, from their
fenfibie qualities, to be medicines of fome utility. Riverius
recommends ageratum, en account of its aftringent quality,
as an antidote to incontinence of urine ; and Gefner has dif-
covered a brill': purgative quality in its roots.

AGE RAT US lapis, in the Materia Medica bf the An-
4 cients.

AGE

AGE

e'lenls, tbe name of a (lone mentioned by Galcii and other
writers ; and fald to be of the nature oi tiie Frirygian llone,
but more allrlngent ; and ns tliat was ufcd in dying, this was
ia drtffing of leatlier. We have no account of its external
appearance, but probably it cont;iini:d vitriol, and perhaps
alum.

The great ufe of vitj-iol or copperas in the management
of leather is well known ; and the ilones which contain it,
or pvritx, are every where common. The m^rthod ulcd alfo
in the preparation of the Ptij^^ii/s Itiph, which was tlie
wetting and llightly calcining it,. mult be very proper to
make the vitriol contained in this appear, and exert itfelf in
the working with it. This llone is uled by ihoemakers to
polilh women's Ihocs.

AGERlUM. See Agistment.

AGERSOE, in Geography, a fniall ifland of Denmark,
in the Greater Belt ; two leagues louth of Corlocr.

AGE'S, fignifies the palm or hollow ot the hand.

AGESANDER, in BiogmpLy, one of the tliree fculp-
tors, who jointly executed the famous antique group of
L.A0CO0N, was born at Rhodes, and flouriflicd about the
S8th olympiad. His name Hands full upon the plinth of
the gix>up.

AGESILAUS, in ylm-L-nt H[l}ory, one of the moft il-
luft'.ious kings of Sparta, iucceededhis brother Agis againll
the competition of his nephew Leotychides, to whom by
the laws the crown would have regularly defcended. As he
was a younger fon of Archidamus II. he could have no view
to the kingdom ; and he was therefore educated in all the
rigour of the Spartan difcipline, and in the habits of ielf-
4enial, labour and obedience, from which thofe who weie
heirs to the throne were exempted. He thus acquired a
degree of popularity, which, notwithftanding his low ilature,
and his being lame in one leg, feeured his iuccelllon ; more
efpecially as lie was patronized and fupported by Lyfander,
whofe influence in tb.e Hate was very confiderable, and his
rival was fufpeiEled of being the fon ot Alcibiades, who was
faid to have corrupted the queen of Agis, ^y a prefent of
a thoufand darics. His difpofition and manners, which com-
bined refolution andatlivity, with condcfcenfion and gentle-
jiefs, more than counterbalanced his natural defefts ; and
tliough the oracle had warned the Spartans againil a lame
reign, Lyfander contrived to interpret the warning as a caution
againil the iliegitimaev of Leotychides, and thus to facilitate
the eftablifliment of Agefdaus. By his fubfequent condudl
he ingratiated himfelf with pcrfons of all ranks and parties
to fuch a degree, that the Ephori arc faid to have checked
his ambition by impofing a tine upon him, becaufe he at-
tached the affeftions of the citizens to himftlf alone, and
thus alienated them from the republic to which they right-
fully belonged. Such, however, were the attention and de-
ference which he manifi^fted towards the Ephori and the
fenate, that he obtained their entire confidence ; and his au-
thority was fupcrior to that of any other king of Sparta.
Soon after he afcendcd the throne, ante Chriit. jy6, tlie
king of Perfia fitted out a powerful fleet, in order to deprive
the Lacedaemonians of their empire at fea. Agefilaus, at the
jnftigation of Lyfander, was appointed general of the forces
that were deftined to an expedition againil Artaxerxes ; and
he accepted the office on condition, that a council of 30
Spartan commanders Ihould accompany him, and that I-y-
fander Ihould be the chief of this council. During his delay
at Aulis, he had a quarrel with the Bicotians about a facri-
fice, which occafioned a war, that terminated in the fub-
verfion of the Spartan dominion. When he arrived at
F.phefus, a meifage was addrefled to him by Tiffaphernes,
the lieutenant of the Ptrfian king, demanding his reafon for

coming huo Afia with an armed force ; to which he rcjili^d,
that his purpofe was to aid the Greeks, who inliabited tliere,
in recovering their ancient liberty. Tiflapherncsj in order to
gain time, promifcd in behalf of his mailer to grant liberty
to the Grecian cities of Afia. Agefilaus acquiefced, ;'..id a
truce was fettled between them. In the mean while the
Perfian general, r..-gardlefs of his oath, took advantage of
the delay, athmblcd troops and prepared for war. Ageiilaus,
though apprized of his treachery, adhered to lire engage-
ment ; and this religious obfervation of a folemn treaty
gained him, as Xenophon informs us, the univerfal eileem
of the cities, whilfl TilTaphernes, by a different conduct,
entirely loll their favour. This interval afforded the Lace-
daemonian general an opportunity for acquiring an accurate
knowledge of the Hate of the country and of the difpo-
fition ot the inhabitants. In the courl'e of his enquliy he
found that Lyfander arrogated a degree of power, which
encroached on his authority and obltruded his influence.
Agefilaus did not dilfemble his difgufl. Having given the
moil conlidcrable commands and beil governments to private
ofhcers, he appointed Lyfander commiflary of the llores and
diilributor of provifions, and for the purpofe of further
mortifying him and deriding the loniims, he directed them
" to conlult their mailer-butcher." Lyfander, afterwards
returning to Greece, pnijedltd a variety of fehemes for over-
turning the couflitution of Sparta, but his death prevented
their accompliihment.

When 'fiiraphenies had colledled his forces, he com-
manded Agefilaus to retire from. Afia, and >ipon his refufal
declared war againft him. The fubordinate officers of the
Spartan general were alarmed, but Agefilaus himfelf wa«
compofed and cheerful ; and having tianfmitted his thanks
to Tiflaphernes " for having made the Gods, by his pcT-
jiu-y, the enemies of Perfia, and the friends of Greece," he
made a feint of marching his army into Caria, the refidence
of the Perfian lieutenant, but atlually oven-an Phrygia,
where he took many towns and amafl'ed immenfe treafiires,
which he diilributed among his officers and foldiers. Having
wintered at Ephefus, he devoted tlie enfuing fpring to the
exercife and difcipline of his army, which he encouraged by
the dillribution of prizes ; and at the fame time he infpired
his foldiers with a contempt of their enemies, by llripping
the prifoners and expofing them and their garments to fale.
The latter were eageriy purchaled ; but the prifoners theni-
felves were fo delicate and feeble, that they were deemed of
no fervice or value : " fee there," fays Agefilaus to his foil
diers, " the perfons againil whom you.fight ;" and pointing
to their rich fpoils, " behold there for what you fight." As
the feafon advanced, the Lacediemonian army marched into
Lydla, defeated the Perfians near Sardis, and ravaged the
whole country. This fuccefs terminated in the d^ath of
Tiflaphernes ; his command devolved on Tiliiraufles, who
attempted to conciliate Agefilaus by rich prefeiits, and to
induce him to withdraw his troops and to return into Greece
by the promife of liberty to the cities of Afia, upon their
payment of^the cullomaiy tribute. The Spartan king,
however, defened the propofed accommodation till he had.
fubmitted it to the confiderarion of the Hate, and received
orders for this purpofe. In the mean wliile he marched into
Phiygia, which was the province of Pharnabafus, and the
expeiicc of his expedition thither was defrayed by Tithrauites.
During his progrefs he received new powers from home, bv
which he was conHitut-^d fole commander botli by fea anil
land ; an honour which Sparta had never before confenx-d
on any of its generals. From Phiygia, where he amafled
large fums ot money, he advanced'as far as Paphlagonia,
and formed an aUiaiice with Cotys, the prince of tluu
3 E 2 couuuy.

AGE

AGE

country. Phrygia was at this time laid wafle by Spitliridatcs
who had revolted from Pharnahafus and ioincd Agtfilaus.
In thrfc circumllances Phaninbafus deniandtd an interview
with the Spart;>n kinjj, whom he found fitting upon the
grals ; whiltl the Pcrfians fprcnid ricii carpets of various
colours and majjniliccnt cudiions for the accomniodiition of
their mailer. Overcome by the fimplicity and modclly of
Agefilaus, Pharnab.ifus fat down by his fide upon the gr.ifs.
At the clofe of this conference, they parted with nnilual
tokens of friendlhip and refpcct ; to the ( xpollulatioTis of
Pliarnabafus, whjeli the Spartans heard willi dovvncaft eyes
4nd profound lilence, Agelihuis replied, that war often arms
the bell friends a;^ainil each other for the defence of tl.eir
country. " But," fays he, " if you prefer the appellation of
the friend and ally of the Greeks to that of the king of
Perfia's flave, you may leckon that all the troops you fee
before you, our arms, otir ftiips, our perfons, to the laft man
of us, arc only here to defend your poireflion';, and fecure
your liberty, vThieh of all bleffings is the moll precious and
tlefu-able." Pliarnabafus pledged liimfelf not to depart from
the faith he had fworn to him, nor to quit his ferviee ; and
Agefilaus taking hini by the hand, and riling with him, re-
plied, " that it was the pleafnre of the Gods, that with fuch
noble fentiments you lho>ild be rather our friend than our
enemy ;" and he promifed to withdraw from his government,
and never to return to it, whilft he could lubfiil any where
elfe.

During the two years of Agefdaus's command in Afia,
he exhibited all the talents of a warrior and ftalefman, and
all the virtues of a Lacedxmonian. The remoteft provinces
trembled at his name, and refounded with the fame of his
wifdom, difintereftednefs, moderation, intrepid \"alour in the
moll preffing dangers, and invincible patience and firmnefs
in enduring toil and fatigue. Such was the refpeft which his
condudl and charafter commanded, that deputies were fent
from all parts in order to form alliances with him ; and his
army increafed continually by the acceffion of Barbarians
that enlilled under his iiandard. Whiltt he allowed his
foldiers the advantage of pillage, he hinifelf was not charge-
able with any aft of cruelty or injuilice. His prudence and
authority were fo much efteemed, that he reftored order and
tranquillity to all the cities of Aiia, and reinllated th.em in
the poifefiion of their libertv, not only without fliedding of
blood, but without even banifhing a iingle perfon. Ambitious
of extending the glosy of his country, and of Greece in
ger.eral, he had formed the deiign of attacking the king of
rerfia in the heart of his dominions, and of fo occupying
liij; time and attention, that he might have no leifure for
direfting his hollile views and fchemes to dillant provinces.
But before he coidd execute his purpofe, he was recalled by
the Ephori to the defence of his own country. As foon as
he received the order for returning, he inllantly obeyed ;
alledging, that he received the command not for himfclf, but
for his countrj- and its allies. " I know, fays he, that a
general does not deferve, or poflefs, that name really, but
as he fubmits to the laws and the Ephori, and obeys the
magillrates." On his departure, however, he faid, " that
30,000 of the king's archers drove him out of Alia ;"
alluding in thefe words to a fpecies of Perfian coin, which
h;td on one fide the figure of an archer, 30,000 of which
pieces of money had been difperfcd in Greece to corrupt the
orators and perfons of grcateil power in the cities.

Agefilaus, when he quitted Afia, was accompanied by
Xenophon ; and at Ephefus he committed half the gold he
had brought with him from his expedition into Perlia with
Cyrus to the cuftody of Megabyzus, the guardian of Dia-
na's temple, with ail order, in cafe of his death, to confe-

crate it to the goddefs. On his return through Thrace,
he only demanded, " whether he fliould pafs as a friend or an
enemy :" and when the king of Macedon replied, " that he
would confider of it :" " Let him confider, fays Agefilaus,
in the mean time we will march." Before he arrived at
Sparta, he received an order from the Ephori to invade
Bccotia, with which he coniphed, though the meal'ure was
not fuch as he approved. On the plains of Ch.Eionea, a
very fevere engagement took place, in which Agefilaus
received feveral wounds, and his life was expofcd to great
danger. Some of the enemy had taken refuge in a temple
of f-iinerva, near the field of battle ; and thefe Agefilaus
ordc'red to be difmilled, and appointed a guard lo efcort
them in fafety wherever they chofe to go. After this battle
he returned to Sparta, and was received with admiration
and joy. Uncorrupted by the culloms and manners of
foreign countries, as other generals had been, he made no
alteration in his diet, furniture, or equipage. His entcr-
prife againll Corinth did not fucceed ; but his expedition
againll tiie Acarnanians compelled them to fue for peace.
In the year before Chviil, 3S7, the fovereignty of Greece
was guaranteed to Sparta by the peace with the Perfian
king, negoeiated by Antalcidas, on the diflionourable con-
dition of abandoning the Greek cities of Afia to the Pcr-
fians. After this event, the Spartans treated fome of the
fmallerflates in a tyrannical manner, and unjuftly feized the
citadel of Thebes, in which aft Agefilaus difgracefuUy con-
curred. Sparta was thus involved in a new war with Athens,
in which the Thebans, under the illuftrious Epaminondas,
became formidable to their opprefibrs : and it was alledged
againll Agefilaus, that he had taught them the art of war,
by his expeditions againil them, fo that they were able to
encounter the Lacedfemonians in the field, as was the cafe
in the battle of Leiiftra, when y\rchidamus, the fon of
Agefilaus, and Cleombrotus, the other Spartan king, were
defeated with great lofs, and Cleombrotus left dead on the
fpot. In confequence of this difaller, Agefilaus was in-
verted with d, diftatorial power, for the pui-pofe of faving
the fugitives from the feverity of the Spartan laws, without
prejudice to the ilate : and on this occafion he decreed : —
" let the laws fleep to-day, but to-morrow let them refume
their full vigour." After this battle, Agefilaus exerted
himlelf in levying a new army, in defending Sparta from
the hoilile attacks of Epaminondas, and in fupprcfling a
cunlpiracy which took place among the Spartans them-
felves. In the year before Chriil 362, fome new commo-
tions 'oioke out in Peloponnefus ; and Agefilaus was de-
feated, at the head of the Spartans and their alhcs, in the
battle of Mantinea, by Epaminondas, who died in the mo-
ment of viftory. When a general peace was eflabliflicd,
the Lacedssmonians were excepted, by the culpable obfti-
nacy of Agefilaus, who refufed to concur, becaufe the Mef-
fenians were comprehended in it as a feparate ftate.

Agefilaus, in the decline of life, accepted the command
of a band of mercenary troops in the ferviee of Tachos, who
afpired to the throne of Egypt. This commifTion reflefted
no great honour on the charaftcr of this illuftrious Spartan,
who, at the age of 80 y^ears, degraded himfelf by receiving
the pay of an Egyptian, and ferving a barbarian, who had
revolted againfl his mafter. The Egyptians rcforted in great
multitudes to fee a man, whofe name and charafter had been
fo long and fo generally applauded ; but connefting fplen-
dour and magnificence with their ideas, they were difap-
pointed when they faw an old man, of a mean afpeft and
low tlature : they apphed to him the fable of the mountain
in labour, and could fearce refrain from laughter and ridi-
cule. His conduft, however, foon produced a change of
I opinion^

AGE

A G G

opinion. When lie found that Tacho3 did not afR^n !i:m
the command of (he whole army, but icftriclcd his autho-
rity merely to the foreign troops, lie was furprizcd and
mortified ; and he was the more incenfed by the contempt
with which his counfel was received, and by various inibnnces
of neglec'l which he experienced. Thus provoked, he
joined ihofe Egyptians who took part with NeCtaiiehis, the
other competitor for the crown, and affitlcd them in elta-
blilhiiig the rival of Tnclios on the throne. Agefilaus
pleaded public utility as an apology for his verfatile conduel
in this inllance : Xenophon attempts to jialUate it ; but
Plutarch ciiarges it with the infamy of jjtriidy and Ireafon.
The following winter, in the year before Chriit 361, he
embarked to return to Lacedsmon ; but was driven by a
ftorm upon the coall of Africa, into a place called the Port
of Menelaus ; where he fell lick and died, at the age of S4
years, after a reign of 41 years, during 30 of which he
maintained the moll dillinguilhed reputation. Hi.s latter
years, after the battle of Leuftra, v/ere lefs honourable :
and Xenophon, in his eulogium of this prince, has been
thought too much to exaggerate his virtues, and to extenu-
ate his faults. His body was cairied to Sparta, and em-
balmed with wax inftead of honey, which was ufually em-
ployed for this purpole. His fon Archidamus fucceedcd to
the throne, which continued in his houfe to Agis, who was
the fifth king of the line of Agelilaus. His life and actions
have been recorded, not only by Xenophon, his intimate
friend and panegyrill, but by Diodorus Siculus, Plutarch,
and Nepos. Many anecdotes are related concerning him,
which fufficiently mark his charafter, and evince the high
eftimation in which he was held by his contemporaries.
Hearing the great king, an appellation affumed by the kings
of Perlia, fpoken of in terms of extraordinary commenda-
tion ; he is reported to Jiave faid — " I cannot conceive
wherein he is greater than I, unlefs he be more jull." His
regard to jullicc, however, was fomctimes facriticed to his
attachment to his country, and to the bias of private friend-
fhip and afleftion. In recommending a friend to a judge,
he fays — " If Nicias be not guilty, acquit him for his in-
nocence ; if he be, acquit him for my fake ; but, however
it be, acquit him." His contempt of unmerited praife,
and his fuperiority to oftentation and vain-gloiy were pro-
minent features in his charadler. Accordingly, he would
never permit, during his life, that his pifture (hould be
drawn ; and at his death, he exprefsly forbad any image to
be made of him, either in colours or relievo. " Let my
aftions," he would fay, " if deferving, be my monument."
The following anecdote furnilhes a plcaling evidence of his
domeftic afTedtions. When a friend found him riding upon
a ftick with his children, " Tell nobody what you have
feen (faid Agefilaus) till you are yourfelf a father." Xeno-
phon Hift. Giscc. Plutarch in Agefil. Corn. Nepos. in
Agefil. Univ. Hift. vol. v. p. 460. Diodorus Siculus. Rol-
lin's Ant. Hill. vol. iii. p. 369 — 400. vol. iv. p. 137 —
196.

Agesilaus, in Mythology, the furname of Pluto, which
was given to him, beeaufe he conduced all mankind into his
empire ; Trapx to ayav ry^ Xocbii,

AGESINATES, in Ancient Geography, a people of
Gaul, placed by M. d'Anville in the territor)- of the Pic-
tones or Piftavi.

AGESSUS, a town of Thrace, called by Pliny (1. iii.
c. II.) Agafus, jnd by Livy, (1. xliv. c. 7.) Agnjfa, but
affigned to Macedonia in the confines of Thrace. Stephan.
Byz. Hardouin mentions imperial Greek medals belonging
to this city.

AGETORIA, in Antiquity, feafts mentioned by Hefy-

chius, wr.lch were probably inftituted in honour of Apo!!o»
and the iame that were obferved by the Lacedemonians,
under the appellation of Carneia. Venus was alfo ho-
noured at thele feafts, as we may conclude from the name of
ayiTwp, which was given in the ifland of Cyprus to the prieft
of this goddefs.

AGEUSTIA, or AcHF.usTiA, formed of « /r/W/. and
ywojjiixt, lo InJJe, in Mtr/idrn; a defeft in the fcnfe of talle. This
difeale ma) arife from an organic afledlion, or an atonic ilatc,
of the organs. The lafte may be depraved or diminiflied by
fur, mucus, APTHTMyT:, ulcers, &c. on the tongue ; or by a
diieafed fccretion of faliva. It may be entirely aboli(hcd by
injuries done to the nerves of the tongue and palate.

This conftitutes one of tlic genera of difeiifeb in the ar-
rangement of Dr. CuUen ; and he divides it into A. orgii-
tika, arifing from a difcafe in the membrane of the tongue,
keeping oil from the nerves thofe fubftances which ought to
produce talle ; and A. alonica, which occurs without any
evident dileale of the tongue.

Ciiic. — When the talle is diminiOied or depraved by fur
or mucus, as ufually happens in Frvtas, it is rarely poflible
to reftore it by any other means than thole wliich fubdue the
fever. The tongue, teeth, and fauces, fliould be wafhed
with detergent gargles, of which the aqua ammonia:, or
common fal volatile, properly diluted with water, is the
moll efleCtual in dillolving the mucus. The tongue may be
gently ferapcd wl>en moill, and the teeth brufhed. When
the tafte is depraved by a difeafed fecrction of faliva, the
cure depends on relloring the natural fecrction. If bile, or
any s a burr A in the ftomaeh, diforder the natural tafte,
recourfe mull be had to emetics or the proper correiSlors of
the offending caufe : acidity is removed by alkalies, chalk,
magnefia, and even by other acids.

AGGADA, in jenvijli jinliqultf, an ingenious tale or
ftory ; of which kind there are many in the Talmud.

There are feveral books extant among the Jews under
this title. R. San Ifrael Ben Juda has publiflied Novellas
j^ggailarum, or new explanations of the llories and rela-
tions in the Talmud, difcovering the hidden meanings
thereof.

AGGAS, RoBi-RT, in Biography, commonly called Au-
Gus, a good Enghlh landlcape painter, who was alio ikilled
in architefture, lived in the reign of Charles II. He
painted both in oil and dillemper -, but few of his pidlures
are extant. The bell is a landfcape prcfented to the com-
pany of paper-llainers, and preferved in their hall. He
died in London, in 1679, at the age of about 60 years.
Biog. Dlcl.

Aggas, Ralph, an engraver, publiftied the ]ilan of Ox-
ford and Cambridge, in 1578, and a map of Dunwieh in
1589. Pie engraved, on wooden blocks, the plan of Lon-
don, afterwards engraved on copper by Vertue. Strutt.

AGGER, in Ancient Writers, denotes the middle part
of a military road, raifed into a ridge, with a gentle Hope
on either lide, to make a drain for the water, and keep the
way dr)'. The appellation is alfo ufed for the whole
road, or military way.

Where high-ways were to be made in low grounds, as
between two hills, the Romans ufed to raife them above
the adjacent land, fo as to make them on a level with the
hills. Thefe banks they called aggcres. Bergier mentions
feveral in the Gallia Belgica, which were thus raifcjd, ten,
fifteen, or twenty feet above ground, and five or fix leagues
long.

They are fometimes alfo called aggeres calceati, and now
generally known by the name chaussees, or causeways.

AcGEK. alfo denotes a work of fortification, ufed both for

the

AGO

the defence and attack of towns, camps, &c. In which
fenfc it is the fame with wliat was othtnvife called vallum,
and in Istcr times ir^^e/lum, and among the moderns /inc ;
fonietimes caviiliifrs, Icrnijfcs, &c.

The agger was ufuuln- a bank, or elevation of earth, or
other matter, bound and fiipported with timber ; having
fometimes turrets on the top, wherein the workmen, en-
gineers, and I'oldiery were placed. It was alfo accompanied
with a diteh, whicii fervcd as its chief defence.

The ufual materials of wliich it was made, were earth,
boughs, fafcines, Hakes, and even trunks of trees, ropes,
&c. varioiifly crolTed, and interwoven fomcwhat in the
figure of liars ; whence they were called Jlellati axes. See
Liican iii. 45J, joi. Silius Ital. xiii. 109. Where thefe
were wanting, uones, brieks, tiles, fupplied the ofSce : on
fome occalions, amis, utenfils, pack-faddles, were thrown in
to fill up. What is more, we read of aggers formed of the
carcafes of the (lain ; fometimes of dead bones mixed with
lime, and even with the heads of flaughtered citizens. For
want of due binding, or folid materials, aggers have fome-
times tumbled down, witii infinite mifchief to the men.

The beliegers ufcd to carry on a work of this kind nearer
and nearer towards the place, till at length they even reached
the wall. The methods taken, on the other lide, to defeat
them, were by fire, elpeeially if the agger were of wood ;
by fapping and undermining, if of earth ; and, in fome
cafes, by erecting a counter agger. Thus the inhabitants
of Gaza defended themfelves againft Alexander. Q. Cur-
tius iv. b. xxi.

The height o^" the agger was frequentlv equal to that of
the wall of the place. C^far tells us of one he made,
which was 30 feet high, and 330 feet broad. Befides the
life of aggers before towns, the generals ufed to fortify their
camps with fuch works ; for want of this precaution divers
armies have been fui-prifed and ruined.

There were valt aggers made in towns and places on the
fea-fide, fortified with towers, caflles, &c. Thofe made by
"Cxfar and Pompeyat Brnndufium, are famous. Sometimes
aggers were even built acrofs arms of the fea, lakes, and
morafles ; as was done by Alexander before Tyre, and by
M. Antony and CalTius.

The WALL of Severus, in the north of England, may
be confidered as a grand agger, to which belong fevcral leffer
ones. Befides the principal agger or •vallum, on the brink
of the ditch, Mr. Horfley defcribes another agger on the
foiith fide of the former, about five paces diftant from it,
which he calls the fouth agg-er ; and another larger agger
on the north fide of the ditch, called the north agger.
This latter he conjeftures to have ferved as a military way ;
the former, probably, was made for an inner defence, in cafe
the enemy fhould beat them from any part of the principal
•vallum, or to protcft the foldiers againil any fudden attack
from the provincial Britons.

Agger Tarquim'i, Tarquin^s agger, was a famous fence
built by Tarquinius Superbus, on the call fide of Rome,
to (top the incurfions of the Latins, and other enemies,
whereby the city might be infefted. See Plin. iii. 5. Cri-
minals were thrown down from the top of this rampart.
Juv. Sat. vi. 288, Sueton. in Cal. c. 27. n. 3,

Agger is alfo ufed for the earth dug out of a trench,
Jind thrown upon the brink of it.

In which fenfe, the chevalier Folard thinks the word to
'ht underftood, when ufed in the plural number, fince we
can hardly fuppofe they would raife a number of cavaliers,
or teirafles.

Agger is alfo ufed for a bank, or wall, erefted againft the
fea, or fome great river, to confine or keep it within bounds.

A G G

In which fenfe, agger amounts to the fame with tvhat the
ancients call tumulus and mules ; the Dutch, <lykc 5 we, dam,
Jca-ii'iill.

Agger alfo denotes a heap of earth, raifed over the
graves of the ancients.

In which fenfe, it amounts to the fame with tumulus ; and
is fometimes alfo called aggijlum.

Agger, in Gc5it/-<7/!/^ji, a river of the circle of Weftphalia,
which waters the county of Marck and the duchy of Berg,
and falls into the Rhine.

AGGERHUUS, or Christiania, the largeft diocefe
or general goveinment in the fouth part of Norway ;
and the richcft, as well as moft cor.fiderable, in the whole
kingdom. It was formerly called Hammerjlijl, and after-
wards known by the name of Opfeloe, Aggerhuus is alfo
the name of a fortrefs in this diocefe, on the weft fide
of the bay, near which lies the city of Christiania. It
is not known when it was built. It has been repeatedly be-
fieged by the Swedes, •via. in 1310, in 1567, and in 1717,
by Charles XII. without fuccel's. The governor of Ag-
gerhuus is the chief governor of Nonvay : he prefides in
the high court of juftice, called Overhofet, which judges in
the lail refort, all civil caufes above a certain value. In all
caufes furpaffing that value, an appeal hes to the fu-
preme court at Copenhagen. N. lat. 59° 6'. E. long, lo"*
26'. The oldeft church in this diocefe, faid to have been
built about 700 years ago, and called Jiggers, is fituated
about a quarter of a Norway mile north of the cattle. I'he
population of this diocefe is eftimated at 215,043 perfons.

AGGERS-HERRED, a fief of Aggeriums, which
comprifcs three dillrifts, with as many courts of judicature,
wz. Afchn-, Eaft and Weft Barum, and Ager. Christiana
is fituated in this diftridl.

AGGEROUT, or Aggeroud, fiippofcd to be the
ancient Arsinoe, is fituated at the extremity of the Red
Sea, about two leagues from the port of Suez. Here ter-
minated the famous canal, begun by Necos and finidied by
Ptolemy Philadelphus, for joini.ig the Nile to the Red Sea.
Between the time of Ptolemy and our days, the Red Sea
has retired two leagues, which is the diftance of Aggeroud
from Suez.

AGGI, a river of Perfia, which runs into the Aras,
near Chainbe, in the province of Aiderbtitzan.

AGGILE, a town of Pruflia ; 13 leagues eaft-north-
eaft of Konigfberg.

AGGLESTONE, otherwife called Stone-Barrow, and
vulgarly the Devil's Night Cap, is a remarkable monument
of antiquity fituated in the north-eaft extremity of the ifle of
Purbeck. Its dimenfions are 60 feet in circumference oL.
the bottom, in the middle 80, and at or near the top 90 ;
and it is computed to contain 407 tons of ftone. The name
feems to have been derived from the Saxon halig, or hslig,
holy, and Jlan, Jlone, which expreffes its ancient ufe : as it
was probably a rock idol in the Britilh age.

AGGLUTINANTS, in Pharmacy, a fpecies of ftrength-
ening medicines, whofe otRce and effeft are to adhere to the
folid parts of the body, and thus recruit and fupply the
place of what is worn off, and wafted, in the animal ac-
tions.

Agglutinants are moft of them of the glutinous kind, or
fuch as eafily form themfelves into jellies, and gummy con-
fiftences ; \\'hence the name agglutinant, which is formed of
ad, to, and gluten, glue.

For the operation and ufe of agglutinants, fee Strength-
en e r s .

Tlie principal fimples which come under this clafs, found
in the fhops, are, ifinglafs, olibanum, gum arabic, dragon's

blood,

AGO

A G G

blood, eafHa, fago, vermicelli, pulfe, comfrey, plantain, &c.
If the term, fays Dr. CiiUen, has any foundation at all, it
muft have the fame meaning with that of \uitrient ; and there
is no propriety in ufing a doubtful theorctleal term. Nor
is the term lefs improperly applied to medicines that are
failed to cement and reunite parts preternaturnlly fepa-
Yated, and therefore employed in wounds and ulcers. Dri-
tifh furgeons neitiicr know nor employ any fuch medicines :
the bufinefs is the work of nature ; and their concern is to
remove impediments to its operation. CuUen's Mat. Med.
vol. i. 163.

AGGLITINATIO Pilorum, a healing or reducing
the hairo of the eye -lids, that grow inwards, to their natural
order and fituation. This may be done by mallic applied
with a probe, which bends the hairs back into 'heir proper
order. Bitumen, the (lime of a fnail taken off with a needle,
the juice of hawks-weed, the liquor of agglutinants, or
ammoniac, produce the fame efFec\.

AGGLUTINATION, literally denotes the aft of
joining or cementing two bodies together, by means of a
proper glue or cemeut.

In Medir'iuf, the tenn is peculiarly ufed for the appofi-
tion or adherence of a new fubftance ; or the giving a
greater confillence to the animal fluids, to fit them the more
for nouriniment.

Some aflign a difference between agglutination and nfflnula-
tion : in that Ipecies of leprofy called X!u>t»i, there is an
adhefion, or agglutination of the nutriment, but \\aqffiiinln-
tion. In the anafarcous dropfy, on the contrary, there is
an adjimnion, without any agglutination ; i. e. there is an
afflux of new matter, or iiourilliment, l;ut this is fo thin,
and watery, that it wants the due ftifFnefs and tenacity to
make it bind.

Some will have agglutination to be effcfted by a ferment :
others affert, that by reafon of the glutinous quality of the
chyle, a mere contaft fuffices to make it adhere to the
parts.

Agglutination is ufed by fome aftronomers to denote
the meeting of two or more ftars in the fame part of the

ZODIAC.

Agglutination is more peculiarly underftood of the
feeming condition of feveral ftars, fo as to form a nebu-
lous liar.

Agglutination, in Surgery, the fame as adhesion.
The reunion of wounds was formerly fuppofed to be effected
by means of certain applications, named agglutinants ;
but thefe remedies are now known to aft only by keeping
the feparated "Jiarts in exacFt appofition. The doftrine of
adhefion is treated at large in the firft volume of Mr. John
Bell's " Principles of Surgery." See the article Wounds.

A preternatural agglutination of the eyelids conllitutes
the difeafe named Anchyloelepharon.

AGGRAVATION, compounded oi ad, to, ^inA gravis,
heavy, the act of augmenting a crime, or punishment
thereof.

Aggravation, in the Romirti Canon Laiv, is particularly
ufed for an ecclefiaflical cenfure, threatening an excommu-
nication, after three admonitions ufed in vain.

From aggravation they proceed to re-aggravation ; which
is the laft excommunication.

AGGREGAT7E^/^n«'«/,r, the fmall glands in the cellu-
lar, which is next to the villous coat of the inteftines, are fo
called ; but as thefe glands are not vifible in an uninjecled
gut, many anatomifts fufpeft them to be only little bits of
fcpamted wax.

AGGREGATES Terrx, in the Linn^an fyftem of
Mineralogy, denote the feventh order of earths, compre-

hending thofe that are formed of the aggregate earths of
the preceding orders. To this order belong the fix follow-
ing genera, viz. Granites, Cue'ijfiim, Porphyrias, Amygdalilet,
Breecin, and y/nnariiis.

AGGREGATE, is formed of W, /o, lind grex, gregis,
a florl, the fum, or refult of feveral things, aggregated, or
added together.

Natural bodies are aggregates, or afTemblages of particles,
or corpTifeles, bound together by the principles of attrac-
tion. Bodies politic are likewlfe faid to be aggregate ; fuch
as mayor and commonality, dean and chapter, &c. in con-
tradift'inflion to corporation file ; fuch as the king, a
bifhop, &c.

Aggregate, in general, fignifies a body refulting from
the union of others of the fame kind which are fmallcr, the
whole fum of which combined is called the aggregate.
The minuteft parts into which an aggregate can be ima-
gined to be divided without decompolition, are called inte-
grant parts ; but the parts into which it is divided by de-
compofition are called component parts or principles. It
is particularly ufed by fomc chemilh and naturalills, for a
numerous C(illedion of atoms, or minutetl corpufeles, whe-
ther homogeneous or heterogenous, joined together by con-
tiguity, without regard to the quality of fuch atoms. In
which fenfe aggregate differs from mixt, as the former fnp-
pofes no particular fituation, or pofition, of the corpufeles,
other than what arifes from their proportion, ar.d the relation
they bear to the ambient bodies, among which the coali-
tion is formed.

Aggregate alfo differs from mixt, as the latter is formed
immediately out of the principles of matter, fo firmly united,
as that it was veiy difficult, if not iinpofiible, to fepurate
them.

Aggregate again differs from compound, as the latter is
formed out of mixts, and is eafily di.Tolvable.

Aggregates then, are the ultimate compounds, or the laft
cffefts ofcompofition ; they refolve into compounds as their
next ingredients, thefe into milcts, and mixts into fimples,
or principles ; though in ftriftnefs, aggregates may refolve
alfo into mixts, and mixts into fimples, jnafmuch as they
confift of heterogeneous parts.

This doftrine and diitinftion of aggregates, mixts, and
compounds, is the foundation of the ehemieal theory of
Beccher and Stahl ; the laft of whom has traced it with
great exaftnefs. Hence has arifen a new doftrine of earths,
metals, S:c. which has fince been illuftrated and extended
by the beft modern chemifls.

Aggregate, in Botany, is a term ufed to exprefs thofc
flowers, which are compofed of parts or florets, fo united or
incorporated by means either of the receptacle or calyx, that
no one of them can be taken away without dellroying the form
of the v.hole. They are oppoftd to finiple flowers, which have
no fuch common part, which is either the receptacle or the
calyx, and are ufually divided into feven kinds, vii. the ag'
gregaie, properly fo called, whofe recejitacle is dilated, and
whofe florets are fupported by foot-ilalks ; fuch are the blue
daify, thrift, or fea-pink, &c. : the compound, which confill of
feveral florets, that are placed, without partial peduncles, on a
common dilated receptacle, and within a common perian-
thinm ; and where each floret hath its proper calyx, it is alfo a
perianthium: Umhellalc, when the flower confifts of many flo-
rets placed on falligiate peduncles, proceeding fromihe fame
ftem or receptacle ; and which, though of different lengths,
rife to fuch a height as to form a regular head or umbel, flat,
convex, or concave : Cvmotis, when feveral falligiate pedun-
cles proceed from the (itme centre, like the umbel, and rile
to nearly an even height ; but unlike the umbel, the fecond-

ary

A G II

A G I

81-)' or partial peduncles proceed without any regular order,
as in fambiKUs, viburnum, &c. : Amnnlaceous, whicli have a
long common receptacle, along which are difpofed Iquamx
or Icales, which form that fort of calyx called the amf.n-
TTM : Chtmofe, which proceed from a common hu'.lsy calyx
belonging to gralles, called glum A, many of which flowers
are placed on a common receptacle called rachh, collecting
tlic florets into the Ipike, as tritic\Hn, liordeum, loliuni, &c. :
and Spadutmis, which have a common receptacle, protruded
from within a common calyx, called spatha, along which
are difpofed feveral florets. Such a receptacle is called a
9PAD1X, and is cither branched, as in phrenix ; or fmiple,
a'i in narcilfus, S:c. In this lall cafe, the florets may be dif-
pofed all around it, as in calla, dnicontium, &c. ; on the
lower part of it, as in arum, &c. ; or on one fide, as in
zollera, S:c. Thcfe flowers have generally no partial
calyx.

Aggregate, in the Llnn,tnn Sy/Iem of Botany, is one of
the natural methods of clafling plants, and comprehending
thofe which have aggregate flowers.
AGGREGATEyi/n//. See Fund.
Aggregate corporation. See Corporation.
AGGREGATION, in Phyfcs, a fpecies of union,
whereby feveral things, which have no natural dependence
or connexion with one another, are colleCled together, fo
as in fome fenfe to conftitute one. Thus, a heap of fand,
or a mafs of ruins, arc bodies by aggregation.

Aggregation, in Chemiflry, denotes the adhefion of
parts of the fame kind. Thus, a number of pieces of
brimilone united by fulion, form an aggregate. For the
diflerence between aggregation, mixture, and combination,
or compofition, fee thefe articles.

Aggregation is alfo ufed_;^K/-rt/;w/v, for association.
We fay, to be of a company, or community, by aggrega-
tion.— An aggregation of feveral doftors to the faculty of
laws. — In Italy, aggregations are frequently made of houfes,
or families ; by virtue whereof, they all bear the fame name
and arms.

AGGRESSOR, in Law, is the perfon of two contend-
ing parties, who makes the affault or attack ; or who began
the quarrel, encounter, or difference.

In criminal matters, it is always firft inquired who was tlie
aggrefibr.

AGGSPACH, in Geography, a market town in the
circle above the Manhnits-berg, in Aullria, feated on the
Danube ; 12 leagues weft of Vienna.

AGGYA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa, men-
tioned by St. Augullin.

AGHADOE, a village of Ireland, anciently a bifliop's
fee, now united with Ardfcrt.

AGHENISH, an ifland of Ireland, in the river Shannon ;
16 miles below Limerick.

AGHER, or AuGHER, a town of Ireland, in the fouth
of Ulft;er, not far from Clogher.

AGHEUSTIA, in MeJidne. See Ageustia.
AGHRIM, in Geography, a town of Ireland, in the
county of Wicklow and province of Leinller, about 31
miles fouth-wcft; of Wicklow.

Aghrim, a village in the county of Galway, worthy of
being recorded on account of a decifive battle fought there
and at Kilcommodon hill, Jidy 12th, 1691, between general
Ginkle and M. St. Ruth, the two commanders under Wil-
liam III. and James II. when St. Ruth, with 7000 of his
men, were flain, and of the Englifli only 600.

Aghris Point, a cape on the weft coaft of Ireland, and
north coaft of the county of Sligo ; 1 1 miles weft of Sligo.
N. lat. 54° 17'. W. long. 9° 22'.

AGHUNALASHKA, or Unalaska, one of the Fox
iflands in the northern Arcliipelago.

AGIA, a river on the north of Penfacola, the capital of
Weft Florida, which, running eaft-north-eaft, falls into the
bay of Santa Maria Galves.

AGIA Laura, a town of European Turkey, in the
province of Macedonia ; 19 miles fouth-eaft of Salo-
niki.

AGIADES, a kind of Turkifli foldiery, employed in
fortifying of camps, fmoothiug of roads, and the like offices.
Du-Cange.

AGIAHALID, the name of an Eg^'ptian tree, called
alfo lycio and lyciiim ; it refembles the wild pear.

AGIASMA, from ayio;, holy, among Ancient Writers,
is fometimes ufed for the whole church, fometimes for the
more facrcd part, or bemu, wherein mafs was faid. Du-
Cange.

AGIASOLUK, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Tur-
key, in the province of Natolia ; 31 miles fouth-fouth-eaft
of Smyrna.

AGIDES, denoting jugglers, m Antiquity, a name given
to the priefts of Cybele.

AGIDUM, or Nagidum, in Ancient Geography, a town
of Cyprus, fituated between Aphrodijium and Lapathus.

AGIGENSALON, a town of Afiatic Turkey, about
a day's journey from Tocat, in the road to Ifpahan from
Conrtantinople.

AGILD, or Agilde, from the privative a, and the
Saxon gildon, to pay, in our Ancient Cujloms, a perfon fo
vile, that whoever killed him was to pay no mulit for his
death.

AGILITY, a light and aftive habitude, or difpofition
of the members and parts of the body defigned for mo-
tion. Some define agility, the art or habit of direfting
our ftreugth, L e. of exerting, or remitting it to ad-
vantage.

The improving of agility was one of the chief objefts of
the inftitutions of games and exercifes. The athletdc made
particular profcflion of the fcience of cultivating and im-
proving agility.

AGILLARIUS, in Ancient Law-books, a heyward, or
keeper of a herd of cattle in a common field.

Tlie agillarius, or heyward of a town, or •village, was to
fupervife the greater cattle, or common herd of beafts, and
keep them within their due bounds ; and was otherwife
called bululciis, q. d. cow-ward, (whence the reproachful
term coward.) — If he were a cottager, or other fervile tenant,
he was exempted from the cuftx)mar)' fervicc-, as being pre-
fumcd to be always attending on his herd, as a fliepherd on
his flock, who had therefore the hke privilege.

The agillarius of the lord of a manor, or a religious houfe,
was an officer appointed to take care of tlie tillage and
harveft-work, to pay the labourers, and fee there were no
incroachments made, or trefpaifes committed : the fame in
effeft with what has been otherwife called Jieldfman, and
tithing-man ; and among us bailiff.

AGILUS, in Ancient Geography, a village of Pelopofnne-
fus, near mount Ira, in Mcffenia, where, according to Pau-
fanias, (1. iv. Meflen. c. xix.) Ariftomenes was refcued from
cuftody by the aid of a young woman, who afforded him
the means of killing five guards, who conducted him to
Sparta.

AGIMERE, in Geography, a countrj' of Hindoftan,
bounded on the eaft by Agra, on the north by Delhi, on
the fouth by Guzerat, and on the weft by the fandy defarts
towards the Indus. Its extent is confiderable, and it com-
prehend* many fmaller ftates, as Agimere proper, Ramppur,

the

A G I

A G 1

Toodpour, Rantampour, loinagur, Banfwaleli, Nagore, anj
Bickaneer. Tlic capital of tliis fubah, of the fame name,
is fituated in a plcafant valley, and on a'll fides hiiTouiuled by
mountains. Its cireumference is lix miles, and it is guarded
by walls, towers, and a (Irong fortrefs ; 170 miles well-fouth-
wcil from Agra, and 178 miles weil from Delhi. N. lat.
z6^ 24'. E. long. 75^ 20'.

AGIMYTHA, a town of Afia in India, on the other
fide the Ganges. According to I'tolcmy, it was fituated
in long. 170" 40'. and lat. 18"^ 40'.

AGINCOURT, in Geography ami Hijlory, a village of
the French Netherlands, fituated in the county of St. Pol,
ex-department of the Straits of Calais ; N. lat. 50° 35' and
Y.. long. 2° 10' ; remarkable for a glorious victory which
the Englifl\, commanded by king Henry V. obtained over
the French, Ott. 25th, in 1415. The army of Henrj- was
reduced by ficknefs and various accidents to 10,000 men ;
and the French had collected a force confifting of 100,000,
or, as fome fav, of 140,000 men, to intercept the march of
the Engliih from Harfleur towards Calais. The king had
recourfe to all the means in his power for encouraging the
progrefs of his fmall army, amidft the difficulties and incon-
veniences of their route ; and on the evening of Ottober 24,
they anived at Agincourt, within fight of the French, and
prepared for a battle, which it was impoffible to avoid.
Whilil the Engliih foldiers were exhorting one another to
fight bravely in the approaching aftion, the king overhear-
ing fome of his nobles expreifing a wifii, that the many
brave men who were idle in England were prefent to affill
them, exclaimed — " No ! I would not have one man more ;
if we are defeated, we are too many ; if it fliall pleafe
God to give us the viflory, as I trull he will, the fmaller
our number, the greater our glory." Henry, with the ad-
vantage of moon-light, reconnoitered the gro\md, and pitched
upon a field of battle, admirably adapted for preferving a
fniall army from being fuiTounded by a great one. It was
a gentle declivity, from the village of Agincourt, of fuffi-
cient extent for his fmall army, defended on each fide by
hedges, trees, and brufli-wood. Having determined upon
the place of action, the king and his army betook thcm-
fejves to reft ; except thofe who, confidering this as the lall
iiight of their lives, fpent it in devotion. The French, ex-
ulting in their numbers, confident of victory, and fupplied
with abundance of provifions, fpent the night in riotous
feftivity, and in forming fchemes for the difpofal of their
prifoners and booty. It was, in general, refolved to put all
the Englifli to the fword, except the king and the chief
nobility, who were to be madeprifoners for the fake of their
ranfom. On the next morning the hoftile armies were ranged
in order of battle ; each of them fonning three lines, with
bodies of cavalry on each wing. The conftable d'Albert,
who commanded the French army, loil tlie advantage of his
fuperior number by drawing up his troops in a narrow plain,
between two woods ; and this was obferved to be the chief
caufe of all the difafters that followed. The king of Eng-
land employed various arts to fupply his defect of numbers.
His firrt line confifted wholly of archers, four in file ; each
of whom, befides his bow and arrows, had a battle-axe, a
fword, and a ftake pointed with iron at both ends, which he
fixed before him in the ground, with the point inclining
outwards, to proteft him from the cavalry. This was a
new invention, and had a happy effeft. He difmified all his
prifoners on their word of honour to furrender themfclves
at Calais, if he gained the viClory ; and lodged all his bag-
gage in the village of Agincourt, in his rear, under a flen-
der guard. The firll line was commanded by Edward duke
of York ; the fecond by the king himfelf ; and tlie third
by the duke of Exeter, the king's urxle. When the lines
Vol. I.

were formed, the king, in (hining armour, with a crown of
gold, adorned with precious ilonts, on his helmet, monnttd
on a fine while horfe, rode along them, mid addrelfed each
corps with a chcatfnl countenance and animating fpecclus.
To inflame their refcntment againft their enemies, he told
them that the French had determined to cut off three fingers
ot the right hand of every prifoner ; and to ruufe their love
of honour, he declared, that every foldier who behaved
well, flionld fiom that time be deemed a gentleman, and
entitled to bear coat-armour. The Eiiglilh thus incited to
exertion, llripped tliemfelves almoil naked, that they might
deal tlicir blows with the greater rapidity and vigour. 'i"he
two armies, prepared for aftion, ilood for a confidcrabic
time gazing at each other in folemn filence. At 10 o'clock,
however, Henry, fearing that the French would difcover
the danger of their liluation, and decline a battle, com-
manded the charge to be founded. Upon this the Engliih
kneeled down and kified the ground, and then rifing lud-
denly, difcharged a flight of arrows, which did great execu-
tion among the crowded ranks of the French. Tiiis onfet
was fucceeded by the attack of a body of archers, who had
been placed in ambufli, and who difcharged their arrows on
the flank of the French line, and threw it into diforder.
The battle now became general, and raged with uncommon
fur)'. When the Engliih archers had expended all their
arrows, they threw away their bows, and, rufliing forward,
made dreadful havoc with their fwords and battle-axes ; the
firft line of the enemy was thus defeated ; and its leader*
either killed or taken prifoners. The fecond fine, com-
manded by the duke d'Alen9on, who had vowed either to
kill the king or take him prifoner, or to perilh in the at-
tempt, advanced to the charge, and was encountered by tlie
fecond line of the Engliih, condutl;ed by the king. The
confliCl was very furious. The duke d'Alen(;on forced his
way to the king, and aflanlted him with great violence ; but
the king brought him to the ground, and he was inllantly dif-
patclied. Difcouraged by this difailer,the fecond line made no
farther refillance ; and the third fled without ftriking a blow :
and thus the Englifli, after a violent ftruggle of three hours,
obtained a complete and fignal vicloi-y. Although the klii-T
did not permit his men to purfue the fugitives to any great
diftance, the number of his captives exceeded that of his
foldiers ; and many of thefe prifoners were perfons of rank
and fortune, who, encumbered with their heavy amtour,
could not make their efcape. The French left dead on the
field of battle, the conilable d'Albert, three dukes, the
archbifliop of Sens, one mardial, 13 earls, 92 barons, 1500
knights, and a far greater number of gentlemen, befides
feveral thoufands of common foldiers. The French hifto-
rians acknowledge, that the lofs of the Enghfli was incon-
fiderable ; and thofe of our own contemporary writers who
make it the greateft, affirm that it did not exceed 100 ; and
that the duke of York and the earl of Suffolk were the only-
great men who fell on that fide in this memorable aClion.
To the grofs error committed by the conftable d'Albert, as
much as to the wife meafures of Henr\-, and the heroic
valour of the Engliih, the difgrace and ruin of the French
army may be imputed. Henry, after this battle, purfued
his march to Calais, with his fpoils and prifoners ; embarked
for England, Nov. 16, and arrived that evening at Dover,
where he was received with tranfports of joy, many of the
people plunging into the fea to meet his barge. At his tri-
umphant entry into London, Nov. 23, the fhows and pa-
geants exhibited by the citizens were lo numerous that it
would have required a volume to defcribe them. Henr)-'«
Hift. vol. ix. p. 46 — 54. 8vo.

AGINIS, a burgh or village of Afia in Sufiana, fituatc
en the cafl bank of tlie Tigris, towards lat. 30° 15'.

3 F AGINNA,

A C I

AGINNA, one of the to^vns of Iberia, mentioned by
Pto'.on-.y. at tlic boundaiy of Colchis, and placed in long.
75^ anil hit. 4^' ^o'.

AGINNATjii, a people of India, on the other fide of
the Ganges.

AGINN'UM, a city of the Nitiobrigcs, in Galha Aqui-
taiiica, now /in'Ti,uhj'me, or /tgen.

AGINvSK.V, a river of Siberia, which runs into the Uda.
N. lat. 52° 20'. E. long. 9«M4'.

AGIO, ill Cimmsrce, an Italian word, fignifying md, is
a term iifcd chiefly in Holland, and at Venice, for tiic diffe-
rence between the value of bank money, and current money.
So that if a merchant who fells his merchandife, llipu-
lated to be paid either 100 livres bank money, or 105 cafh,
or current money, in fuch cafe the agio is faid to be 5 p:r
ten!.

The bank agio varies in almoft every place, and is greater
or fmaller, according as the currency is fuppofed to be more
or Icfs degraded below the ftandard of the ftate. At Am-
ftcrdam it ufed to be generally about 5 per cent. ; and by a
refolution adopted not long before the late period of con-
fulion, the bank told bank-money for currency, at ^ per cent.
agio, and bought it again at 4 per cent. agio. In confe-
quence of this refolution, the agio could never either rife
above 5, or link below 4 per cent. ; and the proportion be-
tween the market price of bank, and that of current money,
was kept at all times very near to the proportion between
their intrinfic values. One part of the profit of the bank
accrued from felling bank-money at 5 per cent, agio, and
buying it in at four. At Venice, the agio was 20 per cent.
tixed : at Genoa, from 15 to 16 per cent. The agio of the
bank of Hamburgh, which is faid to be commonly about
14 per cent, is the fuppofed difference between the good
ftandard money of the flate, and the dipt, worn, and dimi-
nifhed currency poured into it from all the neighbouring
Hates. See Bank and Exchange.

Agio isalfo ufed for the profit arifing from difcounting a
rote, bill, or the like.

Agio is alfo ufed, though with fome impropriety, for the
rate of exchange of a fum negociated, whether to profit or
lofs. It is alfo fometimes called agai.

Agio 0/ affurance is ufed, by fome, for what we more
vfually all policy of assurance.

AGIOI Saramn, in Geography, a town of the ifland of
Cwiidv ; 1 6 miles fouth from Settia.

AGIOSYMANDRUM, compounded of ay.o,-, holy,
and c-fuxivi', / fignify ; a wooden inllrument ufed by the
Greek and other chusfches, under the dominion of the Turks,
to call together affemblies of the people.

The agiofyniandrum was introduced in the place of
bells, which the Turks prohibited their Chrillian fub-
jefts the ufe of, lell they fhould make them fubfervient to
ledition.

AGIRIA, in Ancient Geography, a diftrift of Spain,
fouth-eaft of Bilbihs, belonging to the Celtiberians.

AGIRIUM. See Agurium.

AGIRU, in Geography, the wcflern part of the ifland of
Corfu, comprehending 20 villages, and about 8000 inhabi-
tants : the only remarkable place in it is Caitie St. Angelo,
which lies on the fouth cape called Palacrum ; and beneath
it Hands a ft.-^tely eaftle called Paleo Cailrizza.

AGIS IV. in indent H'.ihr\', king of Sparta, was the
fon of Eudamidas, and the 1 6th defcendant from Agefilaus,
who made an expedition into Periia. This prince was emi-
nently diftinguiihed by his virtue in a corrupt period of the
Spartan ftate, and by his laudable efforts for the reforma-
tion of his country. Sparta was funk by the influx of
wealth into luxury and indolence ; and the difcipline efta-

A G I

bliflied by the wifdom of Lycurgus, was neglefted and con-,
leinned. Agis, tl.ough brought up in affluenae and induf-
geiice by his niotl tv Agefillrate, and his grandmother
Archidamia, who, as Plutarch informs us, pofleflcd more
gold and filver than all the other Lacedemonians, lamented
the degei'.eracy of his countiT ; and at the age of 20 years,
exhibited a fignal example of felf-denial and abftinence in
his own conduct, and nobly attempted to reftore the an-
cient difcipline of Sparta. With this view he afpired to
the royal power, and explicitly declared, " that he fliould
not value being king, it it were not for the hopes of re-
viving the ancient laws and difcipline of Sparta." A ne\r
law had been introduced, at the inftigation of Epitades, one
of the Ephori, in order to avenge himfelf on one of his
fons, who had dlfpleafcd him, lor the alienation, of heredi-
tai-y ellates. The confequence of this law was, that all
patrimonial poffcilions were foon engroHedby a few perfons;
general poverty, and indolence prevailed ; the inferior clafTes
of the people envied their fuperiors ; and thofe who were
delfitute of revenues, and excluded from a participation of
honour and wealth, were indifferent and relucfant in their
efforts againft a common enemy, and conllantly waiting for
an opportunity to ameliorate their abjeft and depreffed con-
dition. In thcfe circumftances of aggrandizement, on the
one hand, and opprefTion and diflatisfaftion on the other,
Agis determined upon reformation. By the influence of
Agefilaus, his maternal uncle, who with fmiiler views em-
barked in the defign, he engaged the co-operation of his
mother and grandmother. The yoimg men generally con-
curred ; but thofe in more advanced life, and alfo the wo-
men of rank and wealth, trembled at the name of Lycurgus
and reformation ; and induced Leonidas, the other king,
to oppofe the projefts of Agis. Agis, however, fucceeded
in obtaining a decree for cancelling all debts, and for the
equal divifion of all the lands. For this purpofe, he made
an offer to the community of his own large eilate, with 600
talents in money ; and he procured, by the interpofition and
afllftance of Lyfander, the depofition and banifhment of
Leonidas, and the concurrence of Cleombrotus. his fuccef-
for. The firft meafure that was adopted was the cancelling
of debts ; and in the execution of this, Agefilaus, who
being much in debt, was likely to be greatly benefited by it,
was veiy aftive. Accordingly, all bonds were brought to
the market-place, and burned in one pile, which Agefilaus
called " a glorious flame." But he contrived to defer the
accomphfhment of the other part of the equalizing plan ;
and, as Agis was under a necefTity of marching to the fuc-
cour of the Achaeans, Agefilaus, by his tyrannical conduft,
induced a confpiracy for refloring Leonidas, which proved
fuccefsful, and Cleombrotus was fent into exile. Agis,
upon his return, was obhged to recur for fanctiiary to a
temple ; and being betrayed by fome falfe friends, who
were bribed for this purpofe, he was arrefted in the name of
the Ephori, and humed to prifon. Leonidas with a band of
mercenaries, fuiTounded the prifon, and the Ephori, and.
members of the fenate who were in his intereft, went in to
interrogate Agis concerning the motives of his proceed-
ings. The king averred, that it was his purpofe to reftore
the inftitutions of Lycurgus ; and that he would adhere to
this purpofe, even in the profpeft of an immatuie death.
His enemies then proceeded to pafs fentence of death upon
him, and the officers were ordered to remove him into a
room where malefadors were ftrangled. But they, and
even the mercenary foldicrs, were reftrained by their refpecl
for his charafter from doing him any injur)-. When it was
known that he was in cuftody, his mother and grandmo-
ther, and a multitude of people, aflcmbled round the prifon,
and rcqueited that he might have a fair trial. This applica-
tion

A G I

A G I

tion in Vils f;-.vonr, tncixlv ftrvod to linden li!i! fatf. A« he
w;i;: kJ to ixiciitio;!, he l;i'd to :iii oiUcvr whom he f-MVrvcd
ill ttars — " Weep not tor :iie, my irieiid, for as I am thuj
fuiTering contrary to all hiw and juftice, I am much happier,
i\nd more to be envied, than thofe who have condemned
nie." He then ofTercd his neck to the executioner, without
the Icall lign of reludlance. The grandmother of Agis was
ntxt fcized and executed ; and hill of all lu8 mother was
ordered to enter the difnial dungeon, where (lie beheld her
fon lying dead on the ground, and her aged parent at a
little dillanee, with the fatal cord about her neck. Having
laid the corpfe by that of her fon, and decently covered it
with linen, Ihe call herfelf on the body of Agis, and ten-
derly fainting his cold lips, exclaimed — " O my fon, the
excefj of thy humanity and moderation has been fatal,
both to us and thee." Upon which, Amphares, one of the
fenators, whofe cruelty had been fignally difplayed in this
tragic feene, addrelTed her with a favage afpeit — " Since you
knew and approved the defigns of your Ion, you fhall Ihare
his recompence." She inftantly roie, and rulhed to the fatal
cord, crying out — " May this, at leaft, be ufcful to Sparta."

Leonidas completed this tragedy, by forcing Agiatis,
the confort of Agis, who was very rich, and dillinguillied
by her wifdom and virtue, as well as her beauty, to marry
his fon Clcomenes, to whom (lie condufted herfelf with as
much attention as was coufidcnt with the tender regard (lie
entertained for the memory of Agis, and who is faid to
have profited by the account (lie gave him of the dellgns
■^hicVi the murdered fovcreign had formed for the regulation
of the government. Plut. in Agid. apud oper. tom. i. p.
795. RoUin's Anc. Hid. vol. v. p. 425 — 442.

AGIST, in Law, fignilies to take in and feed the cattle
of ftrangers in the king's fored, and to gather up the money
due for the fame. Chart, de Foreda, 9 Henry HI. cap. 9.
The officers appointed for this purpofe are called agifters,
or g'ljlahit-s, and are made by the king's letters patent :
there are four of them in every foreP', wherein the king hath
any pannage. Manw. For. Laws, 8vo.

The time for this is fifteen days before Michaelmas, and
as many after, when the itiuning of the cattle cannot pre-
judice tile game.

AGISTMENT, is fuppofed to be formed of the French
glfle, a bed, or lying place : though Kennet excepts to this
etymon, and choofes rather to derive it from ager, the field,
Cr feeding-place for cattle ; imagining agiftment to have
originally been tlie fame with agranum, agerium, or ngro-
t'.cum, the profit of feeding cattle on fuch a piece of ground.
The term is applied to taking other men's cattle into any
ground, at a certain rate per week. It is fo called, becaufe
the cattle are fuffered agifer, that is, to be Iciuint and cou-
thant there ; and many great farms are employed to this pur-
pofe. 2 Inft. 643. Our graziers call cattle, which they
thus take in to keep, gifemenis ; and to g'lfe, or julci; the
ground, is when the occupier thereof feeds it not with his
own flock, but takes in the cattle of others, to agi/l or paf-
lure it. Agidment is likewile the profit of fuch feeding in a
ground or field ; and extends to the depafluring of bairen
cxittle of the owner, for which tythes (liall be paid to the
parfon.

Agidment ie alfo ufed metaphorically for a charge, or bur-
then on any thing.

In this fenfe we meet with terra ad cuftediam mans agjjlata,
i. e. charged luhh a tribute to keep out the fea. — So terrx
Mgifiatie, are lands whofe owners are bound to keep up the
ica-banks.

Agidment denotes likewife the duty or levy for repairing
the banks and walls in Romney-marih, which was particu-
larly called agiflamsntum ; aaj the ail of laying fuch a pro-

portion ;if this duty on the feveral edates, was called eg'/-
Imm. .'Jpelmaii.

AGlSTOIl, or AciiTATOR. See Acisr ai.d AcisT-

MtNT.

AGISYMBA, in /tnaeni Geography, now Zanguebar, a
diltricl of Libya interior, lituated, according to Agaihemerus,
to the fouth and eart of the uJilliiopcs Anthropophagi. The
parallel paiTing through this country ifi'^ foutli of the equa-
tor, bounded the knowledge of the ancients to the (oulh.

Agisymb.'V, in Modern Geography, a town of Africa, in
the kingdom of Congo.

AGITA, or Aguti, in Ancient Geography, a finall
iflar.d between Sicily and Africa.

AGITATION, Agitatio, properly fignifics ^/SfliJ/nf ;
or reciprocal motion of a body.

The prophds, quahers, Pythian priedcfFes, &c. were fub-
jecl to violent agitations of body. See Inspiration.

Among phyfiologiils, the term is fometimes appropriated
to that fpecies of earthquake, called tremor, or arietatio.

Among the philofophers, it is chiefly ufed for an intefline
commotion of the parts of any natural body.

Thus, fire is laid to agitate the m.inute partick'S of bodies.
— Fermentation and effervefcencc are attended with a brilk
agitation of the paitieles.

Heat is fuppofed by fome to confifl in the agitation of
the parts of the hot body ; and found is produced by a
tremulous agitation, excited fir'.l in the fonorous body, and
communicated thence to the ambient air.

Agitation is likewiie ufed for a violent hurry or pcr-i
turbation of fpiiits, oceafioned by fome predominant paflion.

Agitation is alio ufed, in Medicine, for a fpecies of
exercife, popularly called fwinging ; and, in general, for
any exercife which fhakes the body.

Bartholinc mentions fits of the tooth-ach, dcafnefs, &c.
removed by vehement agitations of the body ; and they
have been found of efpecial ufe for preventing and diffolving
concretions.

Dr. Sydenham attributes the great benefits of riding to
agitation, which is very efficacious in removing obflruclions
of the vi/cera. See ^toRA.

Sanguification is in great meafure effefled by the agita-
tion of the parts of the blood and chvle, in their continual
circulation. Digestion itfelf is only fuppofed by fome t(»
be an infeniible kind of agitation.

Agitation 0/ beaJIs in ,' he fore/I, anciently figniiicd the
DRIFT of beads in the forell.

AGITATIVE, fomething haying power to agitate or
(liake another.

AGiTATivEybcfir ef a pendulum, is that which produce*
motion in it.

The agitative force of the pendulum arifcs from tliree
things: i . Tlie power of gravitr. 2. The weight fadtned
at the end of the rod. 3. The diftance of iJiat weight from
the point of fufpenfion ; or, which amounts to the fame
thing, the length of the rod, or pendulum. Hift. Acad.
Scien. 1 7 14.

AGITATO, in Mufic, a term wliich implies not only a
quick movement but a characler of expreflion arifing from
paffion and perturbation. Piccini's air, " Se il cicl mi divide,"
in the Aled'andro of Metaflaiio, furnifhes an admirable ex.
ample of this kind of movement.

AGITATOR, in /liiliquity, a charioteer; or he wlio
drove or directed a chariot, or horfes, in a race.

In wh ch fenfe agitator amounts to the fame with what
the Romans called auriga ; and we, a coachman, driver, &c.

Agitator was more peculiarly ufed for him iwho drove
in the public curule games in the circus.

The agitatoiK were didinguirticd by tlieir habits, into
3 F 3 rujpui.

A G 1

tujfat't, albat'i, pfiifmi, and vtndi, wliiili gave rife and deno-
mination to fo many fadions. Dil'idcs whieli, tluy had
other marks or enligns of their family, correfponding to
nhat we call antis.

The conquerors, befidcs the ordinary rewards, bravia, as
crowns, &c. had llatiies ereded to them in the circus ; on
the bafes whereof, their titles, atchie\ ements, &c. were in-
fcribed ; feveral of wliith are ftill found among ancient m-
fcriptions, drawn in the following formulx : Vidt frji'set
Jeplejuge, h'tgas, tngoi, uno iiii/io, aliiiio priiicipio, duolus iu-
Irojiig'u, &c.

It has been difpiitcd, whether the agilntors were on the
footing of mimes and pantomimes, and by law held infamous ?
BrilTon. Select, ex Jiir. Civ. Ant. lib. i. cap to.

Ac iTATOR s, miliar'uw, ag'rlatores milinrii, were tliofe who
drove in tiie forum at Conllantinople, a place adorned with
Uatnes, Sec. after the manner of the circus at Rome, having
a iiiiHum, or mi/itirium, in tiie middle.

Agitators, in Englijh NiJIary, were certain officers,
created by the army in 1V147, to take care of its intcrefts.
Each troop or company furnilhed two private men or inferior
officers, under this title, who reprefented the army ; whilft
a council of the principal ofBcers was appointed after the
model of the houfe of peers ; and thus a mihtary parliament
vas formed in oppofition to the parliament at Weilminfter.
Cromwell leagued himfelf with the agitators, whom he found
to have greater intereft than the council of war ; and who
undertook to make propofals relating to the reformation of
religion, and the Hate.

The agitators as well as the council of officers were alto-
gether moved by his direftion, and conveyed his wilh to the
whole army. By means of thefe initruments he overawed
the parliament, and reduced it to fubmiffion ; and having
gained poflcffion of the king's perfon, to whom for fome time
he and his officers paid attention and refpeft, he contrived
to terrify him by the menaces of the agitators, and thus in-
duced him to make his efcape from Hampton Court, and to
take refuge at Carifbroke Caftle, in the Ifle of Wight.
Cromwell, being entirely mailer of the parliament, and free
from all anxiety with regard to the cuftody of the king's
perfon, applied himfelf ferioufly to quell thofe diforders in
the army, which he himfelf had artfully raifed and fuccefs-
fuUy employed, againft both king and parliament. With
this view, befides other meafures which he adopted, he iffued
orders for difcontinuing the meetings of the agitators ; and
he pretended to pay entire obedience to the parliament, whom,
being now fully reduced to fubjedlion, he propofed to make,
for the future, the inftruments of his authority. But the
Levellers, for fo that party was called, becaufe they wifhed
to abolifh royalty and nobility, to level all ranks of men, to
introduce an univerfal equality both of property and of
power, and who maintained that the meancil fentinel, if en-
lightened by the fpirit, was entitled to equal regard with the
greateft commander, having tafted the fweets of dominion,
would not eaiily be deprived of it. They fecretly continued
their meetings ; they afferted, that their oflicers, as much as
any part of the church or ftate, needed reformation ; and
feveral regiments joined in feditious remonftrances and pe-
titions. Separate rendezvoufes were concerted ; and every
thing tended to anarchy and confufion. But this diftemper
was foon cured by the rough, but dextrous hand of Crom-
well. He chofe the opportunity of a review, that he might
difplay the greater boldnefs, and fpread the terror the more
widely. He feized the ring-leaders before their companions ;
held in the field a council of war ; (hot one mutineer inftantly,
and ftruck fuch dread into the reft, that they prefently
threw down the fymbols of fedition, which they had dif-
played, and thenceforth returned to their difcipline and obe-
dience. Hume's Hill. voL vii. p. 109. 8vo.

A G L

AGLA, formed of the initial letters of the four following

Hebrew words ♦J-TK tD^I^'? "^3-1 nDiS g- '^- "'■'»" art
Jirong in llje ettnial G'.il, was a name given by the fupcr-
ftitions Jews in the Middle Age, to the Deity ; and which
they difpofed of in the three angles, and in the middle of two
triangles laid one over the other. This figure they called
the Ihield of David, and pretended, that it was a fecurity
againll wounds, would extinguifl\ fire, and was able to
perform other wonders. Fabr. Cod. Apocr. V. T. tom. ii.
p. looC. tom. iii. p. 143.

AcLA, or Aguila, in Ge'jgrnfihy, 'a town of Africa, ill
the kingdom of Fez, near the river Guarga.

Agi.a Minor, a diftrift of Spain, affigned by Pliny tOr
the Ballitani.

AGLABITES, in Hijlory, one of the Arabian inde-
pendent dynailies, which fubfilleJ in Africa in the ninth
century, and which derived its name and power from Ibra-
him, foil of Aglab, the lieutenant of the famous Harun al
Radiid.

AGLAIA, in Mythology, the name of the youngeft of
the three Graces, efpoufed to Vulean.

Aglaia, in Natural Hijlory, a fpecies of PapiliO'
Nymphalis, with dentatcd yellow wings, fpotted with black f
the under part having filvery fpots. It is found on the violet
in Europe. The larva is foUtary, fpinofe and black, with
ferruginous fpots difpoled on the fides of a fquare j the
pupa is brown.

AGLAOPHAME, one of the Sirens.

AGLAOPHOTIS, in Botany, a name ufed, by fome,

for PIONY.

AGLASOUN, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey }
eight miles fouth weft from Ifbarteh.

AGLAURA, or Agraula, in Mythology, the daughter
of Cecrops, founder and king of Athens. She had two fillers^
Herfa and Pandrofa. Miner\-a having concealed Erich-
thonius, after his birth, in a badcet, committed him to the
cuftody of thefe three princeftes, forbidding them to opea
the bailcet. Herfa and Pandrofa obferved the order ; but
Aglaura, unable to reftrain her curiofity, opened the bafl^et
and found the infant with feet like thofe of a ferpent. Mi-
nerva puniftied lier by means of Envy, who made her Jealous
of Herfa, the favourite of Mercury. When ftie attempted
to prevent the accefs of this deity to his miftrefs, he ftruck.
her with his caduceus, and converted her into a rock. Never-
thelefs (he was honoured after her death in a temple at Sala-
mina, with a yearly facrifice of a human victim, which De-
phalus, king of Cyprus, in the time of Seleucus, changed
into an ox. See Agraulia.

AGLECTS, Agleets, orAcLEEDs, among Florins,
the APICES, or pendants hanging on the tip-ends of chives,
or STAMINA ; as in tufips, rofes, fpike-grafs, &:c.

AGLIA, in Geography, a fmaU town of Italy, in the
marquifate of Jvrea, and principality of Piedmont, to which
belongs a diilridl and earldom ; feven miles fouth from
Jvrea.

Aglia, among Ancient Surgeons, a whitilh cicatrix, or
fpot in the eye, formed by a congeftion of humours.

AGLIBOLUS. The Palmyrenes worlhipped the fun
under this title.

AGLIONBY, John, m Biography, an Englilh divine,
was born in Cumberland, and admitted a ftudent at Oxford
in 1583. He was diftinguiflied as a polite and learned
preacher. After his return from his travels, he was made
chaplain in ordinary to queen Elizabeth, to which office
he was alfo appointed by king James I. ; and he is faid to
have had a concern in the tranflation of the New Teftament,
ordered by that king in 1604. He died at Iflip near Oxford,
where he was reftor, Feb. 6th, 1609-10, at the age of 43,
He was eminently accomphlhed in various kinds of learning.

A G N

well acquainted with the fathers and fcliool divinity, and a
great Clitic in tlie languages. Gen. Dift,

AGLONE, in Gcogriiphy, a river of Pruflla, vliich runs
into tiie Minnie, near Proeculs.

AGMANISPHE or Atmanisphe, in j^ncienl Geo-
rapby, a village of Arabia Felix, afiigncd l>y Ptolemy to
the Honu-rites.

AGME, in Surgery, fignifics a frafture.

AGMEN, in ylnliqiihy, properly dciiote=; a Roman army
in march. In whicl; iciile, it (lands contrudilHiiguiflied from
fl./(\r, which denoted the army in battle anay ; thougli, on fome
occafions, we find the two words ufed indifferently for each
other.

The Roman armies, in their marches,, were divided into
primitm agnien, anfweriiig to our vanguard ; medium agmen,
our main-battle ; TluA pojlremum tignie/i, the rear-guard.

The order of tlieir march was thus : after the iirft fignal
with the trumpets, &c. the tents were taken down, and the
baggage packed up j at the fecond fignal, the baggage was
to be loaded on the horfes and carriages ; and at the third
fignal, they were to begin their march. Firft came the ex-
iraordinani ; then the auxiliaiies of the firll wing with their
baggage ; thefe were followed by the legions. The cavalry
inarched either on each fide, or behind.

Agmen pilntum, that difpofed in a narrow oblong form,
or column ; bcic.g alfo clofe and compaft ; thus called, as
refenibling the figure of Vi pila, or pier. Vegetius compares
it to that of a broach, or fpit. This form v\-as chiefly ufed
in marching without their baggage, through bad ways and
clofe countries.

Agmen quadratum, that ranged fomewhat in a fquare
form, being the method ordinarily obferved in the Roman
armies. This was alio called agmen grave, by the Greeks
T'Tjaywvo; Ta|»<. The three lines, or columns, in which the
army ufually marched, were coiifiderably more in length or
breadth, than in depth ; but as the baggage marched fome-
what in the fame order, the whole approached to the figure
of a fquare.

Agmen is alfo ufed for any number of perfons, or even
animajs, moving or advancing in fome regular order.

AGMET, or Agmat, in Geography, was formerly the
capital of Morocco, in Afiica, fituated on a declivity of a
hill, which is part of Mount Atlas, and near a river of the
fame name ; fix leagues fouth from Morocco. It is at prefent
reduced and inhabited by poor people. N. lat. 30° 56'. W.
bng. 7° 15'.

AGMONDESHAM, or Amersham, an ancient town
cf Buckingharafhire, fituated betwixt hills that are covered
with woods ; about 26 miles north-weft from London. It
has a town-hall and free-fchool, fends two members to par-
hament, and has a market on Tuefday. The manufafture
of this town is black lace : and a cotton manufaftory was
lately eilablilhed in it, which employs many of the lower
clafs, though the bufinefs is performed by machinery. The
mimber of houfes in this borough is 267 ; but the right of
voting is reftrifted to about a fourth part of this number,
■which confiils of thofe who pay fcot and lot. This parifh,
together with the adjoining hamlet of Coleihill, contains 403
lioufes, 859 male and 1171 female inhabitants. The manlion
of T. D. T. Drake, Efq. called Shardeloes, to which
family the borough belongs, is fituated about 1 5 mile from
the town.

AGNA, in Ancient Geography, a river of M'auritania.

AGNACAT, Scaligeripyri fpecies. In a country of Ame-
rica, beyond the Terra de Labrador, toward the iftlimus of
Darien, there is a tree of the figure and fize of a pear-tree,
always covered with leaves, and of an extraordinary green-
nefs and luftre. It bears a fruit alfo like a pear, but green

A G N

even when it if, ripe ; the pulj^ is of the fame colour, fweet,
fat, and talles like butter. It is a powerful promoter of
venereal vigour. Rav's Hid.

AGNADELLO,' in Geography, a fmall town of Italy,
on a canal between the rivers Adda and Serio, in ihc duchy
of Milan and teiritoiy of Cremona. It is famous for a
Nidory gained here by the Erench over the Venetians in
1509, and for a battle fought between prince Eugene and
the duke of Vendofme in 1705. See Cassano. N. lat.
45" 25'. E. long. 9" 2(>'.

AGNAN, Si. a town of the late province of BeiTj', and
department of Loire and Cher, in France, fituate on the
river Cher, containing a cattle, with one collegiate church
and two convents. N. lat. 46" 27'. E. long. \" 26'.

AGNAN [A, or Anagni, a fmall veiy ancient town of
Italy, in the Cainpagna of Rome. It is fituated upon a
mountain ; and lias a cathedral and five convents. N. lat.
41° 45'. E. long 12° 55'.

AGNANO, late of, a circular lake, nearly two miles in
circumference, in the vicinity of Naples, near Pozzliolo,
which has all the appearances of a volcanic crater. Its
fhape is that of an inverted funnel ; and its fides and bottom
are formed of tufa, interfperfed with fragments of lava and
pumice-llone. Numerous flocks of ducks fwim on its fuiface,
and its waters contain great quantities of tenciies and frogs.
The frogs in their tadpole ftate, having tails refembling the
hinder part of a fifli with a round body and legs like a frog,
furniflied occafion for the vulgar to conclude tliat they were
monttrous animals, half fifli and half frogs. Vallifncri dif-
covered the caufe of this vulgar error. The tenches and
eels of this lake are, in winter, of a ytrj good flavour ; but
in fummer they are not eatable, on account of the great
quantities of ^ax and hemp which arc brought hither from
all the neighbouring parts to be mellowed in the water. The
water fometimes boils up to the height of two inches, but
without any fenfible heat. Keyfler's Trav. vol. iii. p. 113.
Spallanzani's Trav. vol. i. p. 125.

AGNANTHUS, formed of ay»,-, rhnje, and avSo?, a
fozver, in Botany, the name given by Vaillant to a genus of
plants, called afterwards cornutia by Plumier and Lin-
naeus.

AGNATI, in the Romati Laiu, the male defccndants
from the fame father ; and in the Scots laiv, agnates arc un-
derftood to be thofe who are neareft related by the fatlier,
though females intervene.

AGNATION, formed from ad, to, and nafci, to be born,
in the Chnl Law, the kinfliip, or relation betv.-eeu the de-
fccndants of the fame father, being males, and ifi"ued only
from males.

Agnation differs from cognation, as the latter is an uni-
verfal name, under which the whole family, and even the
agnaii themfelves are contained ; and agnation, a particular
branch of cognation, which only includes the defcendants
in the male fine. Again, agnation is properly only a civil
name, as that of gens, or family ; cognation, a natural namcj
or derived from blood.

By the law of the Ttuelve Tables, males and females fuc-
ceed one another, according to the order of proximitv, and
without any regard to the fex : but the laws were afterwards
changed in this refpeft, by the Lex l^oconia ; and womeit
were excluded from the privileges of agnation, excepting
fuch as were within the degree of confanguinity ; /'. c. ex-
cepting the fillers of him who died abinteilate ; and it was
hence that the difference between <7^nfl//' and fcif«a/i firll took
its rife.

But this difference was again aboliflied by Juftinian (Inft»
3. 10.), and the females were reinllated in the right of ag-
nation ; aud all the defcendants on the father's fide, whether

1 - male*

A G N

tnsV^ or Fo!fl"l^'S, wove apjtiiialcd to fi'.ccotd ettih otbet in-
<l!:Vn;nir.nttly-, aci'oijing lo tiic oitUi" ot (uuxiniity.

Hi-ncc, coi^iiation came to lake i:i all tlic ivhlinns of i!'-e
mother ns well ns father, and agnation to be rellrained to
thofe of tlie fatlier alone.

A<!r.pt ivc cliiidren enjoy tlie pri\ilfge8 of agnation ; which
\r,'s called civi/ in tiieir rtfped, in oppofition to tlie other
whieh was naturah

AGNEL, an ancient French gold coin, firft ftruck under
the reign of St. Louis, worth about twelve fols fix deniers.
The agnel is alfo called ionietimcs mouton d'or, and agncl
(Tor. The denomination is fuppofed to have arifen trom
the figure of a lamb, or llieep, ftriick on one fide. Alter
tlie reign of St. Louis, they bore on the reverfe tiic words,
" Chrllhis regnat, vincit, iniperat."

AGNELET, an ancient French fdver coin, firft ftruck
under Philip Ic Bel, worth about twenty fols.

AGNELLI, Frederic, in Bwgmphy, was an engraver
of Milan in the beginning of the 17th centun-. His chief
employment feems to have been portraits, though he fome-
tijnes engraved archite£lure and emblematical fubjeds. The
dome of Milan was engraved by him. Strutt.

AGNE REINS, in Geography, a fmall place, which was
•nee the relidence of a Caftellany, in the former principality
cf Dombe<!, and prcfent department of Ain, in France.

AGNES, in Natural Hijlory, a name given by Cramer
to a fpecies of Papilio Danaus, the Zangis of Gmelin's
edition of the Linnxan fyftem.

Agses, St., in Geography, one of the Scilly iflands,
which, though of fmall extent, is well cultivated, and fertile
in corn and grafs. The inhabitants, who are poor, form
about 50 houiholds, and yield the proprietor 40I. a year.
The -church is fmall and neat, and was built by the Godol-
phin family. But the principal ornament and fupport of
this ifland is the light-houfe, whence St. Agnes is called the
Ii'ight-houfe ifland. This (lands on the moft elevated ground,
and is built with ftone from the foundation to the lanthorn,
whieli is 51 feet high ; the galleiy 4, the fafli-lights rii
feet hi^h, 3 feet z inches wide, and 16 in number. The
Boor of the lanthorn is brick, upon which is placed a fquare
iron grate, baiTcd on every fide, with one great chimney in
the canopy roof, and feveral lefTcr ones, to let out the fmoke ;
£nd a large pair of fmith's bellows is fo fixed as to be ufed
with eafe when it is wanted. This noble ib'ufture is plaif-
tered white, ar.d ferves as a day mark to fiiips coming from
the South. The keeper of this light-houfe has a falary of
40I. a year from the Trinity-houfe, with a dwelling-houfe
and ground for a garden. His affiftant is allowed 20I. a
year. The light-houfe is annually fupplied with coals, and
the carriage of thefe from the fea-fide to the building is a
benefit to the poor inhabitants. The true latitude of the
light-houfe is E. 49° 56'. long. 6° 46'. W.

Agses, St., isalfo thenam.eof aCapeon the coaft of Pata-
gonia, in South America. S. lat. 53" 55'. W. long. 66" 35'.

AGNETSIN or Agnetein, two contiguous towns of
Tranfylvania, on the river Hopefch, four leagues north of
Hermantladt. N. lat. 46° 45'. E. long. 25" 26'.

AGNI-CORNU, Xy\H\-c'j.:, a promontory of Egypt, to
the north-eaft of the Bolbltine gulph.

AGNIEilS, the denomination of a tribe or canton of
Iroquois Indians, vi-ho vigoroufly and repeatedly refilled the
French in their attempts to fettle in Canada. They appeared
for a long time among the moft determined enemies to the po-
pifh miffionaries.who made various efforts for their converfion ;
"however, in l66S,manyof them were converted to the Catholic
faith, more perhaps from a regard to convenience and intereft
ihan by conviction. Thcfe converts, amongil whom were
iorae diilinguilhed females, removed to the Huroa fettlemcut

A G N

of Tvorottc, where they were encoin-agcd to rci^de, in h.opM
of their fo.i-niiig a barrier againil the incuriions of their
lavage countrymen. But no influence or addrefs was fufiklcnt
to keep them ileady in tlieir attachment to the French nation.
Frontenac, who, in 1 6^9, was declared governor of Canada,
though his previous conduft had been extremely offenfive
and iiritatlng, planned an expedition againil tlie Agniers,
and refolved utterly to extinguilli them. For this purpufe
he employed a large army of regulars, and of fuch Cma..
dians and Indians as were attached to his intereft ; viliicli
entered into the country of the Agniers, deftroyed three
villages, and malTacred moll of the inhabitants. See Ca.n aba
and [ROQJ.101S.

AGNIFER is an appellation applied, by fome ^a.', -
Jiajlical Writers, to John the Baptift, and ufed in the fame
fenfe with pr.ecurfor, or fore-runner.

AGNINA membrana, in Atiatomy, the fame as the

AMNIOS.

Agnina laBuca, fee Lactuca.

AGNO, in Geography, a diftritl of Lauis, in Switzer-
land, containing 41 paridies or villages, and bordering on a
part of the Lugano lake, which is called the lago d'Agno,
and receives into it a river of the fame name.

Agno, a river of Naples, which rifes in the mountainous
parts of Terra di Lavora, wafhes the town of Acena, and,
pafTing between Capua and Averfa, falls into the Mediter-
ranean, about feven miles north of Puzzuoli.

AGNODICE, in Biography, an Athenian lady, who in
the difguife of a man, attended the leflbns of Herophilus,
and acquired fo much knowledge of the treatment of dif-
eafes, as to be in great requeft among her own fex, to whom
fhe difcovered her contrivance. She was particularly expert
in the praftice of midwifeiy. At length the phyficians,
jealous of her fuccefs, it is faid, and ignorant of her fex,
accufed her of introducing herfelf to the women under the
pretence of affiiling them in their labours and complaints,,
but in reality from views of incontinence. Being cited to the
areopagus, ilie made herfelf known ; and her judges were fo
well fatisfied with her conduft, and perhaps with the women
for patronizing her, that they repealed a law then exifting,
prohibiting women to prattife any branch of medicine, and
decreed that women of the rank of citizens miglit be al-
lowed that liberty. A phyfician, M. Hccque, Eloy fays,
publlfhed a volume in the year 1747, intitled, De L'inde-
cence aux Hommes, d' accoucher des Femmes, wTitten with
much ingenuity ; in which he attributes the loofenefs in the
morals of the prefent age, to the cuftom of admitting men
to the general pratlice of midwifeiy, for in particular cai'es
he acknowledges their aflillance to be neceffary. His book
has given birth to others in this countrj', written with
the fame view of endeavouring to excite a prejudice in
the women againft employing men, particularly by the late
Mr. Philip Thicknefs. But the virulence, and the indehcacy
of his writings on the fubjedl, muft have defeated his end ;
as it woiJd argue a greater degree of indelicacy ty have been
fuppofed capable of reading his book, than to pennlt the
practice he pretends to cenfure. The ftrongeft argument
againft admitting men into the general praftice is, that in all
ordinar)' cafes, women are perfeftly competent ; but as cafes
do, and muft for ever occur, in which a kind of afiiilance
is required that women are incapable of giving, if the men
were not to attend in ordinary cafes, they would not acquire
the cxpertnefs that is neceffary to enable them to deliver in
difficult and extraordinary cafes.

AGNOET./E, ofx'vo!u, to be ignorant of, in Church Hijlory ,
a feci of Eutychians, whofe founder is fald to have been
Themiilius, a deacon of Alexandria, in the 6th century-, who
maintained that Chrift, coniidered as to Lis human nature,

wa«

A G N

was Ignorant of certain things, and particularly of tlie time

of the day of judgment.

Eulogius, patriarch of Alexandria, afcribes this doftrine
to certain folitaries in tlie neighbourliood of Jenjfalem, who,
in defence hereof, allcdged divers texts of liie New Tella-
mcnt, and, among others, this of St. Mark, cliap. xiii. ver.
32. " Of that day and hour knowctli no man ; no not the
anj-cls who are in heaven, neither the Son, but the Father
onfy."

The ancient Arians, and the modern Unitarians, uriretliis
and fimilar paffages as arguments agai.ill the deiiy of Chrill.
To which it has been rephed, by means of a diilinelion to
which the others object, tliat Ciirili;, as a man, did not
know the day of judgment ; or, tliat lie was not commilfioncd
to gratify tlie curioilty of his difciplcs in this refpedi, by
revealing it to them. Accordingly Dr. Macknight ( Har-
mony, p. 520.) obi'erves, that th-c word oiviv (Mark xiii. 32.)
has the force of the Hebrew conjugation Hipliil ; and oii'a,
in the fenfe of this conjugation, figiiifies to iiuiie another to
know, or to declare. And he reads the text, " But of that
day, and hour, none maktthyou to know ;" ;'. e. none hath
power to make you know it. Neither man, nor angel, nor
even the Son himfelf can reveal the day and hour of the de-
ftrudion of Jerufalem to you ; becaufe the Father hath de-
termined that it (liould not be revealed.

AGNOIA, a word ufed by Ph^ic'mns, when a perfoil
m a fever does not know his acquaintance. When a
rigor accompanies this fymptom, Hippocrates fays it is
dangerous.

Agnomen, in ylnllqinty, an epithet given to a perfon,
either by way of praife, or dilpraife, or from fome remark-
able event, which became, as it were, an additional name,
but peculiar to the perfon, and not defcendible to his ilTi'e.
Thus, one of the Scipios was named Afr'icanus, and the
other Afiaticus, from the brave atchievements which the
one performed in Africa, and the other in Afia.

The agnomen was the third in order of the three Roman
names. — Thus in Marcus Tullius Cicero, Marcus is the
priznomen, Tullius the nomen, and Cicero the agnomen.

Others think the agnomen to have been the fourth or ho-
norary name, fuperadded on account of fome extraordinary
aftion or virtue. Thus, in the cafe of Lucius Cornelius Sci-
pio Afiaticus, Lucius was the prasnomen, Cornelius the no-
men, Scipio the furname or cognomen, and Afiaticus the
agnomen. But many of the ancient authors, as Livy,
Cicero.and Valerius Maximus, call the fourth name cognomen.
Some imagine agnomen and cognomen to have been the
fame, as they generally are, except in cafes of adoption.

It was a cuilom among the Romans, for a perfon, when
adopted into another family to lay afide all his other names,
and only retain his family-name, to which he added the
fr^nomen, nomen, and cognomen of the adopter.

Thus P. Cornelius Scipio, being adopted by Q^Cacihus
Metellus, laid afide \ui prsnomen Publius, and nomen Cor-
nelius, and was called Q^. Ca;cilius Metellus Scipio.

AGNON, in Ancient Geog'-aphy, a fountain of Greece,
in Arcadia, which derived its name from the nymph Agno,
who had been the nurfe of Jupiter. It is faid that the
v.-ater of this fountain rofe in a cloud and then deicended
in rain.

AGNONE,orANGi.ONA,in Geography, ■iXaw^ri ofNaplfs,
in the Abruzzo citra ; nine miles fouth fouth-eall of Ci\i.a
Borella.

AGNONIA, a town of Thrace, near Amphipolis,
founded by Agnon the Athenian, who conduiled hither a
colony. Steph. Byz.

Agnos, a borough of Attica, belonging, fays Steph.
33yz. to the tribe of Demetriades, but according to Suidas to

A G N

the tribe of Acamantidcs, and adigned fcy others to thtf
tribe of Attalides.

AGNOS, in Ichthyology, a natnc given by Athensetu,
and many of the other Greek wntcrs, to that filh called
caUyonymus or uranoscopus.

AGNOTES, ill jtne'unt Geography, a people of Gaul,
whole fituation is not precifely known. M. d'Anville places
them in Britanny, north-well of the Ofifmii : and he fays
that the wellern part of the diocefe of Leon lias ftiU pre-
fervcd in one of the dillri£ts of the diocefe the name oi Ack.

AGNUS Cajlus, the chufte tree, in Bolnns, a fpccies of
ViTKx. This is a native of Sicily, where it affects humid
and fhady places; but has been lo long ago as 1 570, in-
troduced into the gardens of this countrv, where it bears
the cold of winter in the open ground. This plant was fa-
mous among the ancients as a fpecilic for the prefervation
of challlty, and tiie preventing of all venereal delires, pollu-
tions, &c.

The Greeks call it afw,-, chtijle ; to which has fincc been
add^d the reduplicative cri/lus, v. d. chafle, chnjie.

The Athenian ladies, who made prof .(Tion of chaility,
lay upon leaves of ngnus cajlus, during the feall of Ceres.
Pliny Hilt. N. lib. xxiv. c. 9. See Cere alia. The feeds,
vvliich have long been medicinally ufed, and were formerly
admitted as an article of the Materia Medica, are of a round
hgure and about the fize of pepper ; they have a pungent
acrid talle, and an unpleafant aromatic fmell ; from tlie days
of Diofcorides they have been much celebrated for their
efficacy in fubduing the inclination natural betv.-een the
fexes ; and from their ufcfiilnela to thofe that lead a mo-
nailic life, they have been called monVs pepper. Thcfe feeds,
fo far from poffelfmg an antiaphrodiliac virtue, have had
an oppofite ([uality afcribcd to them by modern writers.
Their aromatic pungency favours this opinion, which is
confirmed by the ftatement of Bergius, who fays that they
are carminative and emmenagogue. In this iiland they dt>
not promife much medical advantage.

The Ihrub is alfo called agnon, -vitcx, fometimes cleagncn,
lygon, and hgi's.

Agkvs Dei, in ihe Romi/l Cl.'urch, dinotes a cake of wax
ftampcd with the figure of a lamb, fiipporting the banner
of the crols, confecrated in the due form by the pope, to
be diflributed in prefcnts among the people, and iuppofed
to have great virtues annexed to it.

The name literally fignifies Laml/ of Got/: this being fup-
pofed an image or reprefentation of the Lamb of Gnd, who
took gway the fins of the world.

They cover it up with a piece of ftufF, cut in form of a

heart, and carry it very devoutly in their proceffions .

The Romilh priefts, and rehgious, derive coniiderable pe-
cuniary advantage from felling thcfe Agnus Dei's to fome,
and prefenting them to oth.ers. The pope provides a re-
gular fiipply, by confccrating once in feven years : thev are
dillributed by the maftcr of the wardrobe : and received by
the cardinals, and other prelates, witli great rcveience, in
their caps and mitres. — This ceremony they pretend to de-
rive from an ancient cuflom of the church, wiicrein part of
the pafchul taper, confecrated on Holy Thurfday, was
diflributed among the people, to perfume their honfe':,
fields, &c. in order to drive away devils, and to preferve
them from florms and tempcfls.

Other imaginary virtues are likcwife attributed to them.
See concerning the origin of Agnus Dei's, Jour, des Scav.
torn. xxxi. p. 252. Mem. de Trev. ann. 1722. p. 201c.
Their virtues, Adt. Erud. Lipf. Supp. torn. iv. p. 224.
Their myilic meanings, Du Pin. Bibl. Ecclcf. torn, xviii.
p. 6X. The order of confccrating them, Magri. Notiz.
de Vocjb. Etcief. ui voc.

5 Some

AGO

5ome authors ^fo fpeak of tl kind of metalline /ignus
Dfi'u hung to cl>;ii)lets, oi- patcr-noRcrs.

The ylgiiiis D<:i is forbidJcii to be brought into England,
Und(;r tlic pain of inclining a prtmunire. 13 Eliz. cap. 2.

Agnus Dei is alfo a name popularly given to that part of
the mafs, wherein the pricll, linking his bread three times,
vehearfcs, witli a loud voice, a prayer bc-jinning with the
words ^'/fHw /)<■;. It is faid to have been lidl brought uito
the milTal by pope Sergius I.

Agnus Sryliiats, in Natural Hiftcry, a kind of ■snnphytt,
pr plant-animal, faid to grow in Tartar)-, rcfcnibling the
figure and llruclure of a lamb.
" The Scythian lamb is alfo called agnus •vt-getabilis, agnus
Tarlartiu-t, and by the people of the country, borometz,
ioramflz, or ioramlz.

The iifnal account given of this extraordhiary produftion
a«, that the Tartars fow in their ground a feed refcmbling
that o*' melon, but Icfs oblong ; from whence arifes a plant
ealled by them boromelz,, i. e. lamb, grownig almoft to the
height of three feet, and having feet, hoofs>, ears, and the
whole head, excepting horns, refembling that animal. In
lieu of horns, it has a peculiar fort of hair, not unhke
horns ; it is covered with a fine thin flcin, which being
pulled off, is worn by the natives as a cover for the head.
The pulp witliin refembles that of the gammarus ; and
when wounded, a liquor ouzes out like blood. It lives as
long as there is grafs and herbage around it :■ but when thefe
are confumed, it wafles and dies. They add, that wolves
xre fond of it, while no other beafts will feed on it.

Deufingius feems to have been the firft who fufpefled
this account to be fabulous : and Ksempfer, when in the
country, made diligent inquiry concerning it, but could
hear of nothing like it.

As to the plants (hewn under this denomination, in fonie
repofitories of rarities, they appear to be originally the roots,
or llalks, of certain vegetables, probably of the capillary
or fern kind, and fuppofed by fome to be the polypoditim
»ureum, covered with a woolly mofs, which naturally beat-
ing refemblance to the figure of a lamb, have been helped
out and brought near to it by art, and the addition of new
parts.

Sir Hans Sloanc, and Breynius, give us the figures and
defcriptions of fuch borometzes in their coUeftions. It is
from thefe plants that the Indian mofs is gathered, famous
for its ufc in {launching blood. Breynius and Libavius have
written exprefsly on the ylgnus Scythkus. Phil. Tranf.
N° 287. and N" 390. Abr. vol. ii. p. 646. vol. vi, pt. 2.
p. 317. See Botany, pi. vi. fig. 7.

AGOAS Bellas, in Geography, a town of Portugal, in
the province of Eflramadura ; three and a half leagues north-
eaft from Thomar.

Ago AS lis Moura, a town in the fame kingdom and
province ; four and a half leagues north-ea(l of Setuval.

Agoas Ovenlas, a town in the fame province of Portugal,
feven leagues eaft-north-cafl: from Abrantes.

AGOBARD, in Bvigraphy, archbiftop of Lyons, was
one of the mofl learned and celebrated prelates'of the 9th
centur)'. He was born in the year 779, removed from
Spain into France in 782, ordained pried in 804, and,
having been nine years coadjutor to Leidrade, archbifhop of
Lyons, was appointed his fucceffor in 816, upon his re-
tiring to a monadeiy, with the confent of the emperor and
the whcjle fynod of the French bifiiops. From this fee he
was expelled by Lewis the Debonnaire, becaufe he efpoufed
the party of his fon Lotharius, and was one of the chief
indruments in dcpofing him in the afiembly of bilhops at
Compiegne in 833. But the fons of Lewis, having made
their peace with him, reftored Agobard to the favour of

AGO

the emperor, and alfo to his fee, in the pofTenion of whicK
he continued till his death in 840. As a fcholar and a di-
vine, Agobard was much more diftingnillied than as a
politician. He zealoufiy oppofed the worfiiip and ufc of
images in a treatife " de Piduris et Imaginibus ;" he wrote
another treatife to prove lluit Chrid was not merely the
adopted, but the true and nat\iral fon of God ; and a tratt
on the Priedhood, recommend-ng attention to the character
of thofe who were appointed to this office, afTerting their
privileges and inculcating their duty. His work concerning
hail and thunder, was a direft attack upon fuperdition,
and defigned to expofe a prevailing error, that it was in the
power of forcerers to raife tempeds. During an epidemic
difeafc, which occafioned large donations to the church, in
hopes of preventing the infection, he wrote a trail to expofe
the avarice of the clergy, who, in a feafon of public ca-
lamity, took advantage of the fears and creduhty of the
people. He alfo oppofed the pradlice of duelling, and
wrote to the emperor foliciling the repeal of the law of
Gondebaud, which allowed the decifion of difputes by fingle
combat, or by the ordeal of fire and water. He alfo wrote
feveral trafts againd the Jews. His manner of writing
was fimple and eafy ; his reafoning was commonly jud ; and
he manifeds an extenfive acquaintance with the dodlrines of
the fathers and the difcipline of the church ; fo that con-
fidering the period in which he hved, he deferves to be
regarded as a man of talents and learning. His works, after
having been long buried in obfcurity, were publidied by
Maflb in 1605; and a more corredl edition of them by
Baluzze at Paris in 1666, in two volumes, 8vo. This edition
has been reprinted in torn. xiv. of the Bibliotheca Patrum.
Gen. Dicl. Dupin. Cave's Hid. Liter, tom. ii. p. 1 1-
Ed. Oxon.

AGOBEL, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the
kingdom of Tremecen ; four leagues from Oran. There is
another town of the fame name in the province of Hea, and
empire of Morocco.

AGOGA, arjyn, duBus, of ayx, duco, I draw, in
Natural H'ljlory, a ditch or drain for can-ying off the water
from a mine.

Agog A, in Geography, a town of Africa on the Have coad.

AGOGE, afajyn, in the Ancietit Mufic, a fpecies of mo-
dulation, wherein the founds or notes proceed by continu-
ous degrees of the fcale, both rifing and falling. As when
we fing re, mi, fa, fol, la : la, fol, fa, mi, re.

Agoge anfwers to what the Latins call ituHtis, and the
Italians conduchnento, and d'l grado : it Hands contradidin-
guidied from place, petteia, &c.

Agoge makes the fird part of the meloptt'ia, or art of
modulating.

There are three fpecies and cafes of this modulation ; firft»
when the founds follow each other from grave to acute,
i. e. rifing as in finging, BCDE. This the Latins call
diiHus reSus, and the Italians condudmento rctlo.

The fecond, when they go from acute to grave, i. e. falling,
as in the notes E D C B, called by the ancients duBus rever-
Uns, and by the modem Italians conduchnento ritoniante.

The third, when they rife by flats and fall by (harps, as
m D, E, F, Jharp, G, or, nnce verfa, as in G, F, natural,
E Jlat, D. This the ancients call duSus circumcurrens, and
the Itahans conduchnento circoncorrente. Euclid. Introd'.
Harm. p. 22. Aridid. Qiiintil. de Melop. hb. i. Mem.
Acad. Infer, tom. vii. r*Ialcolm on Muf. chap. xiv.
fee. 4. In the ancient Greek mufic, agoge is of llmilar im-
port with the Italian word mrmunento, motivo, and the
Englifli, movement ; of which, in compofitions of two parts,
there are three kinds ; viz. moto retto, moto conlrario, and
mote tbliquo, i. e. equal, contrary and oblique.

AGO-

AGO

AGOCtLTASTRO, 01- AcutLASTRO, in Cfo^^rtiph, a
fiiiiiU iflaud in ihe Meditcn'ancun ; llircc miles iiDnli fiom
cajie BarbaroiTa in Saalinia.

AGOL, a town of AfiicA, in the iippei Ethiopia.

AGOMISO, an idand in Jiunci's bay, near its wellcni
coal), north north-eall from Albany fort.

AGOMPHIASIS, or GoMPHiAsis, a diftemper of the
teeth. It confilts in their being loofc in their foekets.

AGON, in Aniiqii'.ty, a difpute or conteft for the
mailery, eiilier in fome exerciU: of the body or of the
jniiul.

There were agones on certain days, in niofl of the ancient
fealls, and other ceremonies in honour of the gods, or
heroes.

There were alfo agones eflablilhed exprefsly, .and not at-
tached to any other folemnity. — Such >vas the agon gynimctis,
ct jVthens ; the t>f;on Nemaus, inlUluted by the Argians in
the 55d Oiy.:ipiad ; the agon Olympitis, iniUtuted by Her-
cules, 430 years before the hril Olympiad ; the agon Acln-
antilis, inlUtuted at Athens, by the emperor Adiian, called
JlxjyAi.'^ix, nci.v'/Xri'Ax, and Oau/x— iw Afjfiavia.

The Romans had alfo agones inllimted after the example
of the Greeks : the emperor .iVurclian eilablilhed the agon
foils, agon of ihe fun ; and Dioclefian, the agon capiloliniis,
which was lield every fourth year, after the manner of the
Olympic gan\es. — Hence the years, inflead of hijlra, are
fomctimes numbered by agones. The agon ifehijiais, iiifti-
tuted at Puzzuoli by the emperor Antoninus Pius, andlield
evei-y fifth year, was a lacvcd combat, and the victors at it
were called hkromde : they were to be received into the city,
through a breacli in the wall, made on pm-pofe." The agon
niifuus was that wherein either poets, or muficians, difputed
for the prize ; fuch was that dedicated by Ptolemy to
Apollo and the, Mufes, with rewards affigned to the writers
who gained the viftory. Of this kind were alfo found feme
in the Pythian, Nemxan, and liUimian games ; alio in the
Olympic games, after Nero's time, who firll introduced a
jmdical agon here ; others were foimded by the emperor Do-
jnitian, and others at Rome, Naples, Alba, &c. The agon
Neromanus was a quinquennial combat, called alfo Ntroman,
from the name of its inititutqr, who here bore away the pri:ce
for playing on the harp, citbara.

Agon is alfo ufed for a place near the Tyber, othenvife
called circus Flaniinhis, wherein curule games and combats
were celebrated.

Agun is alfo ufed by Phyficutns for the llruggle of
death.

Agon was alfo a minifler of facrifice, whofe bufinefswas
to ftrike the vittim. The name is luppofed to have been
derived hence, that Handing ready to give the ilroke, he
aiked fljon, or agone, fliall Ijlrilic: ?

The agon was alfo csWeA popa, cullranus, and vi^imariiis.

Agon, in Geography, an illand in the noith part of Hal-
fnigland, one of the provinces of Sweden, which has a good
harbour and Ikilful mariners. It is in that part of the Baltic,
called the Bothnia Gulph. N. lat. 61° 20'. E. long. 18".
lo'.

AGONALES, in ylutirputy, an epithet given to the
Salii, conleerated by Numa Pompilius to the god Mars,
furnamed Crai/ivus.

They were ,alfo called ^ilnnahs, from the Mons ^liri-
7i<ilis, where they officiated. Rolmus calls them jf}gonenfes
Salii.

AGONALIA, in Antiquity, feafts celebrated by the
Romans, in honour of Janus ; or, as fome would liave it,
iti lionour of tlie god Agatuui, wliom the Romans ufed to
Vol. I.

AGO

invoke upon their undertaking any bufinefs of importance.
They appear to have been inilitutcd by Numa, and held
tlirice in the year, viz. on the fLflli of the ijlcs of Jnnirdry,
on the twelftli of the calends of June, and the third of the
ides of December. Struv. Ant. Rom. c. 8,

AGONALIS CiRCi's, now tlie Piazza Navona, is one
of the mod magnificent areas in Rome, near 80 common
paces in breadth, and abovit jliSo in length, adorned with tiiree
jlately fountains, which ferye to keep the air trefh and cool,
and with noble ftatuea, viz. Neptune by Bernini, the Tiitoa
and Dolphin by Michael Angelo, the Damibe by Clam'.e,
the Ganges by Baretti, the Nile by Fancelli, and Rio dc
la Plata by Raggi ; all of which are of white marble, and
alfo the obeliilv of Caracalla of Egyptian marble, and covered
with hieroglyphics, wliich was eredted here by Innocent X.
in 1651, The rcafon of annexing the epithet Agonalis 10
this Circus is not afcertained. Ovid fecms to derive it from
the Agones, or folemn games, fuppofcd to have been the Iiidi
Apollliiares, or Acliaei, inllituted by Auguilus, from which
circumllance the Circus was called Apollinaris, and it waj
alfo denominated A!exanilniutus, from Alexander Severus,
who either incloied or repaired it. .

AGONATA, in Entomology, the fointh clafs of infecli
in the fyftem of Fabricius ; comprehending the cancer, the
pr.gurus, the hippa, the fcyllarus, the. allacus, the fquilla,
and the gammarus. Linnx'us has included the infcds of
this dais under the genus of cancer.

AGONE. See Henbane.

AGONES, in Anc'icnt Geography, a people who, accord-
ing to Mela, inhabited that dillricl of the Milanele, now
called /(( val ds Gogna. Polybius (1. ii. p. 103.) places them
in the Celtic Gaul, near Sens. Acaunum was their capital.

Agones, an ifland near the mouth of the Anas.

AGONIUS, in Mythology, a name given to Mercury,
becaufe he prefided over the Agonalian games, of which he
is faid by fome to have been the inventor. See Agon alia.

AGONISMA, in Ani'iquiiy, .the palm or prize given to
the viftor iji a game or combat.

AGONISTARCHA, oi-aXuii, comlal, and ajx^'i '^^^^f>
in Antiquity, feems to have been much the fame with agono-
theta ; though fome Cuggeil a difference, making it the office
of the former to prefide at, and .dire£l the private exereifes
of the athletic, which they went tlirough by way of practice,
before they made their appearance on tlie public theatres or
amphitheatres.

AGONISTIC, (igonflica, the fclence of what relates to
the combjits or agones .oS ,\\xt anpients-

In which fenfe, aganijl'ic amounts to much the fame wlj.h
athletic, and makes a branch of gymnafl'ics.

Agonistic, ayi^nciwv, is alfo ufed among A/icieni Phy^.
Jicians, for cold fpring-water.

The reai'on of the denomination is taken from the plen-
tiful ufe of that element in the Ihite of an acute ery iipelaceoua
fever, wherein, water was fuppofcd to combat and ilruggle
with the febrile heat.

AGONISTICI, in Ecchjuiftical H'ljlory, a name given
by Donatus to thofe of his ieCf, whom lie lent into the
neigiibouring places, fairs, markets, &c. to preach his doc-
trine ; for which reafonthey «ere alio called a/Ytt/Voriv, cw
celliones, catrop'itii, coropitic, and, at Rome, monlenfes.

They were called agoii'ijl'ici , fiom aim, combat ; becaiifs
they were fent, as it were, to light, and fubdue the people
to their opinion.

AGONlUM, in Roman Antiquity, was ufed for the d;'.y
whereon the rex faeroruv) facrificed a viclim. The fame name
was alfo given to the place wherein the games weit anciently
celebrated.

3 Q AGONNA,

AGO

ACONNA, m Gi-o^r,ij>l>y, a kingcloir. of Africn, on the
Gold Coail, extends from the Devil's iNloimt, which I'epanitcs
it from A. roil, and llrclches along the feacoall to the village
Anonfa, on the frontiers of /Iqiuimbof, th-oiigh a fpaec of
fixteen miles, bounded on the North by Songiiay, and on
the South by the ocean. It aboinuls in towns and villages
along the fea, the chief of which are Dajon, Polder, Mango,
Winiba, and Simpa, befides feveral others. It is laid to be
lieh in gold mines, the gold of which the Negroes galhtr
in the fund afier a heavy fall of rain ; but the natives iiave
0|)pofed opening the mines for fear of being difpoiFefrcd of
their territory- by the Eurupeans. Agonna furpaires Acron
in extent and population, and is equal to it in teilility and
beauty. It has the advantage of a large frefli-water river,
Well lh>cked with fi{h and oyllers. The Enghlh have built
a fort in the middle of Agonna, at a village called Simpa
or Winiba, but the fort is nut of any great llrength. The
village is populous, and the inliabitauts indurtrio\i3 in fifliing
and in agriculture ; for they breed a great number of cattle,
which they fell to their neighbours. At a fmall diftance is
I'arku, a village once frequented by the French, where the
language that is uniform along the Gold Coall changes into
a different dialed, and a little farther it becomes altogether
new.

This, according to Barbot, is the chief town in the king-
dom of Agonna ; and he fays, that the furrounding country
is fertile, pleafant, and well adapted for the ellablifhment of
a faiStory. The Englifh had formerly great influence here ;
but the Dutch have gained advantage, and built a triangular
fort at Barku, mounted with I 2 pieces of cannon. When
Bofman wrote, Agonna was governed by a queen, who was
diftinguifhed by extraordinary talents. But though (he did
not chufe to Ihare her power with a hufband, fhe was no
ftranger to the fofter paflions ; and contrived means of in-
«lulging them, by a fucceflion of tlavcs, and as fome fay, by a
■umber of lovers at a time. N. lat. 5" 6'. W. long. i°.
Mod. Un. Hid. vol. xiii. p. 445.

AGONOTHETA, compounded of afiv, combat, and
St-n?, he who d'tjpojes, in AnUqu'itf, a magiftrate chofen
among the Greeks, to prefide, and to be the fuperin-
tendant of the lacred games, or combats : and whofe pro-
vince it was to regifler the name and country of each cham-
pion, to defray the expcnces of the games, and to adjudge
the prizes to the conquerors.

Among the Romans, the like officer was denominated de-
J-.gnalor, and muneranus .

Middle-age writers ufually confound agoniftt, the com-
batants at the games, with the agonothft^, or prefidents of
them.

The agonothetae had alfo the immediate charge of the
iifcipline and morals of the athletae. They examined, and
admitted them into the fociety or order, or expelled them
from it. During the combats, the agonothetas were clothed
in purple, and rode in a triumphant manner through the
circus, holding in their hands an ivory fceptre with an eagle
en it. Juvenal. Sat. xi. 192.

Van Dale has an exprefs diflertation on the agonothetae.

The name agonotheta is ftill retained in fchools and acade-
mic, for him who defrays the charge of the prizes dif-
tributed. The founders of prizes are perpetual agono-
thetae.

AGONOS, in Phyjic, a Greek word fignifying barren.
Hippocrates applies it to women who have no children,
though they might have them, if the impediment were re-
moved.

AGONUS, in Ichthphgyy a name ufed by authors, for

AGO

the fi(b called by fome furachus, by others clak'u, nnd by
others furdeUn,

It is in many particidars verj- like the u'laufa, or (had,
called the mother of herrings, but fmaller, never arriving at
more than a foot in length : and is always lean and lank in
fpring, and fat in autumn. But the diftinClior.s between it
and the iiLtuJii, if real, are fo very I mall, that Mr. Ray, and
many of the molt accurate naturalilb, have fufpected it tite
fame filh, only in a different Hate.

AGONY, Agon I A, denotes tlie extremity of pain, or
a difcafe, when nature makes her lail effort, or flruggle, to
throw off the evil that opprefTes her.

The Word is formed from the Greek ^'.'^^v, certamn, com-
bat ; this being a kind of ihite between life and death.

Much of the terror of death confills in the pangs and
convulfions wherewith the agony fecms attended ; though we
have reafon to believe, that the pain in fuch cafes is, ordi-
narily, not extremely acute ; a courfe of pain and iicknefs
having ufually fUipificd, and indifpofcd the nerves for any
quick fenfations. However, various means have been thought
of for mitigating the agony of death. Lord Bacon cou-
fiders this as part of the province of the phyfician, and that
not only when fuch a mitigation may tend to a recoveiy, but
alfo when there being no farther hopes of a recovery, it can
only tend to make the paffage out of life more calm and
tafy. Accordinglv, he ranks euthanajia, or the art of
dying cafily, among the dcjiderata of feicnce : and does not
even feem to difapprove of the courfe Epicurus took for
that end. — " Hinc llyglas ebrius haufit aquas." De Augm.
Sc. lib iv. c. 4.

Opium has been applied for this purpofe, with the ap-
plaufe of fome, but the condemnation of more.

Baglivi promifed a treatife exprefs, De Medicina Agori-
zantium, or the method of treating perfons in the agonies of
death. But perhaps one of the bcfl receipts for this end, is
that of Mr. Patin, r;z. abjlinence from all medicines.

Our Saviour's agony in the garden has perplexed fevernl
commentators ; and fome learned perfons feem ftudioufly to
have avoided the term agony in their tranflations, as Beza,
Le Clerc, and Lenfant ; and in the tranflations of the
Syriac verfion by Tremellius, Troftius and others, we have
timor, or fear, for agony. Dr. Lardner (vol. xi. p. 86) fuggeifs
that yEVy/^svo.; tv ayaviz, (Luke xxii. 44) might be tranflaled
b.'ing under great concern. The cffeft of this agony has beert
differently explained. Many expolitors have thought with
M. Le Clere, that the expreflion oi Jpa;; uvlhi ro-o Bfoiifiot
aifxcrio;, only implies, that the drops of Jvieat were large ami
clammy, like clots of gore. Grotius undei ftands the expreflion
metaphorically, as denoting exceiTive fweat ; but Dr. Whitby
(in loc.) obfervcs, that Ariftotle (Hift. Anim.lib. iii. c. 19.
Oper. tom. I. p.8o9.De part. An. lib. iii. c. 5. Oper.tom. 1. p.
1008) and Diodorus Sieulus (lib. xvii. Oper. tom. ii. p. 230)
mention bloodv fweats, as attending fome extraordinary agony
of mind. Leti alfo, in his life of pope Sixtus V. p. 200,
and Sir John Chardin, in his Hiitory of Perfia, vol. i. p.
126, mention a fimilar phenomenon ; to which Dr. Jackfoii
(Works, vol. ii. p. 819) adds another from Thuanus, hbv
X. p. 221. See Doddridge's Family Expofitor, vol. ii. p.

517-

Bartholinus (de Cruce, p. 184. 193) produces examples of
fweats that have been aftually mixed with blood. So does
Maldonat in Matt. xxvi. 37. The pofTibihty of this cir-
cuniflance is afcertained by a fa<fk well known in hiftory, i'/c.
that Charles IX. of France died of a malady, in which his
blood gulhed out of all the pores of his body. Voltaire
(Univ. Hift. chap. J42)dcfcrib€sit thus ; " Charles IX. die J

iu

AGO

AGO

in liij 25th year. — The malady of whick lie died was very
cxlnovdiiiaiy ; the blood gulhtd out of all his pores." This
accident, of which there are ioine iiiilances, was owing
cither to execfllve fear, to violent padioii, or to a warm and
niclancholy conllitution.

jVGONYCLITjli, or Agon YCLiTEs, compounded of
the privative a., ymv, knee, and x,\»»», to beml, in F.cclefiajlical
JH'tjlnry, a fed, in the feventh century, whofe dillinguilhing
piinciple it was never to kneel, but to pray Handing, ijec
Genuflexion.

AGORiEUS, formed of ayofx, nmrlet, in Antiquity, an
appellation given to thofe deities who had ilatues tii the public
market-places, or forti. Mercury, whofe ilaluc was ereded
in almoll every public place, was diilinguidied by this ap-
pellation.

AgoR/Itus was alfo the name of a fubordinate magiftratc,
in the cities of Afia, whofe bufmcfs it was to adniiniller
jullice to artlfans and the people.

AGORAH, Maliigra, in Ancient Geograpb\', a city of
the Thracian Cherfonefus, which ftood on the gulph of
Melas.

AGORAH, an ancient money of Egypt and Afia.
See Gerah.

AGORANIS, in jincient Geography, a river of India,
mentioned by Arrian, Indie, cap. 4. which flowed into the
Ganges.

AGORANOMUS, compounded of afofoc, marlet, and
i'jijioi, law, in Antiquity, a magithate of Athens, eilablilhed
for the maintenance of good order and policy in the maAets,
fettling the prices of provifions, excepting corn, and deciding
difputes relating to buying and felling, infpefting the weights,
meafures, and the like.

The agoranomus, among the Greeks, was much the fame
with the curuJe -tdile among the Romans.

Ariflotle diilinguillies two kinds of magiftrates, the ago-
ranomi, who had the fuperintendance of the markets ; and
the ajlynomi, who infpeftedthe buildings of the (a,-!a) c'tties.
The agoranomi, at Athens, were ten in number, live be-
longing to the citv, and as many to the Pirxus : though
others make them fifteen in all, of whom thev affign ten to
the citv. To thefe a certain toll or tribute was paid, by all
who brought any thing to fell in the market.

AGORIT^'E, in Ancient Geography, a people of Afiatic
Sarmatia.

AGORO, in Geography, a town of Italy, fituate on the
river Cordevol, on the frontiers of the Tyrolele ; 21 miles
weft north-weft from Belluno.

AGOSTA, a town of Sicily on the eaft end of the idand,
to the fouth of Catania, with an excellent harbour. The
greateft part of it was deftroyed by an earthquake in
1693 ; but has been fince rebuilt. N. lat. 37° zc/. E.
long. 15° 15'.

AGOSTA ijlaml, in the Gulph of Venice, is nearly
fouth from the weft end of Carzola and LetTina ifland;t, and
weft of Auguftina Ihoals and rocks. It affords a good road
for ftiipK, in N. lat. 42" 40'. E. long. 18" 52'.

AGOSTINO, Paulo, da V'alerona, in Biography, an
eminent mulical compofer, was born in i 593, educated in the
Roman fchoolof mufic, under Bernardo Nanini, and fueceeded
Soriano, as mafter of the pontifical chapel at St. Peter's.
He is reprefented as one of the moll fcientilic and inventive
compofers of his time in every ipecies of muiic ; and his
produftions for four, fix, or eight choirs or choruffcs were
the admiration of all Rome. Padre Martini has preferved
an agnus dei, in eight parts, ot this compofer, which is a
very extraordinary performance. He died in 1629, at the
age of 36 years. Burney Hift. Mulic, vol. iii. Hawkins
Mufic, vol. iv.

AGOSTUS, ocyi:,')^, in Anatomy, fignilics the part of the
arm from the fingers to the elbow ; alio the palm or hollow
of the hand.

AGOUT, in Geography, a river of France, which rifes
in the Ccvennes, and runs into the Tarn, near Montauban.

AGOUTI, in Zoology. See Act'Ti.

ACJOWS, in Ceoi^raphy, the inhabitants of a province of
Ahyllinia, which is bmiiuled by the mountainsof Amid Amid
on the eaft ; by Dure and Ihubarma, and the country of the
Goiigas, on the well ; by Damot and Gafat on the fouth ;
and by Dingleber on the north. Of the Agows there arc
two nations ; the one near the fountains of the Nile, called
the Agows of Damot, from their vicinity to that province ;
the other near the head of the Tacaz/.c, in the piovince of
I.afta, called the Teheratz Agows, from Tcheia, a prin-
cipal town, tribe and diftri^t, near Lafta and Begemder.
The counti'y of Agows lies in a very elevated fituation, and
fonns a kind of amphitheatre of lofty mountains ; and the
climate of courfe is temperate and wholefomc. In the (hade,
or in a houfe, the air is cool, as there is a conftant breeze
which mitigates the fcorching heat of the fun, even at noon-
day, though the latitude is not much greater than 10". But
notwithftandlng the moderate temperature of the climate, the
Agows do not live to any great age, which is probably
owing to the opprefiion they iufter. Their country abounds
witli all the necelfarics of hfe ; and yet their taxes, tribute»
and ierviees are fo numerous, and their dependent condition
fo diftreHing, that tliey are only the manufafturers of the
commodities they fell, in order to fatisfy the exorbitant de-
mands of their opprelfors ; and arc cuullrained to live in a
ftate of penuiy and milei-y, that is fcarcely conceivable. Mr.
Bruce informs us, that he faw a number of women, wrinkled
and lun-bunit fo as hardly to appear human, wandering about
under a burning lun, each of whom had one and fometimes
two children upon their back, and gathering the feeds of
bent grafs to make a kind of bread. The Agows, in whofe
country the Nile rifes, are one of the moft coniiderahle
nations, with relpect both to power and wealth, in Abylfinia.
When their whole force is raifed, tluy can bring into the
field 4000 horfe, and a great number of foot ; but their power
has been much reduced by the incurfions of the Gallas. Their
riches, however, are ftill greater than their power ; for
though their province is hardly 60 miles long, and 30 miles
broad, yet Goiidar and the whole neighbouring countr)' de-
pend for the neceffarics of life, cattle, honey, butter, wheat,
hides, wax, and a number of fuch articles, upon the Agows,
who frequent the capital to the amount of a 1 000 and 1500
at a time, in order to difpofe of thefe commodities. The
Abyffinian princes have therefore compounded with them for
an increafe of tribute, in lieu of militaiy fcnice ; but when
they have deviated from this prudent practice, the Agows
have been great fuff^irers. The butter, which they carry to
a great diftance in this hot climate, is prevented from putre-
faftion by a rout called moc-moco, lefembhng a carrot ;
which they bruife and mix with it, and thus they preferve
it frcfh for a confiderable time. This root anfwers the pur-
pole more certainly than fait, which could not be con-
veniently appropriated to this ufe, as it ferves for money,
and is ufed inftead of filver coin as change for gold. Brides
paint their feet, the palms of their hands, and their nails^
with this drug. Mr. Bruce brought a confiderable quantity
of the leed, refembling that of coriander, into Europe -
The Agows difpofe of their coinmoditier., not only at the
market of Gondar, but to the neighbouring black Savages,
the woolly-headed Shangalla, and receive in exchange ele-
phants' teeth, horns of tlie rhinoceros, gold and line cotton.
This trade, which might be materially beneikial, is vciy
3 G 2 mack

A G R

A G R

i:

much intemiptod by the barbarity and fnud of both na-
tions. Bi^li'lcs what thfv L'H, and what thoy pay to the
■ovtrnor of Damot, the Agows pivfcnt a tribute to the
iii,'; of looo dabra of honey, each dabra containing about
6o\h. weight ; 1500 o:;tn, and loco ounces of gold. Tlie
c' )thiiig of tlitf Agows confills of liides, whicli they foftcn
and manufafturc in a manner peculiar to themfclves. Oi
thefc they fonn a kind of fl<irt, which reaches down to their
feet, and is girded with k belt about their middle. The
lower part refeinbles a large double petticoat, one fold of
which they turn back over '.heir fhoulders, fa'lening it with
a (Itewer acrofs their breall before, and the married women
cany their children in it behind. The younger fort are
generally naked. Tiie women are commonly thin, and, like
the men, below the middle fize. Barrcnnefs is unknown
among them, "^rhey are marriageable at nine yeai-s of age ;
at TI they actually many and bear children ; and continue
child-bearing to the age of 30, and in fome inflances beyond
that period.

With regard to religion the Agows are grofsly idolatrous
and fuperfiitious. The Nile, or the fpirit refiding in tliat
rivei-, is the objeft of their worfhip ; whom they addrefs under
the titles of " tlie everlalHng God, light of the world, eye
of the world, God of peace, tlieir Saviour, and Father of
the Univerfe." To this Deity they prcfent their fupplications
for fcafoTiable rain, plenty of grafs, and the prtfervation of
a 'particular kind of ferpcnts ; at the fame time deprecating
thunder ; and their prayers are pronounced very pathetically
with a kind of tone or long. The flium orpriell of the river,
with whom Mr. Bruce converfed, pretended to have inter-
courfe with a fpirit, wliich occafionally appeared to him, and
re\t!alcd to him future events. This fpirit, he faid, was of
the river, God, the father of mankind. Thunder was de-
precated, as the prieft informed him, becaufe it was hurtful
to the bees, and their chief revenue was honey and wax.
They prayed for ferpents, becaufe they taught the approach
of good or evil. ' Serpents are kept in fome of their houfes ;
and thev are fed with butter and milk before they undertake
a journey, or any affair of confequence ; and if they do not
eat, this is confidered as a bad omen. Before an invafion
of the Gallas, they fay thefe fei-pents difappear, and are no
where to be found. Fafil, a fagacious governor of the
country, who was additled to this fpecies of divination,
would never mount hishorfe, or go from home, if an animal
of this kind, which he had in his cullody, refufed to eat.
Once a year, on the firft appearance of the dog-ftar, or, as
others fay, 1 1 days after, their devotion is attended with
circumftances of peculiar folemnily ; on which occafion
thev facrifice a black iieifer, diftribute parts of it to feveral
■clans, eat the careafe raw, and drink the water of the Nile.
The bones are then burnt to aflies ; and the head is carried
into a cavern, which they fay reaches below the fountains of
the river, and there they perform their fecret worfhip, which
no one is allowed to divulge. The Agows of Damot worfliip
the Nile ; and thofe of Lafla pay nearly the fame worfliip to
the Siris or Tacazze. Thefe lafl have a feparate language,
and are Troglodytes, who live in caverns. Mr. BrUce ap-
prehends that Agow is a compound of two words, Ag-oha,
i].d. the Siiepherds of the river ; and that the fpecits of
idolatry introduced by them is a proof that they originally came
from Canaan, where they imbibed materialifm initead of the
pure Sabtan worfliip of the Shepherds of Agaaz i, which
was at an early penod, the only religion of this part of
Africa. The mountains in all the diflrifts or clans of Agows
are perforated in caves of a very larg£ fize, which fome fup-
jpofe wcrt their ancie^it liabitaticns, wheti they were Tro-

glodyted, or places of retreat when they were alarmed by the
approach of tlieir moil torniidable enemies, the Gallas.
Others think it not improbable, that thefe cavems were ufed
for religious purpofes ; that of Gfesh, in particular, was
without a doubt a place of fecret worfhip paid to the river,
as it is fUU appropriated to that ufe, not only by the inha-.
bitants of the vilbgv, but by the aiTembly of the clans in
general, who retire for the celebration of thofc rites, to
which none but the heads of families in the Agows country
are ever admitted. Bruce's Trav. vol. i. 401, vol. iii. p. 527.
AGRA, a kind cf fweet-fcented wood, found in the
ifland of Hainan, on the coafl of Chiin.

Agra Caramli.i, is an)ther fweet-fcented wood, which
alfo comes from the ifland of Hainan.

Agra, in Ancient Geo^rpphy, the name of a diftrfft of
Attica, near the fource of the Tliffus, where Diana hunted
for the firll time. Paufanias (Attic, lib. i. p. 45.) fays, that
file had a temple in this place, dedicated to Diana Agrellis.
Agra, was alfo a town of Suliana • — another of Arabi;i ;
— and another, an epifcopal fee of Nuniidia in Africa.

Agra, called Agara by Ptolemy, in Geography, the
capital of a Subah, or province of the fame name, in Hin-
dollan. It Hands on the river Jemna, about 50 miles above
its confluence with the Tehamu, and 300 miles noith-eaH:
of Surat ; and from being an inconfidcrable town with a
fmall eaflle of earth, it became not only the capital of the
province, but the lh-(l city in India for magnificence and
commerce, during the long reign of the emperor Akbar,
and of his fon ; and it even now exhibits more numerous
monuments of former fplcndour than any city of Hindcrftan.
Akbar, pleafed with its iituation, veiy much enlarged and
adorned it, and in ij66 made it the feat of his court and
empire : and hence it has been often called ALbarabad, or
Akbar's habitation. The city is very long but not broad,
in the form of a crefcent ; and funounded by a wall of red
ftoue, and a ditch 100 feet wide. The ftreets, with the
exception of a few, are narrow and ill arranged ; the houfes
are generally lov/ and mean buildings ; and the fpace within
the wall is laid out in gardens and palaces, fo that it is lefs
populous than might be imagined, conlidering its extent.
The caftle and palace arc flrutlurcs of aftonilhing fize and
magnificence. The walls of the former confift of flone and
brick, terraffed in feveral places, and 20 cubits high. Be-
tween this and the river is a large fpace, defigned for the
exercife of the troops and other diverficns in the emperor's
view. The palace, which is within the caftle, contains
three courts, encompafied with porticos and galleries, all
painted and gilt ; ;"d fome pieces are faid to have beeii
plated with gold. Under the galleries of the firfl court are
the lodgings for the imperial guards ; thofe for the officers
are. in the fecond court ; and the third contains the flatcly
apartments of the emperor and his ladies. The completion
of the palace occupied above I coo labourers for 12 years,
and cofl nearly three millions of rupees. The emperor, for
the execution of his plan, collected together, by the promife
of ample rewards, the niofl fkilfiil architefts and the inoft
celebrated artills in evety branch, both of external ornament
and domeftic decoration. Beildes the royal palace, there are
feveral others ranged in a line, vvl.ich belong to the princes
and great lords of the court ; and before it tliere is a veiy
large fquare, and there are alio 12 other fquares in different
parts of the city. The Caravanferais are more than 60 in
number, and fome of them have fix large courts with their
porticos. There are at .Agra above 800 public baths, and
a great number of mofques, with very magnificent fepul-
chrcs. Among the latter is the maufoleum of Akbar him-
4 !«'»'

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A G R

fclf, and another ercfted by the emperor Shnh-jchan for his
tinprtfs Mahd-Alia, at the expeiice of 60 lacks of riij)ecs,
or 750,000/. N. lat. 26-' 43'. li. loiip;. 76" 44'.

Ik-tween this city and l.;ilwre in the Paiijab, whicli arc
diilant from each other 500 miles, there is planted on each
fide of the road a continued row of ihady trees, forming an
avenue, to which, whether we conlider its extent, its
beauty, or its utility in a hot climate, there is nothing
fnnllar in any country. Rennell's Memoir, p. 69. Frafer's
Hill. Nadir Shah, p. 25.

The province, or Subali ofAgra, is bounded on the north by
the province of Delhi,ori tlieeallbyOude.onlhefouthbyMalwa,
and on the well by Agimcre , and is about 175 miles long
3i)d as many broad. According to the divilions ot the tmptror
Akbar,st cont<u\is 1 3 circars or counties, \\ hich arc divided into
203 pergumiahs or hundreds. The amount of the revenue is
16,156,257 Sicca rupees; and the number of the forces
are 50,600 cavalry, 577,570 infantry, and 221 elephants.
It is, after many revolutions, fays Mr. Maurice, in vol. i. of
liis Indian Antiquities, publilhed in 1793, at prefent pofTeffed
by Madajee Sindia, one of the moft; formidable of the felf-
created fovereigns of the Hindollan. The indigo of this
province is deemed the moft valuable in the Eall Indies.
Its productions are alfo rice and cotton, oranges apd lemons ;
and its manufactures ai-e white cloth, filken Ituiis, lilver
and gold lace, &:c.

Agra, or Egra, is the name given by Pliny (Nat.
Hill. torn. i. p. 339- Ed. Hard.) to the town of Hejaz,
in Arabia Felix, now called Hejr, or Al-Hheg'r ; fituatcd,
in N. lat. 28^ 30'. amidil a ridge of rocky mountains, de-
nominated 'Al-Athalcb, i. e. the fragments of ilones ; out
of which many houfes have been cut, as fonie fa)', by the
Amalekites, or by their anceftors the Adites, Iramites, and
Thamudites. The Thamydeni of the ancients arc repre-
fented by Pliny as neighbours to this city.

AGRADO Ilhea, a town of Africa, in Lower Guinea.

AGR^, a city of Arcadia, mentioned by Pliny, torn. i.
p. 195.

AGRjEA, a countiy of Greece, which extended itfelf
into jiLtolia and Acarnania.

AGR-.'EI, a people of Arabia Felix, who, according to
Pliny, were good vvairiors : and alfo a people of ./Etolia in
Greece, near the Achelous.

AGRAGA, an epileopal city of Spain.

AGRAGAS. See Agrigentum. This was alfo a
viver of Sicily, which joined the Hypfa, below Agri.^
gentum.

AGRAII, Ajri.p, and ylgriani, a people of Paeonia,
between Hiemus and Rhodope.

AGRAKOVA, a town of Rufiia, in the government of
Archangel, on the weft of the White Sea ; 1 7 German
miles well of Archangel.

AGRAM. SeeZAGRAB.

A.GRAMONT, a fmall town of Catalonia in Spain,
between Lerida and Solfona, on the river Segre, but the
capital of a jurif.iiction. N. lat. 41'^ 50'. E. long. 58'.

AGRANE, a borough of Babylon, ruined by the Per-
iians.

AGRARIiE_/?<;//'onf,r, in the Jnciait Military /!rt, corps
of guards polled in the iields, and in the open air.

Agrari,?^ na-ves, was ufed for veifeli placed to keep watch,
or gua-d.

■ AGRARIAN, agrariui, formed of a^er, a Jieh!, in a
genwal fenfe, fom.ething relating to fields or lands.

Acr^ APIAN, in the Roman JurifpruJcnce, a denomination
given to fucli laws as relate to the partition or diilribution
of lands.

There nre i y or 20 agrarian laws ; whereof tlie principal
arc, the Lex Cajfui, in the year of Rome 268 ; tiie Lex
Licinia, in 3S6 ; the Lex Flaminia, in 525 ; two SLmpro-
nian laws, in the year 620 ; the Lex yipuleia, in tlie year
653 ; the Lex Btc/iia ; the /.ex Cornelia, in 673 ; the Lex
Servilia, in 690 ; the Lex Flavia ; the Lex Julia, in the
year 691 ; the Lex Aiiia Liiiriiii, the Lex Lii'ia, the Le:*
Marcia, tile Lex Rofcia, made after the taking of Carthage ;
the Lex Florin, and the Lex Titia. See Acer.

Agrarian La-ui, Lex Agraria, abfolutely, and by
way of eminence, fo called, was a celebrated law, publilhed by
Spurius Caflius, about the year 26S, B. C. 4S6, lor an equal
divilion of the conquered lands among all the citizens, and
for limiting the quantity of ground poflelfed by each perfon
to a certain number of acres. Thofe other two in the Di-
geil, the one pubhihed by C:efar, and the other by Nerva,
only relate to the limits or boundaries of grounds ; and have
no relation to that of Spurius Caffins. The Roman lands
were of divers kinds, fome conquered from the enemies, and
not yet brought to the public account : others brought in-
deed to the public, but clandcllincly ufurped by private
great men : lallly, others purchafed with the public money,
in ordcrto be divided. Agrarian laws, either for dividing lands'
taken from the enemy, or the public lands,- or tiiole pur-_
chalcd with the public money, were ealily palled' without
dllluibance ; but thole whereby-private rich men were to be
outed of their lands, and the common people put in politdion
of what had been held by the nobihty, were never attempted
without great difturbances. This is the lirft time the Agra-
rian law was mentioned ; and the meafure originated in the
ambitious views of Caflius, who thus intrigued for gaining
the favour of the people, and for attaining abiolute power.
The law had the appearance of equity, and could not lefs
than be agreeable to the people, whole mifei-y it relieved.
But as the lands, which Caifuis wilhcd to have dillributed
among the poorer citizens had been uiijullly ufurped by the
rich, the propofal alarmed the Senators, partly beeaufe they
were perfonaily interelled in it, and partly beeaufe they
apprehended its dangerous cimfequences. The people were
at firll pleafed ; but when they underitood that tlie Latins
were to partake with them of the advantage, they were
difguiled. To conciliate the Latins, and to engage their con-
cun-ence in his favour, were the objects which Caffius had in
view ; but the jealoufy and diflatisfaClion of the Roman
people difappointed his hopes, and teiminated in his death.
As foon as he was found guilty of afpiring to the fo-
vereignty, and fentence was paffed upon him, he was carried
by the Qjiettors to the Tarpeian rock', which fronted the
Forum, and thrown down from the top tor the bottom in the
prefence of the people ; fuch was the cuftomary punilhment
of this crime amongft the Romans. His houfe was alfo
demolilhed and his ellate fold by auction. With the money
arifing from it a ftatue of brafs was erected to Ceres. The
Plebeians, when they afterwards found that the decree of
the Senate for the dillribution of lands was not executed,
nor any meafures adopted for this purpofe, reproached them-
felves with the condemnation of Caflius, as an aft of im-
prudence, and even of inhiilicc. In the year of Rome
299, the fubject of the agrarian laws, which had been fuf-
pended for 30 years, was revived by the Tribunes ; and
the people demanded, that as they (hared with the Pa-
tricians in the labours and dangers of the commonwealth ;
they might alfo Ihare with them in the benefits accruing
from them. But a new partition would have been attended
with great difficulties ; and it feemcd impoflible to proceed
in this bufniels, without manifetl injuftice to many pcrfons in
actual poireffion of the lands to be dillributed^ who had

really

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A G R

really bou^^ht tlicm, and witliout occafioninj;; great and uni-
veifal commotions in the commonwealtli. For tliefe realons
the Senate finniy oppoled the ellnblinimcuL gf tlie agrarian
laws. About the year 37", C. Licinius Stilo, a rich
pkbeian, and tribune of the people, attempted to rcilrain
the overgrown power and wealth of tlie patricians, by propo-
ling a law, which fliould rellrict every Roman cuizen to the
pofleffion of 500 acres, and oblige liim to furrendcr the
overplus, in order to be divided among the poorer citizens.
His motion, though enforced by the influence of his col-
league in the tribunefln'p, L. Sestius, wa; over-ruled ; and
new commotions occafioned by the approach cf tlie GauN,
having engaged the public attention, the bufmel.; of the
agrarian law was deferred for nine years ; and about the end
of that time it was again revived, and the law was eftabliilied :
this was called the Licinian law ; and the mover of it was
foon afterwards condemned bv his own law. Having been
found to po.Tcfs more than 1 000 acres, 500 of them were
dillributed among the poor citizens, and he was compelled
to pay the tine, which he had annexed to the violation of
the law. In conlequence of this abulc, the law itfelf was
abolifhed. In procefs of time, however, the great and rich
pofTeffcd themfel'-es of almoft all the lands that belonged
originally to the ilate, either by purchafe, or by paying a
greater quit-rent, or by violence. Several regulations iiad
been propoled for rcllraining thefe ufurpations. At length
other meafures having been found ineffeftual, (A. U. C.
620. Ante. Chrill. l^^.) Tiberius Gracchus, urged by his
mother Cornelia, propofed the revival of the Licinian law ;
and tliat the rich Ihould quit the lands which they held con-
trary to the laws, after having received from the pubhc the
value of them ; and that the citizens, whofe circumilances
required relief, fhoiJd take poffellion of them. Many ob-
jeftions were urged againil this mild and humane regulation,
as Plutarch calls it : and the profecution of it brought
the commonwealth to the brink of deftruction, and coft the
two illuilrious brothers, the Gracchi, their hves. Their
efforts were of little avail, as the laws they laboured to in-
troduce v»'ere gradually abolifhed after their death. Cicero,
in fpeaking of the partition of lands and the remittance of
debts, fays (Offic. 1. 2. n. 78.) "that to undertake to dif-
charge debtors by the authority of the magiftrate, or to
pafs the law fo often propofed for the diltribution of lands,
is to fap the two principal foundations of the common-
wealth ; of which the one is peace between the citizens,
•which could not fubfiil, if creditors were to lofe their fortunes
by the difcharging of debtors ; and the other juftice, which
is entirely fubverted, from the inflant no one can afTure him-
felf of continuing peaceable pofFefTor of his right." The
agrarian law of the tribune Saturninus, which was canied
with violence A. U. C. 652. was of verj' fhort duration;
and that of Rullus in the year 689, which was more
exorbitant than any other, and gave up to a fmall number
cf citizens, under the pretext of relieving the poor, almoft
all the revenues of the commonwealth, afforded Cicero an
admirable opportunity of difplaying his eloquence in ex-
pofing it, and inducing the people to refill it. The
exordium of his oration on this occalion has been much ad-
mired. Cic. II. in RuU. The agrarian law of Ciefar was
prefeiited to the Senate in the beginning of his confullliip,
A. U. 693 ; and he urged in its favour, that a diftri-
bution of lands among the poor citizens was altogether
ufeful, were neceffary to deliver the city from a mul-
titude of people with which it was overburdened, and
often gave rife to feditions ; to repeople and cultivate feveral
parts of Italy, which were abandoned ; to recompenfe the
ivldiers wba had ferved the commonwealth, and to give

fubfiftence to many citizens who wanted it. He propofed
the execution of it in the mildeft and moil moderate manner ;
and that 20 commiflloners (liould prelide at the dillribution
of the lands, excepting himlelf out of the number. Not-
withllanding thefe fpccious pleas, Cato inveighed loudly
againil the projedl of Caslar, alledging that he did not fo
much apprehend the diviiion of the lands, as the wages
that would be required of the people by thofe who fought
to inveigle them by this prefent. Cato was imprifoned
for his oppoiition ; and when another fenator was afked
by Cai-far why he departed before the Senate broke up, he
replied, " becaufe I had rather be with Cato in a prifon,
than with you in the Senate." Caefar appealed to the
people ; and having engaged the concurrence of Pompey
and CraiTus, the reliilance of Bibulus, Ccefar's colleague in
the confullhip, and the vehement oppofition of Cato were
ineffedlual. The law was authorifed by the fuffrages of the
people. Cicero acquiefced in this meafure, by obferving *
kind of neutrahty ; and argues to this purpofe : " Let us
remain neuter, as if buried in a hoide in the country.
Csefar hopes that I will fecond him and invites me to it.
See the advantages I fhall gain by taking this party ; the
friendlhip of Pompey, and even that of Caefar, if I dcfired
it; a reconciliation with my enemies ; the peace of the mul-
titude ; and the affurance of quiet in my old age : but
after the conduft I have maintained in my confulfhip, and
the principles which I have maintained in my writings,
ought not my rule to be this maxim of Homer (II. M. 243).
the bell of all counfels is to defend one's country ? "
Cicero ad Attic, ii. 3. In perfuading Cato to give up his
refinance to this meafure, he conjures him to confider, •' that
if Cato has no need of Rome, Rome has need of Cato."
Cic. pro Sext. p. 6l.

Several have pleaded for the neceflity of agrarian laws
among us. WiUiam Spriggc, or, as iome fay, Fr. Of-
borne, has written exprefsly on this fubjedt. See alfo the
Supplement to Dr. Price's Obfervations on Reveriionary
Payments, &c. p. 381.

But the author who feems to have entered moft deeply
into the nature and ufe of agrarian laws, is Harrington ; he
(hews that the balance of property in a ilate cannot be fixed
but by laws, and the laws whereby fuch a proviiion is made
are agrarian laws. Now thefe are necelTary to the liability
of government, becaufe governments will, according to the
diverfe balance of property, be of diverfe or contrary na-
tures, that is, monarchical or popular. Thus monarchy re-
quires of the ilandard of property, that it be vail or great ;
and of agrarian laws, that they hinder recefs or diminution,
at leail in fo much as is thereby entailed upon honour.
But popular government requires, that the ilandard be mo-
derate, and that its agrarian laws prevent accumulation.

This author thinks, that in a territory not exceeding
England in revenue, if the balance be in more hands than
300, it is declining from monarchy ; and if it be in fewer
than 5000 hands, it is fwerving from a commonwealth.

The fame writer defines an equal agrarian, a perpetual
law, eilablifhing and preferving the balance of dominion
by fuch a dillribution that no one man, or number of
men, within the compafs of the few, or arillocracy, can
come to overpower the whole people by their poiTefiions in
lands.

He alfo obferves, that the people of Rome, by ftriving
for an agrarian, ilrove to iiave their liberty ; and that com-
monwealth, through want of fuch a law, or the non-ob-
fervance of it, came to ruin.

In the Grecian cities, the defeft of an agrarian was fup-
plied by ofiraci/m.

* In

A G R

A G R

In Venice, the council of ton, and the officevs of pomp,
reftrain tiiolc who luiglit he too powerful ; and thcfc two
orders in a common wialtli, where the genci") liavc but fmall
eflates in land, are as much as needs be in lieu of an agrarian.

Some German republics iiave no more to fiipply the place
of this law ihan that eilates defcending are divided among
the childien. — And tlie fame law would ellabhih an agrarian
in England.

Agrarian laws *iay be framed different ways, as by en-
tailing the lands upon certain families, without power of
alienation in any cafe, as in Ifracl and Laceda;mon : or,
except with leave of the magiftrate, as in Spain. But
tJiis, by uiaking iome families too fecure, as thofe in pof-
feffion, and others too defj: airing, as thofe not in poffeflion,
niay render the whole people Icfs induftrious.

Therefore Harrington prefers a law regulating eftatcs, fo
that no man (hall have above two tlioufand pounds a year in
land ; and that the eltates of thofe who exceed tiiis propor-
tion (hall be divided in defcending to their children, till the
greateil (liare do not exceed 2000/. fsr annum. This is the
rule he lays down for his commonwealth of Oceana, by
which he means his fchemc for the government of England.

By this law, Harrington intended that the property of
land in England fliould never fall into fewer hands than
5000 ; as he computes the rents of this country to be ten
millions. But if thefe rents, as is probable, amount now to
twenty millions, it would follow that, by our author's ru'.e,
the land could never be in lefs than 10,000 hands, which,
according to his fyfteni, mull effectually fecure the liberties
of the people.

It would exceed the limits of our defign, to enter into
the full detail of all the reafonings of this ingenious author
on the lubjefl of agrarian laws ; we therefore refer to his
works: Toland's Edition, 4to. 1771. See alfo Govern-
ment, Property, &c.

AGRARIUM. See Agistment.

AGREDA, in Geography, a town of Spain, in Old Caf-
tile, at the foot of Mount Cayo, where the ancient Grac-
churls ftood ; three leagues louth-weft from Tarazona.
N. lat. 41° 53'. W. long. 2°.

Agreda, is alfo the name of a town in the kingdom of
Popayan, in South America j forty miles north from
Quito.

Agreda, Mary of, in Biography, a deluded fanatic, or
a bold impoftor, was born at Agreda, in Spain, in 1602,
took the veil in 1620, in a convent founded by her father
and mother, was elefted fuperior in 1627, and died in 1665.
In 1637, (he began to write the hfe of the Holy Virgin, in
confequence, as fhe pretended, of orders received from God
and the Virgin ; and when it was finiflied, (he annexed to it
an attellation, that its contents had been communicated to
her by divine revelation. This fanciful work was trandated.
by Father Crozet, and formally condemned by the doftors
of the Sorbonne. The tranflation, in three volumes, ^.to.
was publillied at Bruffels, in 17 17. Gen. Dift.

AGREEMENT, Agreamentum, in /.ntw, a joining,
or putting together, of two or more minds in any thing
done or to be done.

Of this there may be three forts. — The firft, an agree-
ment executed at the beginning, mentioned in the ftatute
of 25 Edw. III. cap. 3. which fays, " That the goods
" bought by foreftallers, being thereof attainted, (hall be
•' forfeited to the king ; if the buyer thereof have made
<' gree with the feller :" where the word gree other wife call-
ed agreement executed, figmlies payment for the things, or
fatisfadion.

The fecond is an agritment after an alt, that is, where one
does an i\&, and another agrees and adents thereto after-
wards.— The third is an agrcemerl executory, which is, when
hotli parties at one time are agrea/ ihM fueh a thing (li;>ll be
done in time to come. It is called executory, becaufe the
thing is to be done afterwards.

Agiecmenls are to be in writing, by (lat. 2y Car. II.
cap. 7,. u{ frtiiu/s i\i\d perjuries.

AGRESSES, or UcRtssEs, m I/cni/Jry, the fame as
pellets.

AGRESTA, m the ATater'm Meil'ua, an unripe grape ;
otherwife called omhax, and uva aerrla, by the Trench verjus.

Agrellx are held cooling, deterdvc, and afti-ingeut; they
temper the acrimony of the bile, and chear the heart. Eaten
plentifully, they have been found to dellroy worms. The
term is fomctimes alfo applied to the juices of this fruit,
uiore properly called omphaclum.

AGRESTi, Livio, da Furli, was a painter of liif-
tory, who died in 1580. He was a difclple of Pitrino del
Vaga, and is commended by Vafari, for the riehnefs of his
invention, the goodnefs of his colouring, and the €orretl-
nefs of his delign. Pilkiiigton.

AGREVE, in Geography, a fmall town of France, in
Vivarais, at the foot of the mountains.

AGRI, in /indent Geography, a people placed by Pto-
lemy, in ILuropean Sarmatia.

AGRIA, a name given to holly ; and alfo to a malig-
nant pullule, of which there are two forts. The one is
fmall, with a roughnefs, rednefs, and (light corro(ion of the
fkin ; it is of a round figure, its centre is fmooth, and it
fpreads (lowly. It is cured by rubbing it with falling fpittlc.
The other fort ulcerates with a violent rednefs and
corrofion, fo as to make the hair fall off; it is of an unequal
form, and turns leprous. It is cured by poultices of pel-
LITORY of the uiuil.

Agria, or Eger, in Geography. See Erlace.

AGRIAMPELOS, formed of aypio,-, luilil; and af/rAo;,
a vine; the tuiU vine; and, according to Gerard, the

black BRIONY.

AGRI ANA, in /Indent Geography, a town of Cap.
padocia.

AGRIANES, a fmall river of Thrace, which rofe north
of Heraclea, and difcharged itfclf into the Hebrus. This
was alfo the name of a people near mount Pagius, in Thrace.

AGRIANIA. SeeAcRioNiA.

AGRICOIjA, Cn;eus Julius, in Biography, an illuf-
trious Roman, was born on the 13th of June, in the fecond
confuKhip of Caius Ca;far, A. D. 38. Tacitus dates his
birth, in the third confuKhip of Caius ; but as he died in
his 56th year, by the fame hiftorian's account, he mull have
been born fooner. He was a defcendant of the colony of
Forojulii or Frejus, in Provence, the place of his nativity ;
and his grandfathers, on both fides, were of the cqueftrian
rank. His father, Julius Grxcinus, was of the order of
fenators, and diftinguiflitd by his wifdom and eloquence.
His charaftcr is mentioned with refpuft by .Seneca, (de
Benef. lib. ii.) and he is cited as a writer by Pliny, torn. i.
p. 710. Vid. Index Auftorum, torn. i. p.6 1. Ed. Hard. Ca»
ligula widied him to accufe Silanus ; and becaufe he refufed,
caufed him to be put to death. Agricola being thus de-
prived, at an early age, of the inftruttion v.'hich his father
was fo capable of giving him, the care of his education,
devolved upon Julia Procilla, his mother. By her 1;: was
removed, when a child, to Marfeillcs, which was thca
deemed the Athen<; cf Gaul ; where the politenefs' e\f
Greece was happily blended with the provincial. fimplicr.v

A n R

A G R

of manners. Here he manlfollcd the vigour of his niinJ,
by an alTiduous application to tlif ihuiy of philofophy ; but
his mother, conceiving this kind of fcience to be inconlif.
tent with the adivc life to which he was dellined, mode-
rated the ardour with which he puilucd it. The fcene of
tiie firll military ferviee in which he engaged was Britain ;
and the Genei-al, to whofe immediate care he was entrulkd,
was Suetonius Paulinus, who was then employed in the
arduous bufmefs of recovering the provinces that had revolted
from their fubjedion to tlie Roman power. His conduti
fecured the eileem and patronage of tliis diilinguifhed com-
mander; and the office of tribune of a legion, to which he
was appointed, afforded him an opportunity of gaining that
knowledge of his profcllion, and that acquaintance with
the countiy, which laid the foundation of iiis future cele-
brity. On his return to Rome, in purfuit of the honours
that belonged to his rank, he married Domitla Decidiana, a
lady eminently dilUngHidied by her virtues, as well as by
her noble birth ; and this domeflic conneftion was a fource
of uninterrupted felicity. Having difcharged the office of
quiellor, in the rich province of Afia, under Salvius
Titianus, brother to Otho, who was afterwards emperor,
with a probity which no temptation could corrupt, he fpent
feveral years in tliat Hate of inaftivity, which was moil
fccure and moft eligible under a prince fo fufpicious and
cruel as Nero. In the mean while, he performed the duties
of praetor and tribune of the people, with a degree of pru-
dence, wliieh led him to avoid both the extremes of parli-
mony and prodigality.

On the acccflion of Galba, Agricola was charged with a
commiffion to take an account of the property belonging to
the temples, which Nero had purloined ; and in the execu-
tion of this bufmefs he recovered what was attainable, and
prevented farther depredations. In the commotions that
lucceeded the death of Galba, he feems to have taken no
part. At this time (A,D. 69), he was much diftreffed by
the news of his mother's deatli, who had been miudered at
Intemelii, in Liguria, by the troops belonging to the em-
peror Otho's fleet, and whofe eilates they had plundered.
Whilil he was preparing to pay the laft tribute of refpeft to
an honoured parent, and to redrefs the injury which his
patrimony had fuftained, he received information that Vef-
pafian had affumed the empire, and immediately deter-
mined to attach himfelf to his caufe. From Liguria, he
probably haftened to Rome ; and he was appointed, by Mu-
cianus, to the command of the 20th legion in Britain, which
had manifelled fome figns of difaffeftion and mutiny. Having,
by his wife and moderate condutt, fecured the obedience of
the legion, he continued for fome time in the country, under
the government, firft of Veftius Bolanus, and afterwards of
Petilius Ceriali,;. Under the fomier governor, who was
meek and peaceable, he iupprefled his martial ardour, and
renounced what was fpecious for that which was really ufe-
ful ; and under the latter, who was aftive and enterprifing,
he was prompt in executing the orders he received, and yet
modeft in relating his fucceffcs ; fo that he thus acquired
fame without envy. When he returned to Rome, Vefpa-
fian created him a patrician, and invefted him with the
government of Aquitania, in Gaul, which then compre-
hended the whole countr)' between the river Loire, and the
Pyrencean mountains. Here he perfoi-med the duties of a
civil governor for three years, in a manner which commanded
univerfal efteem. He was recalled by Vefpalian, A. D. 77,
and made conful with Domitian. During the year of his
confuKhip, he contrafted his daughter to Tacitus, the hif-
torian, who has furnifhed the memoirs of his life ; and at

the expiration of his office, he was admitted into tlie
college of pontiffs, and appointed governor of Britain,
whitlicr he repaiied, in order to compoie the tumults of thi?
dvllraded province. Julius Frontinus, his predccclTor, was
a man of abilities, and had conquered the warlike nation of
the iSilures.

On the arrival of Agricola, he found the Ordovices, or
inliabitants of North Wales, in a Hate of infurreftion. At
a late feafon of the year, and in oppoiition to the timi^
counfel of fome of his principal officers, he marched againll.
them, by a fignal defeat almoll e.-itirpated the natiiin, and
then reduced Mona, or the i(le of Anglcfey. His next
obje.'it was to corretl thofe abufes which had occafioned lIic
liollilities of the Britons, and to concihate their attachment
by equitable and humane meafures. He alfo foftened their
manners by inducing them to cultivate the arts of peace, by
providmg for the liberal education of the fons of their
chieftains, and by promoting the ufc of the Roman habit
and language. In return for their liberty, of which tliey
were deprived, he endeavoured to eftabliih amongft themi
tranquillity. Luxuiy, fays Tacitus, foon followed ; and
the Britons called thofe qualities politenefs and good breed-
ing, which were, in faft, the Ihackle and badge of their
fervitude.

Agricola, having fecured the fouthern part of the
ifland, prepared, in the third year of his government, to
extend his arms northwards ; and having fpread the ravages-
of war as far as tlie Frith of Tay, he proceeded to fecure
his conquefts by a chain of fortrefles, in the arrangement of
which his mihtary ikill was eminently dilplayed. This
chain extended from the Clyde to the Frith of Forth ; and
he thus leparated the conquered part of the ifland from the
fierce and unfubdued tribes of the north. His lift hi cam-
paign was devoted to the conqueft and Security of thofe
parts of Scotland which lie over againil Ireland, to which
idand he directed his views, and which, after his return, to
Rom.e, he avowed his purpofe of iubduing and retaining.
The operations of the lixth campaign were principally di..
refted againft thofe who inhabit the eaftern parts beyond the
Frith of Forth ; and in thefe, the army was accompanied
by the fleet, which explored the inlets and harbours, and
enclofed the natives on all fides. Agricola was the firll
Roman general that ever employed a fleet againil the Bri-
tons, who had always looked upon the fea as their laft re-
fource, if ever they fliould be conquered by land. That
refource was now taken from them ; and they no longer
knew what- defence to make againil an enemy, who was
mafter of both elements. However, the Caledonians affem-
bled in great numbers, and made a fierce attack on one of
the Roman camps ; but after a temporary fuceefs, they
were repulfed with great lofs. But they determined to pei--
fevere, and thought of nothing but renewing the war.
Accordingly, they clofed this campaign with arming their
youth, providing places of fafety for their wives and chil-
dren, and forming alliances for their future iuccour. For
the feventh campaign, Agricola, as well as the Caledonians,
made great preparation. The Grampian hills were the
fcene of a decifive engagement. Here the natives, forming
an army of more than 30,000 men, under the command of
Galgacus, made their lland ; and here alfo Agricola, having'
difpofed his troops in the moft advantageous pofition, waited
the defcent of the enemy from the hills.

Each General addrefled his array previoufly to the battle,
and their fpeeches, which are recorded by Tacitus, wei«
re-echoed with fhouts of applaufe. For a long time the
vidloiy was difputed, but at lall the Romans prevailed, and

witU

A G R

with a fmall comparative lofs of 340 men, killca I0,COO of
the Caledonians, and difpcrfed the refl. Agricola, after
reeeiving hnUages from fome of the tribes, withdrew his
army ilowly within the Roman hmits, and ordered the com-
mander of his fleet to circumnavigate the idand. WliiUl
Agrieola was extending his eonquelh in a dillant province,
Domitian fiicceeded to the einpire, and became jealous of
his reputation and power. He ordered, however, the in-
fij^nia of triumph to be decreed him by the fenate, together
with a ftatuc, and all the honour which a private man could
receive under the emperors, in lieu of the triumph itfelf, to
which no one but the prince was now entitled. At the
iame time the emperor recalled Agricola, and under a pre-
tence of favour, propagated a rumour that he intended to
appoint him to the government of Syria. Agricola peace-
ably furrendered the province to his fucceflbr ; and when
lie arrived at Rome, he entered tlie palace by night, in
order to avoid tumult, and to prevent any occalion of of-
fence to the jealous Domitian, where he was received by
the emperor -with a cold falutation, and then fuffered to
mingle with the crowd of courtiers, and afterwards to retire,
unnoticed and unrtcompenfed, into private life. His popu-
larity was dangerous to him in this tyrannical reign ; but
his prudence and moderation enabled him to efcape luiiu-
jured. In this private manner did he pafs nine years of his
life. At length the year arrived in which the proconful-
fiiips of Alia and Africa were to be drawn by lots ; and one
■or other of them muft, in due courfe, have fallen to him.
The emperor, dreading the union of fuch influence as this
ftation would give, with his extraordinary talents and repu-
tation, contrived by his emifTariea to induce him to requeH
being exculed from the oflice, and to plead as an apologv,
his love of retirement and eafe. l"he artifice fuccceded,
and the emperor ailed his part in granting the requell of
Agricola, with his ufual haughtinels and arrogance : nor
did Domitian give him the prefent which was ufually be-
llowed on thefe occafions. Soon after this event, Agricola
was feized with the diforder which terminated in his death.
Common rumour attributed it to polfon ; and the ofTieiouG
inquiries of Domitian, during its progrefs, increafed the
fiiipiclon, though it was probably unfounded. He died,
•vvhcn Collega and Prifcus were coululs, Auguft 23, A. D.
93, in the 56th year of his age, leaving a widow and one
daughter, who was the wife of Tacitus. He loll a fon, at
a very early iige, while he was in Britain. His death was
iiniverfally lamented. The portrait which Tacitus has
drawn of his father-in-law, with his pen, excels (fays Cre-
vier) all that the pencil of the greatell painters, or chiz.zel
of the ablell feulptors, could have atchieved to perpetuate
the memory of Agricola. He was unwilling to let poflerity
be ignorant even of his form and perfon : he tells us, that
he was well made, though not tali ; that his countenance
was rather mild than Hern ; that candour and probity were
pidlured in his face ; that none could fee him without loving
him ; and that all were delighted to find the j,ta7/ and the
'roiitji man united in him. He was not ambitious of pof-
lefliiig a large fortune ; but he enjoyed fuch an one as was
luflicient for a noble and generous mind. He had tailed all
the fatisfadlions which refult from theconfcioufnefs of having
ucled fuitably to the obligations of his fuperior flations ;
and he had been veiled with all the ornaments and titles,
which, however mifplaced in others, were in him the re-
wards of real merit. He might be fly led an happy man,
as Tacitus obferves, fmcc he efcaped the miferies in which
the Roman empire was foon after involved ; and died while
his wife and daughter were living, in the pofleflion of his
dignity, in the height of his fame, and witli all his relations
and friends fafe and profperous. His death was pathetically
Voi. 1.

A G R

lamented by Taeitii'!, in aa elegant apoftrophc to .A.gricoU
hlmftlf, of whicli no Iranllatio!'. can do jultice to the eiiei-gy
and concilcnels of the original. " What aggravates ni ne
and your daughter's forrow," fays Tacitus, " befidcs the
lofs of you, is, that we had not the opportunity of fitting by
you in your ficknef^, fnpporting you in your faintings, and
enjoying the fatisfatlion of your lall looks and embraces.
Then we Ihould have received from you thofe commands and
counfels, which would have been perpetually fixed on our
mcmoiy. This is a great caufc of our regret : you were
loll to us by four years' abfence from us. It is certain that
you, bell of fathers, wanted nothing fuitablc to your cha-
rafter and eircumftances, fmce your tender wife was prefent
with you ; but you Ihould have been lamented with other
tears befides her's ; and in your lall moments your eyes were
bereaved of the light of fome whs were veiy dear to you.
If there be any refidencc for the manes of the virtuous; if,
ns philofophers think, the fouls of the great are not extin-
gullhed with their bodies ; may you rcll in peace, and 'recall
us vour family from too weak and womanlfli lamentations for
vour death, to the contemplation of your virtues, which it
is very unreafonable to regret. I^et us rath.er honour you
with a jull admiration. This is the true honour, and the
bell iullance of piety, whicli we your nearell relations can
fhew you. This is what I.diall reprefciit to your daughter
and your wife, that the former would revere the memory of
her father, and the latter that of her hufband, by revolving
all his aftions and words in their minds, and refletl more
upon the charaiJter and idea of his foul than thofe of his
body. Not that I would, in the lead, oppofe creeling to
you images of marble or brafs ; but as the bodies of men
are perilhlng and mortal, fo likewife are their llatues ; but
the form of the mind is eternal, and can never be preferved
or expreffed by any foreign materials or art, but only by
the real character and behaviour of the perfon who imitates
it. Whatever we loved and admired in Agricola Hill re-
mains, and will for ever remain in the minds of men, and in
tlie eveiialliiig fame that attends noble aftions. Many of
the ancients will be funk in oblivion, without the lealt re-
main of fame or reputation ; but Agricola will be tranf-
mlttcd to pollerlty, and furyive in immortal honour."
Taclti Vita Agric. apud Op. torn. ii. p. 465. Ed. Erneili.
Crevier's Rom. Emp. vul.vi. p. 346-^-388. Gen. Dift.

Agricola, Christopher Ludwio, a landfcape and,
portrait painter, was born at Ratiflion, in 1667, and died
there in 1 7 19. He engraved £ landfcape, in which is reprc-
fented the fable of Diana and Acliron. Strutt-

Agricola, George, was born at Glauchen, in Mifnia,
(Mellfen) in Upper Saxony, the 24th March, 1494, and re-
ceived the principal part of his education in Italy, where he
applied himfelf diligently to his iludles, particularly to the
lludy of medicine. Returning to Germany, he fettled at
Joaehamfled, in Mifnia, and praftifed phyfic there, with
confiderable reputation and fuecefs. He then removed to
Chemnitz, that he might be near the rich mines in Saxony,
the feene of his future greatnefs ; as from the perfeft ac-
quaintance he there acquired of the nature of metals, pro-
ceeded thofe rich flores of knowledge which are fcattered in
profufion over his numerous works on mineralogy. He is
laid to have told the Dukes of Saxony, that their fubterrane-
ous treafure far exceeded in value all they poIfefTed on the
furfacc of the earth. He was veiy little, however, affilleJ
by their bounty, furnilhing nearly the whole of the ex-
pences of his labours and liis experiments from his own
fortune. The treatifes he wrote on tlie fubjeifls of metals
and mineralogy, are compofed in an elegant Latin ilyle :
they abound in curious infonuation, and were, for a lonpj
time, conlidered ae-ilandard works. He maintained hiK
3 H attachment

A G R

attar'nmcnt to the old religion, though lie lived among
Lutherans. He died at Chemnitz, November 21, 1555,
and was buried at Zeitz ; the bigotry of his townfmen not
allovriiig him a grave ->.mong them. G. Fabricins, his in-
timate friend, compofcd the following epigram on his
works ;

«« Viderat Agricolir, Plircbo monllninte, hbellos,

Jupiter, et t:tles cdidit ore fonos.

Ex ipfo hie tcrnc tiiefauros eruet orco,

Et fratris pandct tertia legna mci.

His works on mines, pnbliflied originally in parts, were
coUefted and printed together, at Balil, i J46, in folio.
They are chiefly compreU'ended under the following titles :
" De ortu et cauiis fubtcnaneorum ;" " De Nature eorum
qux efflunnt ex terra ;" " De Natura Follilium ;" De Medi-
catis Fontibus ;" " De Subterrantis Animantibus ;" and
" De vcteribus tt novis Metallis." His great work, " De re
Metalliea," was printed at tlie fame place, 1 56 1 , aUo in folio ;
" De Mcnfuris et Poiideribus, Romanorum et Gra:conim,"
with additions referring to modern times, 1 550, folio;
" De I'elte Llbri tres," Bafil, 1554, 8vo; "Opus de
Foffilihus, cum Annotationibus Georgii F;-.bricii," 1657.
He alfo v.rotc other treatifis on political and theological
fubjefts.

Agricola, John, a Saxon divine, was born at Eiile-
ben, in Germany, April 20th, 1492. Mofheim defciibes
him as an eminent doAor of the Lutheran church, though
chargeable with vanity, prefumption, and artifice. He was
miniller, and principal of a college in his own countiy ;
;md attended the eleftor of Saxony to the diet of Spire, in
1526; and to that of Auglburgh, in 1530. Urged by
ambition, he quitted his own countiy in 1536, and went to
Wittemberg, where he fettled as a profelTor and miniiler.
Although he wrote againft Melanithon, in 1527, he was
not much noticed before the year 1538, when he took oc-
cafion, from the doftrine of Luther, concerning the
ground of man's acceptance and falvation, to declaim
againft the Ltw ; maintaining, that it w.is neither fit to be
propofed to the people as a rule of manners, nor to be
ufed in the churcli as a means of inftruftion ; and that the
gofpel alone was to be inculcated and explained, both in the
churches and in the fchools of learning : and he thus be-
came the founder of the feft of Antinomians. Luther,
who had been before his friend, attacked him with great
feverity ; and his accufations were fupported by the divines
of Wittemberg. At length, by the interpolition of the
tleftors of Saxony and of Brandenburg, Agricola was in-
duced to publifh a recantation of his errors, and to retratl
the injurious reproaches which he had cafl upon Luther.
Mofneim fays, this recantation does not feem to have been
fincere ; as he returned to his errors, when his fears were
difpeUed by the death of Luther, and gained profelytes to
his extravagant doftrine. Agricola was employed by
Charles V., in 154S, in conjuntlion with other perfons,
and liberally revcarded, in compofing the Interim. It is
faid, that he wanted to reftore the ufe of holy oil in the
cafe of the fick ; and that he attributed a fupernatural effi-
cacy 13 it. Some have faid, that he was a Papill ; and
Others charge him with being a man of pkafure, and with
maintaining all religions to be in themfelves really indifferent.
When he left Saxony, he was patronized at the court of
Bnindenburg, by the eleftor Joachim II. whofe favour he
emoyed till his death, which happened at Berhn, in 1566.
His " Exphcation of German Proverbs," and his " Com-
mentaries upon St. Luke," are the principal of his works,
Gen. Dift. Molh. Eccl. Hift.vol. iv. p. 321, &c.

Agricola, Mar.tin, a theoretic and praitical mufician,

A G R

who was chanter of Magdeburg, and (louilfhed about the
middle of the i6th century. -He died, June loth, 1556.
His works are two trtatiles on mufic, written in German
verfe, and pnblilhed at ^\'ittembcrg, in 152^ and 1529; the
latter of which, i':'~.. " Mufica Inllrumcntalis," was rc-
publifhed, with large additions, in IJ45 ; and contains an
explanation of the fundamentals of nuilie, together with a
dclcription of the indruments ufed in his time, and the me-
tliod of playing upon them ; and an account of the divifion
of the monochord, and of a temperature for the organ and
harpfichord ; a tract " on Figurate Mulic," and a brief
treatife " De Proportionibns :" a tieatife, iutitled, " Scho-
lia in Muficam planam Wecenflai Philomutis ex variis Muli-
corum fcriptis por Magdeb. Scliola colleftis :" a larger
work, intitled, " Melodiae Scholafticic fub horaiiim inter-
vallis decantandx," publiflied at Magdeburg in 1682 ; and a
polthumous W(n-k, intitled " Duo Libri Mulices continentes
compendium Artis, et illuftria Excmpla, &:c." publilhed in
1561. His feveral treatifes were deiigned for the inltruftioi*
of beginners in the iludy of mufic. Hawkins's Hill. Mulic.
vol. iii. p. 83.

Agricola, Michaei,, a Lutheran minifter at Abo, in
Finland, was the firtl who tianllated the New Tellament
into the language of the country, and thus contributed to
the propagation of Lutheranifni. It was printed in 1548.
He died in 1556. Gen. Did.

Agricola, Rodolphus, was born in the village of
Bafflon, near Groningen, in Friefland, in the year 1442;
and diftinguifhed by his love and purfuit of literature.
Having tinilhed his education at Louvain, where he main-
tained an exemplary charafter for fobriety and application,
he declined the profelfor's chair, which was offered him,
and vilited France and Italy for farther improvement. At
Ferrara, he ihidied Greek, and availed himfelf of the lec-
tures of philofophy that were read by Theodore Gaza; and
at tlie fame time taught Latin, which he was able to write
with fo much purity and elegance as to rival Guarini, in
profe ; and the Strozzas, celebrated writers at that period,
in verfe. After a rehdence of two years in Ferrara, he
returned to the Netherlands, about the year 1477 ; and, at
Daveiiter, had an interview with Erafmus, whofe future
celebrity, though he was then a boy of ten years old, he
had the fagacity to predict. His love of independence^
and his folicitude for ftcuring leifure to indulge his literary
talle, induced him to forego feveral offices of honour and
profit, which he might have obtained by the favour of the
emperor Maximihan I. At length, in 14S2, he fettled in
the Palatinate, reliding fom.etimes at Heidelberg, and fome-
times at Worms, and delivering occafional leftures in polite
literature. The Eleftor Palatine was his auditor ; and in
compliance with his requeft, Agricola compofed, " An
Abridgment of Ancient Hiftory." He vras alfo much
refpedled by John d'Alburgh, bifhop of Worms, whom he
had inftrufted in the Greek language. About the 40th
year of his age he direfted his thoughts to the ftudy of'
divinity ; and by the affiflance of a Jew, made confiderable
progrefs in the Hebrew language ; but death put a flop
to his literary purfuits, at Heidelberg, in 1485. Although
his natural temper, which was chara (fieri fed by a fondnefs
for eafe and leifure, was altogether inconliilent with the
aftive exertions of a reformer, he feems, however, to have
deplored the darknefs of the cburch, and to have had fome
ghmpfe of the light which illuminated it in the next cen-
tuiy. The indolence of his difpofition prevented his enter-
ing into the married flate, though he profeffed an attach-
ment to the female fex ; and took pleafure in amufing
them with elegant verfes, and with mufieal performances,
both vocal and jnftrumental, in which he excelled. To

Agricola

A G R

Agiicola belongs the praifc of having refloreJ the Greek
learning to Germany, and of Inving contributed, in an
eminent degree, to the revival of literature and clalTieal
taile, in an age wliich required his exertions, and when
they were highly ufeful. Erafmus, in his Ada^ies, calls
him " a man truly divine." Bayle fays, that Italy, which
at that lime treated every thing as barbarous that was on
this fide the Alps, produced no genius comparable to what
I'riclla.-.d could boaR of in her Agrieola." A learned
Veneiian, in an epitaph, ranks Agrieola with the moll cele-
brated names of Greece and Rome. His works, of which
tlic principal is his treatife intitled, " De Inventione Dia-
leftica," were coUccled by Alard, in two volumes, 410,
and printed at Louvr.in, in 15 16 ; and by Occo, at Cologne,
in I J39. Gcii. Diol.

AGRICULTURE, tlie fcience which explains the art
or means of cultivating and improving the earth or foil, fo as
to render it fertile and produftive. The term feenis to be
formed from the Latin words a^er,fic'lil, and cultura, ciikure,
or tHAigi-, from co/etr to //'//.

The art of agriculture, in this view, coir.prchends the
nature of climale iwd Jli/, the metliods of pci forming the
different operations that are requilite in the cultivation
and improvement of arable and grafs lands, as inclofnig,
the making ot fences, as hiil^es, rlilchcs, wal/s, railings,
pailings, gates, ilrainiiig, paring, and burning, ivaliring,
■zvarping, fallowing, ploughing, manuring, Juiinng, harronv-
ing, •rvfci/ing, hoeing ; the growing and prelerving of dii-
ierent forts of crops, as wheat, rye, barley, oals, beans, peas,
potatoes, turnips, carrots, rabbages, hops, hemp, flax, luoad, mad-
der, &c. ; and the railing of various kinds of feeds, as lape,
mujlard, &c. ; rotation of crops, reaping, moti'ing, jlachmg,
thrajliing ; the management of artificial and natural grades,
;is clover, lucern, faintfoin, tares, 'vetches, &c. ; the converting
of arable lands to grafs, n::adoivs, pajlures, hay-mahing ; the
cultivating and prelerving of fruits, as apples, pears, cherries,
&c ; and tlie preparation of fruit liquors, as cyder, perry,
&c. ; orchards ; the planting of timber-trees, ivoodi, coppices,
plantations, &c. ; the inventing of implements, as ploughs,
harroivs, rollers, hues, drills, ivaggcns, car's, mills, lilns, &c. ;
the conftruftion of farm-buildings, as koufes, offices, Jtjeds,
cottages; the nature of _//i;-w.', tithes, L-afcs, &c.

In a more extenfive fenfe it alfo includes the breeding,
rearing, feeding, and genera! management of all forts of
live ilock, as cattle, hoifs,jliecp, lambs, hogs, rabbits, poultry,
pigeons, bees, <Scc. ; the eondufting of the various procefles
and preparations which liave a relation to the different produfts
obtained from them, as mill:, butler, cheefe, or wlrat are gene-
rally termed co'w-heeping and dairying ; and lallly, as con-
netted with political economy, the conllrufiion of roads and
canals, the forming of entlankments, and the nature of lueights
and meafires. Full accounts and explanations of thcfe will
be given in the courfe of this work, under their refpettive heads.

Gardening may likcwife be confidcred as an impiroi'ed
branch of agriculture.

Among the Ancients the bufinefs of hufbandn' was fre-
quently Uiiderltood by the term Georgica,

This uieful and impoitant art, though lefs fplendid than
many others, appears to have attracted the notice of man-
kind in the earheil peiiods of the world ; and this is not
indeed very extraordinary, when it is confidered that theex-
illence and profperity of them at fuch periods muft almoll
have folely depended upon it. In the carlieil ftage of fo-
ciety, men, as hunters, muft have foimd, from experience,
that the mode of procuring fubfiilencc by t!ie bow or the
chafe was attended with infinite toil as well as hazard, and
precarious in the event ; and therefore, not by any means

A G R

calculated to fupply the wants or increafe the comforts of
focial life. In the palloral Hate alfo, which may be re-
garded as the fecond llep in the advancement of fociety,
men mull foon have difcovred, that though more certain of
fubfiilencc, and lefs expofed to danger and hardffiips, their
herds and ilocks were liable to innumerable accidents, and
tliat tliey might at once be reduced to all the nuferics of
famine. — Under fuch circumflances and apprchenfions, it
was therefore natural for them to think of fome means by
which they miglit, with more certainty, procure the lie-
ceffaries of life. For this purpofe they would naturally tuin
their attention towards the earth, and difcovrr that from it
might be drawn whatever could render life comfortable.
Experience would likewife quickly inform them, that, by
due cultivation of the foil, fruits, and grain of various kinds,
fit for nouriflimtnt, might be prccured in abundr.nce ; but
that, by neglecting this art, the natural fertility of the foil,
the warmth of the fim, and the regular revolutions of the
feafons, would be in a great meafurc unavailing.

What nray be termsd the art of hudxindry having com-
menced in this way, it is cafy to perceive that it mull have
been extremely fimple in thefe early ages, and its advances
towards perfection liow and almoll imperceptible. By moft
of the eallern nations agriculture feems to have been parti-
cularly attended to and encouraged from the inofl. early
periods. That the Japanefe were extremely intercfled in its
promotion is evinced by the great care taken in collefting and
preftrving all forts of man>u-es ; and among the Chincle it has
eonllanlly received the dillinguiihed regard and protection of
their princes and nobility, and been confidered as the mod ho-
nourable and important of all emjiloyments. The ufe of
the drill, which has but lately been introduced and adopted
in European countries, is faid to have been long known and
employed by them.

The Chaldeans are foimd to have caniedthis valuable art
to a confiderable degree of advancement ; as they cultivated
their lands with great affiduity, and enjoyed the pleafnig
fatisfaftion of receiving from their fields plentiful harvefts.
The Egyptians alfo, who, from the fertility of their country,
caufed by the annual overflowings of the Nile, raifed pro-
digious quantities of corn, were fo fenfible of the blef-
fings refulting from agriculture, that they afcribed the in-
vention of it to Ofiris, and even canned tlieir fuperftitious
gratitude fo far, as to worlliip thofe animals that laboured
in tilling the ground. The Phoenicians were alfo famous for
their (Ivill in agriculture ; but finding themfelves too much
confined in theit native country, by the conquells of neigh-
bouring nations, they fpread themfelves through the greater
part of the iflands of the Mediterranean, and carried with
them their knowledge in hufbandry. The Carthaginians
following the talle of their anceilors, are faid to have applied
themfelves affiduoully to the iludy of agriculture. Mago,
their famous general, wrote no lels than tuenty-eight books
on that fubject, which Columella tells us were tran dated into
Latin by an exprefs decree of the Roman fenate ; and Ser-
vius adds, that Virgil ufed thele books as a model when lie
wrote his Georgics. The art of lowing corn, and the tillage
of land, were probably invented in Sicily ; as that ifland was
ver\- fruitful in corn, and agriculture was there eftcemed io
honourable an employment, that even their kings did not
difdain to practife it with tljeir own hands. The Athenians,
who were the firll people that received ar.y tinfture of politc-
nefs, taught the ufe of corn to the rell of theGrceks; they alfo
taught them the manner of cultivating the ground, and pre-
paring it for i'eed. The Greeks I'oou perceived that bread
was more wholefome, and its talle more delicate than acorns,
and accordingly thanked the gods for lucli an unc.xpefted
3 H 2 and

A G R

and beneficial prefcnt. After tliis, the Athenian kings
thinking it moi-c glorious to govern a fmall ihitc wifely, than
to aggrandize thcmfelves by foreign conquifts, withdrew
their fubjefts fram war, and employed them f. lely in culti-
Tating the cartli. Tiiis conllant application carried agri-
culture to a confiderable degree of advancement, and reduced
it into a more pcrfecl art.

Hefiod, who is generally thought to have been contem-
poraiy with Homer, was the firll among the Greeks who
wrote on this fubjed. He called his poem " Weeks and
Days," becaufe agriculture requires an exacl obfervancc of
times and feafons. The other eminent Greek writers upon
agriculture arc Democrltus of Abdera, Socraticus, Xeno-
pTion, Tarentinus, Architas, Arillotle, and Theophraftus,
from whom the art received confiderable improvements, as
alfo from Hieron, Epichamius, Philometer, and Attalus.

The ancient Romans efteemed agriculture fuch an honour-
able employment, that, in the earlieil; times of the republic,
the hlghcfl; pralfe that could be given to a man, was to fay
of him, that he cultivated well his own fpot of ground.
The moft illuftrious fcnators applied themfelves to this pro-
feflion ; nor had they either fplendour or majetty, but when
they appeared in public. And their greateft generals, at
their return from the toils of war, from taking of cities, and
fubduing of nations, were impatient till they were again em-
ployed in cultivating their lands ; and thought it no difgrace
to follow the plough, though they were at the fame time
prepared to ferve the wants of the republic, attend her
councils, or put themfelves at the head of her armies. It
mull indeed be allowed, that when the Romans became
tainted with the luxui-y of Afia, they gradually loft the
noble fimplicity of their anceftors, and employed their flaves
in the feverer labours of a country life. But though they
did not themfelves hold the plough, yet even men of con-
fidar dignity looked upon it as a reward for their public
fenMCes, when they obtained leave to retire into the country;
and were equally refpefted when overlooking their farms, as
when fcatcd in the chair of magiftracy. M. Cato, the
cenfor, that illuftrious Roman general, orator, politician,
and lawyer, after having governed provinces, and fubdued
nation?, did not think it below his ftation to write a large
treatife on agricidture.

This work, according to Servlus, was dedicated to his
own fon, and was the firft Latin treatife on that fubjeft. It
has been handed down to us, it is faid, in all its purity, and
in the fame manner that Cato wrote it. Van-o compofed a
treatife on the fame fubjedl, but on a more regular plan.
This work is embelliftied with all the Greek and Latin eru-
dition of that learned author. Agriculture alfo received
great improvements from ihq two Safernaes, and likewife
from Scorfa, Tremellius, and M. Terentius. Virgil has
adorned it with the language of the mufes, and given it
majefty by his verfe. He has finely embelliftied thofe pre-
cepts of huftjandry which were left by Hefiod and Mago.

Columella, who fiouriftied in the reign of the emperor
Claudius, wrote twelve books on huftjandry, which contain
a variety of interefting fafts and obfervations. He was a
native of Eoetica, in Spain, and had devoted much time to
the ftudy of rural affairs.

From this period till the reign of Conftantine IV. huf-
bandiy appears to have been in a declining ftate, when that
wife emperor caufed a large collcftion of the moft ufeful
precepts relating to the ar't to be extrafted from the beft
writers, and pubiiftied under the title of Geoponics. Some
fay he made this coUecflion with his own hajid. Nor is this
at all improbable, as it is well known that, after he had con-
quered the Saracens and Arabians, be not only prai^ifed,

A G R

but ftudied the arts of peace, fixing his chief attention on
the advancement of agriculture.

But from the time of Conftantine IV. till about the year
1478, it lay in a kind of dormant and neglcfted ftate, when
Creiccnzio, an Italian, revived it by publifliing an excellent
performance on the fubjeft at Florence. He was foon fol-
lowed by fevcral of his countrymen, among vihom Tatti,
St'-.fano, Auguftino Gallo, Sanlovino, Lauro and Tarcllo,
dcferve to be particularly noticed.

In the mean time, in our own country, Fltz Herbert,
judge of the Common Picas, ftione with unrivalled luftre in
the praftieal parts of huibandry. He publifhed two trcatifes
on this fubjedt ; the firft, which was entitled " The Book
of FIuft)andiy," appeared in 15.1+ ; and the fecond, called,
" The Book of Surveying and Improvements,'" in 1539.
As the obfervations and inftruftions contained in thefe works
were the refult of much experience, they excited great at-
tention to the fubjeft, and foon raifed a fpirit of emulation
in his countrymen, in confcquence of which many treatifes
of the fame kind fucctfiively appeared ; but time has de-
prived us of many of thefe writings, or at leaft they are
become fo very fcarce, as only to be found in the libraries
of the curious.

About the year 1600, France made confiderable efforts to
retrieve hufliandry, as appears from feveral large works, par-
ticularly Les Moyens de devenir riche, and the Cofmopolite,
by Barnard de PalidV, an indigent porter ; Le Theatre
d'Agriculture, by de Serres ; I/Agriculture et Mafion Ruf-
tique, by Meft'rs. Etienne and Licbault, and lately Le Cours
Complet d'Agriculture, by M. L'Abbe Rofier, Sec. — The
Flemings, about the fame period, were more attentive to the
praftice of huftiandry than the publiftiing of books on the
iubiecl ; their attention being doubtlefs to cany on a private
lucrative trade, without inftrucling their neighbours in their
modes of cidtivation ; hence it happened, that whoever was
defirous of copying their method of agriculture, was obhged
to travel into their countiy, and make his remarks upon the
fpot. Their principal idea of huft>andiy, which was indeed
juft enough, confifted in making a farm refemble a garden
as much as pofiible. The adoption of fuch an excellent
principle at firft fetting out, led them of courfe to undertake
the culture of fmall eftates only, which they kept perfcftly
free from weeds, by continually hoeing and turning the
ground, and rendering it rich and pi-oduttive, by manuring
it plentifully and in the moft judicious manner. When by
this means they had brought the foil to a proper degree o£
cleanlinefs, health and vigour, they ventured chiefly upon the
culture of the more delicate gralfes, as the fureft mode of
acquiring wealth in huftiandry upon a fmall eftate, witliout
the expence of keeping many- draught horfes or fervants ;
and the experience of a few years was abui^dantly fufficient
to convince them, that ten acres of the beft vegetables for
feeding cattle, properly cultivated, would maintain a larger
ftock of grazing animals than forty acres of common fann
grafs. They alfo found that the beft vegetables for this
purpofe were lucern, faintfoin, trefoil of molt denominations,
fweet fenugreek, buck, and cow-wheat, field turnips and
fpurrey. The political fecret of their huft)andry, therefore,
confifted in letting farms on improvement. They alfo dif-
covered eight or ten new forte of manure. They were the
firft among the moderns who ploughed in living or green
crops, for the purpofe of fertilifing the earth, and confined
their flieep at night in large ftieds built on purpofe, whofe
fioors were covered with fand or virgin earth, &c. which the
ftiepherd carted away every morning to the compoft dunghill.
This ufeful and judicious praftice has, fince that period, been
too little attended to by the praftical farmer^

Our

A G R

Our fatal dotneftic wars, during the reign of Cliarlcs I.
changed the inllruments of luifbaiidrv into martiiil weapons ;
but after the death of tliat unfortunate monarch, artful and
avaricious men crept into the confifcatedellatcsof the nobihty,
gentry, and clergy ; and as many of thefe new encroaclicrs had
rifcn from the plough, fo tliey returned with i)lcafure to their
oldprofelTion, being chiefly animated byaloveof gain. Plattes,
Hartlib, BIythe, and others, fei/.cd this favourable dif[)o-
fuion of the common people, and encouraged it by writings,
which have fmco had few to equal them ; nor was Cromwell
wanting in lending his affillance in this important bufinefs.
Sir Hugh Piatt was one of the moil ingenious hufhandmen
ot the age in which he lived ; and fo great was his modi'lly,
that all his works, except his Paradife of Flora, feem to be
pollhumous. He held a correfpoudence with all the lovers
and promoters of agriculture and gardening in England ;
and fuch was the jullice and honetly of his tejnper, that he
always named the autlior of every difcoveiy that was com-
municated to him. Perhaps no man, in any period in the
hiilory of the art, difcovcred, or at leaft brought into ufe,
fo many new forts of manure, as his account of the compoft
and covered dunghill, and his obfervations on the fertilifing
qualities, contained in fait, ftreet dirt, and the fuUage of
ftreets in great cities, clav, fuUer's-earth, moorifli earth,
dunghills made in layers, fern, hair, burned vegetables,
malt-duit, willow-trec earth, foap boiler's alhes, marie, and
broken pilchards, fufficiently demonftrate.

Gabriel Plattes may likewile be elteemed an original ge-
nius in promoting the improvement of agriculture. He
began his valuable obfervations in the time of queen Eliza-
beth, and continued them through the reigns of James I.
Charles I. and during the tird three or four years of the
commonwealth. But notwlthftanding the great merit dif-
played in his writings, the public iliamefully fuffered him to
ftarve and perifh in the ftreets of London, not having a ftiirt
xr^ion his back when he died.

Samuel Hartlib, a celebrated writer on hufbandry, was
highly beloved and eileemcd by Milton, and otlier ingenious
men of that tinae. In his preface to a work commonly
called his Legacy, firft pubHdied in the year 1 650, he
laments that no public director of hufbandry was eftabliflied
in England by authority ; and that we had not adopted the
Flemiih method of letting farms upon improvement. Thefe
obfervations of Hartlib procured him a penfion of one hun-
dred pounds a year from Cromwell, who was a great favourer
of agricultural improvements, and the writer afterwards, the
better to fulfil tlie intentions of his benefaftor, procured
Dr. Beati's excellent annotations on the Legacy, with feveral
other valuable pieces trom his numerous correfpondents. The
period in which this author flouriftied appears to have been
an xra when Englilh hufbandiy rofe to great perfeftion ;
for the preceding wars had made the country gentry poor,
and, in confequence, more induftrious. They found the
cultivation of their own lauds to be the moft. profitable poll
they could occupy. But a few years afterwards, when the
Reltorationtookplace, all this induiliyandknowledge became
ufelefs, from the new fyftem that was afted upon, and were
exchanged for heedleffncfs and dilfipation ; from which huf-
bandiy paifedalmoll entirely into the handsof common farmers.
But the famous work ufually attributed to Hartlib, and called
the Legaey, was only drawn up at his requell ; and, after
pafiing through his correftion and revifion, publiflied by him.
The real author of the treatifc, which confifts of one ge-
neral anfwer to the following queilion : " AVhat are the
aftual defefts and omiftions, as alfo the pofTible improve-
ments, in EngHih hufbandiy I" was a pcrfon of the name of
R. Child, who feems to have been acquainted with many

A G R

ingenious improvers of agriculture at that period. Several
other pieces fucceeded the publication of the Legacy,
which greatly improved and augmented the means of culti-
vation.

Grew, by the publication of the Anatomy of Plants, and
fhewing, in ionie meal'ure, the economy of the vegetable
fyftem, contributed to enlarge the viev.s and extend the en-
quiries concerning the nature of vegetation and the food of
plants. But a principal writer who infpired his countrymen,
with a delire of reviving the iludy of agriculture after the
Reftoration, was Evelyn ; who being followed by Ducket,
Ray, Dugdale, and feveral other authors, the art of culti-
vation was greatly recovered, and foine new improvements
introduced ; and the cftablifliment of the Royal Society
which took place a few years afterwards, contributed ftill
more fully to the advancement of it, by ferving as a focus
for colkftlng and recording valuable materials on the nature
of vegetation and the principles of agriculture, as well as
other lubjects. About the year i 706, many additions and
improvements were made in this ufeful art. — Mortimer, by
his explanations of various praftical modes of management ;
Bradley, by reducing the facfls on vegetation into a more
fyftematic ordr.- ; Hales, by his valuable ftatical experiments
and invelUgations ; and Miller, by the publication of hia
dic'tionary, and other works, contributed vciy materially.
But agriculture is probably ftill more indebted to the ex-
ertions of TuU, notwlthllanding the evident futility of many
of his politlons, as by ftiewing the utility and importance of
drilling, and freqv^nt hoeing or tlirring the ground about
the roots of plants, and thereby keeping them clean and free
from weeds, farmers have been induced to adopt more clean
and fure methods of cultivating their arable lands. The
introduction of this fyftem of management, therefore, in
fome degree, forms an a»ra in the hiilory of Englifh huf-
bandry.

In Ireland about the middle of the laft centur)', the
art of huftiandry began to make confiderable progrefs ; that
country having had very llrong prejudices in behalf of a very
wretched method of agriculture, until about that period,
when BIythe opened the eyes of the people by his incom-
parable writings ; fince which a fpirit of improvement has,
more or lefs, been promoted and carried on with zeal and
conftancy by the nobility, clergv, and gentry of the king-
dom. In proof of which it may be fuflielent to obfene,
that a fociety for the encouragement of agriculture has been
eftabliftied, the tranfaftions of which arc higldy refpectable
and important. In many refpefts, however, Iiilh huf»
bandry is ftill much behind that of Britain.

At the conclufion of the peace of Aix-la-ChapclIe, almofl
all the nations of Europe, by a fort of tacit confent, applied
themfelves to the Rudy of agriculture ; and continued to do
fo, more or lefs, amldft the univerfal confulion that fooir
fucceeded. The French found, by repeated experience,
that they could never maintain a long war, or procure a
tolerable peace, unlefs tiiey raifed corn enough to fuppoil
themfelves in fuch a manner as that they fhould not be ob-
liged to fubmit to harfh terms on one hand, or perifli bv
famine on the other. Their king, therefore, thought proper
to give public encouragement to agriculture, and was even
prefent at the making of feveral experiments. The rich and
great, of various ranks and ilations, followed this noble
example, and the ladies even put in for their ftiare of fame
in the laudable undertaking. Even during the hurrv and
dillrelTes of the laft war, fome attention was paid to agri-
culture. Prize queftlons were then propofed anmiallv in
rural academies, particularly at the two academies of Lyons
and BourdeauXi and many alterations were made by the

5 ficieiv

A G R

focioly for improving agriculture in Brittany; and after tlie
conclulion of peace, matters were carried on with greater
vigour.

The univerfity of Afniens has made various propofals to
tlie public for tiie advancement of hufliandiy ; while the
Marquis de Tourbillvi a writer, proceeding chiefly on ex-
perience, undertook the principal direifliou oi the Georgical
Society, cllabhflied at Tours, and the loeiety of Iloucn was
alfo ufefuUy employed on the fame fubject.

It may be added, that many focieties were afterwards
eflabliflicd by royal approbation, for the promoting of agri-
Culture, and rendering tlie knowledge of it more general,
and extended.

Tlie coiivulfive (hoc'-: of the Revolution, which has over-
turned many ufeful eflablifliments, and retarded the advance-
ment of many improvements, has net by any means pre-
vented the progrefs of agriculture, as is evinced by the ap-
pearance of numerous papers on the fubjett in the tranf-
adions of different focicties. Indeed, it would feem pro-
bable, that from the crippled ftate of commerce in that
country, unufual atte;ition has been paid to the art of cul-
tivation.

The feiencc of agriculture is publicly taught in the Swe-
dilh, Danidi, and German univeriities. Nor has Italy been
inactive. Tiie Neapolitans of the prefent age have cou-
defeended to return back to the lirft rudiments of revived
huihandrv, and begun to iludy afreih the agriculture of
Crefcen/io, lirll pubiillu-d in the year 1478. The people
of Bergamo have purfued the lame track, and given the
world a new edition of the Ricardo d'Agiicultura di Ta-
rello, which was originally publifhed at Mantua, in 1577.

Tlie duchy of Tufeany has imbibed the fame fpirit. A
private gentleman left his whole fortune to endow an academy
of agriculture. Even Ferrara, a fmall territory in the papal
dominions, has contributed its jull contingent, and made
fome laudable attempts in this art. Animated with a defire
that the people under his government (Iwuld excel in huf-
bandry, Iiis Sardinian Majefty fent fubjefts to learn the
practice of foreign countries, and made feveral attempts to
cftablifli a better method of agriculture among his fubjefts.
In Poland, where a natural fertihty of foil feems in fome mea-
fure to dlfpenfe with the neceflity of calling in improvements,
M. de Bieleufki, formerly grand marllial of the crown, made
many fuccefsful attempts to introduce the new or drill
hu(bandry~among his countrymen, and procured the bell
inftruments from France, England, and other parts of
Europe.

The Hollanders feem to have given the lead attention to
agriculture, if we except a few collateral inttances, fueh as
the draining of fens and morafTes, and the making of canals
and embankments ; and even thcfe have probably proceeded
more from the motives of felf-prefervation, than any par-
ticular turn towards hufbandry.

In tlie year 1759, a fociety eftabliflied itftlf at Berne, in
Switzerland, for tlie advancement of agriculture and rural
economy. That fociety confilled of many ingenious private
perfons, and alio of fome of great weight and influence in the
republic ; moft of them men of a true call for the improve-
ment of hufbandry, being enabled to join the prailice with
the theory. They have publifhed feveral ufeful papers on
different matters connected with the fubjedl. We mull not
omit to mention here, that Linnaeus and his difciples per-
formed much in the north of Europe, particularly in dif-
covcring new, profitable, and well tailed food for cattle. At
the fame time Sweden has bellowed fuccefsful labours on a
foil, which was before looked upon as cold, barren, and in-
capable of mehoration ; of this the memoirs pubhihed at

A G R

Stockholm will be a lafting monument. Denmark, as well
as many courts in Germany have followed a fimilar example.
His Danifli Majeily encourages, in particular, the woollen
manufactory ; and the late king fent three perfons into Arabia
Felix, to make remarks, and bring over fich plants and trees
as might be ufeful in hufbandiy, building, &c. Nor has
the duchy of Wirtemberg, a country by no means particu-
larly favourable to corn and paflurage, failed to contribute
its alTillance towards the improvement of agriculture, having
fome time ago communicated to tiie public its eco.'oinical
labours from the prcfs at Stutgard. The learned of L- 'i^fic,
and Hanover, have not been inattentive to the art of lup-
porting human kind ; for amidft the rage and devafiations
of war, the Journal d' Agriculture, printed at Leipfic, and
the Recucils d'Hanovre, printed at that city, have been
brought out.

Even Spain, naturally inadlive on thefe occafions, in fpite
of all the prejudices of a bigoted religion, invited Liiinsus,
with the offer of a large penfion, to iuperintend a college,
founded for the fake of making new inquiries into the hillury
of nature, and the art of agriculture.

But it is proliably in our own eountiy that agriculture has
been moll attended to, and received the greatell improvement;
from his Majeily having long,with a patriotic zeal and perfonal
attention, worthy of the elevated lituation which he holds,
diretted his views to the introduction of new and betterinodes
of cultivation and rural improvement, as well as economy
and convenience in the management of every department of
agricultural bufmefs, connefted with his varied and extenfive
farms, an example and encouragement has not only been held
out, but an attention excited to the art, which could not
poffibly have been produced by any other lefs dillinguifhed
means ; fo that there is rcafon to hope, from the fpirit that
now animates a great number of the nobility and gentry,
that this ufeful art may, in a few years, be carried to a much
greater degree of perfetlion than it has yet reached in any
age or nation. In this view, the refpeftable fociety efta-
bhfhed at London, for the encouragement of arts, have
already done much, and there is reafon to hope, from their
increafed refources, that they may do much more. A vail
variety of different machines for facilitating the praftice of
agriculture have been invented and pivfented to the public,
in confequence of the large premiums and bounties which
have been offered. The inltitution. of focieties m many
different parts of the kingdom for the improvement of agri-
culture, and the endowment of a profefforlhip at Edinburgh
for the fame laudable purpofe, cannot but promote the Itudy,
and enlarge the boundaries of the fcience.

About the year 1767, Mr. Young commenced his valuable
and well dirctled hibours, which, by attrafting the attention
of praftical agriculturills on thofe improved means of cul-
tivation that are made ufe of in parts of the country, very
rem<;te from each other, and ibewing the great utihty of
experimental inquiries on the fubjedl, and by promoting and
diffullng a tal'e for the fcience, from the eafy and popular
language of his writings, have rendered the moll effential
advantages to the agriculture of the nation. Doctor George
Fordyce has likcwife contributed in no fmall degree to the
advancement of the fcience, bv the publication of his Ele-
ments of Agriculture and Vegetation, a work in which the
chemical principles of the various fubilances that enter into
the compofition of foils and manures are well explained.

Mr. Marfliall too, by regiflering the local culloms and
prailices of different dillricls, has afforded conliderable fervice
to the farmer, by bringing him acquainted with a variety of
modes of rural management, which he could not otherwife
have known.

2 The

A G R

A G R

The indefatigable exertions of Dr. A adcrfon in promoting
tlie iinproveiTit.'nt of the more prai^iual hraiiches of the art,
bv his various detached writings, iiave hkewife contributed
much to its advancement ; and Mr. B:ik.e\vell, by drawing
the attention of the breeder and grazier to the moll advan-
tageoirs modes of breeding, rearing, and feeding, as well as
the general management of different kinds of live floek, has
greatly promoted the improvement of tliat intricate, though
important braneli of hiilhandry, which has fmce been
brought Hill nearer perfection by the vail and well direfted
exertions ot his Grace the Duke of Bedford, and other
noblemen, e<jually zealous in forwarding the advancement of
this difficult department of the art.

But neither the dillinguilhed example of the Sovereign,
the endeavours of provincial focictics, nor the exertions of
private individuals, with whatever zeal and attention theymay
be diretled,are probably fufficient to extend the knowledge of
hulbandry to that degree which is necelTary for its complete
and radical improvement. This could only be fully aecom-
plilhed by the powerful influence and expeufive exertions of
a national ellabliflunerit iniUtuted for the piupofe. Such<?n
inftitution has at laft been brought forward and ellabliflied
by the intelligent and perfevering efforts of Sir John Sinclair ;
to the honour of the coimtry, the age, and the individual
who fuggelled it. 1'he inlHtution of a Board of Agricukure
and internal improvement has already contributed materially
to the extenlion and advancement of the knowledge of rural
affairs. The Hate of the art in the greateil: part of the
kingdom has been aicertained, a great variety of new and
interefting fafts and praftices have been brought to view,
and improvements in the iuftrumental and other departments
fuggelled. Among thefe the elucidation of the principles
and praftice of draining or removing the injurious v.'ctnefs
of land, arlfmg from fprlngs and other caufes, as laid down
and explained by Mr. Elkington, is of great importance and
deferving of notice, not only as the bafis or foundation of
many improvements in the art, but as leading to the con-
venient and cafy application of water for irrigation and va-
rious other purpofes. See Board of Agriculture.

In addition to this great (ource of improvement, the fcicnce
of agriculture has lately derived effential advantages from
the judicious application of the principles of other fciences.

In this refpecl the modern dlfcoveries in chemiftry and
vegetation have been particularly important, as is evident
from the works of Tillet and Haffenfratz, on the Continent,
and of Prieilley, Anderfon, Kirwan, Dnndonald, Darwin,
and many others in our own country. By thefe our know-
ledge of the principles of vegetation, and the epcrations of
different fubllances upon each other, has been much enlarged ;
and our acquaintance with the nature, formatioji, and
modes f>f applying manures, or the food of plants, rendered
more c'' ir and fatisfaftory.

AGRiF.LvEA, in £ola7iy, the •zwVrt' olive.

AGRIFOLIUM, or Aquifoluim, in Botany^. See
Ilex and Holly.

AGRIGi^ I ' or ifle of St. Francis Xavier, in Geography,
one of the Li-' rones or Marianne iflands, which is moun-
tainous ai d lar. e, being about yo mihs in circumference,
and remarkable for its volcano. N. lat. 19° 4'. E. long,
146".

AGRIGENTUM, or AgrAgas, i-i yinc'unt Geography,
a very famous city on the fouth coaft of Sicily, near the fpot
which is now occupied by Girgenti. The principal part
of the ancient city, as Mr. Swinburne and M. Houelle
inform us, lay in the vale ; and the prefent town of Gir-
geuii is fituated en the mountain, where was the citadel of
Cocalus, and probably the ancient city. Agrigentum de-

riv<;d its name from Acragas, the original name of the city,
and alfo of a neighbouring dream, both which according to
Polybius, were fo called from the country, denominated
axja»;>i, acrat^e, on account of its fertility. Some authors,
afcending to fabulous antiquity, relate, that l)a;dalus fled to
this fpot for protcttion againfi Minos, and built many won-
derful edifices for Cocalus, king of the illand. Polybius
(lib. ix. p. j6o. Ed. Cafaub.) fays, that it was founded by
a colony of Rhodians ; that it was fit\iated on a rock ; and
guai dcd by a fortrels to which there ^yas only one way of
accels ; and that in the citadel there was a temple of Mi-
nerva, and alfo of Jupiter Atabyrius, who was worfliipped
under this appellation, in the ifle of Rhodes. Tliucydides
(Hill. lib. iv. p. 3S0, and Annal. p. 23. Ed. Dukeri) in-
forms us, that Acragas was founded by a colony from Gcla,
under the command of Arilh)nous and Pyllihis, in the 50th
olympiad, or 579 years before Chrill. It Hood between
the rivers Agragas and Hypfa, the foi-mer of which is now
called Flume di Gergenti, and Flume di San Biaggio, and
the latter Flume Drago. The fituationof Agrigentum was
admirably adapted to the purpofes of defence, commerce,
and pleafure. It was guarded by a barrier of I'ocks, which
were (Irongly fortified ; (lieltered by pleafant hills ; and en-
joyed the view of a fpacious plain, watered by the Acragas,
and a convenient port or emporium at the mouth of the river.
Its free government and commercial fplrlt raifed it to a degree
of wealth and power, exceeded only by thofe of Syrucufc.
Its buildings of every kind were in a i'mgular degree mag-
nificent and fplendid. Befidestheter.iples already mentioned,
that of Jupiter Olympius deferves particular notice. Ac-
cording to the account of Diodorus Siculus (lib. xiii. torn,
i. p. 607. Ed. Weffcling,) it was 340 feet long, 60 broad,
and 120 feet high. This hillorian extols the beauty of
the columns, which fupported the building, the admirable
ftrufture of the porticoes, and the exquifite talle with which
the bas-reliefs and paintings were executed ; but he adds, that
the {lately edifice was never finiflied. On the eallern lide
was exhibited the battle of the Giants, and on the well the
capture of Troy, with the figures of the heroes in their ap-
propriate habits. Cicero, againfi Verres, fpeaks of the
magnificence of the flatues which he carried away. Mr.
Swinburne informs us, (Travels, vol. iv. p. 24.) that it has
not now remaining one Hone upon another ; ai:d that it is
barely poffible, with the liberal aid of conjefturc, to difcover
the traces of its plan and dimcnfions. He adds, that the
cathedral of Rome exceeds this celebrated Agrigentine
temple more than doubly in every dinienfion ; being 2 15 feet
higher, 334 longer, and 4^3 wider. The other ruins which
this writer furveyed, and which he has curforlly deleribed, are
thofe of the temple dedicated to Ceres and Proferpine, the
peculiar patroncftes of Sicily, the temple of Juno, the doric
temple of Concord, which has all its columns, entablature,
pediments, and walls entire, with part of the roof wanting,
and which is now converted into a church, cimfecrattd
to St. Gregory, bifhop of Girgenti; the temple of Hercules,
the tomb of Thero, the temple of Efculapius, and the
temple of Caflor and Pollux. Near this is a large lake or
fifh pond, defcribtdby Diodorus at feven lladia in circuit and
20 cubits deep. It was cut in the folid rock, and water was
conveyed to it from the hills ; a great quantity of fifli was
bred in it for the public entertainments ; fwans and other
wild fowl fwam along its fnrface for the aniufement of the
eitizens, and the depth of water prevented an enemy from
furprifing the town on that fide. It is now dry, and ufedas
a garden.

The inhabitants of Agrigentum, with all their advan-
tages, were corrupted and cnfetbkd by their additlednefs to

luxury

A G R.

luxiir)- ,inU plciifiiro ; and fell a facrit'icc to the powsr of
their ciu'inics. Empcdoclcs attempted their relormation ;
and, as Diogenes Laertius informs us (1. 8. fegm. 63. toni. i.
p. 532. Ed. Meibom.), reproached them with devoting
themfelves every day to plealiire, as if they were to die on
the morrow, and with building their hoiifes, as if they
were to live for ever. They are commended, however, for
their hofpitality, for which they were no lefs diilinguiflied
than for their magnificence and luxury. Gellias, a rich
citizen, placed porters at his gate, to invite ftrangers to
take their repaft and reft in his houfe ; and he is laid to
have once entertained 500 horfemen with meat, drink, and
clothes. Phalaris, whofe name is familiar to moil readers,
on account of his cruelty, and the brazen bull in which he
tortured liis enemies, ufurped the fovcrcignty of Agri-
gentum, in the fecond year of the 52d olympiad, B.C. 57] ;
but having pon'eficd it for about 16 years, he ftarcd the
common fate of tyrants, and is faid by fome, to have been
put to death in his own bull. After his death, the Agri-
gcntines enjoyed their liberty about 50 years ; at the end
<jf which period, Thero adumcd the fovereign authority.
Under his government, whicii was jull and moderate, Agri-
gcntiun was tranquil and fecure ; and in confequence of his
union with his fon-in-law, Gelo, king of -Syracufe, in a
war againll the Carthaginians, Sicily was, for a time, deli-
vered from her African opprefTors. He was fucceeded by
Lis fon, Thralidaeus, who was deprived of the royal autho-
rity ; and Agrigentum was rellored to her old democratical
government. Its tranquillity was interrupted by Ducetius,
a chief of the mountaineer defcendants ot the Siculi ; but
rellored by the co-operation of the Syracufans. The union
of the Agrlgentines and Syracufans did not long continue ;
and the former, after an unfuccefsfiil conteft, were obliged
to fubmk to humiliating terms of peace. The enemies
with whom they next had to contend were the Cartha-
ginians ; who routed their armies, took their city, and
alnioll extirpated their race. The fituation of Agrigentum,
on that coall of Sicily which faced Africa, and its prodi-
gious wealth, induced Hannibal to open his campaign with
the fiegc of this city ; and the event was peculiarly dif-
trefEug to the inhabitants. Thofe who were able to remove,
during the progrefs of the fiegc, which lafted S months,
went to Gela ; thofe who were left behind were committed
to the fworj, by the orders of Imilcon ; and the riches of
a city, which had contained 200,000 inhabitants, and which
had never before been plundered, were rifled by the con-
<juerors. The city itfelf was reduced to ruins. This cala-
mitous event happened in the ijld olympiad, or about the
year B. C. 410. Agrigentum remained for 50 years bu-
r.ed under its own ruins, till Timoleon, after vanquilhing
the Carthaginians, and reiloring liberty to Sicily, collefted
the defcendants of the Agrigentines, and fcnt them to re-
eilabhlh the habitations of their ancellors. Such were the
vigour and fuccefs of their exertions, that Agrigentum was
loon in a condition to arrogate fupremacy over all the Sici-
lian republics. At length, they and their leader Xenodi-
cus, after fome favourable operations againll Agathocles,
who was fupported by tlie Carthaginians in his ufurpation
of the fovereignty of Syracufe, were reduced to the necef-
fity of humbly fueing to him for peace. This common-
wealth afterwards took a llrong part with Pyrrhus, king of
Epirus, in his attempt upon Italy ; and when he left Sicily
to the mercy of her enemies, threw itfelf into the arms of
Carthage. During the firll Punic war, Agrigentum was
the head-quarters of the Carthaginians; it was "defended by
2 numerous garrifon, under the command of Hanno ; and,
jtStcr refilling a blockade of feven or eight months, was at

A C R

lall furrendertd to the Conful L>Evinu3, in confequence of
the treachery of iSiutines, about the year beiore Chrilt, 198.
This oflicer being deprived of his commiffion by Hanno,
becaufe he envied and dreaded his increafing reputation, me-
ditated revenge ; and confpiring wi'.h the Numidians, who
were attached to him, againil Hanno, he placed himlelf at
their head, and liaving fcized one of the gates, put the
Romans in poflelFion of it. Hanno, and a few officers,
made their efcape ; but the reft of the army were murdered
by the guards, which Lsevinus had ported in all the avenues
to intercept their flight. The chiefs of the Agrigentines
were, by the conful's order, firft fcourged with rods, and
then beheaded. The common people were made flaves,
and fold to the btil bidder. The Ipoils of the pillaged
city were put up to fale, and the money returned to th."
public treafury. Livy, lib. xxvi. c. xl. tom. iii. p. 1138.
Ed. Drakcnb. Polybius, lib.i. p. 15 — 19. After this pe-
riod, Agrigentum is feldom mentioned in hiftoiy ; nor is it
cafy to afcertain the precife time of the dellrutlion of the
old city, and the building of the new one. See GiR-

GEN'TI.

The Agrigentines had a port to the caft of the mouth
of the fmall river, Agragas ; called Eniporhim ^i^ngenti-
iiorum.

AGRIGINTINE fall, in Natural Hi/lory, a kind of
eatable fait, famous among the ancients for its not crackhng
in the fire as common taltdoes. It might probably owe this
quality to the finenefs of the powder, in form of which it
was generally ufed.

AG R 1 1, in Anrait Geography, a people of Ethiopia, called
by the Greeks Cyiiamolgl.

AGRILIA, a town of Gaul on the i-iver I/iger.

AGRILIUM, a town of Alia Minor, in Bithynia, ta
the fouth-eall of Nicara.

AGRIMONIA, Agrimony, in Bota>t\<, a genus of
the dodecanJiia digyrna clals and order, of the natural order
of Sentirc/iF, and of the Rofacecc of Juffieu. It charaflers
are, tliat t!ie calyx is a one-leafed, iive-cleft, acute, fmall,
fuperior, permanent perianthium, fenced with an outer
calyx ; the corolla has live, flat, emarginate petals, with the
claws narrow, inferted into the calyx ; the ftamina are
capillary iilaments, fliorter than the corolla, inferted into
the calyx ; the anthers fmall, twin and compreflcd ; the pif-
tillum is a germ inferior ; the ftyles llmple, of the length of
the ftamina ; the ftigmas obtufe ; no pericarpium ; the
calyx contrafted at the neck, and hardened ; the feeds are
two and roundifli. N. B. The number of ftamina is very
uncertain, 12, 10, 7. The agrimonia of Tournefort has the
outer calyx growing to the inner; two feeds ; ftamina 12 to
20 ; fruit fenced with briftles. The agrimonoides T. has
the outer calyx detached ; one feed ; ftamina about feven.
Of this genus there are live fpecies ; ik'z. \. A., eupatoria,
common agrimony, with ilem leaves pinnate ; the end-lobe
petiolate ; the fruits hifpid. Of this fpecies there are two
varieties ; A. minor, or white agrimony, and A. odorata, or
fweet-fcented agrimony. 2. A. reperu, creeping agrimony,
with ftem-leave» pinnate or winged ; the end- lobe feflile ;
the fruits hifpid. 3. A. decumbem, with leaves pinnate
hirfiite ; ftem procumbent ; fruits every way hifpid-hooked.
4. A. agrimonoides, three-leaved agrimony, with ttem-leavcs
tcrnate, and fruits fmooth. ^. A., par-vijlora, I mall-flowered
agrimony, with ftem-leaves pinnate, leaflets many and
lanceolate, petals half as long again as the calyx, and fruits
hifpid. The firft fpecies has a c^-lindrical, roughifli, hairy
ftem, from one to three feet high ; hairy leaves, covered
with riling dots, and fegments ending in fmall reddifti glands,
interruptedly pinnate ; compofed of li.-i or feven pairs of

leaflets.

A G R

leaflets, the riiallcft pair being entire, the others deeply
ferrated : tlie fruit ftalks are furrouiidcd at the top with a
fort of outer calyx, wliich is cloven into five fpcar-fhapcd
iiregular fcgments, hairy at the edges and on the outfule ;
within this the fruit-flalk is covered with white upright
brilUes, above vvliich is a circle of numerous green awns
hooked at the end, and within thefc tlie proper calyx of five
leaves, fpear-fliapcd, glandular without, marked within with
three green lines, terminating with a reddi(h point : the
petals are egg-(haped, concave, (lightly notched at the end,
twice as lojig as the cup : the flamina from 5 to ij : the
jjcrmen crowned with the calyx, and a ycllowifli fielliy re-
septacle ; the flowers yellow, in a long thin fpike ; and one
feed is frequently abortive. This grows in the borders of
«orn fields, ihady places and hedges in Great Britain and
moft parts of Europe : it is perennial, and flowers in June and
July. The root in fpring is fwect-fcented ; an infufion of it
is ufed by the Canadians with great fucecfs, in burning fevers ;
and Dr. Hill fays, that an infufior. of fix ounces of the crown
c» the root in a quart of boiling water, fweetened with honey,
and drank, to the quantity of half a pint, three times a
day, is an effeftual cure for the jaundice. He recommends
to begin with a vomit, to keep the bowels foluble, and to
perfift in the ufe of the medicine as long as any fymptoms
ef the difeafe remain. Tiie leaves have a fllghtly bitterifli
roughifh tafte, accompanied with an agreeable, though weak,
aromatic flavour : the flowers have a ftronger and more
agreeable fmell, refembling, when frefh gathered, that of
apricots. They readily give out their virtues to water and
reftified fpirit : and in diftillation with water, the leaves
afford a yello«-i(h eflential oil, with the odour of the herb.
This plant has been principally regarded as a mild aftrin-
gent and corroborant, and many recommend it as a deob-
itruent, efpecially in hepatic and other vifceral obllru£lions.
Inftances occur of its fuccefsful ufe in caies where the liver
was much enlarged and indurated. It has been ufed with
advantage in hemorrhages, and for giving tone to a las
and weak ftate of the iohds. In cutaneous diforders, par-
ticularly the fcabies, it is faid to have great efficacy : for
Avhieh purpofe it was given infufed with liquorice in the
form of tea : but, according to Alllon, it (hould be always
exhibited in the flate of powder. The country people
fometimes apply the leaves by way of cataplafm in contufions
and frcfli wounds. When the plant comes into flower, it
will dye wool of a good bright full nankeen colour ; and if
gathered in September, it yields a darker yellow ; and for
the purpofes of the dyers, it deferves further trial. In the
Berhn acls, it is recommended for drefling leather. Sheep
and goats eat it : Covi's, horfes and fwine refufe it.

The white agrimony is fmalier than the eomm.on fort,
and grows naturally in Italy. The fweet-fcented agrimony
grows near four feet high ; its leaves liave more wings
tiian tlie former ; they are logger and narrower, and have
(harper ferratures ; when handled they emit an agreeable
odour. The infufion of the leaves is an agreeable coohng
tea to perfons in a fever. This is a native of Italy, and was
cultivated here in 1640.

Martyn's Miller's Diifl. Lewis Mat, Med. p. 28. Murray
Mat. Med. vol. iii. p. 148. Withering's Dot, Arr, vol. ii.
p. 443. Woodville's Med. Bot. vol. iv. p. 125. Dr. CuUen
(Mat, Med. vol. ii. p. 31.) after obferving, that agrimony
is now omitted bv the London and Edinburgh colleges,
adds, that it flill has more attention given to it than it de.
ferves, It has fome altringcnt powers ; but then' are very
feeble. Dr. CuUen cxpre/Tes his furprife on finding Dr. Haller
and Fruf. Murray repeating after an autlior of fo little
«;redlt as Chomtl, that he liad cured a fcliirrous liver by
. Vol, T.

A G 11

m^aiia. of agrimort)- ; and it feems equally frivolous in
Spicllmann to tell uj, that Forreflus had by agrimony broke
down a ftone in the bladder, and brougiit it away in pieces
by the urine.

The fecond fpccics is of humble growth ; has longer and
narrower pinnae than the former, and the fpikes of flowen
are very ifiort and tliick. It multiplies fuller than llie com-
mon fort, and the feeds are mucii larger and rougher. It
has been furniflied from the botanic garden at Paris, whither
it was fent by Mr. 'I'ournefort ; and cidtivated heic by Mr.
Miller, in 1739. The third fpecies is a native of the Cape of
Good Hope, and is ulually monogynous. Tuc fourth
fpecies is a native of Italy and Carniola, in moiil woods and
among buflies ; and was cultivated in 1739, by Miller. The
fifth fpecies is a native of Nortli America ; and cultivated
in 1766, by Mr. Jaines Gordon.

Thefc plants are hardy and perennial, and will thrive
almoll in any foil or iiluation, and require no other care
than keeping them cleai from weeds. Tiiey may be propa-
gated, by ])arting their roots .in autumn, and planting
them at a dillance of at leall tvfo feet ; or by feeds fown iit
autumn.

AGRIMONIA Molucca, is a variety of bidens pilofa.

AGRIMONOIDES, in Botany, a fpecies of agri.

MONV.

AGRIMONTE, or Agromonte, in Geography, a
fnall ruined town in the Bafdicata, in the kingdom of Na-
ples. E. long. 22° 34'. N. lat. 40" 25'.

AGRIMONY, u\ Botany. See Agrimonia.

Agrimony, hemp, in Botany. See EuPATORI^;^f.

Agrimony, hajlard-'iiemp. See Ageratum.

Agrimony, water-hemp, in Botany. See BiDEKS.

AGRINAGARA, in yliiciait Geography, a town of
India, on this fide the Ganges ; placed by Ptolemy in long.
118° 15', and lat. 22° 30'.

AGRINIUM, a town placed by Polybius in iluolia.
It was on the left of the river Achelous, and north-eall of
Thermus.

AGRIOCARDAMUM. See Cardamine.

AGRIOCASTANUM, the fame as earth-nut, po-
pularly called pig-nut, and arnot.

AGRIOCINARA, in Botany, a name ufed by fomc
authors for that fpecies of wild artichoak, the root of
which is ufed inllcad of the cofiiis nigra.

AG?aOCOCClUELA,OTprum,s/yheJ!r!s. See Plum-
tree.

AGRIOMEI.,A, a name for the crali apple.

AGRIOMELANZANION, in the BotanicaUrritcrt
of the Ancients, a word that has perplexed many of the
later writers. The Arabian writers, Avicenna and Sera,
pion, ufed the word bedenglan for the iruit of the pomum
amoris, a kind of efculent night-fhadc, or folanum, called
by the old Greek writers, as Theophraflus, Sic, Jlrychnus,
and only diflinguilhed from the other _y?;^'r.'/.'.', or night-
Ihades, bv its being defcrihed as Vtholefome, not poifonous.
From this Ainibic word ^edengian, the Italians fanned their
v.ord mdanzana, and the late Greek writers their melan-
zaiiioH, which they ufed as the jiarae of the fame fruit.
This, when the plant was cultivated in gardens, was pro.
bably larger and fairer than when it grew wild ; but in this
latter Hate was not lefs ufed, but v.-as diflinguiflxd by the
term agriomelaHXanion, If the Gixjeks, who ufe this ^YOlxl,
or the me/anziiiiion, would have «ppropriated tliem to the
pomum amoris, and dilUnguiflied thefe from the other night,
fhadts, they v.-ould have done icrvice to the world.

AGRION lignifies the psucedanum, called alfo agrtQ-
fhylloriy .....

3 I AoRigt},

A G R

AcRiON, jn Entomology, a diviiion of the unogat\
claJs of iiileds in the fyftem of Fabricius, comprehending five
fpccies, and many varieties, whicli arc rct'trred to the genus
of LiBELLULA in the Liiinxan fyftem, by Gmelin. They
we characlerifed by having their wings creft when qui-
tfcent, eves remote, and the exterior lacinix of the hp
1)ifid.

AGRIONIA, Ar.RiANiA or AORASIA, in Jn/iguify,
fealh inllituted at Argos, in lionour of a daughter of
Proitus. Plutarch, in "defcribing this ftaft, fays, that tiie
women fearched here for Bacchus, and not finding him,
they rehnquiihcd tlicir purfuit, faying, that he was gone to
the mufts. 'lacy fuppcd together, and after their repall
jnopofed to one another oenigmas. Tlicfe myfterics figni-
fied, that lei'.rning and tiie mufes ought to accompany good
clicer ; and that a veil is thrown over excefs on inch occa-
fions by tlie mufes. This feaft was celebrated in the
night, and thofe who attended it were decorated with a
n-arland of ground-ivy. It was probably the fame that was
celebrated at Thtbes, in honour of the dead. At Or-
chemenes, no women, who belonged to a family, become
odious on account of any barbarous aftion, were allowed
to attend this feaft.

AGRIOPHAGI, compounded of ayfioj -zi'i/J, and
^a"/ii, I en.', in Antiquily, a name given to thofe who
fed on wild beafts. Pliny places them in Ethiopia.
Ptolemy refers them to India, on this fide the Ganges,
and aferibes the appellation to the people whom he calls

AGRIORIGANUM, in Bolany, wild marjoram.

AGRIOSELINUM, fignifies w/A/ parsley.

AGRIPALMA, a name given to mother-wort.

AGRIPENNE, in Ornithology, a name given by Buffon
to the EMBER iz A oryzivora, of the Linnxan fyftem.

AGRIPO, in Geography, a peninfula, commonly called
Negropont.

AGRIPPA, a name applied, among the ancients, to
children born in an unufual or irregular manner ; paiticu-
larly fuch as come with the feet foremofb, inftead of the
head.

They were called agrippt, according to Pliny, on ac-
count of their being (<rgre parti) born ivith dlfficiilty. Sal-
mafuis derives it from the Greek ayfEu, venart, and "wo<;,
tquus, q. d. a hunter of horfes.

Daventer has a particular chapter of agr'tppas, or infants
coming v;ith their feet foremoft, which, according to him,
is one of the moft convenient and fafe ways for a mature
birth.

Agrippa gives the denomination to an unguent, de-
fcribed in the Antidolar'ium Nicola':, and in feveral other
dilpenfatories, fuppofed, by fome, to have been invented
by Agrippa, king of Judaea, but, as others fufpeft, by
Julius Agrippa, a Roman phyiician.

Agp.ippa, in Biography, an aftrouomer of Bithynia,
lived towards the dole of the firft century. Ptolemy in
his Almageft; informs us, that Agrippa obferved a con-
junftion of the moon with the Pleiades on the 29th of
November, in the fourth yeai' of the 217th olympiad, or
A. D. 92.

Agrippa, Henry Cornelius, a phyiician, philofopher and
divine, of various and great attainments, but of an eccen-
tric difpofition, which expofed him to as great viciflltiides
of fortune, was born at Cologne, September 14th, A. D.
i486, of a noble family, which had been long in the fer-
vice of the houfe of Auilria. In early life, he was fecre-
tary to the emperor Maximilian, and continued his military
Icrvicc in the army for feven years. As a foldicr he dif-

A G R

tingullhed himfelf by his valour, and obtained the honour
of Knighthood : nor was he Id's diftinguiftied by his ap-
plication to literature and fcience. Of eight languages,
which he acquired in his youth, fix were fo familiar to
him, that he could even ufe them fluently in public dif-
courfe. Soon after he forfook the military profelfion, he
obtnitied ihe united academic honours of dodlor in law and
ph) fic. The jihilofoplier's ftone, as it was called, or the
art of tranfmuting bafer metals into gold, engaged his at-
tention ; and in the purfuit of it, he had no doubt of
commanding the admiration of the multitude, and the pa-
tronage of princes. With thefe romantic views he com-
menced his travels; and in 1507, being then in the 2ifl:
year of his age, he vilited Fiance, and in the following
year fpent fome time in Spain. Upon his return to France,
he refided at the college of Dole in Burgundy, and read
public leftures in divinity ; in confequence of which he
was appointed regent with a fakir)-. Notwithilanding his
popularity, as a public Icfturer, the freedom and novelty
of fome things which he advanced alarmed the monks, and
rendered it neceffary for him to fuvrender his office at Dole.
In 15 10 he paffed over from France into England, and
during his ifay in London, publiflicd a treatile on the
epiftles of St. Paul. His next remove was to his native
city, where for fome fliort time he read Icftures in fcho-
laltic theology : he afterwards refumed his military llation
in the emperor's army in Italy ; but he was foon induced
by Cardinal de St. Croix to abandon this connexion, and
to attend as a theologian at the council of Pifa. After
the diffolution of this affembly, he read leflurcs in divinity,
fometimes at Turin, and fometimes at Pavia. But he
was conftrained by the difficulty of procuring decent fub-
fiftence for his wife and fon, to whom he was afleftionately
attached, to leave Pavia, and to try what his friends at
Cologne could do for him. In 1518, their interference
availed in procuring for him the office of fyndic, advocate,
and orator of the city of iVIentz. Here he provoked the
enmity of the monks, partly by maintaining the tlangerous
error, that St. Anne, the mother of the Virgin Maiy, had
only one huft>and, whereas it was the popular opinion that
flie had three ; and partly, by exerting himfelf in the vin-
dication of a poor woman, who had been accufed to the-
inquifition of witchcraft. In 1520, he left Mentz, and
returned to Cologne, where he loit his wife in 1521. Reft-
lefs in his temper, he removed to Geneva ; and here, in 1522,
married a fecond wife, whom he fupparted by the praftice
of phyfic, as long as he continued in this city ; but in
1523, he exercifed his profeffion at Friburg in Switzer-
land, and in 1524, fettled at Lyons, as phyiician to the
mother of Francis I. This lady, apprehending that he
could, by his Aftrological talents, predift future events,
defired to be informed concerning the affairs of France.
Agrippa was difgufted by the application : the princefs,
difpleafed by his refufing to fatisfy her curiofity, difcon-
tinued his penfion, and this circumftance involved him in
new difficulties. His next fettlement was at Antvvei-p,
where his lingular talents attrafted general notice, and pro-
cured for him various offers of diftinguifhed patronage. Iiv
1529, he was honoured with invitations fram Henry VII I.
of England, the chancellor of the emperor, an Italian
maixjuis, and Margaret of Auflria, miftrefs of the Nether-
lands. He accepted the propofal of the latter, and be-
came hiiloriographer to the emperor Charles V. Agrippa's
eccentric genius would not allow him to enjoy at eafc the
honour and emolument to which he was intitled. In 1530,
he publilhed " a Treatife on the vanity of the Sciences,"
which was a fevere fatire on the monks, theologians, preach-
3 crsy'

A G R

CTS, and members of the imiverfitiea : but Erafmus, in
fpcakiiig of this work, fays, " that on every occaiion he
laflios vice and commends virtue ; but there are pcrfons who
can bear nothing but praife." On tliis occufion, the em-
pcior, probably inlligated by Iiis fifter, whom the monks
had prejudiced agalnil Agrippa, withdrew his penCon, and
fuffertd him to be imprifuncd for debt at Brufiels, in 1531.
After the death of Margaret, Agrippa was releafcd from
prifou ; but he pubhilied another treatife at Antwerp,
" on Occult Philofophy," which revived the animofity of
liis enemies. The defign of this work was to explain, on
the principles of the emarative fyilem, the harmony of
the elementary, celeftial, i«id iutellcftual worlds. But the
clergy difcovered or fulpeftcd error and herefy ; and fuc-
ceeded in delaying the publication of a third edition. But
in 1533 it was publiflied at Cologne; and another edition
appeared in 1542, which is the moll complete, and the
moil fcarce. This publication was accompanied with an
" Apology forhimielf to the Senate of Cologne," which
excited violent reientment, and obhgcd him to withdraw
to Bonn; where he is faid to have divorced liis third wife,
■wliom he had roanied after the death of his fecond in
1529, by whom he had live fons. The peculiarity of his
temper, and the uarrownefs of his cireumilances, impelled
him once more to try his fortune in France ; and accordingly
he returned to I^yons in the year 1535. Here his recep-
tion was veiy different fronr what he expefted : lie was im-
prifoned on account of feme fatirical papers which he had
publilhcd againll the mother of Francis I. Having ob-
tained a releafe, he retired to Grenoble in the fame year,
1535, and there he died, either in the hofpital of the city,
©r in the houfe of a friend.

As Agrippa was an adept in chemillr)', and profcfTed to
be an aftrologer, he was reputed to be a magician, and lup-
pofed to be accompanied by a genius, or devil, in the fliape
of a black dog. That he was not polfeffed of the grand
art of alchymy is plain, from the poor circumftances in
which he lived and died. He podeffed wonderful talents
for acquiring the knowledge of languages, and a verfatihty
of genius, which enabled hmi to adiune and exercife a
variety of profeflions. He was a foldier and a philofopher ;
a municipal officer and a leiSlurer ; a lawyer and a phylician ;
an aftrologer and a divine. Nevcrthelefs, he was always
cmbarraffed and diftreffed ; and though one flattering prof-
peft after another prefented itfelf, he could not fo avail
himfelf of them as to procure a permanent competence.
Such was the liberality of his mind, and the extent of liis
knowledge, that he might have been eminently ufeful in
inftruAing and reforming the age in which he lived, if he
had not been fickle and felfilh. Whilil he applauded Ln-
ther, he continued in the communion of the church of
Rome, and obtained the commendation of the pope for his
fidelity. " If he had any decided principles, they were
thofe of that myftical fyftem of philofophy, which finds a
fublime and fpiritual meaning in all the operations of nature,
and leads the foid, (according to iiis own language, in his
Epiftles) to a myfterious intercourfe, and an eifential and
immediate vmion with God. The moll valuable fervice
v.-hieh he performed to fociety was that of chaflifing the
fcillies of ignorance and the vices of pricilcraft, in his fati-
rical writings, which entitle him, in the fcale of letters, to
a place, though of inferior dillin6lion, with Erafmus. In
fine, Agrippa, though an extraordinarv', and on the whole
a fplendid charafter, was rather a dazzling meteor than a
Heady and ufeful himinarj-."

His principal writings, befides thofe we have mentioned,
■an J fcveral other pieces., were, *' A Dillertaliou vn Original

A G R

Sin," defigntd to prove that the fall of our fiHl parents
was the confequcnce of unchaile love : " A Deelanialion
on the excellence of Women," written to gratify Margaret
of Auflria : " A Comnicntai-y on iho Art of Raymond
Lully," which is as unintelligible and ridiculous as the origi-
nal. A mutilated edition of liis works was printed at
Lyons, in Svo, in 1586. They were publifhed in French at
Paris, in 1726. His " Vanity of tlie Sciences" was
printed in 4to, at Antwerp, in 1530, 1532, 1539; and the
fall edition has a head of the author. It was printed at
Paris, in 8vo. in 153 1 ; and has been traudated into Italian
and French. Gen. l)iil.

Aci'ippA, fumamed Castor, flouriflied under the Em-
peror Adrian, about the year 132. Eufebius (Eccl. 1 lift,
lib. iv. c. 7. p. 120. Ed. Valef.) reprefents him as an ex-
cellent writer, who had ably confuted the enors of B.ifili-
des ; but his works are loil, and no confidcrable fragment
of tiiem remains.

Agrippa I., Hero:), was the fon of Ariftobulus, by-
Berenice, the daughter of Herod the Great. He was
brought up at Rome, with Drufus, the fon of Tiberius ;
but having been reduced to penury by his liberality and
piofufion, he was under a neeeflity, upon the death of
Unifus, of retiring to Judsa, where he immured himfelf in
acallleof Idumea, and determined tikllarve himfelf to death.
His wife, Cyprus, the daughter of Phafael, and the grand-
daughter of Herod the Great, diverted his purpofe, by
procuring for him fome prefent relief. He alfo obtained
temporary alfillance from Herod, the hulband of Herodias,
who made him a magiftrate of Tiberias ; but afterwards
upbraiding him at a banquet with his kindnefs, Agrippa
was offended, and withdrew to Flaccus, governor of Syria,
and afterwards to Rome. Here he attached himfflf to
Caius Cxfar ; and having incenfed Tiberius, by fome cx-
preffions that fignified a wi(h for his death, and which were
reported to the emperor, he was thrown into prifon and
loaded with chains. Upon the death of Tiberius, and the
acceffion of Caius Caligula, he was imm.ediately releafed
and diftinguiflied by tokens of favour. The new emperor
arrayed him in purple ; exchanged his iron chain for one of
gold of the fame v\'cight ; put a diadem on his head, con-
ferred on him the title of king, and granted him the tctrar-
chy of his late uncle Phihp, and that of Abyleue, in Syria,
which had formerly belonged to Lyfanias, A.D. 37. After
continuing a year at Rome, he obtained leave to vifit his
new dominions ; and embarking at Puteoli, he failed over to
Alexandria, where his magnificent entr)' provoked the in-
habitants, and expofed him to infult and indignitv. The
condufl of Flaccus, the Roman governor, who rcfnfcd him
the redrefs which he demanded, and who was a violent pcr-
fecutor of the Jews in this city, was reported by Agiippa
to the emperor ; and by him he was ordered to be recalled,
ftripped of his wealth, and baniflicd into an ifland of the
Archipelago, where, at length, he was put to death.
Herod Antipas, who had, on a former occaiion, treated
Agrippa with contempt, beheld his elevation witii jealoufy
and envy ; and accompanied by his wife, Agrippa"s fifler,
he took a journey to Rome, in order to obtain fimiiar ho-
nours ; but Agrippa, in the mean while, aceufed Herod to
the emperor, as having been concerned in the coiifpiracy of
Seianus, and thus procured his difgraec and banilhmer.t
to Lvons, in France. Caius conferred the treafures of
Herod, and alfo the tetrarchy which he had poflelTed
43 years, on Agrippa. A circunillance, however, oc-
curred at this time, A. D. 39, which was a very fevere tell
of Caligula's attachment to Agrippa. The emperor had
ordered his ftatue to be cri.cle<l and worfliipped in the fanc-
•5 1 -' tuary

A GTl

tiiarr of the Jewifh temple at Jcnifajcni. Tlie Jcwe re-
fiilcd the execution of the orLk-r ; and Pctroniiis, tin: go-
vfi or, dclnytil it. Whild the emperor \%-as reading Petro-
iiui>'s letter, in which he cxe-ufcd his deiiy, and requcfted
foither indniftions, Agrippa prcfcnttd iiin\felf as an inter-
celFor in behalf of the Jews ; Imt fo great were his agita-
tion and didicfa, that he fainted away, and was carried oil
to his own palace. As foon as he recovered, he wrote a
pathetic letter to the emperor, preferved in the works of
J'hilo (torn ii. p. 5S6. Ed. Mangey), in which he declares,
that, for his own part, he (liould not out-live the profana-
tion of the facred temple, and that it would undoubtedly
complete the ruin of the Jewilh nation. Cains relented ;
and after fomc further artifices on the part of Agrippa, the
order was countermanded. The attempt, however, was
afterwards renewed ; but the adidlinatlon of the emperor,
A. D. 41, prevented the dreadful confequences which the
execution of it mufl have produced.

Agrippa, who w-as now at Rome, contributed to the
acccllion of Claudius ; and was remunerated by the con-
firmation of all Caligula's grants ; by the addition of Judsea,
Samaria, and the Southern parts of Idumea ; and by feve-
ral edifts in favour of the Jews. He was, likewiie, ho-
iioui-ed with the confular infignia, and indulged with the
privilege of paying his compliments to the emperor in
(rrcek ; a ceremony which was ufually performed in the
Latin language. At hh requell, the kip.gdom of Chalcis,
in .Syria, was beftowed on his brother and fon-in-la'.v, He-
rod. All thefe grants were engraved on copper, and fet up
in the capital : and Agrippa was thus pofl'eiTed of territo-
ries, which extended to the farthefl limits of the dominions
of his grandfather, Hei'od the Great. Agrippa, foon after
the eftablifhm.ent of Claudius, returned to his kingdom,
where he manifefted a ■/■.ealous attachment to the rehgion -of
his country ; and caufcd the golden chain, which Caius had
given him, to be hung up in one of the moll confpicuous
parts cf the temple, as a monument to pofterity of the
initability of human aflairs. He depofed and appointed
feveral high-prieils in a fliort time. His government was
condutled, according to Jofephus, with a great degree of
moderation and clemency ; but Dion Cafllus, (lib. lix.
torn. ii. p. 928. Ed. Reimari) fays, that Agrippa was
reckoned one of Caligula's advifers in his cruel and tyran-
nical meafures. If he had been lefs anxious to pleafe the
Jews, he would not probably have difgraced his reign by
the perfecution of the Chriltians, who feemedto have been
very quiet at Jerulalem ever fince St. Paul's converfion.
The martyrdom of James the Lefs, the brother of John,
and the imprifonment of Peter, are juftly afcribed to him.
But with his zc:d for the Jewifh rites and praftices, he
blended Heathen obiervances, which gave oflFence ; and, in
conformity to the Roman talte, he exhibited fhows of gla-
diators and public games. At Coefarea, whither he went
with a fplendid and numerous retinue, for the piirpofe of
vele'orating fomc games in honour of Claudius Cxfar, he
appeared in a brilliant garb on the theatre, and addrefled an
elegant fpeech to the deputies of Tyre and Sidon, who ap-
peared before him to make an apology for foine offence,
and to foiicit his future favour. Thefe ambaffadors, and
other attendants on the occafion, expreifed their adulation
in the moft extravagant terms ;■ exclainung, that his voice
was that of a god, and not a man, and pradliilng fome atti-
tudes that approached to thofe of adoration. Tlie king,
fo far from reilraining thefe expreffions of flattery and ho-
mage, manifeftcd his approbation of them ; he was imme-
diately feized with a violent diforder in his bowels, probablv
Sinilar to that of Herod, bis grandfatlier, and attended

A G R

with the fame circimifiancc, whicii, after a torture of f^re
days, terminated in his death, A.D. 44. in the 54th year
of his age, and the 7th of his reign. He left a fon of the
fame name, and three daughters, vi/. Berenice, who was
marrii d to Herod, her father's brother ; and IVlariamne and
D-uiilla, both unmarried, but contrafted ; the former to
Julius Archelaus, the fon of Chalcias, or Elchias, probably
of the Herodian family ; and the latter to Epiphanes, th;.-
fon of Antiochus, king of Comagene, but afterwards mar-
ried to A'/izus, king of Eniefa. Mariamne abandoned
Archelaus, her hudiand, to many Demetrius, a noble and
rich Jew of Alexandria, and one of the chief magiilrates ;
by whom (l^.e had a fon, named Agrippinus. Druhlla left
her hu(b>ind, and renounced the Jewilh religion to marry
Felix, governor of Judo:a : by bini (lie had a fon, called
Agrippa, who perillied with his n'.othcr, in the conflagra-
tion oecafioned by mount Vefuvius, under the emperor
Titus. His death was celebrated at Coefarea with tumul-
tuous rejoicings, and his memory infidted with the vilell
outrages. Jofeph. Antiq. PWlof.. Lcgat. Ant. Un. Hilt,
vol. iii. p. 272 — 279. 8va.

Agrippa IL Herod, was the fon of Agrippa L; edu-
cated at Rome, and at the death of his father was 1 7, years
old ; and therefore thought too young for fucceeding in
the kiofdom. Judosa, on this occafion, became a Roman
province, and was committed to the care of Cufpius Fadu;^,
who received inllruftions to punilh ihofe who hud infuited
the mcmorv of the late king. When Herod, the uncle of
Agrippa, died, the fuperintendeney of the temple and facred
trealuvy, the privilege of nominating the high-prieft, and
the kingdom of Chalcis, were conferred upon him. He
refided ciiiefly at Jerufalem, where, with his filler Berenice,
he heard Paul's defence before Feftus, the Roman governor,
(recorded Ails, xxv, xxvi. ) and owned himfclt almotl: con-
vinced by it. Agrippa difpleafed the Jews by building a
palace, which overlooked the temple, and expofed their
fervice to the view of Feftus and the Romans ; but to pre-
vent this intrufion, they erefted a partition wall, which the
king ordered to be demolifhed. On application to the em-
peror, and by the interceflion of Poppsea, the wall was
allowed to remain. At the commencement of that revolt,
which terminated in the dcfti-uftion oi the Jewifh nation,
Agrippa, attempting to appeafe the Jews, was fo infuited
by them that he was obliged to fecure himfelf from their
violence, by leaving Jerufalem. He afterwards joined Cef-
tius, the Pvoman governor ; and when Vefpafian arrived in
the province, he met him with a confiderable reinforcement,
and accompanied him to Rome, when he took poffefiion of
the empire. During the liege of Jerufalem, he was very
ferviccable to Titus ; and after its redaftion, he and Bere-
nice (with whom he was fufpefted to have had an incsf-
tuous intercourfe) retired to Rome. His kingdom is faid
to have been enlarged by the influence of Titus, who was
■ paflionately attached to his filter Berenice ; and v.ho would
have married her, if the Romans had not refilled his defign,
partly becaufe flie was a Jewel's, and partly becaufe fhe was
royally defcended. He was, therefore, obliged to fend her
away. As for Agrippa, he was the lafl of the Herodian
race that bore the royal title, and is fuppofed to have died at
Rome, as fome fay, A. D. 90 ; according to others, A.D..
94 ; and as others fay, A. D. 100. Jofeph. Ant. Bell. Jud.
Ant. Un. Hilt. vol. iii. Gen. Did-

Agrippa, Marcus-Vtfpanms, was a perfon of obfcure
origin at Rome, educated with Otbavianus, afterwards Au-
guiius, diftinguiflied as his companion and friend, con-
fided as liis favourite general, in all the viciflltudcs of his
life, and kiuicuted by him at his death. Although his fa-
mily

A G R

A C R

mHv is not known, he muft have rifcn I'lUo c:irly notice, as tluir pecullai- rites niid ciifloms. Havmg nlfo appcjifod fomc
his full wife was Atticn, the- dui'Tlncr of Pomponius Atticiis. troubles wliich l.ad ;inlcn m the Ciinnitrian Lulphorus, lie
When the war broke out betWcen iMarc Antony and Oc- returned home, and a triumph was a^r.un decreed liim, \vhicn
tavianus, Agrlppa refcued Salvidienus, the general of the be refufed. y\fter this period no peiion that was not ot tic
latter, in cireumlbmcts of imminent danger ; and concurring imperial family ever obtained a truimph m Kon^i-'- -i ''«
with him, drove Lucius, Antony's brother, into the citv of tribunitiau power having been renewed to him for live yeai-s
Perufia, and invelled^the place before he had time to reflea more, he was next fent to Pannoiiia, and having qtiieteJ t ic-
on his own perilous htuation. Being afterwards appointed diilurbanees in that coimliy, he returned to Italy, where lie

wasatt^icked in Campania, with a fever that loon tenriinled
hio death, A.U.C. 742. B.C. 12. in the 5 1 ft year

on nis own perilous utuacion. cemg aiterwaros app^
commander of the fleet of OiAavianus, he took Hiera, one
of the y^olian iflands, and afterwards obtained, by his fliill
and valour, a complete viftory over the whole fleet of
Pompey, for which he was honoured with a ilandard and a
I'ollral crown. On another occalion, when Antony had af-
fembled his fleet at Aftium, Agrippa interrupted his con-
voys ; and having made feveral defcents on tiie coall of
Greece, whieli haraded the enemy, and dilperfed a fquadron
that was advancing to join 7\ntony, he direfted the lamous
naval engagement that enfiied, and by which Otlavianus
fecured the empire. OAavla:ius, having thus acquired the

of his age. yVugullus, as foon as he heard of his ilhiefs,
left the fports which were then exhibited by hi-i two grand-
fons in honour of Minerva, and hallened to vifii his dying
friend ; but he had expired a few minutes before his amval.
The news greatly afHifted him, and he lamented the lofs of
the greateit general of his age, the wifell minifttr, and the
moft faithful and d iinterelled friend. His body was con-
veyed to Home, and buried in Augullus's own maufolcum,
near Marcellus ; the emperor pronounced his funeral oration.

fnpreme power, confulted his two friends Agrippa and and declared, that he would not be feparated, even aiter us

Mecceiias, whether he Ihould retain his fuperiority or fur
render it to the fenate. Agrippa advifed the rclloration of
the Roman liberty ; but iVIecaenas's advice to retain his
power was more agreeable to the views of Oftavianus, and
was therefore followed ; and yet Agrippa Hill retained his
mailer's favour. In the year before Chrift 28, they were

death, from two perfons, whom he fo tenderly loved in his
life. By his will he bequeathed the tine gardens and bath,
which were called by his name, to the Roman people ; but
his principal heir was Augulhis. His furviving children
were one daughter by his lirfl wife Cxcilia Attica, nam.ed
Agrippina, and married to Tiberius ; and three fons and

colleagues in the confulate, which was the fecond time of two daughters by his third wife Julia. Two of the fons

Agrippa's bearing that ofQce ; and the coalition was renewed died in their youth ; and the other, Pollhumus Agrippa, was

in the following year. facriiiced to the jealoufy of Tiberius foon after his accefliou i

Ao-rippa by marrying Marcella, the emperor's niece, was one of the daughters, ws. Julia, was married to I.ucius Pau-

rccei?ed into the impeilal family ; and in their command of Ins ; and the other Agrippma, to the celebrated Germanicus
the armv, Oclavianus and Agrippa poffeffed equal authority

and diilinftion. His munificence was fignally difplayed ni
the buildings which he erefted at Rome ; the moft remark-
able of which were his portico for the ufe of popular aflem-
blies, and the famous temple called the P.intheon. When
Oiflavianus was dangeroully ill in the year before Chrift 23,
he committed to him his ring, which being confidered as a
preference of Agrippa for his fucceflbr, offended Marcellus,
and rendered it neeeflary on the recovery of Augnllus, to
remove him from court by an honourable exile to the rich
government of Syria. Upon the death of Marcellus, Agrippa
was recalled to Rome, wliere lie was manied to Julia, ttie
daughter of Auguftus and Marcellus's widow, and con-
tributed to rcilore the tranquillity of the city. The next
fervice he performed was to oppofe the Germans, who had
made an incurfion into Gaul, and to drive them back beyond
the Rhine. The Cantabrians, who were vigoroufly com- great exploits, a tadi fitter for the Homeric pen of Varius

rigrippa's fame fufficiently ellabliftied by his great aftions,
has derived an acccffion from the immortal records of poetry.
Virgil, in his anticipation of the battle of .A.ctium, gives
the following dignified llcetch of this commander :

" Parte alia ventis et dis Agrippa fecundis,
Arduus, agmen agens : cui, belh infignc fupcrbum,
Tempera navali fulgent roflrata corona."

JEn. viiL 682.

" Agrippa feconds him with profp'rous gales,
And with propiuous gods, his foes adails :
A naval crown, that binds his manly brows.
The happy fortune of the light forelhows."

Drvdev.

Horace alfo addreffes to him aii ode (Od. vi. lib. i.) in
hich he confefles his own inability to celebrate worthily his

bating for liberty, demanded greater exertions ; but they
were at laft completely reduced. A triumph, which he
declined, was decreed to him by the fenate on this occafion ;
but in recompence of his feiTice, Auguftus affociated him
with himfelf in the tribunitian power, .which was conferred on
him for five years ; he was alfo appointed joint Cenfor, and

Sueton. in Aug. Op. tom. i. p. 157, &c. Ed. Pitifc. Dion.
Calf. Op. lib. 4J-54. tom. ii. p. 419, &c. Ed. Rcimari.
Ant. Univ. Hift. vol. xii. p. 96-172. 8vo. Crevicr's Hift...
Rom. Emp. vol. iii. Gen. Biog.

Agrippa, Maienhis, was conful of Rome, A. TI. C.
251. Ante Chrift. 503. He obtained the honours of a

concurred with Auguftus in that reduftion of fenators, triumph for a complete victory, which he and his colleague

which was called a Reform of the Order. His two children
by Julia were alfo adopted by the emgeror in the year before
Chrift 17. After three years he was fent to appeafe the
riiffenfions that had occun-ed in the eaft. As he was paffing
through Ionia with Herod tlie Great, the Jews complained
to him, that they were hindered in fending their tribute to
the temple at Jerufalem ; that they were obliged to ferve in
the army ; and had otlier hardijiips impofed upon them in-
confiftent with the privileges granted them by the Romans.
Agrippa gave them and their adverfaries a folem.n hearing,
and in court confirmed to them their privileges ; and gave

P. Pofthumius gained over the Sabines. When tlie people
refifted the tyranny of the Patricians, in the confu-
late of Virginius and Veturius, he was deputed to efleft a
reconciliation ; and it is faid that, on this occafion, he pro-
nounced the famous apologue of the ftomach and members,
by which, with promifes of a redrefs of grievances, lie
gained his pui-jiofe. In their demand of magillrates of their
own (who were the tribunes) to proteiit their rights, he ac-
quiefced ; and he advifed the fenate to comply. He died,
at an advanced age, with a charafter highly cftet.-^icd for
wifdom and integrity ; but fo poor, that his relations in-

crdtrs, that no one fliould raoleft them in the obfervation of tended to bury him in a private manner. The people, how.

ever.

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ever, alTcfTcd tlicmfclvcs at two ounces of brafs cadi, in order
to procure for l\im a nvagnificcnt funeral ; aid when the
fenate, unwilling to fanction this mode of raifuig money,
decreed a fum for the purpofe out of the treafui y, the people
refufed to receive back their money, but ordered it to be
paid to the children of the deceafed. Livy. lib. ii. c. i6.
32. 33. p. 308-381-389. Ed. Drakenb. Dionyf. Halicain.
torn. i. p. 390. 340. Ed. Oxon.

AcRippA, mAncinil Giugrnphy, a colony of Bithynia in
Afia, formed by the ylgnl-penfcs.

AGRIPPIADES.annmegivenbyHerodtoANTHEDON.

ACIRIPPINA, tiie eider, in Biography and H'tjlory,
was the daughter of Marcus Agrippa, and wife of Gei-
rmacus Ca-far. 'When the German Legions revolted in
the bcijinning of the reign of Tiberius, ftie attended her
liufcand in the camp ; and though fhc had the charge
of an infant fon and was pregnant with a fecond child,
it was with difficulty t'lat fiie was perfuaded to retire
from the danger that threatened them ; and the commifera-
tion which her fituation excited induced the revolters to
return to their allegiance. On another occaiion, when the
viclorious Germans were on their march to make an irruption
into Gaul, and it was propofed to demolifli the bridge on the
Rhine, near Treves, in order to ftop their progrefs, Agrip-
pina prevented it, a;:d thus fecured a retreat for Cecina and
his legions. When they arrived, fhe met them at the head
of the bridge, returned them thanks for their valour, and
dillributed among them clothes and medicines. The jealous
fpirit of Tiberius took offence at this conduft, which me-
rited commendation, and aggravated the diflike with which
fhe was regarded at court, in confequence of her difagrec-
nient with Livia, the mother of the emperor. She afterwards
attended her hufband in his difficult and perilous cipedition
to the Eaftern provinces of the empire, and was the forrowful
witnefs of his lall conflift, which happened at Antioch,
A. D. IQ. The dying prince conjured her by the memory
of a hufband once dear to her, and by their children, the
product of mutual love, to reflrain her great fpirit, yield to
her hollile fortune, and take care at her return to Roine not
to irritate thofe in power by an ill-iudged rividihip. Agrip-
pina gathered the adics of her deceafed hufband, and braving
the dangers of the fea in the worft feafon of the year, haf-
tened home, and landed at Brundufium, carrying the fe-
pulchral urn, and accompanied by two of her children.
The mournful fpeclaele produced an imiverfal groan amidil
the multitude, who waited her landing ; nor were the lamen-
tations of relations to be diilinguiflied, as Tacitus has defel-ibed
the fcene, from thofc of ftrangers, nor of men from thofe
of women. Agrippina's fpirit was unfubdued ; after lier
return to Ron-,e, (lie forgot the dying charge of her hufband,
and fell a facrifice to the wicked arts of Sejanus. By his
agents he perfuaded her, that it was the intention of the
emperor to poifon her ; and file had the imprudence to dif-
clofe her fufpicion to the reigning tyrant. This circumftance
induced him to determine upon her ruin ; and immediately
after the death of his mother, Livia, he fent to the fenate
letters of accufation againil her and her fon Nero. The
fenate hefitated ; but Sejanus furnifhed the evidence that was
iiecefTar)- for their condemnation. She was banifhed to the
ifle of Pandatavia, now Santa Maria, lying off the coaft of
Terracina ; and her fon Nero was banifhed to the neighbour-
ing ifle of Pontia, where he foon died. Drufus, her fecond
fon, was confmed in the lower apartments of the palace, and
there famifhed. Agrippina furvived about four years ; and
her death, which happened through want of food, either
voluntarily or by eompulfion, A. D. 33, was announced by
Tiberius to tlie fenate ; and the favage tyrant accepted the

A G R

thanks of this body, for not ordering her to be flrangled,
and her body to be cxpofed like that of a common male-
faftor. This pretended clemency was more than counter-
balanced by a charge againfl her of adultciy with Alinius
Gallus, whofe death, he laid, had been the caufc of hers.
Her known charafter for chaftity repelled this infamous
charge ; and Tacitus funis it up in a few words, by obferving,
that " impatient of equality and greedy of domination, flie
had banifhed female frailties by her mafculine ambition."
Her remains were brought in great pomp from Pandataria,
by her fon Caligula, foon after his accellion, and depcfited
in the maufoleum of Auguftus, and all forts of honours
were paid to her memory — " an inftance, fays an excellent
biographer, of filial piety, which is one of the beft things
recorded of that imperial monfler !" Tacit. Annal. lib. i. li.
iii. iv. Crevier's Hill, of the Emperors, vol. ii. iii.

Agrippina, the younger, was the daughter of Ger-
mauicus, by the preceding Agrippina, and the mother of
Nero. In the year 28 fhe was married by Tiberius to Cn.
Domitius, belonging to the imperial family, but faithlcf.;,
ferocious, and debauched ; and as Agrippina was no leis
profligate than her hufband, Domitius might well obferv.-,
as Suetonius informs us, (in Nero c. 6. torn. ii. p. 374. Ed.
Pitifc.) when he was congratulated on the birth of a fon,
that from him and that princefs nothing could be boni but
fome monfler, fatal to the human fpecies ; and his declaration
was too exaftly verified by the crimes and cruelties of Nero.
Agrippina was diflinguifhed with honours by her brother
Caligula, at his acceffion ; but loft her hufband before the
end of that reign. Before his death, however, fhe had an
intrigue with M. Lepidus, who was the companion of Ca-
ligula in his debaucheries, and who afpired to the empire ; and
was concerned with him in his confpiracy againft her brother.
For this crime fhe and her lifter Julia were depiived of the
honours, which were conferred upon them at the commence-
ment of this reign ; their pofTelTions were forfeited and fold
by an auftion in Gaul, at which Caligula prefided ; and they
were baniflied to the ifle of Pontus. Agrippina was com-
pelled to carry in her arms the urn that held Lepidus's afhes
all the way from Gaul to Rome ; and at the fame time Ti-
gellinus, under the charge of adultery with her, was exiled.
In the reign of Claudius, Agrippina was recalled from ba-
niflinient, and married to a fecond hufband, whofe name was
Crifpus Paffisnus, a celebrated orator, who had been twice
conful, and who was very rich ; and whom his wife poifoned
in order to obtain pofTefiion of his wealth, which he had
bequeathed to her by his will. After the death of MefTalina,
the third wife of Claudius, this emperor was induced A. D.
48, by the pcrfuafions of Pidlas, to marry his niece Agrippina,
who exercifed the new powers flie thus acquired with a degree
of haughtinefs, injuilice and cruelty, that might have been
reafonably expefted from her well-known charafter. She
did not blufh, fays Tacitus, to proftitute hcrfelf to Pallas,
in order to fecure her fon's elevation, and to gratify her owa
infatiable thirft for gold ; and beeaufe Lollia Paulina had
been her rival for the imperial dignity, fhe was banifhed and
put to death ; and Dion Caffius (lib. Ix. torn. ii. p. 970.
Ed. Reimari.) fays, that her head was brought to Agrip-
pina, who opened and examined the teeth, in which there
was fome particular mark, that flie might thus identify her
perfon. She manifefted her wifdom, however, in ufing her
influence for recalling Seneca from banifhment, and placing
her fon Nero under his tuition ; but regardlefs of every
principle of juftice, flie engaged the intereft of Pallas, and
prevailed with the weak emperor to adopt her fon Domitiu:.-,
then (Wz. A. D. 50.) called Nero Claudius C:efar, though
he had a fon of his own, Eritannicus, to whom he was af-

ftdionately

A G R

feinionr.tcly attzclicd, and to give him the prerogative of an
eider brother. On tliis occafion Agr:ppi;:a hcvielf received
an additional honour in the furname of Augiifta. Britan-
nicuo was deprived of every opportunity of rccommcndintj
himfeif lo his father, and reduced by the arts of t!ie cmprels
to ti-;e mod deprefled condit.'on. Agrippina ollentatioufiy
exercifed licr authority in eftabhihing a colony at the capital
of the Ubii, where fhc was born, and in giving it the name
of Colonia Agr'ipp'ina, or j'l^rij>[>iiievjis ; but it has been
for many ages called Cologne, and tlie name of Agrippina
has been fupprefTed. Her vanity alio led her to obtain leave
to enter the capital in a car, Lkc thofe in which tlie prielts
were carried, and on which all facred things were depofited.
1ti order to gratify her avai-ice, as well as her pride, (lie
caul'cd Slatihus Taurus to be accufcd, and provoked him
by falle charges to fuicide, that Ihe might get poUcnion of
his fine gardens. At length, Claudius began to be fenlible
of the crimes of Agrippina ; and after drinkijig freely he
happened to drop an cxpreiTiun, which alarmed her, •vit.
that it was his fate tiril to bear the wickcdnefs of his wives,
and then to punilh them. She had alfo a rival in Doniitia
Lepida, Nero's aunt, a woman no lels unjirincipicd and de-
bauched than herfelf ; and (lie contrived, by aecurmg her of
forcery and magic and oth.cr crimes, to deftroy her. She then
ilireftcd the efforts of her malice againlt Narcillhs, wlio was
the declared friend of Britannieus and a powerful freedman ;
and fucceeded firft in driving him from court, and at length
in procuring his death, is well as tiiat ot Julitis Silanus,
who was of high rank, and a defeendantof Auguftus. In
the mean while, having removed Nareiflus, the vigilant guar-
dian of Claudius's life, Ihe determined to facrihee the em-
peror himfeif. His attachment to Britannieus was undif-
guifed ; and he rcfolved upon foou giving him the toga
viriUs, " that Rome, as he faid, may at lall have a true
Cxfar." Agrippina's fears accelerated her purpofe ; and
fhe apphed to Locuila, who had been lately condemned for
adminillering poifon after ihe had been long fpared as the
ufeful inftrument of tyranny, to prepare the poilon by whicii
/he defigned to get rid of the emperor. The poilon was
mixed with muflirooms, a favourite di(h of Claudius, and
very fpeedlly produced efTeft. Having difpatched the em-
peror, A. D. 54, flie pretended forrow on the occafion ; and
affecting tendernefs for Britannieus, whom flic kept in a ftatc
of retirement, (he caufcd Nero, accompanied by Burrhus,
to appear before the foldiers, and to be acknowledged as
emperor.

The enormities with which Nero's reign commenced were
fanftioned by her example, and encouraged by her authority.
To her Nero paid great refpeft and deference, calling lier
" the beft of mothers ;" and the fenate granted her the pri-
vilege of being preceded by two lifters, and the dignity of
prieilefs of Claudius, whom flie had poifoned. Theie tokens
of refpeft ferved only to inflame the ambition of Agrippina,
whofe defign it was to reign under her fon's name. Accord-
ingly (lie privately and by concealment attended the debates
of the fenate, and at a public audience of ambaffadors, (lie
attempted to afcend the throne with her fon ; but was fea-
fonably reftrained by the fuggellion of Seneca, that he fhould
defcend and meet lier. But ihe foou perceived that her
power began to dechne, and this was a mortification, which
her proud and violent ipirit could not well bear. To divert
the evil, (lie at one time raved and menaced, and at another
recurred to every complying and ioothing mcafure. The
difgrace of Pallas was very hoftile to her influence ; and her
fon's refpeft diminiflied in proportion to the degree in which
his independent power was eilabh(hed by the removal and
deatlt of Britannieus, and liis confequent refcuc from the

A G R

danger of a rival. When fhe attempted to pay court to the
folditrs and nobles, Nero deprived her of her guards and
honours, excluded iier from the palace, and obliged her to
retire, folitary and neglefted, to lier own palace. Never-
thelefs, flie was again reflorcd to favour, which ihe endea-
voured to fecure by various artifices ; and, as it is faid, by
fome compliances, wliich are the moll odious and reproachful
that can be conceived of in the relation of a mother and Ton.
Poppoea's influence over Nero foou became paramount to
every other ; nor was it reftrained even by the guilt of par-
ricide, to which Ihe ftimulatcd him. But how to perpetrate
this horrid deed, witiiout expofing himfeif to public de-
teitation, was a fubjeft of fcrious dcliberalion. At length
a galley was prepared by Anieetus, commander of his fleet,
v.hith miglit ealily ac^mit water, niid founder ; and Agrip-
pina was enticed on board in the Baian bay. The ft;-atagem,
however, did not fncceed ; for though Aceronia, the com-
panion of Agrippina, loll her life, Agrippina herfelf got fafc
to fliore. The crime could no longer be concealed ; and it
became nectlTary to complete what had been begun. Ac-
cordingly Anieetus, witii a body of mariners, Turrounded
tlie houie where Ihe had taken refuge ; and entering her
chamber, difpatched her witli many wounds, A. i). 59.
To the affaliins, it is faid, fhe prefented her womb, and bade
their, llrike that part which liad liarboured fuch a m.onlien
She was buried the fame night without any ceremony, and
had no tomb whilli Nero lived ; but after his death fome of
her furviving fervants ereftcd a mean monument over her
remains, near the liigh road from Ronie to Mifenum. Nero
affeftcd contrition alter the event ; but afterwards wrote a
letter to the fenate, or rather procured cnie to be written by
Seneca, for which he has been much blamed, aeculiiig Ik r
of many crimes, and charging her with a confpiracy, whieli
rendered her death a fortunate event to the Roman people.
The fenate fer^'ilely decreed thanks to tlie gods for his efcapc,
and the day on which Agrippina was bora to be marked in
the calendar as an inaufpicious day. Her crimes were of the
moft atrocious kind, and her memory has been execrable.
Neverthelefs Ihe is faid to have been a prineefs of fome
learning, and to have written memoirs of her life, referred
to by Tacitus and the elder Pliny. Suetonius in Calig. Claud,
and Nevo. Tacit. Anual. lib. xii. 14. Crcvier's Hill.
Rom. Emp. vol. iii. and iv. Vols, de Hid. I.,at.

AGRIPPINIANS, in CImnh H[jlury, the followers of
Agrippinus, biihop of Carthage, in the third century, who
firil introduced and defended the praftice of rcbaplizalion.
Arnd. Lex. Ant. Eccl. p. 465.

Agris, or Agrifd, in Ancient Geogrnphy, the name of a
town of Carmania, between the mouth of the Sams and
the flrait that leads to the Perfian gulph. Long. 96" 30' ;
and lat. 23°, according to Ptolemy.

AG R I US, in Entomolo^^y, a fpecies of the vSphinx
Zygieiia, which is black, with wings pointed v.-ith green ;'
the primores black, and the poflerior blue ; found in Su-
rinam.

AGRIZAIjA, a town of Alia Minor, belonging to
the Teftofagi of Galatia. Long. 2°. Lat. 41'' 30', ac«
cording to Ptolemy.

AGRIUM, in the MiMrria M.iliett of the Ancients, a
name given to an impurer fort of nutnim. The purer fort
of this fait they call hcilmyrhn^^a, and the coarfer and dirtier
kind agrhim. Tiic former ot tliefe they had from Media,
the latter from Thrace.

AGROIRA, a name which fome have givca to AitoLa
of Lydia.

AGROCA Roiul, in Geography, lies to the weft of tlw
Bal\imeBto3, near Portobcllo, on Uie Spanifli main, and Ij

well

A G R

A G R

Wfll ffciirc4 for eight or nine Hiips ; vrlieix they arc land-
locked by rcveial iflands, whieh iippear at lea like pnrt of
the m^.iii. Miilliam's Naval Gaxett.

AG-ROM, a difcafe frequent in Bengal, and other parts
of the Indies, wherein the tongue chaps and cleaves in fc-
veral places, being alio extremely rough, and fomctimes
covered with white fpots. The Indians are veiy tearful of
this difcafe, which they attribute to extreme heat of the
ttomaeh.

Their remedy i^, to chew the black-fecded bafilica, drink
fome chalybeated liquor, or the juice of large mint.

AGROPOLI, in Geography, a town of the Princlpato
Citra of N.iples, on the gulpli of Salerno ; 26 miles weil-
i'outh-well of Cangir.no ; and 22 miles fouth-fouth-eafi: of
Salerno. E. Ion. 14' 54'. N. hit. 40" 22'.

AGROSPI, in Jncienl Geography, a town of Ethiopia,
lituate, according to Ptolemy, on the banks of the Nile.

AGROSTEMMA, Ay(w rs/^^a, the garland of the
field, in Botany, a genus of the decandr'm pentagynia clafs
and order, and natural order of caryophylki. Its charac-
ters are, that the calyx is a one-leafed, coriaceous, or lea-
tlier-like, tubulous, iive-toothed, permanent perianthium ;
the corolla has iive petals, with claws of the length of
the tube of the calyx, and border fpreading, obtufe and
undivided ; the ftamina are ten awl-ihaped filaments^ five
alternately later than the other five, inferted into each claw
of the petals, the anthers fimple ; the pill;illum an ovate
germ, with filiform, ereft llyles, of the length of the fta-
mina, ajid fimple lligmas ; the pericarpium an oblong-ovate,
covered, one-celled, five-valved capfule ; the feeds veiy nu-
merous, kidney-fliaped, and dotted ; the receptacles free,
as many as feeds ; tlie interior ones gradually longer. N.B.
The A. githago has not a crowned corolla, or blofTom,
as the others have. Dr. Smith ( Flor. Brit. vol. ii. p. 493.),
obferves, that this genus is fcarcely diilinA from the
Lychnis. There are four fpecies, viz. I. A. githago,
corn campion or cockle, which is hirfute or hairy, with calyx
longer than the corolla, petals entire, or flightly emarginate,
and naked. 2. A. coronaria, rofe campion, tomentofc,
with leaves ovate-lanceolate, petals flightly emarginate,
crowned and ferrate. 3. A. jfios Jov'is, umbellate rofe
campion, tomentoie, with emarginate petals and flowers in
a coi-j-mb or kind of fpike. 4. A. cali rofa, fmooth cam-
pion, with leaves linear-lanceolate, emarginate petals,
crowned. The Jirjl fpecies is a common annual weed, in
corn-fields, and flowers in June or July ; the feeds arc black,
with a furfaee like fliagreen, and appear in the microfcope
like a hedge-hog rolled up. The fecond fpecies is biennial,
a native of Italy, the Valais, and Siberia ; but fo long an
inhabitant of Englifli gardens, that it is become a kind
of weed. Of this plant there are three varieties, one v;ith
deep red, another with flefli-coloured, and a third with
■^hite flowers ; but they are not much elleemed, as the dou-
ble rofe-campion, which is a fine flower, has excluded the
otheis from moft good gardens. The fingle rofe campions
are fufficiently propagated by their felf-lown feeds. The
variety with double-flowers, having no feeds, is propagated
by parting the roots in autumn, and planting them in a
border of fre(h undunged earth, at the diltance of about fix
inches ; they fliould be watered gently till they have taken
root : afterwards wet, as well as "dung, is injurious to them.
In fpring they (hould be removed into the borders of the
flower-garden, where they will be very ornamental, whUft.
they flov^'er in July and Auguil. The third fpecies grows
naturally on the Swifs and Piedmontefe mountains, and in
t"ie Palatinate, and was cultivated in 1739, by Mr. Miller.
It flowers in July, and the feeds ripen in September. I;

1

will thrive bcft iit a moift foil and (hady fituation. The
fourth fpecies is annual. It is a native of Italy, Sicily, and
the Levant ; but being a plant of little beauty, it is pre-
ferved in botanic gardens merely for variety. It was culti-
vated in 1739, by Mr. Miller.

AGROSTIS, formed fron ayfoi, di field, bcnt-grafs, in
Botany, a genus of the triandria d/gynia clafs and order, and
of the natural order of gramma or grafles. Its charafters
are, tiiat the calyx is a one-ilowered, bivalve, acuminate
glume, or hufl< tapering to a point ; the corolla, bivalve
and acuminatCr with one valve larger than the otiier ; the
ftamina have three filaments longer than the corolla, with
forked anthers ; the piftiUura is a roundifti germ with two
reflex villous ftyles, and ftigmas longitudinally liifpid, or as
Dr. Smith says, plumofe : the pericarpium is a corolla
growing to the feed, not gaping ; the feed is roundifli, point-
ed at both ends, with the corolla adhering clofely to it.
Profefior Martyn enumerates 35 fpecies, and Gmclin 42
fpecies. They are diftributed into two clalfes ; the arijlaije
or thofe with awns, and the inutlca: or naked, without awns.
To the firft clafs belong the following, i. Afpicwventi,
filky bent-grafs, with entire petals, the outer petal having a
ftiff, ftraight and veiy long awn, and the panicle fpreading.
2. A. interrupta, interrupted-fpike B. with bifid petals, the
outer awned, the panicle attenuated, contrafted and inter-
rupted. 3. A. m'diacea, inillct B. with the outer petal ter-
minating in a ftiff" ftraight awn of a moderate length. 4. A.
Iromoidcs, with a fimple narrowed panicle, pubefcent corolla,
and awn ftraight, longer than the calyx. 5. A. auflralis,
fouthern B. with the panicle approaching to a fpLke, the
feed ovate and pubefcent, and awn of the length of the ca-
lyx. 6. A. arund'icea, reedy B. with oblong panicle, outer
petal, villous at the bafe, and furniflicd with a writhed awn,
longer than the calyx. 7. A. calamagroflis, branching B.
Avith thickened panicle, the whole of the outer petal woolly,
awned at the tip, and branching culm. 8. A. ferlotina, late
B. with oblong mucronate flofcules, and culm covered witli
very ftioit leaves. 9. A. rubra, red B. with the flowering
part of the panicle very fpreading, outer petal fmooth, awn
terminal, fpiral and recurved. JO. K. fpiciformis, fpiky B.
with the panicle refembhng a fpike, two-awned flowers, one
awn inferted into the receptacle, jointed and longer than the
other, which is ftraight, and inferted below the tip of the
corolla, which is rough. 11. A. hirfuta, hairy B. with the
panicle approaching to a fpike, culm and leaves hirfute,
glumes of the corolla awned on the back, and bifid at the
tip. 12. A. matrella, with the flowers in racemes, outer
valve of the calyx bent in, and the tip of the keel only
gaping. 13. A. canina, brown B. with ovated coloured
calyx, naked corolla, an incurved awn on the back of the
petals, and proftrate culms a httle branching. To the clafs
of awned agroilis, Gmehn refers the following fpecies, viz.
A. vinealts and A. c'lnna, of Martim, A. alp'tna, with
fetaceous leaves, compaft panicle, rough and coloured calyx,
and exterior petal with a jointed awn in its back. A. Incf'ii,
with elongated calyxes, awn of the petals recurved at the
back, and proftrate culms with four branches. A. giganlea,
with the upper part of the panicle firft flowering very wide,
rough calyxes, the exterior petal fmooth, the back ilightly
awned above, and an ereft culm. A. dithia, with equal
fmooth calyxes, corolla mucronated below the apex, and
fetaceous leaves. A.fcflucoldes, with fetaceous leaves, fpread-
ing panicle, and petals with awn bent in at the bafe twice as
long as the calyxes. A. fi/farmis, with filiform leaves and
culms, approximate panicle, and fmooth flofcules awned at
the bafe.

To the fteond chk of Agroftis without awns are referred

the

A G R

A G R

the following fpecics, viz. 14. A. Jloloniftra, Crffpiiif; B.
or black fmiitdi, with branches of the panicle fprcadiiijj,
naked, creeping culm, aiul equal calyces. Dr. Suiitli dc-
fcribes this fpecics as having a coiiipati panicle, raniofc
creeping culm, coiigcilcd lluwers, and cilyces cqi al, lan-
ceolate and pubcicent. i ;. A. capilldi'is, Hne 15. with
panicle cpiilary, fpreading, (Icxuoie, and calyces equal,
iubulate fniooth (flightly roughilh, Gmel.) coloured. 11^.

A. fyhalL-a, wood 15. with panicle contracted, calyces equal,
tliofe of the barren flowers ihorter than the corolla, and thofe
of the fertile ones twice as long. 17. A. alia, white B. with
panicle loofe, calyces equal, and culm creeping. 1 8. A . piimiLi,
dwarf B. with panicle on one fide, culms creel in bunches.
19. A. mhiimn, leall B. with panicle fdilorm, flowers, ellip-
tic, retufc andawnlefs, and villous corolla. 20. A. tsiiacilfinw,
tough B. with panicle contraflcd, filiform ; flowers linear,
and valves parallel. 21. A. I'tr^imcii, virginian B. with
panicle contracted ; leaves rolled inwards, fubulalc, rigid,
Handing out. 22. A. tucxlriimi, Mexican B. witli panicle
oblong heaped ; calyces and corolla acuminate and nearly
equal. 23. A. piiil>iirnfctns, purple B. with panicle con-
tracted, elongate, branches prelled clofc upright, and florets
luiequal and acuminate. 24. A. itidtca, Indian B. with
panicle contrafted, racemes lateral, ere£t, alternate. 25. A.
tiTuila, ciliate B. with glumes of the calyx angular and eiliate.
26. A. pnnuen, bearded B. with panicle fubfpiked ; branches
and branchlets fafcicled ; valves of the calyx and one of the
corolla awricd, that of the corolla very lliort. 27. A. h'litn,
forked B. with fpikes fubtern, umbellate, flofcules awnlefji,
oblong, acute, calycine valves fnbequal, leaves and flieaths
fmooth. 28. A. complanala, flat-ilalked B. with fpikes um-
bclled, fniooth ; outer calycine valves awned ; flatted leaves
and fmooth flieaths. 29. A. pur.gais, prickly B. with pa-
nicle contrafted, leaves involute, ItifF, pungent, the upper
ones obliqnely oppofite, and branching culm. 30. A.
■vhicalisy ftiort-awned B. with culms afeending, calyx colour-
ed, awn nearly ftraight, from below the middle of the back,
about as long as tlie calyx. 31. A. ovata, ovate-panieled

B. with outer petal av.ncd below the tip ; panicle ovate,
contradted and fpikeform. 32. A. odorata, iweet B. having
fpikes, with the florets pointing one way, heaped together,
awnlefs. 33. A. plicala, plaited-leaved B. with leaves plaited,
and ipike linear, awnlcls. 34. A. ciiiiin, with panicle con-
tradled, awnlefs, flowers acuminate, with one, two or three
Ilamens, and leaves flat, fcabrous. 35. A. JitinJni, with
panicle elongate, contrafted ; flowers iubulate, awnlefs, di-
androus or two-ftaminate ; and convolute leaves. Gmelin
has omitted fonie of the preceding awidefs fpecies, and added
the following, viz. A. vcrt'icUlata, with Jlraight panicle,
interrupted by radiated rigid verticilli or whorls. A. Jlr'ida,
with ilifl' panicle, having flowers, and an ereft culm. A.
linearis, v.-ith fnbquatern digitated fpikes, and adprefled al-
ternate, imilateral flofcules. A., procera, with the foot-llalks
of the panicle, racemofe and foniewhat eretl, and the flowers
hairy and lanceolate. A. coromandcliana, with the panicle
ovate, patent, the foot-ftalks fimple ; fecond flowers, and
equal, acute, glofTy calyces. A. afpera, with conlnidlcd
panicle ; lateral^ alternate, llifF racemes, and rough leaves.
A. avaiaceii,, with an erecl, very (lender panicle ; and the
awns twice longer than the calyx. A. ^lotucm/a., with bi-
fid, glomerate, terminal fpikes, and clawed plumofe braAea;.
A. Iiiteralis, with bilid, lateral, lolitary fpikes, and clawed
plumofe braftex. Dr. Stokes has obferved that this is an
artificial genus, and that the fpecies which are chiefly dillln-
guiOied by the prefence or abfence of the awn in the corolla,
and which is inconftant, are not precifely afcertaintd. He
therefore recommendsparticularattcntioniothe open oreloLd

Vol. I.

ftale In wliicli the valves of the calyx arc found, immediately
after thefheddingof thepollcn andtheripening of ihefecd.and
like« ife to the flowers, whether they are fcattertd or ciuilei-ed.
The tnll fpecle;, which is annual, is common in fandy
rorn-fi( Ids, and flowers in June and July. It is liable to bo
fmutted. Ilorfes and goats cat it ; but flieep rcfufc it.
The lecond is, according to Haller, a variety of the former:
it is annual, and a native of I'Vance, Italy, Svviizcrlai.d,
Carniola, and Germany. The third is a native of Mont-
pclicr, Spain, and Siberia, was introduced by M. Thouin,
in 1778, and refcmblcs the firfl. The fourth is perennial^
and grows wild about Montpelier. Th.e fifth is a native ot
Portugal. The fixth is a native of many paits of Europe,
and is perennial. Haller and Scopoli rank it amongft th.f
arundines. I'he Kalmuc Tartars weave mats of it, and
thatch their houfes with it. Goats will almoil die of hunger
rather than eat it. The fcventh refcmblcs the former: i»
perennial ; and a native of Germany and Switzerland and
about Verona; thefe two fpecies are referred by Gmeliii
to the genus calamostris, and are the C. arundo and C.
annidiiijcea. The eighth fpecies was obftrved by Scguier,
near Verona. The ninth is common in Sweden, and is
found in Scotland, in low pallures. The tenth and eleventU
viere found in the Ifland of Tenerift'e, by Maffon. The
twelfth is found in the fandy lands of Malabar. There arc
two varieties of the thirteenth, the rough and the fn'.ooth,
which Dr. Stokes in Withering's arrangement, makes a
dilUnft fpecies under the name ot A. idpinu, and fo clafleJ
by Gmelin: this is found plentiful in the higher downs ia
Dorfetfliii-e and the higher parts in the new foreft of Hants,
and flowers in May and June. But Dr. Smith (Flor.
Brit. vol. i. p. '8.) refers the A. cnn'ma, (a) of Hudfon
to the fpecies of A. can'ina, and alfo the A. "vinealis of
Witliering ; and fays it is perennial, flowering in July, and
found in meadows and moift pallures: and the A. can'ina
((3 and ay) of Hudfon, and A. alpinn of Withering, above
deierlbed, to a diftinft fpecies, vi«. A. felacea, briftly B.
with lanceolate calyces and corolla awned at the bafe ; the
awn genicvdated and the radical leaves fetaceous. It is pe-
rennial, flowering in July and Auguft, and found on dry
heaths, frequently in the weft of England, and on the fen-
coaft near \Veymouth. The foui tcenth is perennial, a native
of moll parts of Europe, and found in moill meadows and
paftures, and alio in ftiif cold arable lands, where it is very
troubleiome ; for when fueh lands are brokcMi up and fallow-
ed, the roots are feparated with difficulty horn the adhefivc
foil. It flowers in July and Angult. Hudfon joins this
fpecies with the capillaris, pumila, alba, and lylvatica, under
the name of polymorpha; and Gmelin queries whether thele
and alfo the virginica are not varieties <-,f the fame fpecies,
owing their diffevenec merely to the foil; fome have fuppt)fed
that this is the famous orchestoh grass. The fifteenth
is very common, but chiefly grows on poor, dry and landy
land, and is dilliked by cattle, as are the bents in general ;
it flowers in May and July. Gmelin queries whether it
be not a fpecies of alopecurns. Some have fuppofed
that the A. dipilhir'is of I>inna^us, is the fame with the A,
•viih^aris, which has a fpreading panicle, branches bare at the
bafe ; florets numerous, calyx inner valve fmooth, outer
fernilated upwards ; blolfom inner valve, but half tlie fizc
of the outer ; deciduous. I^innjcus confounded thele two
plr.nts ; but the error was difeovercd by Dr. Smith, In
general habit, fays Withering, the plants are very much
alike ; but the real A. cnpulatis has the fl;cm, leaves and
hufl<s of the calyx quite fmooth, as well as cveiy other
part of the plant, whilll in the A. vulgaris the ftem-leave«
ajc rough, and the hullii of the calyx arc fernilated on the
3 K keel.

A G R

keel, as they are In ewry other Britifli fjicciss of agroftis,
except the minima. Again, in tlie aipiluiris., the valves ot
the bloiroms arc equal, but in the A. I'li'^aris the inner valve
is only half the fi/e of the other. Dr. Smith (I'lor. Brit,
vol. i. p. 79.) t;harai5leri/cs the A. imlgaris, or fine B.
as having a Ipreading panicle, finall branches divaricated and
capillary, eiiual calyces, interior petal twice as fliort as the
other : aixl to this fpccies he refers the A. vulgaris of VVith-
oring; the A. capillaris of others,and xht A. polymorpha (a) of
Hutlfon, and as varieties, the A. caninn of Withering, the A.
pumila of IJnnxus, and the third variety of Withering's A.
vulgaris. It isYerei\nlal, (lowers in July, and is found in
meadows, pattures and ploughed fields. The fixteenth
fpecics is perennial, and grow,; in inoifiilh woods, as Bilhop's-
wood, J-Iampilead, and alfo in Hornfey wood, near Lon-
don. It flowers in June and Augnlt. The feventecnth is
perennial, and grows in ditelies, marfiies, and moilt mea-
dows. Withering mentions four varieties ; one with pani-
cle branches, crowded with florets at the bafe, which flowers
in June and July, and is found in wet ditches, bogs, and
marfhes ; a fccond, with calyx, both valves ferrulated, fup-
pofed to be the preceding plant, when growing in a drier
fituation, and found amongll wheat, in light iandy loam,
flowering from July to September; a third, with the inner
valve of the calyx only ferrulated upward, found in loamy foil,
amongfl wheat, and in very light fandy foil under the Norfolk
courfe of turnip hulbandry, and alfo elfewhere amongll
potatoes ; flowering from July to September ; the fourth
has both valves of the calyx ferrulated, the inner only on
the upper half: it is found amongll wheat, in light land ;
flowering from July to September. The three lall varieties
coallitute the greatell part of what is called fquitch, in light
arable lands ; which are called white fquitch, to diftinguilh
it from A. nigra and A. Jlolonifera, which are called black
fquitch, or couch. Dr. Smith enumerates only two varie-
ties, viz. the A. alba, and A. fylvatica, i. e. marfh and wood B.
which he refers to this fame fpecies. The eighteenth is a na-
tive of Iceland, Sweden, Germany, Switzerland, England in
dry places, Wales and Scotland ; found in poor barren foil,
e.g. heaths nearHarrowgate, perennial, and flowering in July.
The nineteenth is a native of France and Germany, and has
been difcovered by Mr. Stillingfltet, in Wales ; it is com-
mon in fandy paftures on the fouth-weft coaft of Anglefea :
By fome it is denominated fpring-plant, and faid to flower
early in March and April, and ripen its feed in May. Dr.
Stokes refers this fpecies to the Poa. The twentieth is
perennial, and a native of the Eaft Indies. The twenty-firil
is an elegant little plant, and called by Browne crab-grafs.
The twenty-fecond is a native of South America, flowering
the fecond year, having the appearance of cinna, and in-
troduced in 1 780, by Mr. G. Alexander. The twenty-third
is a native of Jamaica; the twenty-fourth is a native of India,
introduced in 1773, by the Earl of Bute ; the twenty-fifth
a native of Japan. The twenty-fixth comprehends the
panueus and monfpelienjls ALOPECURUS in the Linnean
fyllem ; the firll grows in marflies and wet paftures, and the
fecond in a dry foil, to whicli the difl'erence is probably owing.
The twenty-feventh is a native of the Eall Indies, found
there by Dr. Koenig, and introduced in 1778 by Sir Jofeph
Banks. It is annual, and flowers in July and Augufl:. The
twenty-eighth is a native of Jamaica ; introduced in 1779;
perennial, and flowers in July and Auguft. The twenty-
ninth is a native of Arabia and Barbary, ufedby the Arabs
in the hemorrhoids ; perennial, and found in dry places off
the coafl; in the country of Nice. The thirtieth is a native
of Switzerland and the north of England ; found on heaths,
meadows and moift pallures, which have besn long in turf.

A G R

Some parts of Houndow heath abound with it. Dr. Smith
(Hor. lirit. vol. i. p. 78) refers, the A. ■!;;«(■(;/;> of Withering
to the A. caiiirw. 1'he thirty-firll is a native of New Zealand :
the thirty-fecond of Cochinchina, near the coalt, where
it is dried and ufed for perfuming their clothes ; the
thirty-third a native of the fuburbs of Canton. The thirty-
fourth and thiity-fifth have been referred by fome to CiNj) A.
'Dr. Withering mentions fome other fpecies, "vi-z. A. pa-
lujlris., with the huflcs of the calyx equal, and the outer valve
of the blolibm twice the length and breadth of the inner ;
awn llraight, much fliorter than the bloffom, fixed a little
beneath its point ; fome conlider this as an awncd variety of
the A. alba palnjlris of Hudlon, but Dr. W. regards It as a
dillinifl fpecies. It Ik found in fwainps and moill ditches ;
perennial, and flowering in June and July. A. pallida, with
the valves of the calyx unequal ; the inner valve of the
bloflbm hair like, very ftiort, awn fomewhat longer than the
bloffom, fixed below its middle ; it is fuificicntly dillinft from
both the A. alba and A. capillaris ; found in the New Forell,
Hants, and flowering in May and June. A. itttoralis, with
panicle fomewhat fpike-like, the hulks of the calyx awned ;
firll found on the Norfolk ceall by Sir Jofeph Banks, pe-
rennial, flowering in June. The A. Uttoralis, fea-fide B.
according to Dr. Smith [iibi fupra) has hnear-lanceolate
awned calyces, naked corolla ; awn fvib-terminal llraight,
and decumbent culms. It is perennial, flowers in Auguft,
and is found in clayey fea-lliores ; in falt-marfhcs near Cley,
Norfolk. A. nigra, with fcattered panicle, branches bare
at the bafe, florets few ; inner valve of the calyx fmooth,
and creeping root ; it is different from the A.. Jlolonifera of
Linnsus, to which fome have referred it ; found in marley,
clayey, and other cold wet foil, both in grafs and under tillage ;
perennial, flowering from July to Oftober. A. maritima,
with large, rather fpreading panicle ; longer branches naked,
ftiorter ones crowded with florets at the bafe ; inner valve
of the calyx fmooth, outer ferrulated upwards ; gathered
by Dr. Pulteney in the fand on our fouthern fea-coafts ;
perennial, flowering in June and July. The A. "vulgaris
has been already mentioned. Martyn's Miller's Di£l.
Withering's Bot. Arr. vol. ii. p. 124-134.

For the propagation and culture of feveral of the above
fpecies ; fee Grass. For other fpecies, to which the
name has been applied, fee Aira, Alopecurus, Ca-

LAMAGROSTIS, Cen CHRUS, MeLICA, Ml LIUM and ScHOE-

NUS.

AGROSTOGRAPHIA, compounded of aypa.ri?,^rfl/},
and 7pa?i»), dejcriplion, in Phyjiology, the hiftory, or defcrip-
tion of gramsns, or plants ot the graffy kind.

AcRosTOGRAPHiA is alfo the title of a learned and labo-
rious work of John Scheuchzer, containing an exaft de-
fcription of about 400 fpecies of grafs ; particularly dog's-
tooth, cyperus, cyperoides, rulhes, &c. all dilpofed in a
new method ; yet the hillory is far from being complete.

AGROTIRI, \n Ancient Geography, the moft fouthern
promontory of the ifland of Cyprus, eall of Limadol. It
is a fmall peninfula, connefted with the continent by a very
narrow tongue of land, and is now called cape De Gatti, on
account of the great number of cats kept .by the monks,
who, in the 4th century, obtained permillion to eftablilh
themfelves there, as well as on mount Olympus, on condi-
tion of keeping a great many of thofe animals for hunting
fnakes, which had multiplied to an alarming degree ; and
which, it is faid, have no greater enemies than cats. Son-
nini's travels in Greece and Turkey, p. 56.

A-GROUND, in Sea-language, expreffes the fituation of a
fiiip whofe bottom, or any part of it, refts upon the ground.

AGR.YLA, in /Indent Geography, a city of the ifland

of

A G U

A G U

of Saidiiila, founded, according to Stcph. Byz. by a colony
of Athenians.

AGRYPNIA, ay^vwicc, a privation of deep ; otherwife
called watching, vvakinj^, •vit^iliie, pervi^ilhim, &c. Among
phyficians, this is a troublefomc fymptom in fevers and otlicr
difordcrs. In the Greek church, it is ufcd for the vigil of
any of the greater feall-days, obfei-ved by the moi)ks and
clergy. Du-Cange.

AGUA, in Geography. See Oegwa.

Agua, Fort Harbour, is fituate about a league north-
■north-eall from Fermofa harbour, on the call coall of
Newfoundland.

Agua de Pao, a fmall town in the ifland of St. Michael,
one of the Azores. It is fituated in a fertile ttnitoiy,
which produces abundance of corn and excellent fruit. W.
long. 25° 40'. N. lat.38° 10'.

Agua, Rio del, a river which falls into Boraventurabay,
on the coail of Popayan, in the South Sea ; in about W.
long. 77° and N. lat. 3° 30'. It affords good anchorage.

Agua, Revcs, a fmall place in the province of Traz-os
montes, in Portugal.

AGUADA, a river which runs into Smienda bay, near
cape Roque, on the coaft of Brazil, about W. long. 34*^ 30'.
and S. lat. 5°.

Aguada de Saldana, a gulph on the coaft of Africa,
15 leagues north from Table l)ay.

AGUADIR-Toma, a town of Africa, in the empire of
Morocco, in the province of lus, 13 leagues fouth of Santa
Cruz.

AGUADORE, a river in the ifland of Cuba, on the
fouth fide, and nearly north from the call end of Jamaica.
Its mouth is in W. long. 75° 35'. and N. lat. 20°.

AGUAGUIN, iu Botany, the name of a (hrub among
the Africans, who efteem it greatly as a balfamic and vul-
nerary. The leaves of this flirub refemble thofe of our
common lilac ; they grow alternately, and ftand upon foot-
ftalks of half an inch long ; and when held up to the light,
they fliew a fine texture of the fmaller veins. Philof. Tranf.
N° 232.

AGUAPECACA, in Ornithology, the name of a Bra-
filian bird of the moor-hen kind. It is of the fize of a
pigeon, very long-legged, and has a beak like that of the
gallinaceous kind ; its back, and the upper part of its
wings, are brown, and in each wing they have a fliarp horn,
or prickle, ferving for their defence. Marcgrave.

This is the jaeana-peca of BufFon, the jacana annata of
BrifTon, the Brafilian jacana of Latham, and the Parka
Brajdienjis of Gmelin's Linnaean fyflem, charafteriled by
having the hinder claws very long, and the body greenifh-
black. At Guiana, where it is common, it is called kapoua,
and alfo kinkin, from its {hrill note : thefe birds are grega-
rious, and are found in flocks in the ditches, and among the
rulhes on the fides of the lakes ; and they live on fi(h and
water-infefts.

AGUARA-QUIYA, in Botany, a Brafil plant, thought
to be i\\e folanum "vulgare, or common nightfliade, b)' Ray.

AguarA-ponda, a plant, otherwife called viola fpicata
Brajiliana. It grows to the height of a foot and an
half, or more, with a fmooth, round, green, and jointed
ftalk ; at each joint come forth four, five, or more, nar-
row, ferrated, pointed, green, and unequal leaves ; the
top of the ilalk bears an ear a foot long, fmooth, and co-
vered with flowers of a fine violet azure, or the colour of
our -viola martia, confiiling of five roundidl leaves. The
whole flower is not unlike the viola wartia, and has fome-
what of its fmell ; the root is llraight, of a moderate thick-
nefs, and flioots out into abundance of Icfler ones, and thefe
again into filaments.

There is another kind, diilinguifiicd bv the <\idcnef- of
its ear of flowers, which rcprefcnts a helmet of a green
colour. It is marked with cubic pits, from whence proceed
azure flowers. Ray.

AGUAS, in Geography, a people of South America, on
the banks of the river of the Amazons. They arc faid to
be lefs polifhed than any other of the Indian nations.

Aguas Bellas, a fmall place in the province of Ellrema-
dura, in Portugal.

AGUATULCO, Aqi'atulco, orGuATULCo, atown
and port of Mexico. Its iiaibour is large and mucii fre-
quented. It is fituated in the South Sea. W. long. y6'^
40'. S. lat. 15° 10'.

AGUBliNI, in Ancient Geography, a people placed by
Ptolemy upon the frontiers of Arabia Deferta, very near
Arabia Felix.

AGUCCHIA GiovANNA, in Biography, was an en-
graver of the 1 6th century. He engraved the large defign
for the dome and cathedral of Milan. Strutt.

AGUE, in Medicine, a periodical difeafe of the fever-
kind, confining of a cold fliivcring fit, preceded by a hot
one, and going off in a diaphorefis or fweating. If the
coldncfs and fliivering be inconfiderable, and only the hot fit
felt, the difeafe is called an intermittiug fever. According
to the periods or times of the returns of the fit, the difeak
is either a quotidian, tertian, or quartan ague, or
fever. The catife of ^gues, as well as of the rfmittents
of hot climates, is now believed to be tlie miafmata or effluvia
arifing from putrid animal and vegetable fubilances mixed,
or from the latter alone. See Dr. Jackfon, &c. on Fever.

Sir John Pringle accounts for tiiem by means of the
principle of putrefaflion. The heat of the body, he ob-
ferves, varies little ; and therefore the corruption produced
in any of the humours mull happen in a determinate time.
If we fuppofe, that in the paroxyfm, the more corrupted
particles of the blood do not at all pals oft" through the
ikin with the fwcat, but that fome part of them is dif-
charged with the bile ; their particles coming into the in-
teftines, and being from thence taken up by the lacleals,
and carried into the blood, may there aft as a new feiTnent,
and occafion a return of the fit. Thus the coiTuption of
the bile may be the caufe of the firft fit as well as of thofc
that follow. He farther adds, that though all moift coun-
tries are fubjeft to agues of fome kind or other ; yet if the
moiilure is pure, and the fummers are not clofc and hot,
they will moftly be regular tertian agues, and admit an cafy
cure. But if the moiilure arifes from long ftagaating
water, in which plants, fifhes, and infefts die and rot, then
the damps, being of a putrid nature, occafion not only
more frequent, but more dangerous fevers, which more
commonly appear in the form of quotidians, and double
tertians, than that of fingle ones. Accordingly they arc
found to vary with the ftafon, on which the degree of pu-
trcfaftion in a great meafure depend*. •

Thefe opinions of Sir John Pringle, as far as they refl
on putrefaftive particles, or ferments in the living body, air
entertained only by a few pupils of the Bocihaavian fchool.
The theories of fever in moft general eftiniation at prefent,
are contained in Dr. Darwin's Zoonomia, and Dr. Cullen'*
firft lines.

The fymptoms aie, heavincfs and reaching ; a weak (low
pulfe ; coldnefs and fliivering felt firft in the joints, thence
creeping over the whole body ; pain in the loins, and an
involuntary motion of the under jaw.

This cold ilage varies in its duration and fcverity with
the kind of ague. It is flioiteft in the quotidian, and moft
diilrcfTing in the tertian.

The cold ftage is fucceeded by a full ftrong pulfe, dif-
3 K 2 trcCTiug

A G U

trtffing febrile licat and flulhing, indicating a fice circtila-
tion of the blood ihroujrli the extreme arteries on tlie fur-
face of the body, whicii hud been fiifpended or impeded
during tlie precedi.ig (lagc.

The diapliorefis, or fweating ftage, which foon fuccecds,
maybecoi.lidercd as the crisis of that rARO.xvsMi and ge-
nerally of tlie dife-.ile, if proper meaiis be employed to pre-
vent its recurrence.

A vernal ague is eafily cured ; but an autumnal one is
more obftinale, efpecially in aged and caehcclleal perfons ;
ai;d, particularly, if complicated v.itii a dropfy, perip-
jieumony, &c.

When an ague proves fatal, it is ufuidly in the cold fit.
The cure is ufually begun with an emetic of ipecacuanha,
an hour before the acceis, and completed with the corlcx
Peruvianus, admiiiiftered in the interval between two fits ;
and continued, at times, to prevent a re'apfe.

We meet with divers other methods of curing agues, be-
fides that by the carttx ; as by means of 20 grains of Do-
ver's powder ; or ten grains of James's powder, with one
of opium ; or a quart of any hot tea, taken before the
acceinon of the fit, in order to prevent, or greatly dimi-
r.ilh the fcverity of the cold ftage : by willow bark ; by ar-
fenie ; by f J-ammoniac ; and hy fal-vohiiUe, &c. which may
aft by attenuating the blood : in the ifland of Tino, by an
infufion of flowers of little centaurv. See Phil. Tranf.
N- 145. ' ,

From the great variety of the means by which the ague
lias been, or appeared to be cured ; we may conclude tliat
any thing which can make a ftrong impreflion either upon the
body or mind, a little while before the paraxyfm, will
cure the generality of agues. Etmuller gives divers in-
flances of agues cured by putting the patent in a fit of
palTiun. Others have been effefted by a fright, a fit of
drunkeiinefs, &c. ' Do we not often fee agues cured by

• amulets andj>ericar/>ia? I myfelf, fays Mr. Boyle, v\-as cured

• of a violent quotidian bv applying to my wrifts a pafte

• made of bay-falt, new_ hops, and blue currants, which
' has alfo relieved many others both of quotidians and ter-

• tlans.' Philof. Works abr. torn. i. p. 80.

Lord Bacon fays, ' It is often tried, that juices of ftock-
' gilly-flowers, rofe-carapion, garlick, and other things,

• applied to the vvriils, and renewed, have cured long
' agues.' He likewlfe recommends in the heats of agues,
to hold eggs of alaballer, and balls of cryftal, in the
hands.

Agues, it is fa'd, have not been unfrequently cured by
cleflricity. The moft efFeftual and fure mode of applying
this poiverfnl flimulant, has been to draw fparks through
flannel or the clothes, for about 10 or 15 minutes, either at
the time of the fit, or a little before it is expefted. In
vol. ill. of the Memoirs of the Medical Society of London,
we are told, that an obftinate quartan ague of five months'
continuance was cured by this means. On the acceflion of
the fit t'ne patient 'was ordered to receive ten or more fmart
ftrokes through her arms and thorax, from a ten ounce vial,
till (he was feized with fear, and began to fweat, and then
to go immediately into a warm bed and promote the fudori-
fic tffeft far fome hours, by taking frequent draughts of
tepid fniaD wine whey. By repeating this operation a few
hours, fays Dr. Ilower, fhe was cured.

Acui-caie, the popular name for a hard tumor on the
left fide of the belly, lower than the falfe ribs, faid to be the
effeft of intermitting fevers.
r A-GVE-tiroJis. See Arsenic.

Acvt-tree. See Laurus.

AGUE-/ra is a name given by fome to s.\ssafk..4S, on
account of its febrifuge virtue.

A G U

AGUEDA, in Geo^rapLy, a town of Portiigal, in the
province of Beira, i;pon a branch of the river Vouga, fix
leagues north of Coimbra. W. long. 8^ 26'. N.lat.40°3')'.

Agveda, a river of Leon, which pafles by Civdad-
Rodrigo.

AGUELAON, one of the Laccadive iflands, in the
Indian fea. IC. long. 73' 25'. N. lat. 11''.

AGUEPERSE, or AicvEPERsr, a town of France, in
the department of Puy-de-Dome, fcven leagues north-north-
call of Iliom.

AGUER, a fea-port town of Africa, fituated at the
foot of Mount Atlas, in the kingdom of Morocco. This
town was built by the Portuguefe, near a remarkable cape,
on t!ie north-well of the mouth of the river Sus, now called
Cape GtER. It was taken by Diego Lope/ de Scguerra,
who afterwards made a voyage to the Enil-Indies. As the
town had a convenient harbour, and was fam.ous for its "
firtieiy, this adventurer crefted a ftrong fort to defend it.
He fold it to Emanuel, king of Portugal, who added other
fortifications, and a ftrong garrlfon. But after a vigorous
defence, in which the enemy loft 16000 men, it was fur-
rendered, A. D. 1536, to Moliammed, who became emperor
of Morocco and Fez ; and in revenge for his lofs, he put
the whole garrifon to the fword, except the brave govei-nor
Mont Ro)^, whom he fpared and favoured for the fake
of his daughter. Donna Mercia, who confented to many
him, on condition of being allowed the free exercife of her
religion, and of being regarded as his lawful wife.

AGUESSEAU, Henry Francis D', in Biograpl.'y,
a chancellor of France, was born at Limoges in 1668, of an
ancient family of Saintonge. He owed the firft rudiments
of that literature to which he was devoted, to the inftrudlion
of his father, and his diftinguiftiing talte for poetrj' to the
foclety of Boileau, Racine and other eminent writers of
that clafs. After having held the office of advocate-general
of Paris for ten years, he was appointed procureur-general
in I 700 ; and in this fituation he diftinguiftied himielf by
introducing feveral regulations, which contributed to the
improvement of jurifprudence. He alfo directed a particular
attention to the hofpltals, and to the hardfhips occafioned by
the fcarcity in 1709, which indicated the amiable philan-
thropy of his temper, and in which he was Angularly ufefnl.
He alfo approved himfelf the ftrenuous defender of the li-
berties of the Galilean church, in oppoutlon both to Lewis
XIV. and the chancellor Voifin, who follclted his con-
currence in favour of the bull Uni^etihus. After the death
of Voifin, and in the regency of the duke of Orleans, he was
made chancellor ; and performed the duties of this office
with that eminent wifdom and iirmnefs, which the circum-
ftances of the times demanded. In his rtfiftance of the
financial projeifl of Law, he was for fome time fuc-
cefsful ; but when the regent determined to adopt it, he was
conftrained in I 7 1 8 to retire to his country -feat at Frefnes ;
but in 1720 he was recalled and reinftated in his office. He
was again deprived of it in 1722, recalled by Cardinal
Fleurj' in 1727, and reinvefted with the fealsin 1737, which
he held till his death. From the year 1729 to 1749 he was
feduloiidy employed in reforming the laws, and remedying
many notorious abufes that difgraced and obftrufted the ad-
miniftration of them. His obieft was to fupply their defects,
and to facihtate the execution of them, without changing their
fundamental principles ; but in this cxtenfive and laborious
employment his progrefs was (low ; and he met with difficul-
ties, from his extenfive views and from a regard to the profits
of the legal profefiion, which produced Indeclfion in his own
judgment, and ferved to retard his difpatch of bufmeis. For
the flownefs of fome of his determinations, he makes this
very xeafonable apology : " when I recoUevl. (faid he) that

the

A G U

the decree of a chancellor is a law, I think myfelf permitted
to take a long time for coniuicration." His life, though
afriduoiiflj- occupied, was j)roloni';ed by his temperance and
equanimity ; but in the year 1750 his increaruifj infirmities
admonirtied him of the ncccflity of withdrawing from public
employments ; and in 1751 he clofcd his life at the advanced
nge of 83 years.

Voltaire calls him the mod learned magiftrate ever pof-
feffed by France. Kefides the languages of antiquity, he
was acquainted with all the principal modern ones ; and to
his knowledge of tiie hillory of all agcrs and nations, he
added that of jurifprudence in its moil txtenfive fcnfe. Dur-
ing his exclufion from office, he made no attempts for being
rellored ; but always manifelled a difpofitien fuperior to the
honours which his talents and merit claimed, and a defire to
be ufeful rather than to afpire after power and to accumulate
wcaltii. Of his frugality, and of the various emoluments
annexed to the dignities he pofTefled, the only fruit tliat re-
mained was his librar)', in the improvement of which he li-
mited himftif to a certain annual expence. In the periods
of his retirement, w'hich he called " the ^lirell days of his
life," he devoted himfc-lf to the maturity of his plan of le-
giflation, to the education of his children, and to a variety
of literaiy purl'uits, am.ong which were mathematics and the
belles letters ; and thefe, together with agriculture, he
deemed his recreations in the intervals of his frverer occu-
pations. However, when the public demanded his fervices,
he furrendered the fatisfaftions of retirement and the plea-
fures of domeftic life. Having in 1694 married Anne le
Febure d'OiTneiTon, it was faid on this occafion, that virtue
and the graces were now iirft icen in alliance ; but he had the
misfortune to lofe her in 1735. His grief correfpo:ided to
the afTedtion that fubfillcd between them. Nevcrthelefs he
hailened to devote himftU to the functions of his office ;
alledging, " that his fervices were due to the public, and it
is not jull (faid he) that it (hould fufFcr by my domeilic af-
flielicn." We are informed, that he never pafTed a day
from his childhood, without reading feme parts of the fcrip-
tures ; and he was heard to fay, that this was the balm of
his life. Of his works nine volumes 4to. have been pub-
lifhed. In thefe, he is faid to have thought like a philofopher,
and fpoken as an orator. His eloquence has the force of
logic and the order of geometiy, united to the riches of
erudition and the charms of perfuafion. His Ityle is chafte
and harmonious, but deficient in warmth. When lie once
confulted his fatlieriu a difcourfe v.liieh he hadtaken pains to
compofe, and which he whhed farther to improve, his father
gave liis opinion : " the fault cf your diicourfe is its being
too elegant ; it will certainly be lefs fo if you touch it
again." Nouv. Dift. Hiflor. Biog. Dift.

AGUGA, Cape, hcs fouthward of Puira, on the coail
of Peru, in South America. S. lat. 60°. W.long. 82 ^

AGUIAS, a fmall town of Portugal, in Alantcjo, to
the well of Elvas, and to the call of Lilbon. The territory
about it produces grain and oranges. W. long. 6° 41'. N.
lat. 38= 30'

AGUGLIA. See Obelisk.

Aguglia is alfo the name given by the Italian fiihennen
to the Acus of Oppian, called in Englifh the GAR-FhSH.

AGUIGUAN, or tlie ifland ot the Holy Angel, in
Ge')\;raphy, one of the I^adrones or Marianne iflands, lies
in the Southern Sea, in lat. 14^^ 43'; about 40 miles from
Zarpana ; and about a league fouth-v.-elt of Tinian. It is
a fmall illand, about nine miles in compafs, mountainous,
but pleafant, and formerly well inhabited.

AGUILA, Ai'GELA, or OuGUELA, a town of Africa,
in the kingdom of Fez, fituate on the river Aguila or Er-
gucla, and giving name to a diftrict, which is tor the moll
part fandy and barren, but in feme places fo well watered

A G U

as to afford plenty of dates ; and it is fepnrated from Baiva
by a mountain called Meys, which affinds excellent pafture.

AGUII^AR, a town of Spain, in Navarre, four league*
foulh-wcd of Etlella. E.long. 2^30'. N. lat. 42° 35'.'

AGUILAR tic-l Campo, a" town of Spain, in Old Caf-
tile, fituate on the Alhama ; three leagues from Calahoira.

AGUILLANEUF, or Augiulaseuf, compounded
of the French, n, to, rut, inulelo, and fan luiif, i. c. lire ne'-j)
year; a form of rejoicing ufcd among the ancient Franks on
the firft day of the year.

Its origin is traced from a druid ceremony : the pricils
ufed to go yearly in December, which with them was re-
puted a iacred mcnth, to gather mifleto off the oak in
great folemnity. The prophets marched in the front, fing-
ing liymns in honour of their deities ; after thefe came a
herald with a caduceiis in his hand ; thefe were followed by
three druids a-breail, bearing the things ncceffary for facri-
fice. Laft of all came the chief, or arch-dniid, accompa-
nied with the train of people.

The chief druid climbing the oak, cut off the mislcto -
with a golden fickle, and the otlier druids received it in a
white cloth. On the firft day of the year it was diilributed
amimg the people, after having blefled and confecrated it by
cryuig ail giii ran neiif, to proclaim the new year.

Of later times the name auguillaneuf was alfo given to a
fort of begging, prattiled in fome diocefes, for church
tapers, on a new j-ear's day, by a troop of young ])eople<
of both fexes, having a chief, &c. It was attended with
divert ridiculous ceremonies, as dancing in the church, &c.
which occafioned the fynods to fupprefs it.

Aguillas, Cipe, in Geography, lies to the eaft of the
Cape of Good Hope. See Cape Needles.

AGUILLES, or AuGuiLLEs, cotton cloth, manufaC'*
turtd at Aleppo.

AGUILLON, Francis, in5/oera^/n',a jefuitof Bruffels,
wasproftJorof philofophy at Doway, and of theology at Ant-
werp. He was dillir.guiihed by his knowledge of mathe-
matics, and is faid to have firil introduced iludies of this
kind into Flanders. He wrote a book of optics, intilled,
" Opticorum, lib. vi. Philofophicis juxta ac Mathematieis
utiles," which was printed at Antwerp, in 1613, fol. He
was employed in finifhing his "Catoptrics and Dioptrics" at
the time of his deatli, wliich happened at Antweip, in
161 7, in the 50th year of his age. He is alio faid to have
written a treatlfe of " Projections of the Sphere." He
undcrllood feveial languages ; his judgment was accurate ;
his learning extenfive ; and his patience and fortitude under
ievere trials were very fignal. Under the paroxyfms of the
ailhnia, to which he was fubjeCl, and which were very
trying, jull before his death, he repeatedly faid : " Let
Gotl's will be done — I fiibmit to it — I am willing to form
myfelf abfolutely upon the divine plcafure — I have now th.e
torments which I often wilhed for, and defued of God."
Gen. Dia.

Aguillon Pohil, in Geography, a long narrow point, iji a
curvihnear form, north-caft of the ille of Rhe, on the coa.'l
of France, and about three leagues iiorth-wefl. of Rochelle.
To the eaft of Agnillon the bay contratls and teiTninates.

AGUIRRA, Joseph Saenz I)e, in Biography, alcnrned
Benediilme ct the 17th cenluiy, was born in 1630, at I^o-
grogno, in Spain, and read kttures in theology at the univerfity
of Salamanca, where he took his degree of dottor of divinity.
He was alfo cenfor and fecrctary of tl.e fupreme council of
inquifition, and was honoured with a cardinal's hat by pope
Innocent XI. in 1686. He died at Rome, in 1699. -^1'*
life was exemplaiy ; and his writings numerous. He is faid
to have retracted the dodlrine of probability, whicli he had
maintained, as foon as he found that it was incdnfiltent with
the ftrldnefs and purity of the Cbrilliaii morals. His

publicationsj

A G U

publications weie very various. Befidcs liis works in tlieo-
logy, wliicli amount to fovcral volumes ; a commentary on
Arillotlt'j Ethics, and tlirce folio volumes of philofophy,
lie publiflied, " a Colleftion of tlie Councils of Spain,"
wit!> an liiftorical Introduction, of which extracts are given
in the Acta Erudlt. fur Feb. 1688; but as feveral of his
differtations are written in defence of the fpurious decretals
of the firll popes, Dupin lias objected to them in his
liiblioth. des Auteui-s Ecclcf. torn, xviii. p. 248. EJ.Amft.
171 I. Oen. Dic\.

AGUL, in Botany, a fmatl (lirub very prickly ; its
leaves are longifli, and rcfcmble tliofe of the knot-grafs ;
it abounds witli llowtrs of a rcddiili colour ; iheie are
fucceedcd by red hulks; its root is long, and of a purple colour.

This plant is otherwifc called alhagi nDiirorum, liy Rau-
wolf : it grows in Arabia, Perfia, and Mefopotamia. See
Hedysarum.

Agul, in Geography, a river of Ruffian Siberia, which
runs into the Kan. E. long. 95° 24'. N. kit. 55° 16'.

AGUNA, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of Benin.

AGUNTUM, in indent Geography, now Innihen, a
town of Rhastia, placed by Ptolemy in Norica, and by
M. d'Anville to the north of the Carnic Alps, and north-
well of yiilnim Carnicum.

AGURAH, in Jcwljli Ant'tquity, the twentieth part of
an ancient filver shekel. It was otherwifc called gciah
and kefliitah. The Seventy render it o/SoXo;.

AGURIUM, Agyrium, AGiRiUM,or Agyrena, now
S. Philippo d' Argyrone, in Ancient Geography, a town in the
interior part of Sicily, placed by M. d'Anville in the road
from Enna to Catania.

AGUSADURA, in Ancient Cujloms, a fee due from
vafTals to their lord, for iharpening their plowing tackle.

Anciently the tenants in fome manors were not allowed
to have their rural implements fharpened by any but thofe
whom the lord appointed ; for which an acknowledgment was
to be paid, called agufadura,in fomeplaces agufage,whichfome
take to be the fame with what was othervvife called reillage,
from the ancient French reille, a plough-Jhare. Du-Cange.

AGUSTINE, in Mineralogy, a barbarous term, com-
pounded of Greek and Latin, meaning luithnut tajle, inftpici,
by which profeffor Trommidorff has diftinguiiheda fuppofed
new earth, difcovered by him in the year 1800.

The mines of Johan-Georgenftadt contain a mineral,
which hitherto has been taken for the beryl : this being
analyfed for the puipofe of nfcertaining whether glycine was
one of its conllituent parts, yielded unexpeftedly a new
earth, which, from its forming infipid falls with acids, has
been called by its inventor, Aguitine.

This earth, when pure, has a great refemblance to alu-
niine, adheres very feebly to carbonic acid, hardens by ex-
pofiire to lire, and is infohible in water. It differs, how-
tver, from pure clay, in the following particulars : i. It
is abfolutely infoluble in any of the three alkalies, whether
cauftic or carbonated, in the moift or the dry way. 2, With
acids it combines, readily forming nearly infipid falls. 3. It
is equally foluble after induration by fire, as before. 4. Sul-
phuric acid forms with it a fait of difficult folution, and
perfcftly infipid, but which by a flight excefs of acid, be-
comes foluble and cryftallizes in liars. 5. Its acididous
phofphat is alfo very foluble. 6. But the acetite of Aguf-
tine is fcarcely at all fo.

Thefe are all the fafts that are as yet known concerning
this fubliance : it refts entirely upon the authority of Trom-
mfdorff, and as neither he nor any other chemift have fince
made the fmallell mention of it, even this flight notice might
here feem fuperfluous. Annates de Chimie, vol. xxxiv. p. 133.

A G Y

AGUTI, the CAviA agiiti oi Linnseus, in Zoology, ha»
a very fhort tail ; the upper parts of the body are of a
brown colour, mixed with red and black, the ramp of a
bright orange, and the belly yellowilh. Authors mention
tliree varieties, vix. Tlie lellcr aguti, or cavia aguti cunicu-
laris, with a very (hort tail, four toes before and three be-
hind, and a yellowifh belly. This is the cuniculus agouti
of Briflon and Gronovius, the larger moufe of Brown, the
American wild moufe of Ray, with the hair and voice of a
pig; tlie aguti or acuti of Marcgrave, &c. the long-nofed.
cavy of Pennant, and the agouti of Buffon. It is about
the fize of a rabbit, and inhabits Brafil, Guiana, Cayenne,
and other parts of South America and the Weft India
iflands. 2. The larger agouti, or cavia A. Icporina, with
a veiy fhort tail ; the upper parts of the body reddifh, and
the under white. This is the hare-like moufe of Linna:us,
having four toes on the fore, and three on the hinder feel ;
the Jsvan coney of Briffon ; the Java hare of Catefby ; and
the Java cavy of Pennant. It is of the fize of a hare, and
inhabits Surinam and the hotter parts of South America.
3. The Americ^i agouti, cavia A. Americana of Gmelin,
and the American coney of BrifTon and Seba ; has a very
fliort tail, and is clothed with coarfe reddifh fur. Thefe
three varieties inhabit South America, and fome of the
Weft India iflands, particularly the Antilles. The firft has
a long nofc, the up'per lip divided ; fhort, broad, rounded
ears ; black eyes ; flender, and alinofl naked legs, of a black
colour. The fecond has a fmall flender head, with promi-
nent naked ears, rounded at the extremity. The hinder
parts in both are larger than the fore parts, and the legs are
long. The third variety is little known. Thefe animals
inhabit hollow trees, and bun-ow in the ground. They
live on vegetables, which they coUeft in the day, and carry-
to their dwellings ; they fit on their hind legs, and feed
themfelves with their paws ; and when fatiated with food,
conceal the remainder ; they grunt like pigs : wlien hunted
with dogs, they run faft, with a kind of hopping or leaping
pace, like that of a rabbit or hare, and take fhelter in their
holes or hollow trees ; when irritated, the hair rifes on the
back, and they ftrike the ground with their hind feet ; when
I young, they are eafily tamed ; and will of their own accord,
go out and return again. They are very voracious, and
grow fat ; and their flefh is white and favoury, and eaten ia
South America. The female brings forth at all limes of the
year, and produces three, four, and fometimes five at a time.

Aguti Treva inj'ulie Marignante, in Botany, a plant
mentioned by de Laet. It has the leaves of the orange-tree,
only thinner, a dewy flower, a large fruit, with a greenifh
rind, which contains kernels like thofe of the pomegranate,
tliin, fwcet, and not ill-tailed.

AGUTIGUEPA obi Brafilienfibus, in Medicine, the
name given by many authors to the ARROW-roo/, or fagitta-
ria alexipharmka of the Weft Indies.

AGYEI, in Antiquity, a kind of obeliflts confecrated to
Apollo, and placed in the veftibules of houfes, for their
fecurily.

The agyei were no other than huge ftones, or perhaps
fometimes timber, having either a circular or fquare bafis,
and tei-minating in a point at the top, facred to Apollo, or,
as fome fay, to Bacchus, as proteAor of the high-wa)fs.
Others will have them to have been erciited to both thofe
deities. Suidas and Pitifcus. They had fometimes the head
of Apollo, Bacchus, or Mercury ; and Steph. Byz. fays,
that they ferved like our direftion-pofts, to fhew the way
to any place.

AGYLLA, (Cer-uaieri), in Ancient Geography, a town
of Etruria, near the fea, fo called by the Pelafgi, who came

thither

A G Y

tWtlicr from ThetTaly. It was afterwards called Cjre, as
Strabo (Gcog. torn. i. p. 337.) informs us, from thit cir-
ciimllaiice, that the Lydian;;, hearing tlic inhabitants fre-
quently repeating to them the Greek expreiTlon X'^^Vi '• e'.
rejoice, took this to he tlie name of the eity, which it after-
wards retained. Others, thinkiiig this etymology more
fanciful than juft, deduce Agylla from gilhih, 'ivatcr, as
they had fountains in the neigiibourhood ; and Caore luiglit
be formed from car'i or car'uih, a /oct/;, in the language of
the Lydians. The fons of Tarquin weic banidied to this
town ; and hither the veftals retired when, in the year 363,
the Gauls laid fitge to Rome. The laws and police of
this city are much commended. Hiilory informs us that it
imited with thj adherents of Tarquin againil Rome ; and
that it afterwards demanded and obtained a truce of 100
years. It was one of the iirit cities which became munici-
pal. Strabo fays, that in his time, there remained only
the ruins of this famous city ; and it was known only by its
baths.

AGYLLiEI, in Andcnt Htjlory, a denomination given
to the Pelafgi in Etruria. Infulated, as it were, in this
counti-y, they prefervcd, with little alteration, the manners
and religion of the ancient inhabitants of Greece ; they
furnilhed confiderable fleets, and aided the Carthaginians
with 60 veflels in their war with the Phocians, who had
eftablillied themfelves iu the illand of Sardinia ; and though
■ they were vanquiftied, they made ' many prifoners, whom,
according to Herodotus (lib. i. 167. p. 79.) they put
to death. They amafTed a treafure at Delpli, by tranf-
mitting thither a tenth of their maritime prolits ; and by
their commerce, and their piracies on the coaft of Italy, and
amidft the iflands of the ./Egean fea, they acquired a degree
of power, which rendered them important aUies or formi-
dable enemies to their neighbours. Herodotus fays, that
their power was confiderable in his time ; and that, i 1 con.
fequence of an oracle, they had inftituted funeral facrifices
and annual games, which they then celebrated. Thefe peo-
ple, who were fometimes called Tynhenians, fcnt fucconr
to the Athenians in the Sicilian war, not long before the
ruin of Veil by the Romans. They formed an alliance
with the Romans, which gave them all the advantages be-
longing to Roman citizens, without the charges attending
them ; and they formed, under the name of Casrites, the
third order of the republic. The Ca;rites bore arms in the
Roman army, and were almoft always united to the Ro-
mans, as Livy, (lib. vii. c. xx.), informs us ; and they were
confidered, not merely as allies, but as a part of the nation.
At length, deierted by the Roman marine, which found
more fpacious and convenient ports, and lofuig its commerce,
Csre dechned, and the inhabitants, who were Romans, were
indifcriminatcly blended with the other citizens.

AGYNEIA, formed of a, priv. and ywn, a nvife, in
Botany, a genus of the monoecla monadelphia clafs and order,
according to Martyn ; but in Gmehn's Linnaeus, of the tr't-
andria vionc^Q'nicr, of the natural order of tricoccie, and the
Euphorbite of Juflieu. Its generic charatters are, that the
male flowers are below the female; the calyx is fix-leaved ; the
leaflets oblong, obtufe, equal, and permanent ; no corolla ;
in the male, inllead of filaments, a column fliorter than the
calyx ; three or four anthers, oblong, growing to the
column below the top : in the female flowers, the germ of
the fizc of the calyx, fub-ovate, obtufe, perforated at top
with a fix-notche<l hole ; neither ftyle nor ftigma : the
pericarpium fuppofed to be a tricoccous capfule. There
are two fpecies, vi-z. I. A. impulrs, with leaves fmooth
on both fides. 2. A. pubera, \vith leaves downy under-
neath : both fpecies are natives of China.

A II A

AGYNIANI, hi Church Bijlory, a feft who condemned
all ule of flefli, and marriage, as not inllituted by God, but
introduced at tiie inftigation of ihc devil.

Tlie word is compounded of the privative a, and 'jvn,
wmian. Tlicy are fometimes alfo calKil ylyfniiciifes and
y/gyiiii ; and aie laid to have appeared about the year ^194.

AGYR'r.iE, in yltiliqiiily, a kind of llroUing impoilors
running about the country, to pick up money by telling
fortunes at rich men's doors, pretending to cure difcafes
by charms, facrifices, and other religious mylleries ; alfo to
expiate the crimes of their deceafed ancellors by virtue of
certain odours and fumigations ; to torment their enemies
by the ufe of magical verfes, and the like. Tiie word is
formed of the verb a-,iifii, I congregate ; alluding to the prac-
tice of quacks, who gathered a crowd about them. Sec
vEruscastorks.

AGYRTUS, in Entomology, a name given by Cramer to
the PAPiLio PHERECLUS of Gmclin's Lmna;us.

AHA, or Ahu, in Zoology, a name given by the I'cr-
fians to the cervvis pygargus of the Linna:an fyflcm, or
the lail-lcfs roe of Pennant, which has no tail, and three-
forked horns. It inh 'biis the lofty mountains of Hirca-
nia, and of Rufiia and Siberia, beyond the Volga ; and at
the approach of winter defcends into t'le plains and becomes
hoary : it is called ly the Rufilans dikeja roza, and by the
Tartars faiga. This animal refenibler. the roe, but is muck
larger, being of the fame deep red colour, with a large bed
of white on the nmip and buttocks, extending up the
back ; the fur is thick, in fpri;ig rough and crctl, on the
limbs and belly yellowlfli ; the fides of tlie under lip and the
fpace about the nofe are black ; but the point of the lip is
white ; the hairs of the eyc-Iids and round the orbits are
long and black ; the horns are very rugged at the bafes,
and full of knobs ; the ears are covered on the infide with a
very thick white fur. Gmehn's Linn.

AHAB, in Scripture Biography, one of the kings of
Ifrael, was chiefly diltinguifhed by his impieties. He fuc-
cceded his father, A. M. 3086 ; manied Jezebel, the
daughter of Ethbaal, king of the Sidonians, or rather the
Tyrians ; and at her inlligation introduced the idolatrous
worfhip of Baal among the Ifraelites. In his wicked reign
there was a drought of three years continuance, probably
the fame with that mentioned by Jofephus, ( Ant. lib. viii.
c. XV, §2.) which happened, A.M. 3096. With a fmall
force he obtained a fignal viftory over Benhadad, king of
Syria, who had befieged Samaria. In a fubfequent war,
he endeavoured to elude the enemy by a change of clothes,
but was accidentally killed by an arrow, about the year 897
before ChriiL The defpotic charafter of this prince, and
the favage cruelty of his wife Jezebel, are ftrongly marked
in the anecdote related concerning Naboth's vineyard.
I Kings xvi. 29 — 33. XX. xxi. xxii. Gen. Diet.

AH^TULLA, in Zoology, a fpecies of coluber, in
the order of Serpents. It is found in Afia and America,
about three feet 14 inches long, of a greenifli-gold colour,
with the (l<in, fometimes vifible between the fcaUs, black.
Its head is elongated and narrow, with a black band over
the eyes, and a te'rahedrous tail. By fome authoi-s it is
called the long green Borneo fnake, and the bonguatrora of
Ambcyna. Gmelin.

AHALOTH, in the Materia MeAka, the Hebrew name
ufed by lomc w n'ters for the rtgnum-aloes, or aloes •wood.

AHANIGER, in Ichthyology, a name given by Alber-
tus and ot.iers, to the filh called by authors Acus vulgaris,
and by u^ the gar-fish.

AHAUSZ. SccAahus.
• AHASUERUS, in Scripture Hiftory, was the king of

Perfia,

A H E

Pcifia, who ndvanced Efther to be qticcn, and at licr re-
quoil dclivt-rod tlic Jews from tlio delbiiftion plotted foi"
them by liaman. Arclibiiliop UlTier (Vide Annal. Vet.
Tfft.anM. Jul. piT. 4193), isof cpinion, that this Aliafiitriis
was Dariiis Hyllalpis ; and tir.vt Atofia was t)ie Vaflui, and
Artyftona the Ellhcr of the fciiptures. But, according to
Herodotiis (Hb. iii. and lib. vii.), the latter was the daugh-
ter of Cyni?, .and therefore could not be Ellhcr ; and the
former had four fons by Darius, bcfides daughters, born to
Iiim after he was king ; and therefore (lie could not be the
queen Valhti, divorced from her huftand in the third year
of hi.; reign (EiUicr i. ■5.), nor he the Ahafi'.erus who
divorced her. Befides, Atolfa retained htr influence over
Darius to his deatli, and obtained the fueccfiion of the
crown for his fon, Xei-xes ; whereas Vafliti was removed
from the prefence of Ahafuerus by an irrevocable decree,
(Elllier i. 19.) Jof. Scaliger (de Emcndatii nc, lib. 6.)
maintains, that Xerxes was the Ahafuerus, and Hameftris,
his queen, the Either of feripture. This opinion h founded
on the fimilitude of names, but contradicltd by the dilhmi-
litude of the charafters of Hanieilris and Either. Befides,
Herodotus (lib. ix.) fays, that Xences had a fon by Ha-
mellris, that was marriageable in the 7th year of his reign ;
and therefore llie could not be Efthcr. The Ahafuerus'' of
feripture, according to Dr. Prideaux, was Artaxerxes Lon-
gimanus. Jofephus poiitively fays, (Ant. lib. xi. ch. vi.)
that this was tiie perion. The Septuagint, through the
whole book of Efther, ufe Artaxerxes for the Hebrew
Ahafuerus, wherever the appellation occurs ; and the apo-
cryphal additions to that book evciy where call the huftarvl
of Efther Artaxerxes ; and he could be no other than
Artaxerxes Longimanus. The extraordinary favour lliewn
to the Jews by this king, firft in fending Ezra, and after-
wards Nehemiah, to relieve this people, and reftore them to
their ancient prolperity, affords Itrong prefumptive evidence,
that they had near his perfon and high in his regard fuch an
advocate as Efther. Prid. Conn. vol. i. p. 361, &c. 8vo.
Ahafuerus is alfo a name given in feripture (Ezra iv. 6.), to
Cambyfes, the fon of Cyrus ; and to Aftyages, king of the
Medcs. Dan. ix. i.

AHAZ, fucceeded his father Jotham, as king of Ifrael,
at the age of 20 years, reigned till the year hek 'c Chrift,
726, and addicted himfelf to the pratlice of idolatiy.
After the cuftoms of the heathens he made his ehijdren to
pafs through the fire ; he fhut up the temple, and deftroyed
its veffels. He became tributaiy to Tiglath-pilefer, whofe
afTiftance he fupplicated againft the kings of Syria and Ifrael.
Such was his impiety, that he was not allowed burial in the
fepulchres of the kings of Ifrael. 2 Kings xvi. 2 Chron.
xxviii.

AHAZIAH, the fon and fucceffor of Ahab, reigned
two years, and continued the impieties of his father.

1 Kings xxii. 31.

Ahaziah, was alfo the name of an idolatrous king of
Judah, who fucceeded Jehoram, and reigned one year. By
his alliance with the houfe of Ahab, and the counfel of his
mother Athaliah, he purfued evil pradiees ; and he was
flain by Jehu, in the year before Chrift, 884. 2 Kings viii.

2 Chron. xxiii.

A-HEAD, in Sea-language, refers to any objeft that lies
immediately before a ftiip, or towards that point of the com-
pafs to which her Rem is direaed : ufcd in oppofition to

A-STERN.

AHEEN, in Geography, a tribe of the Ragpouti, in
India.

AHER, a town of Perfia, in the province of Aider-
beitian ; 30 miles north-weft of Ardevjl.

A H L

AHIJAH, in Scnpiure TUJlfiry, a prophet cf Shiloh ; '
w]\o is fujipofed to have delivered two meffages from God
to Solomon, one encouraging, whilft he was building the
temple ( i Kings vi. 1 1.), and ai:other threatening, exprefT.vc
of difpleafiue, on account of his mifconducl, ( i Kings xi.
6). He is one of thofe who wrote the annals of this
prince, 3 Chron. ix. 29. He alfo predicted the lifui-pation
of Jeroboam, declared the calamities that would befal
his houfe on account of his idolatry, and I'lfo foretold the
death of his fon Abljah, I Kings xiv. He lived to an ad-
vanced age ; but the time and manner of his death are not
recorded.

AHIMAAZ, fon of Zadok the high prieft, fucceeded
his father about A. M. 3000, under Solomon. During
the rebellion of Abfalom, he informed David of t!i« re-
folution adopted in his council ; and he and Jonafhan
efeaped their purfuers by being concealed at Baharim.
Ahimaaz was the iirll who gave intelligence to David of
Abfalom's death. He was fucceeded in the priefthood
by Azariali. 2 Sam. xv. I7.xvii. 17. i Sam., xxiii. 1 8-20.
I Chron. vi. 9.

AHITHOPHEE, a native of Giloh, who, after having
been David's counfellor, joined in the rebellion of Ab-
falom, and affifted him with his advice. Hufliai, the friend
of David, was employed to coiniteradl the counfels of
Ahilhophel, and to deprive Abfalom, under a pretence of
fcrving him, of the advantage that was likely to refult
from the meafures v. hich he propofed. One of thefe mea-
furcs was calculated to render David irreeoncileable, and
was immediately adopted ; and the other to fecure, or to
flay him. Before the laft counfel was followed, Hufhai's
advice was defired ; and he recommended their affembling
together the whole force of Ifrael, putting Abfalom at
their head, and overv>hehning David by their number.
The treacherous counfel of Hufliai was preferred to that
of Ahithophel ; with which he was difgulled and haitened
to his houle at Giloh, where he put an end to his life.
He probably forefaw Abfalom's defeat, and dreaded the
punifhment which would be inflitled on himfelf as a traitor,
when David was re-fettled on the throne. A. M. 2981.
Ante Chrift. 1023. 2 Sam. xv.-xvii.

AHLDEN, in Geography, a bailiwick of the princi-
pality of Luneburg-Zell, in Germany, lying on both fides
of the Aller, which in this bailiwick receives the Leine and
Bohme. It is one German mile and a half in length, and
as much broad ; and confifts of champaign, heaths, and
far.dy grounds ; and, to the fouth of the Aller, has good
marfti lands and pafturage. Its woods are chiefly oak ;
and great quantities of timber are conveyed in floats to
Bremen. I'he inhabitants cany on a conliderable trade in
horfes, cattle, wool, honey, and wax.

Ahlden is alfo the name of a town iituate on the old I^einc,
near the Aller, from the courfe of which it derives its
name. Sophia-Dorothea, confort to king George I., after
her feparation, refided in the palace of this town, from 1694
to 1726.

AHLEM, a vogtey, or diftrift of the principality of
Calenberg, in Gemiany, containing feven villages ; the
chief of which is Limmer.

AHLEN, a fmall town of Munfter, in Weftphalia,
fituate on the Werfe, which is fummoned to the-land-diets,
contains a collegiate church, two nunneries of Auguftines,
and a princely and rural court. See Aalkn.

AHLWARDT, Peter, in Biography, profeflbr of
logic and metaphvfics at Grlefswalde, was boi-n of mean
parentage, in that city, February 14, 17 jo. Having

inad«

A H O

A i

mnde confidcrable proficiency in tlic Greek and Latin
cluflics, he became a Ihidtnt of tlieoWv in 1727; but
applied chit-fly to mathematics and philoPophy. 1" three
years he removed to tiic univerlity of Jena ; and in 173^,
i-etnrned to Gricfswalde, wliere he read a courfe of lec-
tures on mathematics and philofophy. In I743> lie be-
came an adjuncl of the philofophical faculty in tiiat place,
:uid nine 3\"ar3 after was choleji jirofe'lor ; he alfo preaclied
often wit'i great approbation. He largely contributed to
the critical refearchcs of the fociety at Gricfswalde, of
.which he was a member. He founded alio the order of
the Abehles, and wrote a treatife on the occailon, entitled,
" The Abclite." His otlier principal works are, " Con-
fidcrations on the Confellion of Angfburg ;" "Thoughts
on the Powers of the Human Underllanding ;" " An
Inlrodnftion to Philofophy ;" "A Treatife on the Im-
mortality of the Soul ;" and " Brontotheologia, or
Thougltts on thunder and lightning." He is faid to
have been fo accurate in his compofition, that he never cor-
redled what he had once written. He died March I ft,
1 791. Gen. Biog.

AHMED K/.'jn, one of the race of Jcnghis or Zingis,
was the Ion of Hulaku, and brother of Abaka khan, whom
he fucceeded as emperor of the Moguls, in 1282. He
aflumed the name Ahmed, on his embracing Mohammcdifm ;
and on this occafion, he offered protection to all Mufl\d-
mans, in a letter to the Sultan of Egypt and Syria. This
change of religion offended the princes of his family to
fuch a degree, that he could never regain their afleCtion.
His nephew Argun railed an army againit him, but he was
foon defeated and taken prifoner. He was afterwaids re-
leafed by forae confpirators, and having killed the em-
peror's principal officers, he purfued and overtook him ;
and delivered him up to his mother-in-law, who, in revenge
for the lofs of her own fons whom Ahmed had caulcd to
be flain, put him to death, after a reign of two years and
two months. A. D. 1284. Mod. Un. Hill.' vol. iv.
390, &c.

AHMEDABAD, or Agmed's Cily, in Geography,
the capital of the province of Guzerat in India, fo called
from Sultan Ahmed, who was king of that province, and
kept his court in that city; It is 224 nieafured coss dillant
from Delhi, and 86 coss from Surat. The city is fituated
in a delightful plain, watered by the little river SabremeUi.
The walls are built with brick and done, flanked at cer-
tain dillanccs with large round towers and battlements.
It has 12 gates ; and, including the fuburbs, is about four
and a half miles in length. On the well fide is the caille,
walled with freellone, and as fpaeious as a little city : the
caravanfary is on the fouth of the king's fquare, which is
700 paces long and 400 broad, planted round with trees,
and is its chief ornament. Near this fquare is the king's
palace with apartments richly ornamented ; and in the midll
of the city is the Engliih faitory. The Hindoos have in
this place, whieh, from an eminence, appears like a wood
being full of gardens, an hofpital for fick birds, and an-
other for fick bealts. For magnitude and wealth, this
city is little inferior to the beil in Europe ; and the reve-
nue which it yields, is generally reckoned to be ten times
es much as that of Siu-at. Frafer's Kuii Khau. p. 29.
Mod. Un. Hift. vol. V. p. 293.

AHMEDNAGUR, a city in the province of Dowla-
lahad in Ir.dia, difta.nt from Delhi 2 So mcafured cofs.
Auringitebe died in this city. Frafer's Kuli Khan, p. 3J.

AHMELI^A, in Botany. See Acmella.

AHOLIBAH and Aholah, in Scnplnrc H'tjlory, are
two fcfntd names, ulcd b)' V^zekiel (ch. xxiii. 4.) to denote

Vol. f.

the two kingdoms of Judah and Samaria. They are re-
preiented as fillers of Egyptian cxlraclion : Ahola being
Samaria ; and Ahohbah, Judah. 'i'hey both proilituted
themfelves to the Egyjjlians and Afiyrians, by imitating
their idolatrous and wicked practices ; and for that reafoii
they were made captives and reduced to the moll ignomi-
nious and cruel fervitude.

AHONl, in Geography^ a fea-port town of Africa, on
the eoall of Benin.

AHOUAl, in Bolnny, the name of a genus of plant»,
called by Linn.cus curbera.

AHOUAS, Ahwas, or Ahuaz, in Geography, a towli
of Perfia in the province ot Chufillan ; about 240 mile*
wefl-fouth-wcll of lipalian.

AHR. SccAher.

AHRABAN, a town of Afia in the province of
Diarbekir, 30 leagues fouth of Diarbekir.

AHRENSBECK, a town of Germany, in the duchy
of Holilcin ; 12 miles north-north-well of Lubeck ; and
alfo a bailiwick.

AHRENSDORF, a town of Germany, in the middle
mark of Brandenburg ; fix miles louth-fouth-eaft of Potz«
dam.

AHRIMAN. See Arimakius.

AHRWEILER, a fmall town of Germany, in the
cleAorate of Cologn, featcd on the river Ahr, and furnilli-
ing good wine. It is eight leagues north-well of Coblentz.
E. long. 6° 43'. N. lat. 50° 35'.

AHSAorAHAsA. See AiiouAS.

AHIJ, in Zoology, the ibex capenfis of Kolben, the
kevel of Buffon, the Jlat-hornsd antelope of Pennant,
and the antilope Kevella of Gmelin's Linnxus.

AHUCYATLI, the name of an American ferpent,
approaching to the nature of the haemorrhus and rattle-
fnake, but larger than the former, and wanting the rattle
of the latter ; it is as fatal in the effecl of its poifon as
any known fpecies of ferpent. Ray.

A-HULL, in Scu-latiguage, denotes the fituation of a
fliip, when all her fails are furled, on account of the vio-
lence of a llorm, and when, having lallied her helm to the
lee-fide, flie lies nearly with her fide to the wind and fea,
her head being fomewhat inclined to the direction of the
wind.

AHUN, in Geograp/j)', a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Creufe, and dillricl of Gucret ; three leagues
fouth-eaft of Gueret. E. long. 1^ 52'. N. lat. 49° 5'.

AHUYS, a town of Gothland, in Sweden, in the pro-
vince of Schoncn ; about two leagues fouth-fouth-eaft of
Chrillianlladt, near the Baltic fea. This is, as it were; the
warehoufe where the goods dcilgned for Chrillianlladt are
depofited. It has a good harbour, and was formerly a
llrong town, but is now decayed. E. long, i 4*^ 10'. N. iat.
56° 20'.

AI, called by the LXX Gai, by Jofcphus Aina, and
by others Ajah, in Scripture Gio^rap!}y, a town of I'a-
leiline, iituate well of Bethel, and at a fmall dillancc north-
weft of Jericho. The 3000 men, full I'eni. by Jolhua ti>
reduce this city, were rtpulled, on account ol Achan'i
fin, who had violated the anathema pronounced againll
the city of Jericho, by appropri;iting fonie of the fpoil.
A. M. 2553. After the expiation of this olfenec, the
whole army of Ifrael marched againll Ai, with orders to
treat this city as Jericho had been treand, with this dif-
ference, that the plunder was to be given to the army.
Jolhua, having appointed an ambuih of 30,000 men,
marched againll the city, and, by a feigned retreat, drew
out the king of Ai with his troops; aiid upon a ftgril
3 L •a..''.B

A I A

A J A

pivcn, by elevating his (hicid on the top of a pilic, tlie
men in ambuih entered the" city and let fire to iv ;
and thus tiie foldiers of Ai, placed between two divi-
fions of Jortiua's army, were all dtlboycd ; the kinp alone
being prcfcrvcd for a more ipiominioiis death on a gibbf t,
uherc he continned till fiui-fet. Tlie fpoil of the place
vas afterwards divided among the Ifniclites. The men
a)>pointed for ambulh are, in one place, faid to be 30,000,
aiic! in another 5000. For reconciling this apparent con-
tradiction, moit commentators have generally fnppoltd,
tliat there were two bodies placed in anibuicade between
Hcthel and Ai, one of 2j,ooo and the other of joco
men ; the latter being probably a detachment fiom the
30,000 firll fcnt, and ordered to lie as near to the city
as poHible. Malins allows only 5000 men for the ani-
bnfcadc, and 25,000 for the attack. As for the fignal,
uled by JoHina on this occafion, the Rabbins liippofe
that the (hield was too fmall for this pui-pole, and that it
mu'.t have been the ilaff belonging to one of their colours,
in which opinion Chevalier Folaid acquiefces ; adding,
tliat the whole colours were ufcd on this occafion, the
p;ut being iublHtvited, agreeably to the figurative language
of the eail, for the whole. It has been fuggefted, that
this was one of the fire-pots, which are employed as en-
figns by the eaftern caravans, whole fnioke would afccnd
to a great height, be cafily feen, and fignify the fate in-
tended for the city ; and as the frame and llaff of this
inftrumcnt were of iron, it anfwers to the trauHation of
the LXX and Aquila. Jofiiua viii. Patrick, in he. Calmct.
Ai, in Zi-o/flo-v, the Bradvpus trtilaflylus of Linnsus,
or sloth, with three-toed feet and fliort tail.

AIA, or Allia, in ylncienl Geography, a river of
Italy which difcharged itfelf into the Tiber, about 19 miles
above Rome. On the banks of this river, 200 Fabians
were deftroyed in their engagement with the Veii, and the
Romans were defeated by the Senones of Gaul, conducted
by Brennus.

AJABIRE, or AjAviRA, in Geography, a town of
South America, in Peru ; 35 leagues fouth of Cufco.

AJAH, n'K' 3 Hebrew term, which St. Jerome
tranllates vulture. Bochart fuppofes that it denotes the
merlin ; the Syriac renders it raven, and the Arabic owl.
Our tranflation (Job xxvii. 7.) renders it vulture; but
(Lev. xi. 14. Dent. xiv. 13.) kite. It is evidently a fpecies
of unclean bird, and mod probably the vulture or kite,
fo called from its gluttony, or from its note. AUm (Jer.
I. 39.) may perhaps be the plural of Ajah, and fignify
flights of vultures, which in fome countries are very nu-
incrflus ; tho\igh Bochart conceives them to be jackals.
Calmet. Bochart Op. torn. iii. p. 193. &c. Ed. ViUem.

AIAIA, in Ornithology, the name of a Brafilian bird, of
the PLATALEA, or spoONBiLL-kind, called by the Portu-
guefe colhorado. Its fpecific character is, that its body is
blood-coloured. It is exaftly of the fame (hape, but fome-
what fmallcr than the European fpecies, and its beak is
in the very fame manner broad at the end, with a furrow
parallel to the margin, and of a cinerous-white colour. It
differs fiom the European fpecies, by the rofe or carnation
■which paints the white ground of its plumage on the neck,
the back, and the fides ; the wings are more ftrong'y co-
loured, and the red tint turns into a crimfon on the rfioul-
ders and the covers of the tail, of which the quills are
rufous ; the Ihaft of thofe of the wing is marked with fine
carmine ; the head and throat are naked and whitifli ; the
legs grey ; and the claws blackilTi. Thefe beautiful colours,
fciys BiifFon, are found only in the adult.

Thisfpccits w ihe platea rojia of Briflbn, the/, incariiata

of Sloane and Ray, the brafilian fpoonbill, called ajuja,
of Marcgrave and Willughhy, the ra/'iatu fpoonbill of La-
tham, and \\\c fpalulc coulcur de rofe ot liufion. There is
a variety, called tlauhquechul, which Buffon fuppofea
to be the fame bird in its adult Hate. This rofe-coloured
fpoonbill is common about the fiiores of rivers, feeds on
fmall filli, and is, lays Marcgrave, of an agreeable tafte.
It is diffuled in the new continent from north to fouth,
from the coalls of Mexico and Florida to Guiana and
Bralil. It is alfo found in Jamaica, and probably in the
adjacent ifiands ; but the fpecies is no where numerous.
In the morning and evening the fpoonbills are feen on the
fea-ihore, or iettling on trunks that float near the beach ;
but about the middle of the day in veiy fiillry weather
they enter the creeks, and perch high on the aquatic treei.
However, they are not veiy wild ; as they pais at fea
very near the canoes, and on kind they will allow a
perfon to approach them within gun-fiiot. Buffon's Birds,
vol. vii. p. 437. Eng. Ed.

AJALON, in Scrip>iure Geography, a name given to four
different cities, viz. one in the tribe of Dan, between
Timnah and Belh-)hcme(h, afllgned to the Levites ; pro-
bably that referred lo by Jofiiua chap. x. 12 : — another, in
the tribe of Benjamin, between Bethel to the north, and
Jeniialem to the i<nith : — a third, in the tribe of Ephraiin,
about two miles from Shechem : — and a fourth, in the
tribe of Zebulun, whofe prccile fituation is not known.

AJAN, or Ax AN, in Geography, a country extending
along the eallern coail of Africa, from Magadoxo to Cape
Guardafui, comprthending about 10 degrees of latitude.
This maritime traft contains feveral petty kingdoms and
fiates ; the principal of which are the kingdoms of Adel
or Zeila, and Magadoxo or Madagoxo, on the coafts,
and fome others inland, hardly known even by their
names. The eaftern coall of Ajnn is fandy and barren,
the habitation merely of wild bealls, and therefore called
the defert coall : but farther towards the north the country
is fertile, producing all forts of pi'ovifion, and iuniilhing
means of commerce, and particularly an excellent breed
of horfes, which foreign merchants take in exchange for
filks, cottons and other cloths. The inhebitants along
the coail are generally white with long hair ; but towards the
fouth they become more tawny, and even black. The negroes
intennarry with the Bedowin Arabs, and carry on a great
commerce with them in gold, flaves, horfes and ivory,
which they commonly bring from Abyfiliiia, whither they
occafionally repair for the fake of plunder. As they are
all either zealous Mohammedans or Bedowins, they are ene-
mies to the Abyflinians, who are Chrillians ; and their
irruptions into Abyfiinia accuftom them to war. Thofe
of them, and efpecially of the Bedowins, who live near
the trading coalls, are arrant thieves. Mod. Un, Hiil.
vol. xii. p. 304., ii;c.

AJANDUM, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the pro-
vince of Natolia ; eight leagues wefl-fouth-weil of Sinope.

AJAR, in Kalural Hijlory, the name given by Adamfon
to the chama antiqiiala of the Linnasan fy'lem.

AJARAFE, in Geography, a fertile dillrift of Spain,
in the kingdom of Seville ; in which there is a httle town
fituated on the Guadiamar, called Civdad of St. Lucar
la Mayor.

AJAS mon.r, a mountain of Marmariea. in Africa, ac-
cording to Ptolemy.

AJAS, a fmall town of Afia, in Natolia, famous for its
mineral waters ; called alio 1 henna.

AjAs is alfo a fmall town of Arabia Felix, fituated in
a valley, and about two davs journey from Aden.

AJA-

A J A

AJASAI-UCK, a name given bv the Tinks to the
ancient Ermsus. The luime cienotcs the temple of tlie
moon, and is derived fiom tlic magiiilkciit lli-iiCtuie for-
merly dedicated to Diana.

The ruins of this famous city ferve now merely as a
place of aecommodatioii and flieltcr for tlie Ihepherds and
ttieir Hocks, and is the occarioiial habitation of birds and
healh of ptey. The g-lorioiis pomp, fays Dr. Chandler,
(Travels, p. i;5l)of its heathen worlhip is no longer re-
membered ; and Chrillianity, which was there nuri'ed by
apolHes, and follercd by general councils, until it iii-
creafed to fulnels of ftatiire, barely lingers on in an ex-
jllence hardly vilible. By this writer it is delcribcd as
exhibitiii'7 a very gloomv and melancholy appearance,
though not abfolutely \\ithout people. The fires which
were lighted in the night among llie bulhes, and round
which the villagers coUerted, aflorded a dim profpert of
ruin and defolation. A ihriU owl, called Cucavaia from
its note, with a night-hawk, flitted near them ; and a
jackall cried mournfully, as if forfaken by his compa-
nions on the mountain. The biblical critic may podibly
confidcr this defcription as a lively comment on the language
of the prophet. Zeph. ii. 7, &c.

AJATOCHTLI, in Zoolo'^y, a name given by Her-
nandez to the DASY?us orlociricius, or ein/.'t-/i/ini/al akma-

DILLO.

AJAX OiLiADFS, in CLilftcal Bw^raphy, one of the
leaders of the Greeks, in the expedition againft Troy,
was the fon of Oileus, a powerful chief of the Locrians.
Homer (Iliad lib. xiv. v. 520) afcribes to him agility, and
a promptitude in executing whatever he undertook, and he
is faid to have excelled in tlie life of the bow and javelin,
and in fvviftnefs of foot. Horace is by fome commentators
fuppofcd to refer to him, Od. xv. 1. i. v. 19. Such was his
daring refolution, that even the Gods could not awe and
fubdue him. Homer Odyfl". lib. iv. v. 502.

" Impious he roar'd defiance to the Gods,

To his own prowefs all the glory gave."

Popr.
The offence which is reported to have incurred the dif-
pleafure of the Gods, was his violation ot Caflandra, the
•laughter of Priam, in the fanCfuai-y of Minerva, where
file had taken refuge. Ajax however denied the fact, and
imputed the charge to the artifice of Agamemnon, who
withcd to keep Caffandra for himfclf. In his return home,
ht and his whole fleet were wrecked by the vengeance of
Minerva. Some lay that he cfcaped ; and that in the mo-
ment of danger he iinpioufly exclaimed : " In fpite of
the Gods, I will efcape." — Homer uhi J'upra. v. 504.

" The power defrauding who vouchfafed to fave."

Pope. Gen. Dicl.

Atai Tclamomus, was the fon of Telamon, prince of
Salamis, and one of the principal heroes of tlie Iliad,
whom Homer reprefcnts as inferior only to Achilles in
Itrength and valour, and as the chief bulwark of the
Greeks, after the feceifion of that warrior. " His clia-
raftcr," fays a much approved biographer, " fcems to be in-
tended as the model of that flcady, agreeable courage
which is ever at hand, when its exertions are wanttd, and
requires no aid of circumllances to excite its energy. He
is the only hero, who neither alks nor receives the aififl;-
ance of a deity :" — and his charaftcr is exhibited as a
ftriking inllance of impiety and irrcligion. It is faid, that
when he was going to the army, his father recommended to
)iim always to join the afTiIlance of God to his own per.

A JA

fonal courage. Ajax replied, that even rowards tlicm.
fclves were very often victorious by fuch aid ; but for liis
part he Ihould have no regard, to it, and that he was fure
ot being able to coiupier without it. Tliui Sr,pliocles,
in Ajace, reprefcnts the matter. Homer, however, partly
vindicates liim from the cliargc oi total iiTcligion : for
though he did not pray to Jn|)iter himfclf, v.heii he pre-
pared to engage the valiant Hedor, he delired others to
pray for liini, cither with a low voice, lell the Trojan*
ihould hear, or louder if they pleafed ; "for," fays he, " I
fear no peifon in the world." Iliad lib. vii. v. 194. \\ iita
tlie arms of Achilles were adjudged by the Cireek ciiief-
tains to his rival Ulyfles, Ajax was bereaved of his under-
Handing ; and full venting his rage againlt a flock of rtiecii.
taking them to be (Jrecks, he tlien turned his fword
againlt himfelf. Fable re])oi-ts, that the flower called
hyacinth fprung from his blood. The Greeks crc£led »
noble monument to him on the promontory of Rhoeicuni.
Paufanias fays, (lib. i.} that one of their tribes bore the
name of Ajax, and that the people of Salamis built a
temple to him. Plerodotus (lib. viii. c. 64. c. 121.) in-
forms us, that the whole country of Greece invoked him
a little before the battle of Salamis, and dedicated to him,
as part of the lirll fruits due to the Gods, one of tha
lliips which they had taken from the Pcrlians in that
battle. Paufanias relates, amonglt other wonderful tnks,
that the waves call the arms of Achilles upon the
tomb of Ajax, after the fliipwreck of Ulyfles. The fate
of Ajax was the fubjctt of feveral eminent tragedies.
Gen. bic>.

In iiis laft martial exploit, when he was endeavouring to
prtfen-e and refcue the dead body of Patroclus, and when
he was overwhelmed with a mill or darkin.ls, which inter-
cepted his view of the Grecian lioit, he made the follow-
ing addrefs to Jupiter, which has been much admired for
its moral iubhmity :

" Lord of earth and air.
Oh king ! oh father I hear my humble pray'r:
Diipel this cloud, the light of heaven rcllorc :
Give me to lee, and Ajax aflcs no more :
If Greece iiiufl perifh, we thy will obey.
But let us perifli in the face of day."

Iliad lib. xvii. v. 645, 5:c. Pote.

An ingenious writer has juflly appreciated the charaftei-
of this hero. After a concifc abitract of his liiliorv, and
a detail of his principal exploits, he adds, " Such k the
Ajax of the Iliad : — a hero (as far as fo rude an age ad-
mits of heroifiii) /n ^T/^Vi ; tried and proved by every difii-
cvdty and danger; not the meteor of a day, but ihining
with equal lullrc through the whole period of action ; al-
ways in his place ; reloited to on every emergtncv, and
never in vain ; not hurried along by idle bravado or en-
thiiiiaftic ardinir, but making utility the guide of hi«
actions : finally, never yielding but when mortal afGltance
was unavailable, and when a htaven-boni champion, with
celclliid aid, was necclTary to turn tlie tide of fortune. He
may then Hand in the number of ,/iA- and vfvfiil men, whofc
value is fuperior to their fame : — a clafs of which tJicrc arc
members in every profeflion and rank of life, and to whole
affillance, the tirft-rate characters owe great part of their
celebrity and fnccefs."

" Such was tlie Antipatcr of Philip of Macedon :" —
" Such was the Labienus of C.efar, the Agrippa of Au-
guflus, the Sully of Henry IV., the Cecil of Elizabeth,
the Iretcni of Cromwell. Such appear to be the gene-
rality of thoiV officers in the Brililli navy, under wliofe
3 L 2 conduct.

A I C

concttft ths empire of the ocean ha? been maiiitaincd for
their country every where, againft all foes, by dint of
equal valour and unvaryinsf Ikill. In fcicncc, in the arts,
in the common bufmcfs of life, fuch men niipht be pointed
out. In general, they are thofe whom the leaders in im-
portant affairs would chufe for their fcconds, to fiipply
their places on occafion, aft according to their plans, and
take the management of feparate and dependent parts.
Their eflential quaUiications are, a pcrfeA htnefs tor their
polls, and a conftant readinefs to bring all their powers
into full exertion : — firmnefs, vigilance, order, and the
habit of fixing the attention upon particular objects." See
Aikin's JLetters to his Son. vol. ii.

AjAX, in ^4nt':quity, a furious kind of dance, in ufe
among the Grecians ; intended to reprefent the madnefs
of that hero, after his defeat by UlyfTcs, to whom the
Greeks had given the preference in his conteft for Achilles's
arms.

Lucian, in his treatife of dancing, fpeaks of dancing the
Ajax. There was alfo an annual feail, called yijan/ia,
AiSLt'iiiu., coufecrated to that prince, and obferved with great
folemnity in the iiland of Salamis, as well as in Attica ;
where, in memory of the valour of Ajax, a bier was ex-
poied, fct out with a complete fuit of armour. Potter,
Archaeol.

Ajax, in Entomology, a fpecies of the papilio
equcs, with wings obtufely caudated and brown colour,
yellowilh bands and tawny anus. It is the papilio mar-
ccllus of Cramer, and found in North America.

Ajax, in Conchoh^y, is a variety of the murex lampas
of Gmclin's Linnxan fyftem ; called alfo Rubeta.

AJAZZO, in Geography, a fea-port town of Natolia,
on a gulf of the fame name, in the province of Caramania,
anciently Cilicia, at the north-eaft extremity of the Me-
diterranean fea, 30 miles north of Autioch, and 50 well
of Aleppo ; where the city of Ifius autiently ftood. It
is fituated near the gulf of Scanderoon. Here Alexander
the Great defeated Darius a fecond time, and took his
family prifoners. In the time of the crufades, this be-
longed fucceflively to Chriftians, Saracens, and Turks,
wlio now poffefs it. E. long. 33° 10'. N. lat. 37°.

Ajazzo or Ajaccio, is a fea-port town, in a bay of
ihe fame name, in the fouth-wefl part of the ifland of
Corfica, with a bifliop's fee under the archbilhopric of
Pifa, It is fituated in a fertile territoiy, abounding with
excellent wines. It is guarded by a fmall citadel ; the
ftrects are ftraight and large : the houfcs well built ; the
adjacent walks agreeable ; and the number of inhabitants
about 4000, many of whom are Greeks. Its commerce
is fupplied by a filherj' of black, red and white coral, and
by its timber. The bay, though incommoded by rocks,
affords fecure anchorage for fhips of coufiderable burden.
The ancient town was fituated about a league from the
prcfent, which was built in 1435 ; and many iniins of it
are flill remaining. A colony of Greeks was eftablidied
in the vicinity of Ajazzo in the year 1677 '■> but the pro-
tection of the Genocfe could not prevent its being dif-
pcrfcd and partly dellroyed by the Corficans. E. long. 8°
50'. N. lat. 41° 50'.

AIBAN-KESRA, an old caftle of ancient Babylonia,
fituate on the banks of the Tigris, in the government of
Bagdad, and fuppofed to have been the refidence of
Cofroes, and other Perfian kings.

AIBLING, a town of Germany in Upper Bavaria,
near the river Manguald, and not far from its jundion with
the Inn. Long. 55 =. lat. 34°.

AICHA, a fmall town of Upper Bavaria, fituated on

2

A I D

the Paar ; foiir leagues eaft-north-eaft of Augfotirg. It
was taken by the S^-edes in 1633, and in 1634 laid in
allies by them. E. long. 30° 40'. N. lat. 48^ 30'.

AICHBERG, a town of Germany in Stiria ; four
miles fouth-iouth-eaft. of Fridbcrg. There is alfo a town
of the fame name in the archduchy of Auftria ; eight
miles north-weft of Efferding.

AICHKIRCHEN, a town of Germany in the arch-
duchy of Auitria ; fevcn miles wcft-north-weft of Schwan-
naftat.

AICHLBERG, a town of Germany in Carinthia ;.
foui' leagues well-fouth-weft of Villach.

AICHMALOTARCHA. See ^chmalotarcha.

AICHSTAUT, a city of Germany, tlie capital of a
fovcreign bilhopric of the fame name in Franconia, fituated
in a fertile valley on the river Altmuhl, and founded in tlie
year 748, by St. Boniface archbilliop of Mentz. The
dioccfe is 1 8 leagues long and 7 broad; and its inhabit-
ants generally profefs the catholic religion. The place o€
the biihop in the general diet of the empire is between the
bilhops of Worms and Spire, and he is the fuffragan of
the archbilhopric of Mayence. The biihop has for his
guard three companies of infantry, a company of cuirafliers,
and a company of dragoons. At the cathedral of this
city, the eucharift is exhibited in a veflel of gold, denomi-
nated the fun, of the weight of 40 marcs, enriched with
an incredible quantity of diamonds, pearls, and rubies^
They reckon 350 diamonds, 1400 pearls, and 250 rubiesj,
■with many other precious ftones. It was prefented to the
cathedral by the biihop of the diocefe in 161 1. But it
is doubtful, whether fome of the precious ftones have
not been exchanged, in fome period of public diftrefs, oc
by fome artifice, for others of lefs value, that equally aafwer
the purpofe.

Aichftadt is four leagues north of Neuburg, five north-
weft of Ingollladt, and ijfouth of Nuremberg. E. long»
1 1 °. N. lat. 49°.

Aichstadt ohr, is a town on the Altmuhl, one league
weft of the former.

AID, or Ayde, Auxilium, literally denotes the help^
fuccour, or afliftance, which any perfon lends another,
when too weak to do, or a\'oid, fomething.

The word is French ; formed, according to M. Menage^
from the Italian attare j and that from t!ie Latin adjutaref.
to help or aji/l.

Aid, or Ayde, in Laiv, is when a petition is made in.
court, for the calhng in of help from another perfon in--
terefted in the matter in queftion ; who, it is probable, may
not only ftrengthen the party's caufe who thus prays for
aid, but alfo prevent a prejudice arifmg to his own right-
Thus in real aclions, the tenant may pray in aid, and.
call for affiftance of another to help him to plead, becaufe
of the feeblenefs of his own eftate. A tenant for life may
alfo pray in aid of him that hath the inheritance in remain-,
der or reverfion ; and an incumbent may pray in aid of the
patron or ordinary :. that is, that they Ihall be joined in the
aclion, and help to defend the title. — This is called did prier ;,
but this courfc of proceeding is now much difufed.

A city, or corporation, holding a fee-farm of the king,
may pray in aid of liim, if any thing be demanded of theiu
relating thereto.

The aid pr'ur is fometimes alfo ufed, in the king's behalf,
to prevent any proceedings againft him till his counfcl be
called, and heard what they have to fay for avoiding the
king's prejudice, or lofs. Jenk. Cent. 64. Termcs de
Ley, 35. Stat. 4Edw. I. and i4Edw. III.

Aid de camp, an ofBcer in the army, whofe bufinefs is^ to

attend

A I D

attend the general officers, and receive and carry thc'r orders,
as occafion requires.

When the king is in the field, he ufually appoints young
volunteers of quality to carry his orders, who are called the
king's aids de camp.

Am miijjr, or atljutant, is an officer whofe bufinefs is to
eafe the major of part of his duty ; and to perform it all
in his abfence.

Some majors have fcveral aid majors. — Each troop of
guards has but one major, who Iins two aid majors under
him, or more, according as the bufinefs requires.

Every regiment of foot has as many aid majors as it con-
tains battalions. — When the battalion is drawn up, the aid
major's pod is on the left, beyond all the captains, and be-
hind the lieutenant-colonel.

Am, AuTiLiUM, mont j4ndetit Cujloms, denotes a fub-
fidy or fum ai money due to the lord, from his tenants, on
certain occafions.

It dllTered from a tax, which is impofed at any time
when wanted ; whereas the a'lii could only be levied where
it was cuilomary, and where the particular occafion fell
out.

Such was the aid de relu-f, due from the tenants in fee,
upon the death of the lord mcfn, to liis heir, towards tlie
charge of a relief of the fee, of the fuperior lord. This
was abolidied by king John's magna charta.

Such alfo was the aid chfvel, or cap'tlaliild, due by valTals,
to the chief lord, or the king, of whom they held in capite.
Of this there are three kinds.

The firft, of chivalry ; or, as they call it, par faire jit%
chevalier, toward making his eldeft fon a knight, when ar-
rived at the age of tifteen years ; the fecond of marriage,
or par filk marier, towards marrying his eldelt daughter. —
Both thefe, with all charges incident thereto, are taken away
by flat. 12 Car. II. See Tenure, Service, &c. — Some
will have them to have been firft ellabllflied in England by
William the Conqueror, mid afterwards transferred to Nor-
mandy : but the more common opinion is, that the Con-
queror brought them with him The third was of a R A N so M ,

due when the lord was taken prifoner by the enemy.

It appears from Bra-fton (lib. ii. c. i6. ^. 8) that, in the
time of Heni-y III. thefe aids, which were allowed by the
charter of king John, were fuppofed to be paid by the
vaflals, rather as tokens of good will and affedtion to their
lords, than as proper concomitants df the fervice they owed.
Glanville, on the contrary, confidered them as due by their
tenures. But, both by that author, and in the charter, it
is faid, that they ought to be taken in reafonable proportions.
Glanville queftions, whether the feudal lord could demand
an aid of his tenants for the fupport of his war ? And replies
by faying, that he could not diitrain for fuch aid ; but they
might give it, as a benevolence, and out of affeftion to their
lard ; whereas he confiders the aid of relief, as a due, for
which the lord, in virtue of his fief, had a legal right to
diftrain. Lyttelton's Hiil. Henry II. vol. iii. p. 108. Svo..
In fome provinces there was a f.*urth kind of aid ; due
whenever the lord (hould undertake an expedition to the
Holy Land.

We alfo read of aids paid the lord, when he wasdifpofed
to purchafe any new land, or tenement. Thefe were only

granted once in his life Alfo aids for the repairing and

fortifying of caftles, feats. Sec. and alfo aids to pay the
lord's debts. To prevent this abufe, king John's magna
charta ordained, that no aids be taken by the king without
confent of parliament, nor in any wife by inferior lords,
except only the three ancient ones above-mentioned, I'/'s.
for making the lord'a eldeil fon a knight, for marrying his

A I D

eldeft daiiglitcr, and for ranfoming the lord's pcrfon, if taken
prifoner. But this provilion was omitted in Henry Ill's
ciiarter ; and tlie fame oppreffions were continued till tlie
25 Edw. I. when the llatute called confuniatio charlarum
was cnacled ; wiiieh in this refpecl revived king Jolin's
charter, by ordaining that none but the aneieiil aids fliould
be taken. But though the fpeeies of aids was thus re-
ilrained, yet tiie quantity of eaeli aid remained aibltrary and
uncertain. King John's charter, indeed, ordered that all aids
taken by inferior lords fliould be reafonable ; and that the
aids taken by the king of hit tenants in capile fliould be
fettled by parliament, i'lut they were never completely af-
ccrtaincd and adjuiled till the llatute WcAm. 1. 3 F.dw. I.
c. 36, wliieh fixed the aids of inferior lords at twenty
flnllings, or the fuppofed twentieth part of the annual vahie
ot every knight's fee, for making tlie eldeil f(jn a knight,
or marrying the eldefl daughter ; and the fame was done
with regard to the king's tenants in cipile, by Hat. 25 luKv.
III. c. 1 1. The otlier aid, for ranfom of the lord's perfon,
being not in its nature capable of any certainty, was thcre-
foie never afeertained. Blackll. Com. hb. ii. c. 5. vol. ii.
p. 64. 8vo.

By the flat. 54 Edw. I. it is ordained, that the king fhall
levy no aid or tax vi-ithout his parliament.

Aids feem to have been firll cllablilhed with a view to the
clients and frecdmen of ancient Home, wlio made prefents
to their patron towards his daughters fortune, as alfo on his

birth-day, and on other folemn occafions Accordingly,

BouteiUer relates, that in his time thefe aids depended cin
the courtefy and good will of the vall'als ; for which rcafoo
they were called, droits de comphiifance.

The bifliops alfo received aids from their ecclefiaflics,
called fynodals, and pentecojlals. They were to be paid at
the time of their coniecration ; or when they had a king to
entertain ; or when called by the pope to his court, or to a
council ; as alfo when they went to receive the pallium.

Add, that the archdeacons alfo exafted aids from the
clergy of their jurifdiftion. See Procuration.

A kind of feudal aids are frill levied in Germany, &c.
under the title of colleds.

Aids are alfo ufed in matters of polity, for any extra-
ordinary taxes, or impofitions, occafionally levied by the
king and parliament, upon the fnbjecls, to fupport the
charges of the government, when the ordinary revenue is
deficient.

Am, royal, is a name frequently given to the land-tax.
Aid, in Theolj^y ,- the aids or afTiftances of divine favour,
which are offered to man, have been the fubjeft of muck
difpute betwixt the Janfenifls and Jefuits ; for the compofing
whereof, a celebrated congregation was ercfted at Rome
under the title of congregation of aids, con^rcgalio de
cuixiliis.

Some divines, after St. Aiigufline, diflinguilh two kinds
of aids, i<iz. fine quo, and quo.

Auxiliumfme quo, that which the mind is at liberty either
to ufe or refufe ; fueh is fuppofed to have been the aid mi-
niftered to man in the Hate of innocence, while his mind and
will were found and upright.

Ain.ilium quo amounts to wliat is otherv.-ife called efficacious
grace, which furmounts and lubdnes the will ; fuch, accord-
ing to the Calvinills and janfeniils, is fuppofed to be the
ai(l minillcred by grace, in the prefent fallen Hate of human
nature.

Aids, in the Manege, are helps or affiflances by which
the horfeman contributes towards the motion or a£tion re-
quired of the horfe, by a judicious uk* of his body, or the
appointments of the horfe.

Aid*

A I D

A I Ci

Aids are of die grcauft fcrvice in the manege, and form the
only true iauj^uaj^e between the maftcr and the horfe ; by thel'e
lie ii i-ncmirag-ed to act with propriety and energy, and the
necfdity of corretlion is prevented; confequently it mull be
evident that a great mixture of gcntkncfs and Ipirit are re-
quifite in their exhibition.

'I'he principal aid is derived from the bridle ; indeed the
difTereiit management of tliis appointment foims feveral
dillinct aids, each of wiiich is fo uiefiil and necelfary that it
nii;;ht coMllllutc ^ dillinet leflbn. The cavcfon forms at
once an aid and a correclion of the moll powerful kind, and
in no way is the obedience of a horl'e fo well fecured as by this
means, 'i'lie fpur is of this number liktwifc ; when made
ufe of as an aid, it is by gently doling the heels and apply-
ing tlic points only to the ikin ; but the calves of the legs are
periiaps the beil aids of this kind.

The whip is ufcd as an aid to keep the attention of the
horfe alive, by elevating the hand and linking the aid, or
gentiv patting the anniial in dilTercnt parts ; judioioufly ma-
naged to a well drefled horfe, it forms a very lively and ani-
matinij aid. The voice is likewife made ufe ot as an aid.
The motions of the thighs, knees, and the calves of the legs,
form feparate aids ; that of the calves is the mod important
and ufeful, without a proper knowledge ot wliich, both
liorfe and rider mull be dcfeiflive. The CiJves are ufed to-
gether, or fc-parate ; when one calf alone is employed, it
is ufuallv accompanied with tlie hand, to alter the pofition
of the body, or change the leg, by which anyattion is led.
The elevation of the body in the llirrups forms another
aid.

The aids made ufe of to make a horfe go in airs, arc
either different in themfelves, or differently applied, to thofe
made ufe of on the ground. The general application of
thefe aids on the road is a branch of riding in which Eng-
lilh horiemen are by foreign mailers deemed defeftive.
The inner heel, inner leg, and inner rein, are called inner
aids. The outer heel, outer leg, &c. are outer aids. Sec
Berenger's Art of HorfemanHup, vol. ii. p. 92, &c.

Aids, in the Fri'tuh Lav.', denote a duty paid on all

food': lold and tranfported eitlier out of, or into the kingdom,
n this fenfe aids anfwerto w!\at the Latins call vecli^alia, a
in-hL-nd'n mercibiis, and are paid by all kinds of perlons, pri-
vileged, or non-privileged ; bv which they differ from
ta'illc-r, tn\ts, which are only paid by the pealants, being
a lort of capitation, anfwcring to what the Latins call
ifi/yii/iim.

Aids, court of, in France, a court eree'}:ed for the cog-
nizance of matters relating to the taxes. Appeals come to
this from the couit of elections, where matters relating to
tiie tiii//e are firll heard. The cour/ of iiiils, of a province,
is fometimes fcparated from the parliament of the province,
and fixed in another city, as at Moutpelier, Montauban, &c.
Thers are twelve courts of aids, of wliieh the principal is
that at Paris.

AIDAN, in Biography, a Britifh bifiiop of the 7th cen-
tur\-, was employed in inffrufting the inhabitants of the
Northern parts of England in the Clirillian religion. Pie
was a monk in the monallery of Hii, or Jona, one of tlie
Hebrides, which was fubjeft to Britain, but given to tlie
V\Af., who inhabited thofe parts of Britain, in recompence
of the zeal with which they had preached to them the
faith of Chrill. The kingdom of Northumberland, thou<Th
it had received the Clu-iilian doctrine from Paulinus, arcii-
bilhop of York, relapfed into idolatiy. When Ofwald, in
<^34, became king of Northumberland, he lent to Scotland
for a milfiouary, qualified for inllruding his fubjefts in the
doctrines and duties of chriftianity. It happened that a

very improper perfon, an ecclefiaRic named Cormsn, of
fevcre difpolition and rugged manners, was fii-fl deputed iM.r
this purpole ; but it loon appeared that Aidan, who u aj
mild and prudent, was nuich fitter for the office; accordingly
he was coufecrated a bidiop and feat to the court of Of.vald.
At his lolicitatiou the epil'copal lee was removed from York
to l>indisfarne, a peninfulaadicining the Northumbrian coalt
bv a narrow ilthnius, called alio Holy Illaiid, becaufc it was
cliicfly inhabiteil by monks. Here Aidan exercifed an ex-
tcnfive jurifdiction, and preached the gofpel with great
fuecefs ; deriving encouragement and affillance in his labour,
from the condefcending fervices of the king himfelf. After
the dc:ith of Ofwald he continued to prehde in the cliurcii
of Northumberland, and died in the year 65,1. We have an
e;<traordinarv inilance of this bifliop's liberality to the poor.
Havii.g received a prefenl from king Ofuin of a fine horfe
and rich houlings, he met with a beggar, and difmounting,
gave him the horfe thus capariloned. When the bifliop,
txjn-effed fome dilplealure at this lingular acl of humanity,
and the iliglit put upon liis favour, Aidan quaintly but
forcibly aflied, " which do you value moil, the fon of a
mare or a fon of God ?" the king was fo affeclcd that he
fell upon his knees and intreated the biihop's forgivenefs.
Bcde dtfcrilies the charaeler of Aidan in terms ot high com-
mendation, and afcribes to him miracles, which the crediilit/
of the times in which he lived would be dilpofed to admit.
To the report of one of his miracles we are inclined to give
our alfent. When the bilhop gave the priell, wlio was to
conducl the betrothed wife of Ofwi by fea to Northumber-
land, a phial of holy oil, inflruc^ing him, in cafe of a llorm,
to pour it into the fea, and affming him that it would foou
become calm, it is pofllble he might not be unacquainted
witli tlie efficacy of oil thus applied, which has been long
known, and is now fufficiently ellabhflied by obfervation and
experiment. Biog. Brit.

AIDERBEITZAN,AnERBijAN,or, asthePerfianscaU
it, AzPRBtYAN, in Geography, a province of Perfut, borders
to the eafl on the province of Gliilan, the Cafpian Sea and
Tabrillan, tothe'fouth on Inic, Ajemi, to the weft and
north-well upon Curdillan and Upper Armenia, and to the
north on Scliirwan and Georgia. The etymology of the
name given by tlie Perlians to this province imports a country
of tire, fo called on account of tlie temple creftcd in it for
keeping tlieir facred lire. The loil is fruitful, and tlie climate
healthy, though cold. The mofl conliderable cities in it
are Tauris, Ardevil and Sultania. Tiic province txteiul*
from about 48° to 54^ E. long, and from 36^ to 39° N.
lat.

AIDHAB, or Gaidh An, or Ardah, a town of Africa,
and fca-port of Nubia, on the eoall of the Red Sea. E.
long. 35"* 59'. N. lat. 22° 12'.

AIDONA, a town of Sicily, in the valley of Noto ;
four miles north-eaft of Piazza.

AIELLO, a fmall town and dukedom of Naples, in the
Abrnzzo ITltra, belonging by marriage to tlie hereditary
prince of Modena.

AiKLLO is alfo a town of Naples, in the diftricT: of Cala-
bria Citra, with the title of a principality ; nine miles foiith
fouth-wcll ot Coienza.

AIEREBA, in Ichthyology, the name of a filli of tlie
paft'mihn iiuir'ina kind, but diffeiing from all tlie others, in
that the form of its body is regularly round, or oval, and
its head placed far within the verge of its thin part. It is
common in the Wellern Ocean ; but it is not much efteemcd
for the table, being more loofe and flabby in its flefh than
the other kinds. jMarcgrave.

AIGEN, in Geography, a town of Germany in the arch-

dutehy

A I a

A I K

diicliy of Audria, on die confines of Bohemia ; 3^ miles
well of V'iouiia. E. long. 13" 52'. N. lat. 48" 3V'

AIGHENDALE, a liquid iiKafure in Lanealhirc, con-
taining fevtn quarts.

AIGITHALUS, ai~,A3.7.o:, in Omilb^lo^^y, a name by
which Ariftotlo, and fome of the old authoii call the p.irus,

or TITMOUSE.

AIGLANDE, in Geography, a town of France, -in the
department uf the channel, and principal place of a canton,
in the dillriiSl *f St. Lo ; four lea j;ues north-eall of Cou-
tances.

AIGEE (I/), Aq^mla, a fmall wiU-bnilt town of
France, and capit;J of a dillricl I'ltiiate on the Rllle, in the
department of Orae ; ic" leagues north-eail of Alciu;un.
Its principal commerce is corn, hai'd-wares and pli:;;. It
contains three parifh churches, two convents, and a liofpital ;
is furrounded with walls, and has li); gates. E. long. 1 ' 31'.
N. lat. 48" 46'.

AIGJ^E, a town of Switzerland, in a part of the Lower
Valais, which belongs to the feipnoiy of Berne, and forms
part of a canton. It is fituated on a fmall river, which runs
into the Rhone, about a league below it ; 12 leagues eait-
north-eall of Geneva. The country about it has rich paf-
tures, and good wines and fruit ; but it often fuffers from
the inundations occalioned by the high mountains that bound
it touardj the north. The fait tliat is coUetlcd from the
faline waters in Its vicinity is refined at Aigle. E. long. 6°
51'. N. lat. 26" 22'.

AiCLE, a river of France, which waters part of the go-
vernment of Orleanois, lifes near Mce in Bcaufie, and dif-
charges itfelf into the Loir, between Chateaudun and
Cloye.

AlGLETTE, in Heraldry. See Eaglet.

AIGN, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the circle
of Bavaria, and archbilliopric of Salt/burg, near which is
a medicinal fpring ; two miles fouth-eait of Saltzburg.

AIGNAN, a town of France, in the department of
Gers and diilriA of Nogaro ; feven leagues weil of Audi.

AIGNEY-LE-DUC, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Cote d'Or, a dillrict of Chatillon ; J^l leagues
fouth-fouth-eaft of Chatillon. It is fituated on a fmall
mountain, at the foot of which runs a llream of the fame
name. Its chief fubfiftencc is derived from bleaching and
the commerce of linen cloth.

AIGRE, a town of France, in the department of the
Charente and dillrift of Ruffee ; 5* leagues north of An-
goulefme.

AIGREFEUILLE, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Lower Loire and diilrift of Cliffbn ; 3-1; leagues
fonth of Nantes.

AIGREMONTE, a fmall town of Burgundy in France,
in the generality of Diioii.

AIGRETTE, in Ornith'ilogy, a name given by Buft'on
to different fpecies of Ardea, or the Egrets of other
authors.

Aigrette, in Zoologf, a name given by BufFon to the
61MIA Aygula.

AIGUE marine, in Natural Hijlory. See AiiUA

MARINA.

AIGUEBELLE, \n Geography, a fmall town of Savoy,
on the river Arc, furrounded by high mountains ; five leagues
call from Chamberry. The manufacture of this place is
iilk.

AiGUEBELLE is alfo a fmall town of France, in the de-
partment of the Drome ; two leagues loulh-eall of Mon-
teliiTiart.

AIGUE-PERSE, a fmall town of France, in the de-

partment of ruY-de-Donic, and late province of Auvergne ;
lU miles north of Clermont and 261 fouth of Paris. The
cold water of a fountain near it lias the apjiearance of boiling,
and is faid to be fatal to the animals that drink it. E. long.
3 ' 20'. N. lat. 45'' 50'.

AKjI^ES, a river of France, which runs into the Rhone,
near Orange.

AICiUESCAUDES, is fituated in the valley of OfTau,
in the principality of Bcarn, in France ; and is famous for a
fpring of water, foapy and fulphurcous, and fmelling like \
rotten egg, which is deemed iahitun in many inward and
outward difonlers.

AIGUES-MORTES, a town of France, in the de-
partment of "lie Gard and dilhict of Nimcs ; 4J league*
iouth of Montpelier. The foil in the neighbourhood is
landy, and tlie air unwholefonie on account ol the ikagnant
waters that lurroundit. It formerly Hood on the fea and had
a haiboiir ; but it is now above two leagues up the countrv,
and the harbour is filled up. This place is famous for an in-
terview which took place in 153^^, between Charles V. and
Francis I. after 20 years of open lioiHlity or fecret enmity ;
on which occafion they vied wit1i each other in exjuclTioni
of refpeet and fricndfliip. E. long. 5° 8'. N. lat. 43" 34'.

AIGUF.S-Vn'ES, a town of France, in the department
of the Gard and dilhi(fl of Sommieres, five leagues north-
eaft of Montpelier.

AIGUILLON, a town of France, in the department
of the l^ot and Garonne, and diftrirt of Tonneins ; fix
leagues north-weft of Agen. This town carries on a con-
liderable trade in wines, brandy and hemp. E. long, o" 22'.
N. lat. 44" 25'.

AIGUINES, a town of France, in the department of
the Var and diihift of Barjols ; Jj leagues north-eaft of
Barjols.

AIGUISCE', AiGuissn', or Eguisce', in Heraldry,
a term applied to a cross, when its four ends are fnarpcned,
but fo as to terminate in obtufe angles.

The crois a'lgu'ijce diilers from thecrofs eitchf'f, in that
the latter goes tapering by degrees to a fliaq) point ; whereas
only the ende of the former are tapered.

Crofles were fo formed by the Chriflians in their pilgrim-
ages for the convenience of fixing them in the ground at
their devotion. In the Englilli blazon this kind of crofs is
called a crofs iinle.

■ AIGURANDE, or Acurande, in Geography, a town
of France, in the department of the Indre, late province of
Beny, and dillrict of La Chatre ; 85 leagues fouth of Cha-
teauroux. The couiitiy round it furniflies fat cattle. E.
long. I " 44'. N. lat. 46'' 27'.

All, a people of India, placed by Ptolemy on this fide
the Ganges.

AIKES, a town of Tranfylvania, fix leagues north-eaft
of Claufenburg.

AIKIvLVN, William, in Biography, a painter of con-
fiderable eminence, the fon of Wilham Aikman, Efq. of
Cairney in Scotland, was born Oftober 24th, 1682, and
intended by his father, who was an advocate at the Scots
bar, for his own profcllion ; but the Ion declined the ftudy
of the law, and devoted himleif to the fine aits, and par-
ticularly to that of painting. Having piofccutcd his (Indies
for fome time in Britain, he removed to Italy in 1707, aiul
rcfided for three years at Rome. He then travelled to Con-
ftantinople and Smyrna, and in 1712 returned from Rome
to his own countrj" ; and in 1 723 he fettled in London, and
followed the profefTlon of painting under the palroiiagc of
the Duke of Argyle, the Earl of Burlington, Sir Godfrey
Kneller, and lome other encouragers of the arts of that
4 pericd.

A I L

pmod. For the Earl of Burlinjjton lie pair.teJ a l.irge
picliire of the royal family, which his dcatli prevented his
iinirtiiiig. It is now in the poifofrion of the Duke of De-
voniliire. Toward-, the clofc of his life he painted many
other portraits of p^-rfons of the firll rank in England ; and
there are feveral portraits painted by him in Scotland, which
arc now in the pofferiion of the Djke of Argylc, the Duke
of Hamilton and others. This ingenious artill died in
London, June 4th, l"i ; and having loll his ion about fix
months before, at the age of 17, their remains were re-
moved to Edinbingli, and interred on the fam.e day in the
Greyfriars church -yard. An-.ongil his intimate friends we
may reckon Mr. W. Som-rviile, the well-known author of
the Chace, &c. Mr, Mallet, Mr. Allan Ramfay, and Mr.
Thonifon, each of whom paid an elegiac tribute to his me-
mory. The foUov.'ing epitaph by Mr. Mallet, was engraven
©0 his tomb.

" Dear to the good and wife, difprais'd by none,
Here fleep, in peace, the father and the fon ;
By virtue, as by nature, clofe ally'd,
Tiie painter's genius, but \vithout the pride :
Vi'^orth unambitious, wit afraid to (liine ;
Honour's clear light, and friendfliip's warmth divine :
The fon fair rifing, knew too (hort a date ;
But, oh ! how more fevere the father's fate !
lie faw him torn untimely from his fide.
Felt all a father's anguith — wept, and dy'd."
Mr. Thomfon's poem on the death of Mr. Aikman, clofes

with t!is following Hues :

" A friend, when dead, is but remov'd from fight,

Sunk in the lutlrc of eternal light ;

And w!ien the parting ilorms of life are o'er,

May yet rejoin us on a happier fliore.

As thofe we love decay, we die in part ;

String after ilring is fever'd from the heart,

Till loofen'd life, at laft, but breathing clay,

Wltliout one pang is glad to fall away.

Unhappy he, who lateil feels the blow,

Whofe eves have wept o'er evei-y friend laid low ;

Dragg'd Ung'ring on from partial death to death,

Till dying, all he can refign is breath."

For the eight laft lines, fee Thomfon's Works, vol. ii.

P- 283.

In his ftyle of painting Mr. Aikman feems to have aimed
at imitating nature in her pleafing fimplicity ; his lights are
foft, his Ihades mellow, and his colouring mild and har-
monious. His touches have neither the force nor harfhnefs
of Rubens ; nor does he feem, like Reynolds, ever to have
aimed at adorning his portraits with the elegance of adven-
titious graces. His mind, tranquil and fercne, delighted
rather to wander with Thomfon in the enchanting fields of
Tempe, than to burft, with Michael Angelo, into the ruder
fccncs of the terrible and the fubUme. His compofitions are
diHinguidied by a placid tranquillity of eafe rather than a
ftriking brilliancy of effeft ; and his portraits may be more
readily miftaken for thofe of Kneller than any other eminent
artift ; not only becaufe of the general refemblance in the
drefles, which w-ere thofe of the times, as they were con-
temporaries, but alfo for the manner of working, and the
fimilarity and bland mellownefs of their tints. Biog. Dift.

AILAH, formerly ^lana and Elath of Scripture,
a ruined town of Arabia Petrsa, on the north-wed coaft of
the gulf of Akaba or Ailaha ; about 140 miles fouth-eaft
of Sue/.. E. long. 35^ o'. N. hit. 29*^ 20'.

AIEAN, a river of Siberia, which runs into the Penzins-
kaia gulf near Okianflc.

A I L

AILANTHUS, formed of the Amboina name Ay-
lanto, which denotes the tree of heaven, fo called on account
of its lofty growth, in Bolany, a genus of plants, the
clafs and order of which are not afcertained. Prof. Martyn
refers it to the polygamia moiwec'in, Schreber to the iliotcia
decandria, and Gmelin to the decandrla hiytila. Its cha-
racters are, that it has male, female and hermaphrodite
flowers. I'he calyx of the male is aone-ltafed, five-parted,
veiT fmall pcrianthium ; the corolla has five petals, lanceolate,
acute, convolute at the bafe and fpreading ; the llamina have
ten filaments, comprelTed, of the hngthof the corolla ; the
anthers are oblong and verfatile. The calyx of the female is
like that of the male, permanent ; the corolla the fame ;
the piftillum has from three to five germs, curved inwards ;
the ilyles are lateral and the lligmas capitate ; the pericar-
pium has as many capfules as there are germs, comprefied,
membranaceous, fabre-ftiaped, acute, on one of the edges
emarginate ; the feeds are folitaiy, lens-fliaped, bony, clofe-
to the emarginaturc. The calyx of the hermaphrodite is the
fame with that of the male and female ; the corolla the fame
as in the male ; the (lamina have two or three filaments, as
in the male ; the piftillum, pericarpium and feed as in the
female. There is one fpccies, -vi-z. A. glanduhfa, or tall
ailanthus, which is a tree with a llraight trunk, 40 or 50 feet
high, a native of China, and firft raifed in England about
the year 1751. It grows faft in our cHmate, and as it rifes
to a coKfiderable height, it is proper for ornamental plan-
tations. A refinous juice, which foon hardens, flows from
the vvounded bark. The wood is hard, heavy, gloffy like
fattin, and fufceptible of a very fine poUlh. This is the
Rhus Slnenfr, &c. of Ellis. See Phil. Tranf. vol. xxxix.
p. 870, and vol. 1. p. 446. Martyn's Miller.

AILE, or AiEi., formed of Fr. akul, a-oit.':, gramljclher,
in Lnii', a writ which lies where the grand-father, or great-
grandfather, called hcfaile, was feized of lands or tenements
in fee-fimple, on the day he died ; and a f^"angcr abates or
enters the fame day, and difpoflefleth the heir or grand-child.
See Abatement.

AILERONS, a diminutive of the French a'lle, iv'mg, in

Natural Hijhry, petty wings, a French term exprelfing two

fmall flielly fubftances, refenibling parts of wings, or young

and juft growing wings, and found in the two-winged flies,

, fituated at the root of the larger v/ings. Reaumur.

AILES vitrecs, in Natural H'ljlory, a French term ufed
to exprefs the wings of a feries of infefts, which feem of a
middle nature, between the fly and the butterfly kind, and
are therefore called papilion inouchcshy tliefe writers. The
wings of thefe infefts are in part covered with duft, or fcales,
and in part free from it, and tranfparent. In thefe free
parts they look glaflTy ; whence their name, fignifyingj-Zn^'
•wings.

AILESBURY, in Geography. Sec Aylesbury.
AILLANT-SUR-THOLON, a town of France, in
the department of the Yorne, and diftrift of Ivigny : 3!
leagues north-weft of Auxerre.

AlLLAS, a village of France, in the department of the
Gironde, and diftrift of Bazas ; two leagues nortli-eaft of
Bazas.

AILLY, a village of France, in the department of the
Somme, and diftrift of Abbeville ; five leagues welt-north-
■weft of Amiens.

This is alfo the name of a town of France, in the fame
department," and diftrift cf Montdidier ; thiec leagues fouth-
louth-eaft of Amiens.

AILLY, Peter D', iu 5wfr^/>Zi)', bifliop of Cambitiy,
and a bigoted ccclefiaftic, was born of an obfcure family at
Compcigne in 1350. He finiftied his ftudies at Paris, and

A I -M

.gafC proofs of a fupcrior iinderllandinp; even at colli-gc by
his treatifcs " On Logic," •' On the Nature of the Soul,"
and "On Meteors." In 131-4 he was apj)oiiited graiid-
maller of the college of Navarre, where he had been edu-
cated. His zeal for the Catholic faith contributed to his
advancement as much as his learning. Having pleaded in
I'^Sj, in favour of the miraculous co'iccption, before the pojie,
he was appointed contelForto diaries VI. and chancellor of
the U-.ivcrlity, and iji l^ijl billiop of Canibray. He dif-
tinguilhed himfelf on various occcil'ions as an advocate for
tbe doclrines and ceremonies of the church ; and at the ge-
neral council of Conllance, whicli lailed from the year 1414
to the year 1418, lie was principal agent in the prt)eeedings,
which convicted W'ickhff and Huls of lierefy, and at hit
brought the latter to the flake, upon whom he pronounced
the feiitence of death. Notwithllanding his zeal againll
lierefy, he is faid to have been a friend to reformation, and
that he wrote a book " On the Reformation of tjie Cluueh,"
which, however, is not found among his works. His ideas
of refmmation mull have been very partial and rellri-^led, as
lie took pains to obtain a general council for terminating
fehifm, and was attached to the abfurdities of judicial
allrology. On this fubjeCt he wrote a treatife, in which lie
maintained, that Noali's flood, the liirth of Clirill, and other
fuch miraculous events, miglit have been prediilled by allro-
logy. He died in 1425, as fome fay, and according to
others in 1419 or 1420, with the charad:er of " the Eagle
of France, and the indefatigable Mallet of Heretics." The
epitaph on his tomb is as follows :

" Mors rapuit Petrum ; petram fubiit putre corpus :
Sed petram Ciiriihim fpiritus ipfe petit."

i. e. " Death fei/.es Peter, and under this ftone,
His body decays ; his fpirit is flown
To jefus his rock."

Of his numerous works feveral treatifcs and fermons were
printed at Stran)urg in 1 490 ; his " Quiciliones in Splueram
Mundi" was printed at Paris in 149S, and at Venice in
1508 ; his "Treatifeof Meteors" appearedat Paris in 1504,
and his " Life of Cxleftin V." in 1539. Cave Hill. Lit.
vol. ii. Append, p. 84. Gen. Dift.

AILRED, Etuelred, or Ealred, abbot of Revelby,
in Lincolnfliire, was born in 1109, and educated in Scot-
land, with Heni-y, fon of David. He dechned ecclcfiaftical
preferment, and lived in ftndious retirement. His " Hillory
of the War of the Standard in the reign of Stephen ;"
" Genealogy of the Englilh Kings ;" " Hifliory of the Life
and Miracles of Edward the Confelfor ;" and " HKtory of
the Nun of Watthun," written in Latin, are extant in the
Decern Scnplnres, publiflied by Twyfden, in London, 1652.
His "Sermons," " Mirror of Charity," treatife " On the
Child Jefus," and another "On Spiritual Friendlhip," were
publiflied at Douay, in 1631, and maybe found in the
Bibliolheca Patrum. torn, xxiii. He died in 1 1 66. Cave
Hill. Lit. vol. ii. p. 227. Biog. Crit.

AIIjSA, in Cer.graphy, an infnlated rock near the ifle
of Bute, in Scotland, about two miles in circumference and
900 feet high, acceilible on the north-eaft lide, and the ha-
bitation of goats and rabbits, and lea-fowl, particularly the
Solan gcefe, fome of whicli are taken for food, and others
for their feathers. The banks about it are vvcll-ftockcd
with cod and other fifh.

AIMAKAN, a river of Siberia, which runs into the fea
of Ochotflcoi. E. long. 139° 14'. N. lat. 54° 44'.

AIMARGUES, or Aymarguks, a town of France,
with the title of a barony, in the department of the Gard,
and diocefe of Nifmes, fituateJ in a mavfliy country -on the
Vol. I.

A I K

river Viftre ; 5 Icaguea weft of Aries, and 3! roulli Nifniei.
E. long. 3'=4'. N.lat. 44" 5'.

AIME, AiMO, or AxiMA, a fmall town of Savoy, on
the river Ifere ; fj\ leagues call -north-call of Moiiilier.

AIMEER, one of the .Soobahs, or graiid divifions of
Hindoflan, according to the Ayeen-.Akberv', or dillribution
of the emperor Ahbar, is entirely in the pofTcnioii of Sin-
diah and the Maratlalis, and contains fewn circavs or counties,
and 197 pergunnahs or hundreds. Its revenue is 22,841,507
daums, 320 daums being equal to a pound llcrling. It has
86,500 cavalry, and 347,000 infantiy.

AlMON, in Bio^^raphy, a Bcnediftine Monk, wrote
about the vear 840, and is chiefly known as the author of
a " Hilloi)- of France."

A 1 MONTE, in Geo^mphy, lies on the call fide of the
river Gaudiana near its mouth, wliich is the boundary from
Portugal on the weft, and is one of tlic bed havens on the
whole coall. W . long. 7° 15'. N. lat. 37° 5'.

AIMOIITIER, a town of Fi-ance, in the department
of Upper N'ienne, and dillrict of St. Leonard; fevcn leagues
fouth-eall of Limoges.

AIN, J'y, rignirying_/c/«nM/n, is an initial word prefixed
to feveral Hebrew and Arabic appellations of places.

AiN,. a river of France, whence one of the departmenli
derives its name. It rifesin Mount Jura, near Nozeroi, and
after traverfing a courfe from North to South of about 35
leagues, difcharges itl'clf into the Rhone, about five leagues
above Lyons. The department of the Ain Is one of the
four departments, wliicli are compo.'"ed of the c'l-tlevanl
Brefle, Bugey and Valromey, and the principality of Dom-
bes ; and into which the former province of Bourgogne is
divided. It is bounded on the north by the department of
Jura ; on the eaft, by thofe of Leman and Mont Blanc ; on
the fouth, by the river Rhone, which feparates it from that
of Ifere ; and on the iveft, by the department of the Rhone.
Its furface is about 1,077432 fquare acres, or 549,905
heftares ; its population amounts to about 2^^,700 perl'ons ;
and it is divided into four communal diihiils. Its chief
town is Bourg.

Aim, a town of Afia, in the Arabian Irak; 30 league*
well of Batforah.

AINAD, a town of Arabia, in the province of Hadramaut.

AINAY-LE-CHATEAU, a town of France, in the
department of Allicr and diftrict of CeriUy ; eight leagues
north-well of Moulins.

AINCREVILLE, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Meule, and dillrift of Stenay ; one league fouth-
well of Dun.

AINEB-GUL, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia j
40 miles north-weft of Degnizlu.

AIN-EL-CALU, a town of Africa, in the province of
Tremccen, and kingdom of Fez.

AIN GEBEL, a town of Afia, in the province of Diar-
bekir ; 16 leagues foutii-well of Moful.

AINLING, a market town of Germany, in Upper Ba-
vai'ia ; ten miles north-well of Augfburg.

AINOD, a town of Germany, in the duchy of Stiria;
eight miles north of Cillcy.

AINSA, a fmall town of Spain, in the kingdom of
Aragon, on the river Ara ; fix leagues north of Balbaftro.

AINSWORTH, Henry, in llio^raphy, an eminent
Nonconformill divine and Biblical commentator, flouriflied
at the clofe of the l6th and commencement of the 17th
century. About the year 1590, he united with the Brow-
NisTS ) and after Uruggling for fome years with the dangers
and troubles to which perfons of this defcription were ex-
pofed by the indifcrcel zeal of the bilhops and the jntolerauce
3 M of

A I N

of queen Elirabrth, lie n tired with many others of fimilar
fen:;nnci!ts to HoUaiid. At Arnfterdam, Ainfworth and ons
of his brothrcu in exile, whofc name was Johnfon, eftablilhcd
a chiuvh ; and in 1602 pubhihcd aconftffion of fuith of the
people called Krowniib. But trivial points of difcipline oc-
cafioncd diircnfions in the church, and thcfe two leaders,
with their refpeilive parties, though they had fled from per-
ftcution at home, could not tolerate each other, nor live
liarmonioudy in the fame city. Johnfon with his adherents
removed to Embden, where he foon died, and his congre-
gation was diflblved. Ainfworth withdrew to Ireland ; and
after fome time returned to his friends at Amilcrdam, and
continued with them till his death, which was fndden, and
not without fulpicion of violence. The circumilance that
is laid to have ocealloned it was fomewhat extraordinary and
dcferves to be mentioned. Having found a diamond of great
value in the llreets of Amfterdam, he advertifed it ; and
vhen t!ie owner, who was a Jew, came to demand it, he
uffered him any acknowledgment which he would deiire.
Ainfworth, though poor, would accept of no remuneration
but a conference with fome of the Jewilh rabbles, upon the
prophecies of the Old Tcllament relating to tlie Meffiah,
which the Jew promifed ; but not having interefl iufficient
to obtain it, fome have fuppofed that through fhame or
vexation, or from fome other motive, he poifoned Ainfworth.
This event happened about theyear 1629. Mr. Ainfworth's
diiUnguiflied talents and biblical learning were univerfally
acknowledged. To thefe Bidiop Hall paid a tribute of
refpeft, even whilft he was writ'ng againll the party to
wiuch he belonged ; and his annotations on the fcripturcs,
though lefs regarded in England than they deferved, were
much fought after and commended by perfons of various
leifls in other countries. Thefe " Annotations" appeared at
different times ; but in 1627 they were printed in one volume
in folio, and another edition appeared in 1639, which is
now become very fcarce. To this work,, it is faid, the
learned Lightfoot was much indebted. Of the other pieces
of Ainfworth, we fliall only mention his " Arrow againft;
Idolatr)'." Neal's Hill, of the Puritans, vol. i. p. 3S6. 437.
4to. Biog. Brit.

AiNS WORTH, Robert, a learned grammarian, was born at
Woodyale, nea- Manchefter, in Lancadiire, in theyear 1660,
and was educated at Bolton, in the fame county, where he
afterwards kept a fchool. From Bolton he removed to
Bethnal Green, near London, and he there continued the
profeflion of fchool-mafter. At this period he publilhedhis
" Short Treatile of Grammatical Inllitution." After pur-
fuing in different places the labour of tuition till he had
acquired a decent competency, he retired from bufinefs ;
and am.uled himfelf by fearching the {hops of brokers for
old coins and other valuable curioiities, which he purchafed
at a fmall expence. He died at London in 1743, and was
buried at Poplar. The following monumental infcription was
written by himfelf:

" Rob. Ainfworth et uxor e]us, admodum fenes,
Dormituri, veftem detritam hie exuerunt,
Novam, primo mane furgentes, induturi.
Dum fas, m.ortalis, fapias, et refpice finem,
Hoc fuadent manes, hoc canit Amramides."

Thus imitated — " Here Robert Ainfworth and his wife
Put off the worn-out veil of life;
Hoping the morn will foon appear.
When they a brighter robe fhall wear.
To thy refleftion, mortal friend,
Th' advice of Mofes I commend,
Be wife, and meditate thv end."

A I R

To Ainfwortli's judgment, induflry, and perfcverance
in compiling a diilionary for the ufe of fchools, great com-
mendation is due. 'I'his v.feful work was undertaken by
him in 1714; and after many interrnj.'tions and delays was
completed in 1736, and dedicated to i)r. Mead. It has been
fmce improved by Patrick, Ward, Young, and other learned
men; and in 1773 there appeared a new edition, farther
enlarged and improved by Morell. We have an ufeful
abridgment of this dictionary by Mr. Thomas, in two large
8vo. volumes. Patrick's Prcf. to the fecond edition of Ainl«
worth's Thcfaurus, Biog. Brit.

AIN-ZAMIEL, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the
province of Tremecen and kingdom of Fez.

AIOMAMA, or Aiomano, a town of European Tur-
key, on a gulf of the fame name, in the province of Ro-
melia ; 14 leagues fouth-eaft of Saloniki. Cape Paillaios
is the fouth-eafl limit of the gulf, and Cape Di'apano its
north-eall extremity. The fouth point is about E. long.
24" ..jo', and N. lat. 39° 50'.

AJOVEA, in Botany, a genus of the hexandna mono-
gvma clafs and order ; the charaftcrs of which are, that the
calyx is fingle-leaved and tridentatcd, the corolla has three
petals, the lilaments ate terminated with two glandules, the
anthers are doubly excavated, the ftigma is divided in fix
fegments, and the fruit is a roundilh, fmgle-celled, nionof-
pcrmous bcny. There is one fpecles,' tjia. A. guiuuaifis ;
which grows in the forells of Guiana.

AIOTOCHTLI, in Zoology ; the Mexican name of the
Armadillo.

AIPIMIXIRA, in Ichthyology, the name of an Ame-
rican iifli, more ufually known by the name of pudiano.
It is a fmall fifh, of the fhape of the perch, with a purple
back, and yellow fides and belly. Marcgrave.

AIR, in Ph\ftcs, a thin, fluid, claftic, tranfparent, pon-
derous, compreffible, and dilatable body ; fuiTounding the
terraqueous globe to a confiderable height.

Air was confidered by fome of the ancients as an element ;
but then, by element, they underilood a different thing from
what we do. See Elements.

It is certain, that air, taken in the popular fenfe, is far
from the fimplicity of an elementary fubftance ; though fome
of its properties and ufes in a ftate of combination with
various fubftances, from which it has been extricated by
modem analyfis, may entitle it to this appellation. Hence
air may be diftinguiflied into ^ro^^cr or eL-nuiitary, and -vulvar
or heterogeneous.

Air, elementary, or Air properly fo called, is a fubtile,
homogeneous, elaftic fluid : the bafis, or fundamental in-
gredient of the atmofpherical air, and that which gives it
the denomination.

In this fenfe, it likewife enters into the compofition of
moll, or perhaps all bodies, exifting in them under a folid
form, deprived of its elafticity jnd mofl of its diflinguifning
properties, and ferving as their cement, and the univerfal
bond of nature ; but capable, by certain procefTes, of being
difengaged from them, recovering its elafticity, and refem-
lihng the air of our atmofphere. See Hales's Vegetable
Statics, chap. vi.

The peculiar nature of this aerial matter we know but
little of ; what authors have advanced concerning it being
chiefly conjeftural. We have no way of altogether fep.a-
rating it from the other matters with which in its pureft ftate
it is more or lefs combined, and confequently no way of
afcertaining, with fatisfadlory evidence, its pecidiar pro-
perties, abllraftedly from thofe of other bodies.

Dr. Hook, and fome others, maintain, that it is the
7 fame

A I R

A T R

fame with tlieir other, or that fine, fluid, aftive mSttcv,
dill'ulV'd through the whole expanfe of the colcllial regions ;
which coincides with Sir I. Newton's fiibule medium, or
fj)irit. In this view it is iuppofed to bi a bodv fui generis,
ingenerable, incorruptible, immutable, prcfeut in all places,
ami in all bodies.

Others, confidcring only its property of elafticity, which
they account its effential and conftituent charadlcr, fuppufe
it to be mechanically producible ; and to be no other than
the matter of other bodies, fo modified and altered, as to
become permanently clallic. Sir Ifaac Newton obfenes,
that the particles of denle, compatt, and fixed fubllances,
cohering by a ilrong attradive force, are not feparable
without a vehement heat, or perhaps not without fermen-
tation ; and fucli bodies being at length rarefied by fuch
hjat or fermentation, become true psrmancitt air ; and dil'-
tinguilliable from vapour, which is only tippiirnit, or truii-
Jlcnt Liir, as is evident from the experiment with the reoli-
pile. Optics, Qu. 31, p. 371, 372. cd. 3. See Air,
atmofpherical.

Air, I'lihrar or heterojeueous, is a conlition of coi-puf-
clcs of various kinds, conllituting togetlier one fluid miifr.,
in which we Iwe and move, and which we are continually
rijceiving and expelling by refpiration. The whole afrcni-
blage of this makes what we call the atmofphere ; where
this air, or atmofphere, terminates, there alinr is fuppofed
to commence ; wliich is dilHnguifh.'d from air bv its not
making any fenfible refraction of the rays of light, as air
does.

Air, in this popular and extenfive meaning of the term,
is acknowledged by Mr. Boyle to be the moil heterogeneous
body in the univerfe. Boerhaave fliews it to be an univerfal
chaos, or colluvies, of all kinds of created bodies. Bcfidcs
the matter of light or fire, which continually flows into it
from tht heavenly bodies, and probably the magnetic effluvia
of the earth ; whatever fire can volatilize is found in the air.

Hence, for inftance, I. The whole foffiJe kingdom muil
neceffarily be found in it ; for all of that tribe, as falts, ful-
phurs, ftones, metals, &c. are convertible into fume, and
thus capable of being rendered part of the air. Gold itfelf,
the moll fixed of all natural bodies, is found to adhere dole
to the fulphur in mines ; and thus to be railed along with it.
Mr. Boyle obferves, that befide the faline effluvia of the
common fort, fuch as the nitrous, vitriolic, marine, &ic,
there may be many compounded kinds of falts in the air,
which we have not on earth, arifiug from different faline
fpirits, fortuitoudy meeting and mixing together. Thus,
the glals windows of ancient buildings are iomelimes oh-
fcrved to be corroded, as if they had bee:i worm-eaten ;
though none of the fimple falts above-mentioned have the
faculty of corroding glafs.

Sulphurs too muil make a confiderable ingredient of tlie
air, on account of thofe many volcanos, grottos, caverns,
and other fpiraclcs rfiiefly affording that mineral, difperfed
through the globe.

2. All the parts of the animal kingdom mufl alfo be in
the air; for befides the copious effluvia continually emitted
from their bodies,- by the vital heat, in the ordinary procefs
of perfpiration ; by means of which an animal, in the courfe
of its duration, impregnates the air with many times the
quantity of its own body ; we find that any animal when
dead, being expofed to the air, is in a certain time wholly
incorporated with it.

3. As to vegetables, none of tliat clafs can be fuppofed
wanting ; fince we know that all vegetables, by putrefaction,
become volatile.

The alTociation?, fcparations, attritions, difTolutions, and
other operations of o.ie fort of matter upon another, may
likcwife be confidertd as fources of numerous other neutral,
or anonymous bodies, unknown to us.

4. Water is alfo dillufed through the air in great abun-
dance. Many familiar inllaiices might be alledged to thi*
purpofe. A bottle of wine, when taken out ot the cclLir
in the dried and hottcllday of fummer, will foon be covered
with a denfe vapour, wiiich is water dcpolited by the uir.
The fame appearance is obferved on the outfide of any me-
tallic velfel, wiiieh, in warm weather, contains water cooled
by ice or the fylution of fait, or even Ipring water, which is
fome degrees colder than the aii'. For othei- fadls of fimilar
kind, fee Water.

Air, in this general fenfe, is one of the moll confiderable
and univerfal agents in all nature ; being concerned in the
prefervation of life, and the production of moll of the phe-
nomena relating to our world. Its properties and cfiecls,
including a great part of the refearches and difcoveries of the
modern philofopliers, have in a confiderable degree been re-
duced to precife laws and demonilrations, in which form they
make a very exteiilive and important branch of the mixed
mathematics, called hneumatics.

Air, mi'i-h.inhal propert'ns ait J effeSs of. The mod
coniiderablc of thefe are its Jlu'uUty, tueigLt, and e!af-
tk'ily.

I. Fht'hlily. That the air is a fluid, is evident from the
eafy paflage it affords to bodies through it ; as in the pro-
pagation Oi fraclls, and other effluvia, and the eafy con-
veyance it affords to founds : for thefe and fimilar effects
prove it to be a body, whofe parts give way to any forco
impreffed, and, in yielding, are eafily moved among them-
felves ; which is the definition of a fluid. Befides, it is cer-
tain, that no condenfation by jireffure, nor any degree of
cold that has ever yet been produced, natural or artificial,
have been fufiicient to deprive it of its fluidity. It is true,
indeed, that real pentianent air may be extracled from folid
bodies, and may be alfo ablorbed by them ; and in this fl.att:
it mufl be very much condenfed : but under what form it
exills in thofe bodies, or how its particles are combined
togetlier, the refearches of philofopliy and chemillr)- have
not yet been able to explore.

They who, with the Cartefians, make fluidity to confifl
in a perpetual intefline motion of the parts, find that air
anfwers alfo to that charatler : thus, in a darkened room,
where the fpecies of external objeils are brought in by a
finglc ray, they appear in a continual fluctuation ; and thus
even the more accurate thermometers are obferved never to
remain a moment at refl:.

The caufe of this fluidity of air is attributed by fomc
later philofophers to the fire intermixed with it ; without
which, they imagine, the atmofphere would harden into
a folid impenetrable mafs. And hence, the greater the
degree of fire, the more fluid, moveable, and pervious is the
air : and thus, as the degree of fire is continually vaiying,
according to the circumllances and pofition of the heavenly-
bodies, t!ie air is kept in a continual reciprocation. See
Buffon's Hill. Nat. Supp. vol. i. Hence, in a great mea»
fure, it is faid, that on the tops of the higher mountains,
the fenles of fmelling, hearing, &c. are found very feeble.
The increafcd rarity of the air at a confiderable height may
account for this effect ; but the above hypothefis is con-
tradicled by the more fenfible experience of cold : the air,
near the furface of the earth, deriving greater heat from the
reflecled than from the diredl rays of the fun. See Moun-
r.iiNS.

3 M 2 n. Weight

A I R

II. JVf'ighl ovgrai'hy. Of this property of air the ar.cicuts
were not iJlogclucrdimppriiVd ; though their fcntimenta on
the fnbirft wtre confuftd ard unfetisfaftory. Ariftotle (de
Ca;lo, lib. iv. c. I. op. torn. i. p. 485.) obferves, that all the
tjements, lire excepted, have weight ; and he adds, that a
bladder inilati-d with air, weighs more than when it is quite
empty. Plutarch (de Phcitis. lib. i. c. 12. torn. ii. p. ^33.)
and Stob:"ii8 (Edog. Pbyf. lib. i. c. 17. p. 32. Ed. 1609.)
tjuote Arillotle as teaching, that the weight oi'air is between
that of iire and earth; and lichinifelf, treating of refpiration,
(cap. vii. oper. torn. i. p. 722.) reports the opinion of Em-
pedocles, who afcribes the eaule of it to the weight of the
air, which by its prefTuiv iniiimates itfelf with foi-ce into
the lungs. Plutarch (de Piaeit. lib. iv. c. xxii. torn. ii.
p. 90^.) cxprefTes, in iimilar terms, the opinion of Afcle-
piadej on this fubjeft ; and reprefents him as faying, thatthe
external air, by its weight, opened its way with torce into
the breafl. Heron of Alexandria, in his treatife intitlcd
Spir'Ualia, conftantly applies the elijll'ity of the air to pro-
duce fuch effects as are fuiUcient to convince us that he
well underftood tl at property of it : and Ctefibius, admit-
ting the principle of the air's elallicity, invented wind-guns,
wliich have been confidered as a modern contrivance. Philo
of Byzantium (in Veter. Mathem. p. 77. Ed. Paris.) de-
feribes thefe curious machines, conftrufted upon the prin-
ciple of the air's being capable of condenfation. Seneca
alio (Quasll. Nat. lib. v. c. v. and vi.) was acquainted with
the weight and elailic foixe of the air ; for he defcribes the
conltant effort by which it expands itfelf when it is com-
preffed, and affirms, that it has the property of condeniing
itfelf, and forcing its way through all obflacles that oppofe
its paflage. See Dutens's Inquiiy into the origin of the
Difcovcries attributed to the Moderns, p. 1 86. 1769. The
followers of Arillotle, however, abandoned the fentiments
of their mailer on tl is fubjetl ; and for many ages main-
tained a contrary' doftrine. The effects which are now
known to refult from the weight and elafticity of the air,
were for a long time attributed to the imaginaiy principle,
called/z/fa imcu'i, or nature's abhorrence of a vacuum ; and
Galileo himfelf admitted the principle, though he afTigned
a limit to it, correfponding to the weight of a column of
water 34 feet high. This diftinguidied philofopher, how-
ever, was well apprifed of the weight of the air as a body ;
and, in his Dialogues, he points out two methods of de-
monftrating it, by weighing it in bottles. But the preflure
of the air was difcovered by his difciple, Torricelli. In the
year 1643, it occurred to him, that whatever might be the
caufeby which a column of water, 34 feet high, is fullained
above its level, the fame force would fuilain a column of
any other fluid, which weighed as much as that column of
water, on the fame bafe ; and hence he concluded, that
quicklilver, being about 14 times as heavy as water, would
not be fullained at a greater height than that of 29 or 30
inches. He then made the experiment, called after his
name ; and inferred from it, that the weight of the air in-
cumbent on the furface of the external quickfilver, countei--
balanced the fluid contained in the tube. By this experi-
ment he not only proved, as Galileo had before done, that
the air had weight, but that its weight was the caufe of the
fufpenfion of water and quickfilver in pumps and tubes, and
that the weight of the whole column of it was equal to
that of a like column of quickiilver, 30 inches high, or of
water 34 or 35 feet high ; but he did not afcertain the
weight of any particular quantity of it, as a gallon, or a
cubic foot ; nor its fpecific gravity to water, which had been
done, though inaccurately, by Galileo. Tonicelli's experi-
ment was publifhed at Warfaw, in Poland, by Valerianus

A I R

Magnus, as his own difcovciy ; but from the letters of Ro-
jtrval, it appears, that Torricelh's claim to priority is indil-

Ma

btrval, It appea

putable ; and that neither Valerianus, nor Honoratus Fabri,
to whom it has been afcribed fo early as the year 1641, can
jufUy difpute it with him. The firfl difcovery of the
"weight and elafticity of the air has been lately afcribed to
Jean Rer, who wrote in 1 629, before Galileo, Torricelli,
Des Cartes, and Pafchal. His fourth and tenth effays have
been cited in favour of his claims ; but though he was ap-
prized that compretfion augmented the weight of the air, and
he feems to have believed, with Arillotle and others at a
very ancient period, that air was heavy, yet the proofs
which he allcdges were not fniHcicnt to convince the incredu-
lity of the peripatetics. The Tomcellian experlmeHt, by
wliich the fail was eftabliflied, and which father Merfenr.e
received" an account of in 1644, was immediately eumip.u-
nicated to the philofophers of France, and repeated m
various ways by Meffrs. Pafchal and Petit : and this gave
occalion to the ingenious treatife publillied by Pafchal, at
23 years of age, iutitled, " Experiences Nouvclles touchant
la Vuide." Having, after fome hefitation, adopted Torri-
celli's idea, and abandoned the principle of z fiiga vacui, he
devifed feveral experiments for confirming it. One of thefe
was to make a vacuum above the refervoir of quickfilver,
in which cafe he found that it funk to the common level :
and he then engaged M. Perrier, his brother-in-law, to
execute the famous experiment of Puy-de-Domme, who
found that the height of the quickfilver half way up the
mountain was lefs by fome inches than at the foot of it ;
and that it was flill lefs at the top. Thefe fafts incontef-
tibly proved, that it was the weight of the atmofphere
which counterpoifed the quickfilver. Des Cartes had alfo
jufl notions of the power of the air for fuflaining fluids
above their level, as appears by fome letters about this
time, and fome years before ; and in one of thefe he lays
claim to the idea of the Puy-de-Domme experiment. See
Cartefii opera, tom. ii. p. 243, 246.

The experiment of Pafchal was repeated in various parts
of the world ; and particularly in 1653, by Dr. Power, in
England ; and in 166 1, by Mr. Sinclair, profefTor of philo-
fophy at Glafgow, in Scotland.

That the air is heavy, follows from its being a body ;
weight being an efiential property of matter. And that it
is a body, is evident froiti its excluding all other bodies out
of the fpace it poflelTes ; for if a glafs jar be inverted into
a veffel of ^^■ater, the air, of which it is full, will allow but
little water to enter into it. But we have many argum.ents
to the fame purpofe from fenfe and experiment : thus, the
hand, applied on the orifice of a veflel empty of air, foon
feels the load of the incumbent atmofphere. Thus, glafs
veflels, exhaufled of their air, are eaiily crufhed to pieces
by the weight of the air without. So, two fmall hollow
fegments of a fphere, four inches in diameter, exaftly fit-
ting each other, being emptied of air, are preffed together
with a force equal to iSS pounds, by the weight of the
ambient air ; and that they are kept together by the preffure
of the air is evident, by fufpending them in an exhaufted
receiver, where they will feparate of themfelves. Farther,
if a tube, clofe at one end, he filled with mercury, and the
other end immerged in a bafon of the fame fluid, and thus
eredled, the mercurv in the tube will be fufpended at the
height of about 30 inches above the furface of that in the
bafon. The reafon of which fufpenfion is, that tb,e mercury
in the tube cannot fall lower without raifing that in the
bafon ; which being prefled down by the weight of the
incumbent atmofphere cannot give way, unlefs the weight
of the mercury in the tube exceeds that of the air out of

it.

A 1 R

A I R

it. That tin's is the cafi.', is evident ; becaufe, if the
^vholc apparatus be iiichulwl in tlie receiver of an air pump,
tlie mcreiiry will fall in proportion as the air is exhaulled ;
and on grad\ially letting in the air again, the mercury re-
afcends to its termer height. Tliis makes what is iifiially
called the Torrici- llian fx/ierimi-n/.

To fay no moie, we can adnalh- weigh air ; for a vcflTel,
full even of common air, is found, hy a veiy nice hidanee,
to weigh more than when the air is exl;au(lcd ; a quart of
air weighing about 17 grains; and the efl'etl is propor-
tionablv more fentible, if the fame vcfFel be weighed full
of condenfed air, and more efpeeially in a receiver void of
air.

The weight of air is continually varying, according to
the different degree of heat and cold, and the concurrence
of other cauics. Palehal oblerved it in France ; and Dcs
Cartes in Sweden, in 1650. Mr. I'loyle, and others, ob-
ferved it in England, in 1656. Some obfervers noticed,
that it was generally greattft in the night and in winter ;
and that its variations were moil cenfiderable during winter,
and in the northern regions. Hence arofe the application
of the BAROMETER to the ufes of a weather-glass.
Ricciolus ellimates the weight of air to that of water, to
be as I to 1000; Merfennus as i to 1300, or 1 to
1356; Lana, as l to 640; Galileo only makes it as i
to 400. Mr. I'joyle, by a more accurate experiment, f nmd
it about Loudon, as i to 938 ; and thinks, all things
coniidered, the proportion of 1 to 1000 may be taken as
a medium ; for there is no fixing any precife ratio, finee not
only the air, but the water itfelf, is continually varying.
Befides, experiments made in different places necelfarily
vary, on account of the different heights of the places, the
feafons of making the experiment, and the different denfitics
of air correfponding to thefe circumftances. It niuil be
added, however, that by experiments made fince, before
the Royal Society, the proportion of air to water was,
firft, found as i to S40 ; then, as i to 852; and a
third time, as i to 860. Phil. Tranf. N° 181. And
lartly, by a very fimple and accurate experiment of Mr.
Haukfbee, the proportion was fettled, as i to '885.
Phyf. Mechan. Exper. But thefe experiments being all
made in the iumnier months, when the barometer was 29I
inches high, Dr. Jurin thinks, that at a medium between
heat and cold, when the barometer is 30 inches high, the
proportion between the two fluids may be taken as i to
800 ; which agrees with the obfervation of the honourable
Mr. Cavendlfh, the thermometer being at 50°, and the
barometer at 29J inches. Pliil. Tranf. vol. Ivi. p. 152.

Sir George Shuckburgh, (Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixvii. p. 560.)
by a very accurate experiment, found it as 1 to 836 ; the
barometer being at 29,27 inches, and the thermometer at
53° ; and the comparative gravity of quickfdver to air, as
1 1364,6 to I. The medium of all thefe is about one to 832
or 833, when reduced to the preffure of 30 inches of the
barometer, and the mean temperature 55° of the thermo-
meter. Upon the whole, it may be concluded, that when
the barometer is at 30 inches, and the thennometer at the
mean temperature of 55°, the denfity or gravity of water

is to that of air as 833 | to i ; that is, as — — to i, or as

2500 to 3 ; and for any changes in the height of the baro-
meter, the ratio varies proportionally ; and alfo that the
denllty of the air is altered by the x^"" part, for every de-
gree of the thermometer above or below tempt rate. This
number, which is a wrf good medium, having the fraftion
i, gives exaftly i^"" of an ounce for the mean weight of a
cubic foot of air; the weight of the cubic foot of water

l^eing juft loco ounces avoirdupois, and that cf quiek-
fdver equal to 13600 ounces.

Air, then, being heavy and fluid, the laws of its gnvi-
tation, or preffure, may be inferred to be tiic fame as tliofe
of otlier fluids ; and confequcntly its prcfVurc muft be pro-
portional to its perpendicular altitude. This is alfo con-
firmed by txperir.ient. For reinoving the Tonicellian tube
to a more elevated place, where the incumberit column of
air is lliorter, a proportionably Ihorter column of mereuiy
is fullained ; ar.d that nearly at the rate of 100 feet for ^'^
of an inch of quickhlvcr. On this principle depend the llruc-
ture and office of the baromf.tkr.

From hence, alfo, it follows, that the air, like all other
fluids, muft prefs equally eveiy way. This is confirmed by
obferving, that loft bodies fuffain this preffure without any
change of figure, and brittle bodies witliout breaking ;
though the preffure upon them be equal to that of a column
of mercury thirty inches high, or a column of water of
thirty-two or fomewhat more feet. It is obvious, tiiat no
other caufe can preferve fuch bodies unchanged, but tlie
eqtiable preffure on all fides, wliich refills as much as it is
refilted. And hence, upon removing or diminifliing the
preffure on one fide only, the effeft of the preffure is foon
perceived on the other. For the quantity and effeit of
this pred'ure of the atmofphere on the human body, and
on the furface of the earth, and the laws of different
heights, fee Atmos there.

From the gravily of the air, confidercd in connexion with
its JIuk'i/y, feveral of its ufes and effeifls may be eafily deduced.

1. By means of its weight, &c. it clofely inverts the
earth, with all the bodies upon it ; and conftringes and
binds them down with a force amounting, according to the
computation of M. Pafchal, to 2232 pounds weight upon
every fquare foot, or upwards of 15 pounds upon every
fquare inch. Hence it prevents, e. gr. the arterial veffcls
of plants and animals from being too much diilcnded by the
impetus of the circulating juices, or by the elallic force of
the air, fo plentifully contained in the blood. — Thus we fee,
in the operation of cupping, that, upon a diminution of
the preffure of the air, the parts of the body grow tumid ;
which neceffarily alters the manner of the circulation through
the capillaries, &c.

The fame caufe hinder the iuices from oufing and cfcap-
ing through the pores of their containing vedels : this is
experienced by fuch as travel up high mountains, who, in
proportion as they afcend, find themfelvcs more and more
relaxed ; and at length become fubjeil to a ("pitting of blood,
and other haemorrhages ; becaufe the air doth not fuffi-
ciently conftringe the veffels of the lungs. Similar cffefls
are obfervcd in animals that are cnclofed under the receiver
of the air-pump, who, as the air is taken from them, pant,
fwell, vomit, and dilchargc their urine and excrementi.
See Vacuum.

2. The weight of the air |)romotes the mixture of conti-
guous fluid bodies. Hence many liquids, as oils and falls,
which readily and fpontaneoufly mix in air, remain, on the
removal of it, in a Rate of ieparation.

3. Tliis gravity of air does in fome cafes determine the
aftion of one body above another.

4. To the fame principle are chiefly owing our winds,
wliich are only air put in motion by fome alteration in its
equilibrium. It is the weight of the air that caufes the
clouds and vapours to float in it.

ni. Eliijlicily — or a power of yielding to an impref-
fion by contrafting its dimenfions ; and upon removing or
din.ipifhing the impreflive caufe, of returning to its former
fpace or figure, is another quality of air. Tliis clailic

force

A I R

fiirce lus been long accounted the drUinguilliin J property of
air ; tlie other properties liilherto enumtrateJ being common
to it with other fluids ; though, from late experiraeiits, it
appears more than prohable, tliat the capacity of beuig
compreffeJ and expanded is not peculiar to air. See Wa-
TtR and Compression.

This property of air has been long known, and was afcer-
tained by fome experiments of lord Bacon, who, upon this
principle, conllmcled his vitrum calendarc, the firft thermo-
meter. Bacon. Nov. Organ, lib. ii. aph. 13.

Of this power we have numerous proofs. — Thus, a blown
bladder being fqueezed in the hand, we find the included
air fenfibly refill ; fo that upon ceafing to comprcfs, the
cavities or impreffions, made in its furtace, are readily ex-
panded again, and filled up.

On this property of elalticity, the ilrufture and office of
the AIR-PUMP depend.

Every particle of air always exerts this nifus, or endea-
vour to expand, and thus llrives againft an equal endeavour
of the ambient particles, whofe refiftance happening l)y any
means to be weakened, it immediately diffufes itfelf into an
jmmenfe extent. Hence it is, that thin glafs bubbles, or
bladders filled with air, and exactly clofed, being included
in tlie exhaulled receiver of an air-pump, burll by the force
vf the included air. So a bladder quite flaccid, containing
only the fmallell quantity of air, fwells in the receiver, and
appears quite fall. The fame effeft is a'.fo found by canying
the Haecid bladder to tiie top of a high mountain. This
experiment (liews, that the elallicity of air is different from
that of folid bodies : after thefe have been compreifed,
tjiey only refjme the figure which they had loft ; whereas
air, when the comprefliiig force is removed, not only dilates,
but occupies a much greater fpace tiian it did before ; nor is it
eafy to affign the limits of its expanfion. From fome ex-
periments of Col. Roy (Phil. Tranf. vol. 67. p. 70S.) it
would feem, that the particles of air may be fo far removed
from one another, by the diminution of preffure, as to lofe
a very great part of their elaltic force. It alfo appears that
the elaltic force of common air is greater than when its
denfity is coiifiderably augmented or diminidied by an ad-
dition to, or fubtraftion from the weight with which it is
ufually loaded ; a facl which contradicts the experience of
Boyle, Mariotte, and others. Thefe experiments alfo fhew,
that the elafllc force of moift air is greatly fuperior to that
of dr)' air ; in fome caf*?s the total expanfion of the former
was more than four times that of the latter.

It has been quellioned among philofophcrs, whether this
elaftic power of the air is capable of being dcftroyed or di-
minifncd, Mr. Boyle made feveral experiments, with a
view to difcover, how long air, brought to the greatell
degree of expanfion to wliich he could reduce it in his air-
pump, would retain its fpring ; and could never obfen'e
any fenfible diminution. D'iaguliers found that air, after
having been enclofed for half a year in a wind-gun, had loll
none of its elafticity ; and Roberval, after preiei-ving it in
the fame manner for llxtecn years, obfervcd, that its expan-
five projeftile force was the fame as if it had been recently
condcnfed. Ncveithelefs, Mr. Haukfbee concludes, from a
later experiment, that the fpring of the air maybe fo difturbed
bya violent preffure, as to require fome time to return to its na-
tural tone. Dr. Hales inferred, from a number of experiments,
that the elalticity of the air is capable of being impaired and
Himinifhed by a variety of caufes, and of being actually de-
ftroyed, fo that it is reduced to a fixed ftate. Hence he
alfo roncludi.?, that elafticity is not an efiential immutable
property of the particles of air ; and that the atmofphere is
ii chaos, conlifting not only of elaftic, but alfo of unelaftic air-

A I R

particles, which copioufly float in it. Statical EfTays, vol,

'• P; 3 "5.

The weight or preffure of the air, it is obvious, has no
dependence on its elafticity ; but would be the fame, whether
the air has fuch a property or not. But the air, being
elaftic, is neceffarily affected by the preffure, which reduecj
it into fuch a fpace, as that the elafticity which re-atts
againfl the comprefling weight, is equal to that weight.
Indeed, the law of this elafticity is, that it increafes as the
denfity of the air increafes ; and the denfity increafes as the
force increafes by which it is prefTcd. Now, there muft ne-
ceffarily be a balance between the action and rc-aftion ; /. c.
the gravity of the air, which tends to comprefs it, aud the
elafticity of the air, which endeavours to expand it, muft be
equal. And tlie elafticity of the air not very different from
its natural ftate, being as the denfity, will of courie be in-
verfciy as the fpace which it occupies.

Hence the elafticity increafing, or diminiihing, univerfally,
as the denfity increafes or diminifhcs, t. e. as the diftance
between the particles diminlfhes, or increafes, it is no matter
whether the air be comprcffed and retained in fuch fpace,
by the weight of the atmofphere, or by any other means;
it muft endeavour, in either cafe, to expand with the fame
force. And hence if air near the earth be pent up in a
veffel, fo as to cut off all communication with the external
air, the preffure of the inclofed air will be equal to the
weight of the atmofphere. Accordingly, we find mercury
fuitained to the fame height, by the elaftic force of air in-
cloled in a glafs veffel, as by the whole atmoipherical
preifure.

On the fame principle air may be artificially condenfed ;
and hence the ftruciture of the air-^;/«.

Although it may be admitted as a general principle, that
the denfity of the air is proportional to the force by which
it is compreffed, as the experiments of Mr. Boyle and Mr.
Mariotte have evinced ; yet in the cafe of condenfed air,
the rule will not be ftriflly applicable. When air is veiy
forcibly compreffed, fo as to be reduced to Jth of its ordi-
nary bulk, it makes a greater refiilance, and requires a ftronger
force to comprefs it than the above principle allows. Hence
it appears probable, that the particles of air cannot, by any
pofhble preffure, be brought into perfeft conta£t, or form a
folid mafs ; and therefore that the degree of condenfation has
its limit. Thus alfo in very high degrees of rarefaftion, the
elafticity is decreafed rather more than in an exaft proportion to
the weight or denfity of the air; whence it may be concluded,
that there is a limit to its rarefaction or expanfion, fo that
it cannot be expanded to infinity. Neveithelefs, the utniofl
limits to which air of the denfity which it pofFefres at the
furface of the earth, is capable of being compreffed, have
not been afcertained. Mr. Boyle reduced it at one time to
the 14th part, and at another to the 40th part of
its natural fpace. (Works, vol. iii. p. 507.) Dr. Halley
fays, that he has feen it compreffed fo as to be 60
times denfer than in its natural ftate, which is farther
confirmed by Mr Papin, and M. Hu5'gens. Dr. Hales
(Stat. Exp. vol. iL p. 343, &c.) by means of a prefs, con-
denied it 38 times ; and by freezing \vMtr in an iron ball
or globe, into 1522 times lefs fpace than it naturally occu-
pies : in which ftate its denfity or fpecific gravity muft be
nearly double that of water ; and as water is \e\-y flightly
compreillble, the particles of air muft be in their nature
different from thofe of water ; fince it would other\%ife be
impoflible to reduce air to a bulk 800 times lefs than that
which it occupies in its natural flute.

However, Dr. Halley has alferted, in the Philofophical
Traofav^ions, (Abr. vol, ii. p. 17.) that from the experi-
ment*

A I R

A I R

menfs m.-idc at London, and by die Academy del CImcnto
at riorcnce, it iiiiglu be fnfely concluded, t!iat no force
wliatcver is able to reduce air into 800 times Icl;; fpaee tlrui
that wlilcb it naturally pofleirts on tiic Airface of our earth.
In anfwer to wliicli, M. Amontons, in the Memoirs of
the French Academy, maintains, that there is no affixing
any bounds to its condenfation ; that greater and greater
weights will Hill reduce it into Icfs and lefscompafs; that it is
only elalHc in virtue of the fire which it contains ; and that
as it is impofiiiile ever abfolutely to drive all the fire out of
it, it is impofTible ever to make the utmoR condenfation.

The elalticity of the air exerts its force equally in all di-
rtftions ; and when releafed from the force tliat compred'es
it, it alfumes a fphencal figure in the interllices of the bo-
dies that contain it. By exliaufting the air from liquors
placed under the receiver of an air-pump, the bubbles that
gradually arifc and are enlarged in fize, letain their round
figure. Such are alfo the bubbles that difcharge themfelvcs
from a plate of metal immerged in a fluid in the fame cir-
cum'.huiecs. On this account large glafs globes arc always
formed of a fpherieal (liape by blowing air through an iruu
tulie into a piece of melted glafs at the end of the tube.

The dilatation of the air by virtue of its elaftlc force, is
found to be very furprifmg ; and yet Dr. Wallis fuggells,
that we are far from knowing the utmoft of which it is ca-
pable. In fdvtral experiments made by Mr. Boyle, it di-
lated firft into 9 times its former fpace; then into 31 times;
then into 60; and then into 150. Afterwards, it was
brought to dilate into 8000 times its firft fpace: then
into 10,000, and even at laft into 13,679 times its fpace ;
and this altogether by its own cxpaniive force, without the
help of fire. Boyle's Works by Birch, vol. i. p. 21, 22.
vol Hi. p. 498, 499.

On this depend the ftruflure and ufe of the Manometer.
Hence it appears, that the air we breathe near the furface
of the earth is comprefled by the weight of the fuperin-
cumbent column into at leaft the 13679th part of the fpace
. it would pofftfs in -vacuo. But if the fame air be condenfed
by art, the fpace it will take up when moft dilated, to that
it polTcffes when condenfed, will be, according to the fame
author's experiments, as 550,000 to i.

We hence fee how wild and erroneous the obfervation
of Ariftotle was, that air, rendered ten times rarer than
before, changes its nature, and becomes fire.

It has generally been fuppofed, that air expands -^l-^ with
each degree of the thermometer, commencing from the
mean temperature ^^° ; and upon this principle tables have
been computed by aftronomers for correfting their mean
refraAions ; but Sir George Shuckburgh allows at this
temperature an expanfion of -^-i-^ for i^. Phil. Tranf. v.
67. p. 564. Mr. Haukfbee obferved, that a portion of air,
included in a glafs tube, when the temperature was at the
freezing point, formed a volume which was to that of the
fame quantity of air in the greateft heat of fummer in Eng-
land as 6 to 7. Moift air has been expanded into more
than 12 times the fpace occupied by it in its freezing ft ate ;
and Merfennus by means of the ^ollplle expanded it into
more than 70 times its natural bulk. Mufchenb. Introd.
ad. Phil. Nat. torn. ii. p. 884. 4to.

M. Amontons, and others, we have already obferved,
attribute the rarefa&ion of the air wholly to the fire con-
tained in it ; and therefore, by increafing the degree of heat,
the degree of rarefaction may be carried ftill farther than its
fpontaneous dilatation. Air is expanded 3 of its bulk by
boiling water. Hift. Acad. Sc. 1699.

Dr. Hales found thattiie air in a retort, when the bottom

cf the velTel was juil beginning to b.' red hot, was expanded

4
i

through twice its former fpace, gnd in a wliitc, o' .•>!mfifl
nieltiug heat, it occupied thrice its former fpace ; but Mr.
Robins found, (New Principles of Gunnery, civ. 1. prop. 5.
p. 12.) that air was expanded by the heat cf iron, juli be-
ginning to be while, to four times its former bulk. Thus
we account for the apparent inflation of a flaccid bladder,
when it is warmed by the fire, and on this principle depend
the ftrudlure and cilice of the thfrmometir, and alio
the formation and afeent of air-balloons. Uee ArRos-

TATlON.

M. Amontons firft difcovered that air will expand, in pro-
portion to its dcnfitv, with the fame degree cf heat. On
this foundation, the ingenious author has a difcouifc, to
prove, ' that the tpriiig and weight of the air, with a mo-
' derate degree of warmth, may enable it to jiroduce even
' earthquakes, and other of the moll vehement commotion*
' of nature.'

According to the experiments of this author, and M. de
la Hire, a column of air on the furface of the earth, 36
fathoms high, is equal in weight to three lines depth of
mercury; and it is found, that equal quantities of air poflefs
fpaces reciprocally proportioned to the weights with which
they are preilcd ; the weight of the air, therefore, which
would fill the whole fpace pofiefted by the tcrreftrial globe,
would be equal to a cylinder of mercuiy, whofe bafe is equal
to the furface of the earth, aifd its height containing as
many times three lines, as the atmofpherical fpaee contains
orbs equal in weight to 36 fathoms of tliat wherein the ex-
periment was made. — Hence, taking the denfell of all bodies,
i^- gr. gold, whofe gravity is about 14,630 times greater tlia>i
that of air in our orb, it is eafy to compute, that this air
would be reduced to the fame dcnfity as gold, by the prefTure
of a column of mercury 14,6^0 times 28 inches high, /. r.
409,640 inches, fince the bulks of air, in that cafe, would
be in the reciprocal ratio of the weights by which tlx-y are
preftcd. Thefe 409,640 inches, therefore, exprefsthe height
at which the barometer muft i^and, where the air would be
as heavy as gold, and the number 2 j-?~ ^^ ^'"'^^' tliethick-
nefs to which our column of 36 fathoms of air would be
reduced in the fame place.

Now, we know, that 43,528 fathoms, which is the depth,
where the above prefture, and confequent redudlion take
place, are only the 74th part of the femidlameter of the
earth ; and, therefore, beyond that depth, whatever matter
exifts, it muft be heavier than gold. It is not improbable,
therefore, that the remaining fphere of 6,451,538 fathoms
diameter may be full of dcnie air, heavier by m.any degrees
than the heavicft bodies which we know. Hence, again, as-
it is proved, the more air i.- compixlTcd the more does the
fame degree of fire increafe the force of its fpring, and
render it capable of a proportlonably greater eftett ; we may
infer, that a degree of heat, which in our orb can only pro-
duce a moderate effeft, may have a vciy violent one in fueh
lower orb ; and that, as there may be many degrees of heat
in nature, beyond that of boiling water, it is probable there
may be lome, whole violence, thus aflilled by the weight of
the air, may be fufficient to tear alunder the folid globe.
Mem. de I'Acad. an. 1703. See Earthquakes.

This elallic property of air is Inppofcd bv many philofo-
phers to depend on the figure of its eorpniclcs, wiiieh they
apprehend to be ramous ; fome maintain tliat they are fo
many minute Jiocculi, refembllng fleeces of v.-ool ; others
conceive them rolled up like hoops, and curlid like wires,
or fhavings of wood, or coiled like the fprings of watches,
and endeavouring to reftore themfelves in virtue of their
texture : fo that to produce air, muft be to produce fuch a
figure and difpolition of pans ; and thofe bodies only ari

proper

A 1 R

proper fiiliiecta, which are fufceptible of fuch difpofition ;
wliicli fluids, from tlie fmoothncfs, round'.icfs, and flippKri-
ncl's of their parts, are not.

liiit Sir llaac Newton (Optics, p. 371.) expliiins the
matter olherwii'e ; fuch a texture, he thinks, by no means
liifficicnt to account for that vallpowirof elallicity oblVrved
in air, which incapable of diffulhujitlelf into above amiUion
of tnnes more fpace than it before pofTcffcd. — But, as all
bodiei are ihcvvn to liave an attractive and repelling power ;
a id as both tlicfe are ftronger in bodies, the denfer, more
compad, and Iblid they arc ; hence it follows, that when by
)ieal, or any other powerful agent, the attractive force n
furmounted, and the particles of the body leparated fo far
»s to be out of tlie fphere of attraclion ; the repelling power
which then commences makes them recede from each other
with a (Irong force proportionable to that with which they
before cohered ; and thus tiiey become permanent air. And
he has proved, that particles, endeavouring to recede from
each other with forces reciprocally proportional to the dif-
tance between their centres, will compole an elallic fluid,
whofe denfity (hall be proportional to its comprcliion.
Hence, fays the fame author, it is, tliat as the particles of
permanent air are groflcr, and rife from dcnfer bodies, than
thole of tranfient air, or vapour, true air is more ponderous
than vapour ; and a moid atmofphere is lighter than a dry
one.

The elaftic power of the air above illullrated and evinced,
is the fecond great fource of the eifeCls of this important
■ fluid. By this property, it infinuntes itfelf into the pores
of bodies, and by ponclfuig this prodigious facultv of ex-
p;inding, which is to cailly excited, it mull neceflarily put
the particles of bodies into which it infinuates itfelf into
perpetual ofcillations. Indeed, the degree of heat, and the
air's gravity and denfity, and confcqueiitly its elali;icity and
expaniion, never remaining the fame for the leail fpace of
time, there niufl be an inccflant vibration, or dilatation and
contraction of all bodies.

We oblen'e this reciprocation in feveral inftances, parti-
cularly in plants, the traches, or air-veffels of whicli per-
form the office of lungs ; for the .contained air alternately
expanding and contracting, as the heat incrcafes or is dimi-
nilhed, by turns comprelfes the veffels, and cafes them again :
and tlius promotes a circulation of their juices. See AiR-

Hence, we find, that no vegetation nor gennination will
proceed ;/i ^v/^•«o. Indeed beans Iiave been obferied to sjrow
a little tumid therein ; and this has ltd fome to attribute
t!iat to vegetation, which was really owing to no other caufe
than the dilatation of the air within them.

The air is very inllrumental in the produdion and growth
of vegetables, not only by invigorating their feveral juices,
while in an elailic active rtate, but alfo by greatlv contri-
buting in a fixed Hate to the union and firm connection of
their feveral conllituent parts, and by fupplying them with
that food or pahilnm, which contributes to their growth.

From the fame caufe it is, that the air contained in bub-
bles of ice, by its continual adion, burfts the ice ; and thus
aifo, as well as by the expanfion of freezing fluids, glafTes
and other veflels frequently crack, when their contained
liquors are frozen. Thus alfo, entire columns of marble
fometimes cleave in the winter time, from fome little bubble
of included air's acquiring an increafed eiailicity : and to
this it is owing, that few Hones will bear to be heated by
the fire without cracking by the expanfive force of the air
confined within their pores. From the fame principle arife
pulrefriclion -^nd fermentation ; neither of which will proceed,
even in the beft difpofed fubjeds, in vacuo.

A I R

Since we find fuch great quantities of elaftic air, gene-
rated in the folution of animal and vegetable fubllances, a
good deal mud conllantly arife from the diifolution of thefe
elements in the llomach and bowels, which is much pro-
moted by it : and refpiration, a!;d even animal life, depend
ill a great mcafure upon the air.

In reality-, all natural corruption and alteration feem fo
depend on air ; and met jls, particularly gold, only feem to
be durable and incoiTUptible, in virtue of their not being
pervious to air.

Air, e/feCls of the d'ljfsrent in^red'unts of. Air not only
ads by its common properties of gravity and elaiiicity, but
there are numerous otlier effeds, anfing from the peculiar
ingredients of which it conllits.

"Thus, I. It not only dilfolvcs and attenuates bodies by
its preffure and attrition, but as a chaot containing all kinds
of menilrua, and confequcntly poflefiing powers for diflblving
all bodies. It is known that iron and copper readily
diifolve, and become ruily in air, unlefs well defended with
oil. Boerhaave afFures us, that he has feen pillars of iron fo
reduced by air, that they migiit be crumbled to duft between
the fingers ; and as for copper, it is converted by the air
into a fubllance much hke the verdigrife produced by
vinegar.

Mr. Boyle relates, that in the fouthern Englith colonies
the great guns mil fo faft, that after lying in the air for a
few years, large cakes of crocus mortis may be feparated from
them. Acoflia adds, that in Peru the air diflolves lead, and
conliderably increafes its weight. Yet gold is generally ef-
teemed indiflbluble by air ; being never found to contrad
mil, though expofed to it ever fo long. In the laboratories
of chemiiis, however, where aqua regia is prepared, the
air becoming impregnated with an unuiual quantity of this
mcnilruum, gold contrads a mil like other bodies.

J'tones alfo undergo the changes mcident to metals. —
Thus, Purbeck Hone, of which Sahfbui-y cathedral con-
fifts, is obfci-ved gradually to become fofter, and to
moulder awav in the air; and Mr. Boyle gives the fame
account of Blackington ftone. He adds, that air may
have a confiderable operation on vitriol, even when a
ftrong fire could ait no further upon it. And he has
found, that the fumes of a corrofive hquor work more
fuddenly and manifeflly on a certain metal, when fuftained
in the air, than the menllruum itfelf did, which emitted
fumes on thofe parts of the metal which it covered ;
referring to the effedls of the effluvia of vinegar on

COPPER.

The diffolnng power of air is increafed by heat, and bv
other caufes. It combines with water ; and, by accefs of
cold, depofits part of the matter which was kept diflblved
in it, by a greater degree of heat. Hence the water, by
being depofited and condenfed upon any cold body, fuch
as gliifs, &c. in windows, forms fogs, and becomes ^^fible.
Air, hkewife, has been fuppofcd, by means of its diffolving
power, to accelerate evaporation and distillation.
2. Air volatilizes fixed bodies. Tims, fea-falt, being firll
calcined, then fiifed by tb.e fire, and when fufed, expofed
to the air to hquify ; when liquified fet to dry, and then
fufed again, repeating the operation, will, by degrees,
be almoit wholly evaporated ; nothing but a little earth
remaining. Helmont mentions it as an arcanum in che-
miftry, to render fixed fait of tartar volatile ; but this is
eafily effedied by air alone : for, if fome of this fait be
expofed to the air, in a place replete with acid vapours,
the fait draws the acid to itfelf, and when fatiu-ated with
it, is volatile,

3. Air alfo fixes volatile bodies. Thus, though fpint
I of

A I R

A I R

of nitre, 01' aqu;;foitis, readily evaporates by the fire :
yet if there be any putrefied urine near the place, the vo-
latile fpirit will be fixed, and full down in form of Ai^uA

SKCUNDA.

4. Air brings many quiefcent bodies into aftion ; /'. e.
excites their latent powers. Thus, if an acid vapour be
diffufed through the air, all the bodies of which that is
the proper mcnllruum, being diffolved by it, are brought
into a Rate proper for action.

In the various operations of chemiftry, air is a very nc-
ceffary and important agent, the refult of particular pro-
celfcs depending on its prefence or abfence, on its being
open or enclofcd. Thus the parts of animals and ve-
getables can only be calcined in open air ; in clofe vcfTels
they never become any other than black coals. And thefe
operations are effefted by the changes to which the air
is liable. Many inllances might be alledged to this pur-
pofe. Let it fufficc to obferve, that it is very difficult
to procure oil of fulphur, per campanam, in a clear dry
atmofphere ; but in thick moill air it may be obtained
with greater eafe, and in larger quantities. So pure well-
fermented wme, if it be canied to a place where the air
is replenilhed with the fumes of new wine, then fermenting,
will begin to ferment afrefli.

The changes in the air arife from various caufes, and
are obfervable not only in its mechanical properties, fuch
as gravity, deniity, &c. but in the ingredients that com-
pofe it. Thus, at Fafhlun, in Sweden, noted for copper-
mines, the mineral exhalations affeft the air in fuch a man-
ner, as to difcolour the fdver coin in purfes ; and the fame
effluvia change the colour of brafs. In Carniola, Cam-
pania, &c. where are mines of fulphur, the air fometimes
becomes very unwholefome, which occafions frequent epi-
demic difeafes, &c.

The effluvia of animals alfo h.ave their effeft in varying
the air, as is evident in contagious difeafes, plagues, murrains,
and other mortalities, which are fpread by an infefted ai'"-

The fudden and fatal effeft of noxious vapours has gene-
rally been fuppofed to be principally, if not wholly, owing
to the lofs and wafte of the vivifymg fpirit of air. But Dr.
Hales attributes this efFeft to the lofs of a confidcrable part
of the air's elajlicity, and to the grolTnefs and denfity of the
vapours with which the air is charged. He found, by an
experiment made on himfelf, that the lungs will not rife and
dilate as ufual, when they draw in fuch noxious air, the
elallicity of which lias been eonfiderably diminllhed. For
having made a bladder veiy fupple by wetting it, and then
cutting off fo much of the neck as would make a hole wide
enough to admit the biggcft end of a large foffet, to which
the bladder was bound ; and then having blown the bladder,
he put the fmall end of the foffet into his mouth, and, at
the fame time, pinched his noflrils fo clofe, that no air might
pafs that way, and he could only breathe to and fro the air
contained in the bladder, which, \\'\\\\ the foffet, contained
feventy-four cubic inches. In lefs than half a minute, he
found a confidcrable difficulty in breathing ; and at the end
of a minute, the bladder was become fo flaccid, that he
could not blow it above half full, with the greateft expira-
tion which he could make ; and at the fame time, he coidd
plai;ily perceive that his lungs were much fallen, in the fame
manner as when we breathe out of them all the air we can
at once. Hence he concluded, that a confiderable quantity
of the elallicity of the air was deflroyed ; and that when the
fuffocating quality of the air was the greateil, it was with
mucfi difficulty that he could dilate his lungs in a very fmall
degree. From this, and feveral other experiments, lie in-
ferred, that the life of animals is prefcrved rather by the

Vol.. I.

elaflic force of tlic air acting on their lungs than by its vivi-
f) ing fpirit ; and that candles and matenes ccafe to burn,
after having been confined in a fmall quantity of air, not
bccaufe they have rendered the air effete by confuming its
vivifying fpirit, but becaufe they have difchargcd a great
quantity of acid fuliginous vapours, which partly defhoyits
elallicity, and retard the elaflic motion of the remainder.
He likewife found, that air, which paffed through cloths
dipped in vinegar, could be breathed to and fro as long
again as the like quantity of air, which was not thus pu-
rified ; fo that fprinkling the decks of fliips with vinegar
may refrefli the air ; and this is confinned by experience.
But where the corruption of the air is much greater, a? in
clofe prifons, &c. nothing can be an adequate and effeftua!
remedy but a ventilator. He obferved, likewife, that air
is not difqualified for refpiration merely by the additional
moiflure which it receives, but by fome bad quality in that
moiflure. See his Statical EfTays, vol. i. p. 250. vol. ii. p.
320, &c.

Dr. Pricflley obferves, that, when animals die upon be-
ing put into air, in which other animals have died, after
breathing in it as long as they could, it is plain that the
caufe of their death is not the want of any pabulum i<it,r,
which has been fuppofed to be contained in the air ; but
becaufe the air is impregnated with fomething flimulating
to their lungs; for they almofl always die in convulfions, and
are fometimes affefted fo fuddenly, that they are irrecover-
able after a fingle infpiration. And he has found the fame
effcft from many other kinds of noxious air. He concludes,
from fubfequent experiments, that the air becomes phlogi-
flicated in its paffage through the lungs, by means of the
blood. Experiments and Obfei"vations on Air, vol. i. p. 71.
vol. ii. p. 31. vol. iii. p. 55. See AzoT, Blood, and
Respiratiox.

Vegetables likewife produce a change in the flate of the
air. Thus when a great part of the clove trees, which
grow fo plentifully in the ifland of Temate, was felled at
the folicitation of the Dutch, in order to heighten the value
of that fruit, fuch a change enfued in the air, as fliewcd
the fiuutary effefts of the effluvia, or rather of the vegetation
of the clove-trees, and their bloffoms ; the whole ifland footi
after they werecut down, being exceeding fickly. SeeAzor.

The air is alfo liable to alterations from the feafon of the
year. Thus few fubterraneous effluvia are emitted in the
winter, becaufe the pores are locked up by the froft, or
covered by fnow ; the fubterraneous heat being at work,
and preparing a heat to be diieharged in the enfuing fpring.
Again, from the winter foliliee to the fummcr folflice, the
fun's rays become more and more perpendicular, and confe-
quently their impulfe on the earth's furface more powerful ;
fo that the glebe, or foil, is more and more relaxed, foftcned,
and putrefied, till he amves at the tropic ; where, with the
force of a chemical agent, he refolves the fuperiicial parts
of the earth into their conflituent principles, water, oil,
fait, &c, which are all fwcpt away into the atmofphere.

The height and depth of the air prodiice a farther altera-
tion ; the exhalations not rifing high enough in any great
quantity, to afcend above the tops of high mountains.

From fome experiments with air-balloons, it has been
proved, that the air of the higher regions is more impure
than that at the furface of the earth ; which is reafonably
aferibcd to the oxygen fupplied by vegetation to the lower
and contiguous flratum of air.

Nor mufl drought and moillure be denied their fliare, in

varying the flate of the atmofphere ; in Guinea, the heat,

with the moillure, conduces fo much to puticfaclion-, tliat

the purtll white fugars are often full of maggots ; a<id their

3 N drug*

A I R

^rugJ foon lore tlieir virliie ; and many of ihem grow vcr-
mi'io'js : it is nAded, that in the inaiid of St. J^.g") tliey are
obliged to expofi^thcir fwect-meats daily to the iuii, in or-
il^r to txJiale the moiilure contradtd in the night, which
would othcrvvife occafion them to putrefy.

On this piinciple depend the Ihudturc and ufe of the

BYGROMETIR.

For the reirafting power of air; fee Rekraction.

After all, fonie of our more eurious and penetrating
natunilifts have obferved certain efTeiSts of iiir, which do not
r.ppear to fi'llow fioin any of tlie properties, or materials
above recited. In this view, Mr. Boyle has conipofed a
ircatife of fufpieions about fome unknown properties ot the
air. The planomena of lire and flame in viiiuo feem, ac-
cording to him, to argue fonie unknown vital fublhmce
diffnfed through the air, on account of which that (Und be-
comes fo neceliaiy to the fubfillence of flame. BnfFon fup-
pofes that air is ncceffary to the fubfillence of fire, be-
caiife it is moft adapted to acquire that expanfive motion,
which is the principal property of fire. On this account
fire combines with air; in preference to any other fubllance,
and in a more inlinrate manner, as being of a nature moll
nearly approaching to its own ; and therefore air is the
proper aliment and moll powerful affillant of fire. Hilt.

Nat. Supp. vol. i. . . n r

According to Dr. Prleftley, the air is a menllrunm for
the phlogilton emitted by burning bodies ; which mull ceafe
to burn when that mcnllruum is laturated with it. And lie
accounts in the fame manner for the fuffocation of animais
in a confined fpace. Wh-.n the phlogifton, emitted by
burnino- bodies and breathing animals, can no longer be ab-
forbed by the ambient air, both Ufe and flame are extinguifli-
ed. Exp. and Obf. &c. vol. i.

For the modern hypothefis, with regard to this fubjeft,
fee Combustion- and Phlogiston.

Thus we find, that many caufes combine to produce very
confiderable alterations in the (late of the air, whereby it
becomes lefs fit for refpiration, and other purpofes of na-
ture ; and if there were no provifion for relloring its falu-
brity, it mi-.ft, in time, become univerfally injurious and
fatrd. Dr. Prieftley, in the eourfe of his inquiries on. this
fnbjcifl, has difcovcred the great rellorativcs, which are pro-
vided for this pui-pofe. One of thefe is vegetation. In
order to afcertain this faft, he put a fprig of mint, in a
vigorous ftate, under a glafs jar, inverted in water ; and he
found, contrary to his expeftation, that this plant not only
«:ontiniied to \\\'e, though in a languifliing way, for two
months ; but that the confined air was fo little corrupted by
the effluvia of the mint, that it would neither cxtinguifh a
candle, nor kill a fmall animal, which he conveyed into it.
He found, likewife, that air, vitiated by a candle left in it
till it was burnt out, was perfeilly reliored to its quality
of fupporting flame, after another fprig of mint had vege-
tated in it for fome time. And, in order to fliew that the
aromatic flavour of the plant had no fliare in producing this
effeft, he obferved, in a variety of other experiments, that
vco-etablcsof an offenfive fmell, and even fuch as had fcarce
any fmtll at all, but were of a quick growth, proved the
bell for this purpofe. Nay, more, the virtue of growing
vegetables was found to be an antidote to the baneful qua-
lity of air, conuptcd by animal refpiration and putrefac-
tion ; and he infers from a number of fimilar fails, that the
injury, which is continually done to the atmofphere, by the
refpiration of fo many animals, and the putrefaftion of fuch
irAiTes of both vegetable and animal matter, is, in part at
lealt, repaired by the vegetable creation ; and notwithftand-
•iag the prodigious mafs of air that is corrupted daily by the

AIR.

above mentioned caufes ; yet, if we confider the immenfe
profufion of vegetables upon the face of the earth, growing
in places fuited to their nature, and confcquently at full
liberty to exert all their powers, both inhaling and exhaling,
it can hardly be thought, that the remedy is not adequate
■ to tiie evil. Dr. Franklin, in a rcfleiSion on this difeovcry,
exprelles his hope, that it will give fome cheek to the rage
of dellroying trees that grow near houfes, which has ac-
companied our late improvements in gardening, from an
opinion of their being unt^'holclcme ; adding, from long
obfervation, that there is nothing unhealthy in the air of
woods, " fir.ce the Americans have their country liabita-
tions in the midll of woods, and no pe<iple on earth enjoy
better health, or are more prolific." Dr. Prieilley has
fince difcovered that light is necefiary to enable plants to
purify air : hoivever, pure air is not produced by light or
plants, but only by the purification of the impure air to
which the plants have aecei'u. Obf. and Exp. on Air, vol. >.
p. r8, 24, &c.

The fea, and other large bodies of water, are the fecond
refouree, which nature has provided for reftoring the falu-
brity of corrupted air. Dr. Prieilley found, tl'.at all kinds
of noxious air were reliored by continued agitation in a
trough of water ; the noxious effluvia being firil imbibed by
the water, and thereby tranfmitted to the common atmof-
phere. And he hence concludes, that the agitation of the
fea, and of large lakes and rivers, muil be highly ufeful for
the purification of the atmofphere ; the putrid matter being
ablorbed by the water, and imbibed by marine, and other
aqiuitie plants, or apphed to purpofes yet unknown. Exp.
and Obf. vol. i. fe£l. 2. and /j..

This ingenious philofopher apprehends, that the agita-
tion of water, and the vegetation of plants, purify noxious
air, by abforbing part of the phlogifton with which it is
loaded ; and that this phlogiilic matter is the moft elTential
p:irt of the food and fupport of both vegetable and animal
bodies. lb. vol. i. p. 158, 139.

Dr. Prieftley, improving upon the experiments and in-
veftigations of Boyle, Hales, Brownrigg, Black, Macbride,
C;'.vendi'h, and others, has dlfcovered many fpecies of air,
extracted by various proceifes from different kinds of fuh-
ftances ; of which a fummar)- account will be given in the
eourfe of this work. See alfo his curious and valuable Ex-
periments and Obfervations on different Kinds of Air, in
five volumes. And for a compendium of the hiilory of dif-
coveries on this fubjedl, Lavoilicr's Effays Phyfical and Che-
mical, vol. i.

For the refinance of the air, fee Resistance.

Air, unjulation ci. See Sound and Undulation.

Air, in Chai'i^iy, See Gas.

Air, yf/m'/fjp/.iericf common air, Gas atmofphenq:!e,_ Fr,
Atmofpheric air does not appear to have been the fubjedl of
chemical inveftigation before the time of Boyle ; for though
Ariftotle, Pliny, and Paracelfus, have written largely con-
cerning this fluid, they have confined themftlves to the imper-
feft examination uf fome of its phyfical properties, to the men-
tion of a few obvious fafts, and to the invention of hypo-
thefes, which, as they do not profefs to be founded on ex-
periment, may, in the prefent Hate of knowledge, be fafely
neglefted.

it was, indeed, natural, that the great improver of Otto
Guericke's original air-pump, fond as he was of chemical
purfults, Ihould exercife his talents. in refearches on the pro-
perties of the atmofphere, more efpecially as, from the
number of fubftanccs continually affuraing the form of va-
pour, it was not Improbable that common air fliould prove
a vcrj- heterogeneous aisd eafilj' decompofable mixture. The

' difficulty,

A I R

A I R

diniculiy. liowevcr, of fcparating, by th« only method tlien
known, a portion of air from the roll of the atniofphcre,
and the necetfai-y iinctrtainty of tlic firll rude attempts to
operate upon an invillblc elalHe fnbftance, occafioned the
progrcfs of difcovery in this department or chemieal fcience
to be iniufnal'.y flow. The following- facls, however, were
afcertaincd by Boyle, wliieh, when we confider tlie nume-
rous obflacles from bad and imperfect apparatu.? tint he
had to contend with, are hii^hly ereditalile to his indiiilry
and fagacity. He proved, that the preience of air was
ncecifaryto eombuftion and to animal life, by rtiewing, that
in the exhaulled rceelvcr flame was almoll; immediately ex-
tinguilhed, and various fmall aniij^'als, and even fifli, while
in water, were in a fliort time knled : that the fame phe-
nomena lake place, but more gradually, in a confined por-
tion of atmofpheric air ; and that the death of animals, in
this fituation, was not owing to the heated txhahuicnis from
their bodies, as was then fnppoied, fmce the (xme eifefts
took place when the apparatus was put into a frigorific mix-
ture ; he alfo afcertaincd, that animals live longer, crteris
pariiius, in a given bulk of condenfed than ot rareiied air.
On account of the imperfcAion of his apparatus, he was
induced to believe, that no abforption of air took place in
relpiration ; and he appears to have had no fufpicion that
pure atmofpheric air was a compound fubftance.

Inunediately after Boyle, fucceeded Mayow, unquefliion-
ably tlie greatell chemical genius of that age, but whofe
works, by a lingular fatality, excited little or no interefl;
among his contemporaries, and were foon totally forgotten.
In this itate of unmerited negleft they remained for more
than a century ; and it is only within a veiy few years, that
the public attention has been diiefted to the writings of a
philofopher, who nearly anticipated thofe difeoveries of
Prielllev, Lavoificr, and Cavendilli, upon which are baled
almolt all the modern improvements in chemillrv. The
iirft great improvement of Mayow in the analyfis of atmof-
pheric air, was the invention of a proper apparatus ; for this
puvpofe, rejefting the ufe of the air-pump, he made choice
of glafs jars, inverted in water, as the beil method of con-
fining the gafies upon which he experimented. Setting
out from the fafis difeovered by Boyle, he argues, that
fmce a lighted candle is extinguiflied much fooner in an ex-
haulled receiver than in the fame when filled with air, there
J.iuft be fomething contrjned in the atmofphere neceflary to
the continuance of flame ; and that a candle, in confined air,
is not fuffocattd by its own fuliginous exhalations, but dies
away for want of an aerial pabulum. The necefTity of air
to combuilion is alfo proved, fays he, from the impoffihility of
kindling a combultible body in vacuo by the concentrated
folar rays, or by any other method. Having eftablilhed this
firll poiition, he proceeds to i-ifer, that it is not the whole
air but only its more aftive particles, that are capable of
fupporting flame, bccaufe a candle goes out in confined air,
while yet the greatefl; part of the elaftic fluid remains un-
confumed. Alio, fmce fulphur, when mixed with nitre
becomes capable of inflammation in vacuo, or even under
water, it follows that nitre and atm.ofpherical air contain
fome fubltance in common, which he calls Jirc-a'ir parti-
cles fparticuU igneo-nere,?..) He next determined the ana-
logy between flame and animal life ; and fnewed, that each
depended for their continuance on a fupply of fire -air par-
ticles : that there was an adlual coufumplion of air in eom-
buftion and refpiration he proved, by the rife of water in
the jars in which a live animal or a lighted candle was iii-
clofcd ; and that the lofs of bulk was owing to the abilrac-
tion of fire-air, appeared from the inability of the refidue
to fupport animal life. He alfo inferred, that the fire-air

particles were the heavieft part of atmofpheric air, hccaufe,

if two mice or two candles were confined in a tall cylmdrical
jar, inverted in water, fo as tliat one fhould be near the
upper part of the vtlfel, and the other at the bottom, the
upper one, whether a candle or animal, would be extinguiflied
fome time before the lower one. With regard to tlic pro-
portion of lire-air in the atmofphere, he only obferved, that
air rendered unfit for combuilion by the breathing of an
animal, loil about one fourteenth of its bulk ; at the fame
time remarking, that there was probably only a part of the
fire-air confumed : he afterwards, indeed, found, that the
folution of iron in aquafortis occafioned a diminution of
about 25 psr cent, in atmofpheric air ; but though, in this
cafe, he produced nitrous gas, and thus abllrafted the
oxygen of the atmofphere, yet, as he himfelf draws no con-
clufions from it, we fliould rather confider this as an acci-
dent than a dilcovery. Mayow never obtained the fire -air
of the atmofphere in a feparate Hate, and therefore was un-
able to confimi his analyfis of atmofi)lK'ric air by the fyiithc-
tical proof ; nevertliekls, he was warranted by a vlit high
probability in afilrmlng that the atmofphere confillcd of two
k'nds of air, of wliich the igiieo aerial was in the projior-
tion of at leall one to 13 ; that it exceeded the other part
in its fpecific gravit)-, and was abfolutely eflential to the
continuance of flame and animal life. The influence, how«
ever, of the prevalent hypotliefis was at that time too
ilrong to be fliaken by fober experiment ; and th? labours
and very name of Mayow, fliortly funk into oblivion ; the
atmofphere was Hill iuppofed to be an undecompofable ele-
ment, and its efie(!:l on chemical procefles was very ger.erally
overlooked.

In 1774, exaftly a century after the publication of
Mayow's work, the important difcovery xjf dephlogillicated
air, by Dr. Prieftley, took place. This philofopher liaving
inelofed fome mercurial prcc'iphat^ per J'f, in a jar filled with
mercury, and inverted over the fame, procured from it, by
means of heat, a quantity of gas, in which a cauvile hurnt
witli an enlarged flame, and iucreafed light : the coincidence
of this, with the elfecl produced bv dephlogiiiieated nitn-us
gas in the fame eircumftances, as liad been already ob;"er\ed by
Dr. PiielUey, induced him to beheve that there was fome
common principle in nitrous acid and atmofphcrieal air ; and
this fufpicion was ftill further confirmed by the difcoverv,
that common red precip'iUtte, which is prepared by means of
nitrous acid, yielded dephlogiiiieated air in the fame manner
as the precipitate /iT yi-. Hence, too, he concluded, that
pure atniofpherieal air was not an clement, and that deplilu-
gillicated air was that one of its component parts to which
the continuance of flame and animal life was entirely owing.
Thus we find, both Mayow and Prielllev arriving at the
fame general conclufions, tlirough the medium ol entirely
different experiments ; the fire-air of the or.c, and the de-
phlogiiiieated air of the other, being only two words for
tiie fame fubllanee : the experiments of the latter poll'efs,
however, this capital fuperiority, that they exhibit in a
feparate uncombined ttate, tliat vital part of the atmof-
phere, the exillence of which was only to be inferred from
thofe of the former. There yet remained, however, for
the complete proof of the eompolition of the atmofphere,
that a part of it fliould be adlually decompofed, fo as to
ftiew its elements feparated ; and then, by their uummi', to
recompofe atmofpherical air. This deficiency was fispplled
by Lavoilier. pie confined a few ounces of mercuiy and a
certain portion of almolphcrical air in a proper glafs appa-
ratus, and expofed the mercury for 12 days to a heat nearly
equal to that of ebullition ; during this period a part of the
mercury was converted mto-a red oxyd, a certain portion vi
J N 2 ' ■ ' tile

A I R

the air tlifappesired, tlie remainder waa incapable of fiip-
piirtiiij; flame, and llie weight of the red oxyd cxatt'.y cor-
rcfpaiided xvitli the lofs fullaiiied by the mercury and the
air ; this red oxyd, being then heated in a fniKll retort, was
deco^iipoftd into runninfr mtccury and a gas which exhi-
bited all the proprrlies of dtph!.)j!;irticatid air ; fir.aliy, this
air, being mingled with tlie unrtlpirabic rcfidiie, reconipoled
atmofphencid air. From thefe and various other fimilar ex-
periments, it appeared, lliat the lower psit of the atmof-
phcre coiifiils of 27 parts oxvr.UN n:S: ar.d 73 of a nieplii-
tic air, which upon a furliieranalyfis, yielded about 72 parts
of A7.0T.C _^(u, ;ind one of CARHos'ic ai/W. Thefe cx))e-
rinunts will be fnrihcr detailed under the term eudio-

MtTRY.

l-'rom the (llj^lit adherence of thefe gaffes with each other
in the air, it is pri/oable that tliey are not fo much in a Rate
of combination as of intimate mixture ; and lience there are
fcareely any chemical actions produced by the atmofphere,
vliieh are not more properly refcraljle to lome one or other
of its conllituent parts.

Atmofpiierical air, as fuch, is foluble in water ; from
which it may be feparated by the action of the air-pump, or
bv lung boihng or dilUllation ; lience fifli, confined in irefh
diAilled water, foon die for want of air : if, however, the water
has been previoudy expofcd to the atmolphere, a fufficient
portion is abforbed to fupply the demands of thefe animals.
■In like manner water is foluble in air, but the proportion
of this mull neceffarily vary according to the differences in
temperature and barometrical preffure. Boyle's works, vol.
ii. Mayow, Traftatus, &c. PrieiUey on Air. Lavoifier's
lilements.

Alt., fa i^ttious. While pneumatic chemiftry was in its
infancy, all thofe elallic fluids produced in chemical experi-
ments, were diftinguilhcd by this appellation from the air of
the atmofphere ; iince, however, thefe faftitious airs have
acquired peculiar names, the term has fallen into difufc.

Air, acid. 1 g^^ j^^^

MARINE.' J

7

RIATIC ACID.

Air

FIXED.

FIXABLE.

MEPV

See Carbonic acid.

LUORIC ACID.jg^^p^^,

'arry acid. J

ORIC ACID.

ABLE. j- [
'HITIC. 3

Air, vitriolic acid. See Sulphureous acid.
Air, fh

SPAS

Air, DEPHLOGISTICATED MARINE. See OxVMURI-

ATIC ACID.

Air, VEGETABLE ACID. See Acetous acid.
Air, nitrous. See Nitrous gas.

Air, DEPHLOGISTICATED NITROUS. See NlTROl'S
OXYD.

Air, mephitic atmospherical. T

phlogisticated. > See Azot.

nitrogenous.

^

s

See Oxygen.

Air, vital.

pure.

FIRE.

DEPHLOGISTICATED. J

Air, inflammable. See Hydrogen.

Air, SULPHURATED IN FL A M M A ELE. |^ See HvDROGEN

HEPATIC. j fulphuratcd.

Air, HEAVY INFLAMMABLE. SeeHYDROGENCariwiflto/,

or Carbon, gaffcous oxyd of.

Air, ALKALINE.- See Ammonia.

For an account of Dr. Prieftley's numerous experiments
and obfervations on thefe feveral fpecics of air, the reader
' is referred to the excellent work already cited.

A I R

Air, ir.nale, in Anatomy., is a fine aerial lubftancc, fup.
pofcd, by fome anatomiils, to be cnclofcd in the labyrinth .
of the inner ear, and to miniller to the due conveyance of
founds to the fenfory.

But the cxillence of fuch innate air, has beea called in
quellion, and rendered very improbable. See Far.

Air, in Geography. See Ayr.

Air, a mountain of Arabia Felix, to the north of Medina,
and near it. It abounds with trees that yield fraiikinccnfe.

Air, atniofphericul, in MeJ'idiie, wlien combined with
moilt;irc, diflercnt degrees of heal, electricity, and various
effluvia and miafinata, conilitutes the atmosphere; and
forms one of thofe fix external circuinftances fo celebrated
in the fchools, called non-natorals. Simple atmofpiie-
rical air is no farther an objecl of medicine or phyfiology
than as it foriristhe medium ot respiration. See the pre-
ceding and fubfequent articles.

Air, in Muf.c, fignidcs the melody, or treble part of a
mufieal con:poiitioH.

The word is alfo ufed for a tune, or fong itfelf, that is,
for a feries of iounds whoie movement is regular and grace-
ful. Rhyme is as neceffai-y in a mufical air, whether vocal
or inllrumental, as in the words of a f'.'tig. Each b;ir
of an air fliould be well accented, and the periods well
phrafed.

The rules for hai-mony are mechanical, and neither
diflicult to learn nor teach, as may eafily be conjec-
tured from the innumerable treatifes in all languages for
combining founds in compofition. Arillotle, Horace, Boi-
leaii, and Pope, have told us how good poems are con-
ftrutted ; but who (hall tell us how to think, how ' t»
invent, to ferment ideas ? Among all the receipts for con-
ftruftlng harmony, we have none that are intelhgible for
melody : we are told what may be done, by what 1ms been
already fuccefsfuUy atchieved ; but this is only telling us
what we may imitate, and whom we may plunder. There
are no magic wands to point out, or vapours liovering over
fprings of invention ; no indications where the golden mine
of new conceptions lies hidden. So that from age to age,
memory and compilation fupply common minds, and fatisfy
common hearers. It has been fald :

" Sometimes a hero in an age appears ;
But fcarce a Purcell in a thoufand years."

Handel was our magnus Apollo during the laft century,
and Rameau that of France. At prefent, Haydn and
Mozart " are the gods of our idolatry," and thofe of all
Europe. But it is only fuch gifted men as thefe who furnilh
the reft of mankind with ideas.

The origin and progrefs of melody, derived from har-
mony, and phrafed and formed into Air, have been fully
detailed in the Gen. Hift. of Mufic, in tracing the progrefs
of the mufical drama or opera. National mufic every
country, not wholly favage, has had from time immemo-
rial. In Europe, Sicily,^pain, Provence, Venice, Scotland,
Ireland, and Wales, have charafteriftic melodies tr tunes, of
great antiquity. But the firft pleafing Airs, in cultivated
mufic, that I have been able to find harmonized, and in
regular modulation, were printed in three and four parts in
feparate books at Naples, in 1565. Of thefe tiie meafures
are airy, the intervals pleafing, and the countei-point fiirple :
all the parts generally moving together. They are pnnted
without bars. The modulation borders a little on that of
the ecclefiaftical modes, but it begins and ends in the fame
kev, which does not often hapjjen in national tunes.

Air, in mufic, has various applications : in the melodrama,
or opera, it dillinguillics mcafured melody from recitative.

A bal.

A I R

A balhid, tune, or flioi't inlhiiiTn.'utal air, confifts of two
(Iraiiis or parts.

No very fatisfaftoiy etymology l.as been found for the
word yllr. Sauniailc believes tliat it conies fiom ura, Lat. ;
but Menage dilpvites this derivatiiii, iu his Etvni()l<)'.!;ical
l>ictionary, wit'uout fnrnithing a better. The tcnn ^;Vi; in
Itahan, is of no li!j;i\ ant'Cjuity : the: fnil inllaiioe of its ufe
in the Ciiifca Dictionaiy is from R^di, who died in 169H.
\Vc know, however, that the word became of general life
about the middle of the I 7th centuiy.

Though Air iometimcs implies the words of a fong,
as well as the melody in general ; nice diferiniinatiim
requires, that we (hould couiine its import to melody, a
tunc, alone, and foty:; to the words. A line or pleafing air
has ncihing to do with the poetry, which may hi line,
though ill ftt. And the air may be beautiful, eve;, to non-
fenfical words.

Meafured an', in an opera, is oppofed to recitative, where
no regular time is obferved. Thio mulical declamation,
which needs only two kinds of notes, crotchets and cpiavers,
with paufes at the end of a verfe, approaches nearer to
what we conceive to liave been the vocal muiic of the an-
cients, confined to longs and (liorts, than any of our Airs,
except fucii as are very fimple, can do. Chanting, in the
Cathedral fei-vice, is more rapid than recitative ; but re-
fembles it by the abfence of regular meafure, more than Air,
which mult be arranged in fome one of the diviiions of
common or triple time. '

In accompanied recitative, flio-.t pafTages or fragments of
Air occur in the inllrumental parts, in meafured melody,
•which is often called fymphony; but the Italians, with more
propriety, ftyle thefe tragnients Ritornelli ; which fee. Some-
times indeed the inftruments accompany the reciter in regular
time, which obliges the linger to ]Monounce the recitative in
meafure, (which likcu-ife lee). Of this the performers are
informed by the words a tempo, in time.

A vocal air is only the melody of a fmgle part or voice.
If another part is added to it, in different intervals, it is
ftyled a Duo, or Duet; in three parts, a Trio; iu four, a
^atiior, or ^leirlel, &c.

The Ancients had Airs, botli vocal and inftriimental,
called Nome.!. The words of lyric meafures, which we
lliould call fongs, were llylcd Scolia, (which fee under their
feveral articles).

In the work of Philodemus on mufic, which has been
recovered from the cinders of Herculaiitum, the bed and
only mulical information it contains, after being fo long cx-
pefted, and with fnch difficulty deciphered, is the folution
of the miraculous powers afcribed by the poets to Amphion,
of building cities by muiic. We find in this traft, (which
is but a fragment, and neither a treatife nor an eulogium on
muiic, but a fevere fatire) that eveiy trade, occupation, and
profeflion, had its nomes or peculiar and appropriate Airs,
which were played to the workmen ; fo that towns were not
built ij muiic, but /omufic,<MAOAHMT ngPI MOTCIKHC.
We fee in Buffi-riiievi and ancient fcnipture, that there
was a niufician at the ftern of every veffel, to regulate
and animate the rowers. Orpheus, civihfing the world, and
introducing religion and order aniong mankind, implied only
that religious rites were accompanied by muiic. See Ph i lo-
de m us.

The derivation and progrefs of air in dramatic mufic will
be found under the article opera, in which lyric poetry be-
came iubordinate to mufic. We fear the word yi/fonA'H^/if
will offend the pouts, and fnch as love poetry better than
muiic. " The words (lays Iranklin) are oidy an excufe for

A I R

finging." And StiUingficet afl<s " tvho reads the <wortfs of
a lung but the author :" In a mufical d'.-una, the biifu-.tl'*
is all tranfafled in recitative, or dcclam.ition : whicii bu-
iinefs, at the end of a fccne, is illnitrateil by a fiinile, or a
few paffionate lines, let to meafured tnulic, in fl(/rid coun-
terpoint ; and thefe are calculated to difpl.iv tiie talmts of
a finger, and the genius and abilities of a coiiipofer. AVire
tliis not the cale, and if the poetry wouM be bitter fcA ar.d
uiidtrllood by the mere articulation and impallioned enun-
ciation of common fpcech, why difguiie and iiivolve it in a
tunc, accompanied and incumbered by difierent mch)dies .'

" A long, or the words of an air for a great ctitnpoler to
" let, and a capital finger to execute, (lioidd confilk only of
" one j'uiy.H o\- pirjion, cxprelfed in w^ffw and fuj'i ivonls rs
pojfihh-." Metaltafio has furnilhed the bell models of words
fen- airs in the Italian opera. And witli refpeft to Er.glilh
dramas ior nuilie, on the Italian plan in all things, except
tiie dialogne being declaimed in common fpcech, inilead of
the mufieal tones of recitative, wc lliall venture to quote on
the fubjecl of long-writing, opinions whicli we thought juil
30 years ago, and v>liich, during that period, wc liavc
ieen no realon to retrail.

" Since the refinement of melody, and the exe-hifion of
" recitative, a fong, which ufiially recapitulates, ilhilliatcs,
" or doles a fccne, is not the place for epigrammatic points,
" or for a number of heterogeneous thoughts and clafliing
" metaphors ; if the writer has the leall pity for the com-
" poler, or love for mufic, or wiflies to atibrd the leal! op-
" portunity for fymmetiy in the air, the thought lliould be
" one, and the numbers as fniooth, and the expreflion as
" eafy and laconic as pofiible. What I'ublime ecclefiaiHcal
" muiic has Handel compofed on the lingle words yllleh'jah,
" and yiDien ! But, in general, eveiy new line in our fongs,
" introduces a new thought ; fo that if the compoier i*
" more tender of the poet's reputation than his own, he
" nniH:, at every line, change his fubjeft, or be at llrife
" with the bard ; and in either cafe, the alternative is in-
" jurious to the general interelt of the nnific, poetry, and
" audience.

" In an air, it is by reiterated ftrokes that pafiion is iin-
" i)refled ; and the moll paflionate of all llrainr., is, perhaps,
" that in which a beautiful pall'age is rej)tated and varied,
" and when the linger, by a few appropriate notes of talte,
" feeling, or fpiril, returns to the lirll liibject, while it ilill
" vibrates on the ear, and is recent in the memory ; this
licence, no doubt, may be, and often is, abufed ; but not
by men of true genius and talle." Prefent Jlate r.f Mtific in
France and Italy.

Alelfandro Scarlatti, Vinci, and Pergolefi, were the firll
who reilncd, phrafcd, and polifhed vocal melody, and fettled
the form and cantilena of dramatic airs. But thefe elegant
ftraiiis comipofed for great fingers, and a polite audience,
are tolr.lly different from national melodies, wliich are tra-
ditional, and were invented long before eitiier the gammut
or modulation was fettled : as may be difcovered by innu-
merable old tunes of different nations, that begin in one
key, and end in another. Indeed the ancient chants of
the Romifh churcii did the fame. See Chant and Canto
Ffrmo.

The Gluckiils, in France, cenfurc all airs that they are
unable to fing, or that are likely to draw the attention of
the audience from the poet to the niufician. M. Suard, in
a long and well written article of the new Encvckpedie j\Te-
thodirjue, has analyfed feveral of the moll exquifite and re-
nowned Italian opera airs that have ever been fung on the
ilage, with a fcvcrity that borders 011 infenlibility. All the

charms.

A I 11

cliarnis, illiifion, and«tatic plcafuie, ariunt; to earsdifpofed
to hi [ilcaKd by vocal c ichaiilmtiU, is icaloiied away. It
would be moie tor the advaniage of n:al lovers of mufic, if
thev woiild ivafon lef} and lillcn more, at mulical perform-
ances. Mufic is au objcd of frnjl, not of intelled. Docs
tlie coinpofition pleafe'by its in;;euuity, grace, and variety ?
Does the voice or tone of the inilrumcnt by which it is
executed, delight and charm you, by its intriniic fweetnefs
and accurate execution ? — You then may venture to pro-
nounce to yourftrlf, that the con.pofition and performance are
perfert, without alking fupercilious, and often fuperhcial
critics, what you are to fay.

In fpite ot our reverence for poetry, and partiality to
tlie dramas of Mctalhifio, we are ineiincd to think that
airs, on the bell models of Italy, may be introduced in a
mufical drama, without injuring the poet or the intereft of
the piece. No one is more delighted with the poetry of
Milton, Drydeii, or Pope, than the author of this article,
when he raiJi, or hears it rfati ; but he never willies it to
be fling. Lyric poetry is a diltintl fpecies of verfe, and
varied verfilicafion, which is to delight by other means than
nilioeination, logic, or philofophy. As painting is a reime-
nicnt of the ocular fcnfe, mulic purifies and augment tlie
power of the auricular organ. We can exiib v.ithout either
painting or mufic ; both are innocent luxuries : in the one,
we have objects in nature to copy and judge by ; but in
niuiic, wholly a work of art and imagination, of which we
have no type in nature ; eveiy an-angemcnt and combination
of founds that is grateful, graceful, and plcafing, which
has not been rendered uncoutli by time, or vulgar by com-
mon ufe, is in the llorehoufe of a compofer ; whofe bufinefs
it is to feleC\, adjuil, and introduce it to the ear, as pro-
priety and occafion may require.

To give a I'pecimen of every fpecies of air, vocal and in-
ftrumcntal, which cultivaccd genius has produced, would
occupy many volumes of our work. All we can do is to
give the iionnnclalure of thofe movements that are, and
have been. In mo'l general ufe, with their definitions : fuch
as prelude, aHemaii'l, cuiiranf, minuet, jig, farabniitl, ficU'iann,
p-jlotiefe, ronJenri, /jorr/'tpc, country Jniice ; and in Italy, har-
cnrolla, aria alia napolitana, alia cnlahreft, vcnczlana. Sec. Sec.
all which fee under their fever.d heads.

Recitatives and airs for a fingle voice, fucceeded madri-
gals of three, four, and more voices ; as fonatas and con-
certos did Fantafias for iiillrumtnts. (See thcfe terms in
their feveral places.)

In dramatic mufic, there are three feveral kinds of a'lr :
yli'ta ill canif.tUe, a pathetic fong ; aria Hi bravura, a fong of
e.^ocutiou ; and aria parlanfe, a fpeaking air ; befides the
anJaiite, rondeau, cavaiiaa, &c. Thele and the feveral
movements in the dances of an opera, are varied to infinity.
But the fcale, as it is now divided and extended, offers
ample materials for them all. If we but confider that the
number of changes in eight bells, where there is no modu-
lation or change of key, amounts to 40,320; that the
twelve femi-tones of the oclave, every tfne of which made
a key-note, major and minor, generates as many tranfi-
tions as the key of C ; that the melodies found in thefe 1 2
fealcs may be itill varied by the different lengths of notes,
and may be trul)' faid to be incalculable ; and lailly, if we
recollect what v-ariety may be given to an air or melody
ariling wari-antably from the fundamental bafe of each key,
by dilierent accompaniments, inverfions, and double coun-
terpoint, we fliall be loll in tl--j maze of infinite divifibihty !
The changes upon 12 bells, (fuppofe from G in alt, 5th
fpace in the treble, to C 6th line in the bafe) amounting to
479001600; would employ, to ring them all, 12 men,

A I 11

night and day, for 75 years, ten months, onp week, and
three days, according to tlic proportion of tinging 720
changes in an hour of an aUron<imical day of 24 hours, 365
of which complete the year! See Bells, Carillons, arid
Changes.

Since da capos have been abandoned in the opera ahrs,
which occafioned many dramatic abfurdities, the cavadna,
or fingle ilrain, without a fecond part, prevailed ; but that
not furniflilng an opportunity for fingers of great abilities
to manifcft all their powers of execution, taile, and expref*.
fion, in the fame air ; of late, every air for a great finger
is a due caratteri, of two charafters, confiiling of two dif-
tindl movements, ufually an andants and an allegro di ira-
•viira. It is often difficult fiom the fenle of the words, to
alfign any other reafon for thefe fudden gulls of paffion,
after a foothing and pathetic movement, but that of con-
vincing tlic audience of a finger's maiTcllous agihty of throat,
and powers of exciting furprife by des tours de force. If
fuch airs were compofed purpofely for a concert, at which
a performer, from the multiplicity ot his or her engage-
mer.ts, could only Hay to fing one long, and that connetted
with nothing elfe, airs of two charaiiters might encreafe the
finger's fame, and the pleafure of the audience, without
abfurdity ; but in a ferious drama, where charafter, con-
nexion, and propriety fhould be fupported, after labouring
through a fiow movement in a melancholy drag, as every
finger does, if not gitted with powers of new and appropri-
ate embellifhments, the fetting off full fpeed without a ■
word appearing in the libretto,- or opera book, for the necef-
fity of taking flight in fuch an outrageous manner, we pity
the poet and ourlelves for being thus defrauded of all dra-
matic intereft. In the courfe even of tiuo afts, to which
an opera is now cut down, opportunities fo- difpl.tying all
the powers of a finger, however extraordinary and various,
may be found in every principal part, without violating t'lie
dignity of character, and rules ot common fenfe. bee Me-
lody, Song, Tune, and Opera.

Air, in Mythology, was adored by the heathens under
the names of Jupiter and Juno ; the former rcprefenling the
fuperior and finer parts of the atmofphere, and the latter the
inferior and groffer parts. The augurs alfo drew prefages
from the clouds, thunder, lightning, &c.

Air, in Painting, &c. denotes the manner and vei"y life
of aftion ; or it is that which defcribes fuch of thofe re-
fined expreffions, tliat do not arife from the motion of the
features of the face, which are to be confidered as the more
immediate agents exprefiing the paffions of the ioul (fee
passions) ; but from the turn of the body, and cfpecially of
the head and neck. This term air is more particularly
fynonymous with gesture, or graceful action or at-
titude. Painters are in danger of falling into aifettation,
while they attempt to give an air of elegance above vulgar
ideas. Corregio and Guido have excelled in the airs of the
heads, as well as of the whole figures they painted ; but»
perhaps, in iome inllances, even they may have exceeded the
due bounds of nature.

Air, in Painting, is alfo a great fubject of confideration,
as the interpofing medium which tends to dlminilh the force
or ftrength of objeds and colours. See the article Per-

.SPECTIVE aerial.

Air, in Surgery. The application of gafeous matters
to the purpoles of furgery, has not been lufficieiitly at-
tended to. There is reafon to believe that feveral aeriform
fubftances might be employed locally, as well as internally,
to confiderable advantage ; but it woulJ exceed the bounds
we have prcferibed to this department of our work, were
we to adduce all the futls that might be brought forward to

ill uil rate

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A I R

iHuflratc tlie mc-dicinHl powers of air, in its clifTcrent combi-
irations. T!ie apj>lication of fixtd air, or carbonic acid gas,
by means of the fermenting cataplafm, is pretty generally
known, in cafes of fetid and cangnenous foies. It has
been advantagcoully ufed ;ilfo m malignant ulcers of the
nofe, tongue, and m.oiith, as well as in caries of the
bones.

Fixed air is plentifully obtained from a mixture of alka-
line or chalky fubftances witii vitriolic acid ; and during the
cfFervefcence, applving the gas which is extricated immedi-
ately to the morbid part ; or by impregnating water with it,
comprcffes may be loaked in the water, and laid frequently
over the feat of the d.fesfe. Mr. LoelHer, a German fur-
geon, has recommended a particular apparatus for this pur-
pofe, which may be eafdy conlhufted , and which he em-
ploys for faturatirg water with fixed air, by the mixture of
chalk and vitriolic acid, or during the procel's of fermenta-
tion.

When we wifh to apply the air to a cancerous breail, for
example, we are to fill a bladder with the air as it rifes from
the above mixture. Then introduce a tube, fixed to its
crilice, into another bladder, which is to be cut round in
fueh a manner that it can be applied like an open bag avouiid
the breait, and held dole to it with the hands. When it is
faftened below, it mull be untied, fo that the fixed air may
pafs out of the firll into the fecond bladder, and find acceis
to the ulcei'ated part. In order to facilitate this procefs,
a gentle degree of preffure is to be applied to the bladder ;
and, as one bladder will not be fuffieient, a number of them
fnould be provided in readinefs, and filled for immediate ufe
in fuccedion. This operation is to be continued half an
hour or longer each time, and repeated twice or thrice a
day.

Mr. AVitftock, who has written a German treatife on this
fubjecl, and with extraordinary fuccefs, recommends us to
apply the carbonic acid gas, by means of a receiver or air-
be!l, conneiSled with a flexible tube or pipe, fiifficiently air-
tight ; but as the vitriolic acid produces too ftrong a com-
motion, the gas is extricated for fueh purpofes from a mix-
ture of fixed alkali and vegetable aicid.

The medicinal ufe of factitious aii-s is a fubjeft which
has been dihgently confidered by Dr. Beddocs, Dr. Thorn-
ton, Mr. Hill, Mr. Davy, and fome other gentlemen in
England ; but the enquiry is illll in its infancy, and has not
been productive of fo mush public benefit as its zealous
friends anticipated. Perhaps the attention of medical men
to tlie local and external influence of gafeous matters, would
better repay them for their trouble. Surgeons arc not ex-
tilly agreed, whether the atmofpheric air be hurtful to
v.-oands and internal cavities, merely as air, or as it may be
cold, hot, moiil:, dr)-, or varioufly modified. We hope
tbefe fuperficial hints will ferve to excite the attention of
profefiional gentlemen to this branch of the healing art. It
tikewife deferves further enquiry, whether the injeflion
of fluids into the urinary bladder, impregnated with fixed
air, &c. &c. be fo efficacious, in calculous cafes, as fome
perfons h::ve pretended.

From obfervations on bleeding in rheumatifms, and after
takinf cold, it is evident, the air can enter with all its qua-
lities, and vitiate the whole texture of the blood, and other
juices.

From the palfies, vertigoes, and other nervous affeftions
caufed by damps, mines, Uc. it is evident, that air thus
cualined can relax and obftruft the whole nervous fyilem.
And from the colics, fluxes, coughs, and confumptiona
produced by damp, moift, and nitrous air, it is evident it

can corrupt and fpoil the noble organs, &c. Sec Atmos-
PHERE, and preceding articles.

AiR-/'(y, in Bo/any, a dillended bladder like feed-veflil,
opening on one fide, as in the periwinkle, or bladdtr-fcna.
It fignifies alfo other kinds of dillended air-vtlfels. Sec

Foi.LlCULUS.

i\\v.-ballooi<s, a name lately given to thofe aeroftatic ma-
chines that have been employed in aerial navigation. Sec
Akrostation.

An:-ilaMer, in Ichthyolo^, a kind of veficula, contain-
ing elatlic air, found in the bodies of fifh, by means whereof
they are enabled to fullain themfelves in any depth of water,
and either to rife or fink at pleafure.

The air-bladder is the fame with what is otherwife called
the fwim, or fwimming-bladdcr. This memliranous bag lie*
clofe to the back-bone, and is furniflied with a llvong mnf-
cular coat, by which it has the power of contraftion and
dilatation. It is connefted with a glandular fnbllance, which
contains a quantity of red blood ; and fi)me have fuppofed
that the air contained in tlie fwimming-bladder, is derived
from this fnbltanee. Two procelTes or appendices ifl"ue from
its anterior part, and terminate in the fauces ; and it is fup-
pofed by fome writers to be that part which is called the
Joiint!.

The difcover)' of the life of the air-bladder took its rife
from obferving, that a bulible of air in rifing from the
bottom of a fluid, continually dilates till it reaches the top,
by reafon of the continual diminution of the weight, or
preffure, of the incumbent water. For the air, in the blad-
der, is like the bubble, more or lefs comprcffed, according
to the depth the fifli fwlms at, and takes up lefs or more
fpace ; and confequently the body of the fifli, part of
whofe bulk this bladder is, is greater or lefs according to
the feveral depths, though it retains the fame weight. The
rule of hydroftatics is, that a body heavier than fo much
water as is equal in quantity to the bulk of it, will fink ; a
body lighter, will fwim ; a body of equal weight will refl:
in any part of the water. By which rule, if the fiili in the
middle region of the water be of equal weight with an equal
bulk of the water, the fifli will reli there, without any ten-
dency either upwards or downwards ; and if the fifli be
deeper in the water, its bulk becoming lefs by the compref-
.fion of the bladder, and yet retaining the fame weight ; it
will fink and red at the bottom : on the other fide, if the
fifli be higher than the middle region, the air dilating itfelf,
and the bulk of the fifli confequently increafing, without
any increafe of the weight, the filh will rife and rell at the
top of the water.

Perhaps the fifli by fome aftion can emit air out of tli^
bladder, and afterwards out of its body ; and alio when
there is not enough take in more air, and convey it to this
bladder ; in which cafe it will be no wonder, that there
fliould be always a fit proportion of air in the bodies of all
fiflies, to ferve their ufe, according to the depth of water
they live in : perhaps alfo, by fiimc mufcle, the fifh can con-
tract this bladder beyond the preffure of the weight of wa-
ter ; and perhaps it can by its fides, or fome other defence,
keep off the preffure of the water, and give the air leave to
dilate itfelf. In thefe cafes, the fifh will be helped in all
intermediate diftances, and may rife or fink from any region
without moving a fin.

If the air-bladder of a fifli be pricked or broken, ths
fifli prefently finks to the bottom, unable either to fupporl
or raife itfelf up again. Flat filhes, as folcs, plaife, &c.
which always lie groveling at the bottom, have no air«
"bladder.

Dead

A I R

A I R

T)."^<1 filh^s are found fwiinmiiifj on the furfiicc of the
water, hecaiit'e the miifclcs of tlie mcnibr.me ctafc to ac\ ;
and their belh'es nro uppermoll, as tlie hnck-hone cannot
yield, .id the dillcndcd fac is protruded into tlie abdomen,
and the back becomes c(inr«,<[uently heavicft at its upper part.

In moll fillies there i;i a manifeft channel, kading from
the gullet or upper orifice of the ilomach to tiie air-blad-
der, which doubtlefs fer\-es for conveying air into it. In a
fturgeon Mr. Wil!u.;lil>y obfer\cd, that upon prefTing the
bladder the ftomach prefently fwellcd ; fo in that filh it
fcems the air pafles freely both ways. Poffibly the fifh
vliilc alive may have a power-to raife up this valve, and let
out air on occafion.

In a variety of other fiflies there arc communications with
fomc parts of the alimentaiy canal, particularly the oe-
fophagus and (loniach. The falmon has an opening from
the fore-end of the air-bladder into the oefophagus, which
is furrounded by a kind of mufcular fibres. The herring
has a foil of funnel, connecting the bottom of the ftomach
with the air-bag ; by which the air probably comes out
from it.

All the fiflies of the cartilaginous kind want air-bladders :
by what means it is they afcend and defcend in water is yet
unknown. The cetaceous kind, or fea-beafts, are alfo with-
out the air-bladder : indeed, as tliefe differ little from qua-
drupeds, but in the want of fett, the air which they re-
ceive into their lungs in infpiration, may ferve to render
their bodies equiponderant to water ; and the conflriclion
or dilatation of it, by the help of the diaphragm and muf-
cles of rcfpiration, may poffibly affill them to defcend, or
afcend, in the water, by a light impulfe thereof with their
fins. Moll of the eel-kind have bladders, yet they can
hardly raife themfclvcs in the water, by reafon of the length
and weight of their tails ; the air-bladder being near their
heads, may help them to lift up their heads and fore part.
Ray's Wifd. of God, &c. part i. p. 26. Phil. Ti-anf.
N" 1 14, Abridgment, vol. ii. p. 845.

There is great diverfity in air-bladders, in refpecl of figure,
fubllancc, fituation, and connedlion, in different fifli. In
fonic, the air-bladder, is divided into two, e. gr. in airps ;
and in others, into three. Needham maintains, that all fifli
which have teeth in their jaws have only a iuigle air-bladder ;
vhereas thofe without teeth have a double one ; or, which
amounts to the fame, the air-bladder of thefe laft is divided
into two ceils. Sig. Redi refutes this diflinftion ; giving
indances of filti with teeth, whofe air-bladder is double ; and
of others without teeth, which have only a fingle air-bladder.

Dr. PrielUey conjeftures that the air, enclofed in the air-
bladder of fiflies, ferves fonie farther purpofe in their economy
befides that of enabling them to rife or link in water. Some
iidi have no air-bladder, and yet rife or fink without diffi-
culty. That fifhes cannot live without air is a well-known
factjcflabliflied long ago by thecxperiments of Mr. Haukfbee.
The fiflies he employed were gudgeons, which are lively in
the water, and which fubfiil for a confiderablc time when
taken out of it. Having put three of thefe into a vefTel of
water, which had no communication with the external air,
and whith was defigned to refemble a frozen pond, and other
three into a veffel of water exhaufted of its air ; he obferved,
that in abont half an hour the latter manifefled figns of un~
eafinefs by an unufual motion of their mouth and gills ; and
the former frequently afcended to the top of the veffel in
which they were confined and then funk down again, without
any fenfible alteration. After five hours the gudgeons in
the veffel exhaufled of its air, became lefs aftive ; and in
about three hours more thofe ia the confined air lay at the

bottom of the veifvl with their bellies upwards, without
moving their fins or tail, but indicating life by a motion with
their mouths. On uncovcriag the veCel, they revived in two
or three hours, and were pcrfeclly veil next morning ; at
which lime thofe in the veffel purged of its air were alio re-
covered. When this lail veffel was put under the receiver
of an air-pump, and the air was exhaufled, they all died.
When the air was exhaufted, they remained at the top, but
on its readniilTion, they funk to the bottom. It is not eafy
to explain the manner in which fillies are fupplied with air,
nor the benefit they derive from it ; nor are the nature and
qualities of the air, contained in their aii-bladder, fatis-
faCforily afcertained. Dr. Prielllcy (Exp. and Obf. relating
to Nat. I'liilof. vol. ii. p. 138), confined miiiows, and other
fniaU llfiies in water without any accefs of common air,
till they died, and upon examining this water, he found
that it was fomcwhat worfe than air in which a candle jull
goes o.ut. Hence he infers, that air contained in water, in
an unclallic flate, is as neceffar)' to the life of fillies, as air
in an elallic ftate is to that of land-animals. Upon putting
fifhes into water impregnated with phlogiHicated air, he
found that it was not only injurious, but in procefs of time
fatal to them ; although he obferves, that fifhe.'., like infeCls
and fome other exfanguious animals, can live a confidevable
time without any thing equivalent to rcfpiration. In men-
tioning fome experiments on the flate of the air, which is
contained in the air-bladder of fifhes, he remarks, that when
thefe are taken out of the fifh, the air cannot be difcharged
from them by preffure through any exifling aperture, but he
was always obhgcd to cut or burfl them. The air itfelf,
obtained from many of them, was not affefted by nitrous
air ; but that of fome, particularly of roaches, exhibited
flight indications of the effeifl of this tcH. Upon the whole
it thus appears, that he feldom met with oxygen, and
with that only in a fmall quantity. Fourcroy made expe-
riments on the air contained in the air-veffel of the carp,
and found that for the moll part it was perfeflly pure azotic
gas, though it fometimes contained a fmall quantity of car-
bonic acid gas. From the nature of the fluid he infers, that
the air in the bladders of fifhes is produced in the flomach.
Ann. de Chem. i. 47. Dr. Monro, in his lectures, led his
auditors to conclude, that it was fixed air. But Dr. Brod-
belt of Jamaica, colledling about a quart of the air from the
bladder of a large fword-fifh, which, he fays, confiiled of
innumerable cells that had no communication with one
another, found to his furprife that it was oxygen. A flame
was brightened and an ignited flick was rekindled by it ; and
it was fo ftrong and pure, that the common experiment of
a piece of fleel-wire, heated and put into it, fucceeded well,
and threw out a moft vivid light when melting. This pure
air, he fuppofes, is adapted to ferve the purpofes of life,
when the fifh is far below the furface of the water. Dun-
can's Ann. of Med. for 1796, p. 393.

The water-fnake, in lieu of a bladder, has a large mem-
branous air-bag on its back, which empties and fills with air
at pleafure, by an aperture, which it can fhut verj' clofe,
from without inwards, by means of a fort of valve, fo that
the leall globule of water cannot enter without its confent.
By this artifice it can enlarge or leffen the bulk of its body,
and inhabit all depths of the water ; though a conjefture
has been advanced by Mr. Ray, that it is by the help of
water which they take in and let out by two holes in the
lower part of their abdomen, near to the ventricle. They
fink in the water, by letting in fome of it at thefe holes ;
the orifices whereof are opened and fhut at pleafure, by
means of proper raufcles. The water being thus received
I into

A I R

A I R

into the cavity of tlieir alKiomeii, fervcs to make them pre-
ponderate the water, and dtfcend ; wlieii they would aiceiid
again, a comprcfnon is inadc by the mufcltu of their abdo-
men, and the water forced out again, at leall io much as
Suffices to give the degree of levity wanted. Ray's Wifd.
of God, part ii. p. 346.

A.i'Si-bljdders, or j\\K-ba^s, in Ornitholn^y, are cells or
receptacles of air in the bodies of birds, which communicate
with the lungs, and which are loJijcd both among the
flediy parts, and in the hollow bones of thefe animals. Mr.
John Hunter, F. R. S. (Philof. Tranf. vol. Ixiv. part i.
.p. 205, &c.) has publiflicd fome curious obfervations on this
fubj-.'ift:, leading to a more particular inquiry into the I'.nal
caufe of this peculiarity in the Rrufture of birds, whirh had
not been fnfilcien'ly noticed and examined by anatomills and
natural hillorians. He informs us, that the air-cells, which
are found in the foft parts of birds, have no communication
with the cavity of the common cellular membrane of the
body ; fome of them communicate immediately with one
another ; and all of them may be faid to have a communi-
cation together, by means oi the lungs as a common centre.
Some of them are placed in larger cavities, fuch as the ab-
domen ; othe/s are fo lodged in the interfticts of parts, that
they would, at firll, appear to be the common conneiSling
membrane, as about the bieaft, axilla, &c. The bones
which receive air are of two kinds ; fome, as the fternum,
ribs, and vertebras, have their intemal fubftance divided into
innumerable cells; whilft others, as the os humeri and the
OS femoris, are hollov.-ed out into one larj^e canal. Thefe
bones may be diftinguifhed from thofe tliat do not receive
air by their lefs fpecihc gravity ; by being Itfs vafculiir, and
confequently whiter, thaji others ; by containing little or no
oil ; by having no marrow nor bloody pulpv fubftance,
even in their cells ; by not being, in general, fo hard and
firm as other bones ; and by the eafe with wliich the paffage
that conveys the air into the bones may be perceived.

The meehanifm by which the lungs are adapted for com-
municating air to the above-mentioned parts confifts prin-
cipally in the attachment of the lungs to ti;e diaphragm and
their connexion with the ribs and fides of the vertebrx.
Thefe adhefions are peculiar to this tribe of animals. For
the communication of the air from the lungs to the other
parts the diaphragm is perforated with large holes, which
open a free paflage between the cells of the lungs and the
abdomen : and to each of thele perforations is annexed a
diftinft membranous bag, which is veiy thin and tranfparent,
;ind thefe bags, which receive the air, are extended over the
whole abdomen. The lungs open at their anterior part, or
towards the llernum, into membranous cells, which lie upon
the fides of the pericardium, and communicate with the
cells of the fternum. The fuperior part of the lungs opens
into large cells of a loofe net-work, through which the
trachea, oefophagus, and large vefTcls, in their way from and
to the heart pafs. When thefe cells are dillcnded with air,
the fize of the part where they lie is enlarged, and this dif-
tenfion indicates paflion, as appears in the turkey-cock,
■pouting-pigeon, &c. and in the breaft of a goofe, when it
cackles. Thefe cells communicate with others in the axilla,
imder the large peftoral miifcle, &c. ; and thofe again with
the cavity of the os humeri by fmall openings in the hollow
furface, near the head of that bone. The pofterior edges
of the lungs, which lie on the fides of the fpine, and projeft
backwards between the ribs, open into the cells of the
bodies of the vertebrx, ribs, canal of the medulla fpinalis,
facrum, and other bones of the pelvis ; and thus the air finds
.a palfage to the cavity of the thigh-bone. This fupply of
the bones with air is not wholly by means of the lungs ; for

Vol.. L

the cells of the bones of the head, in fome birds, arc filled
with it, as in the eafe of the owl, which has the diploe
between the two plates of the fcull cellular, and capable ot
admitting a confiderable quantity of air from the Eullachiati
tube. Mr. Hunter, in his conjeftures concerning the ufe
of thefe cavities, concluded at lalt that they were to be
confidered as appendages to the lungs ; and that they anfwer
the fame puipoi'e with the two bags that form the lungs of
amphibious animals which are continued down througli the
belly, the upper part of which performs the oflice of ref-
pirafion, and the remainder of which is a refervoir of air. In
confequcnce of this conformation thefe animals can breatlic
lefs frequently than others ; and birds are thus aided in their
flight, which muft render frequency of refpiration diiucuk,
and a refervoir of air Angularly ufeful. He farther fuggelis
that this conilruftion of the rcfpiratory organs may alJill.
birds in finging ; and that the long continuance of the fonjj
of a canai-y-bird between it;; breathings may be owing to
tliis caufe. Dr. Latham (Linnxan Tranfaftions, vol. iv. p.
94.) queries, whether this conilruftion may not enable fome
birds to dive and flay for a confiderable tiir.e under water.
Thefe air veficles, according to Dr. Monro, are of con-
fiderable ufe in two relptfts. They fen-e, by diilending the
huigs with air, to render the bodies of birds fpecifically light,
and alfo to Ib-aiten the trachea arteria, and thus return the
air ; and moreover to i'upply the place of a mufcular
diaphragm and fi;rong abdominal mulcles, and thus to aid
the exclufion of the eggs and fxccs.

A-\v.-chimibcr, is a name given by Dr. Henfliaw to a room
contrived for obtaining the benefit of change of air, witiiout
going out of the houfe. According to his whimfical pro-
pofal, it is to be twelve fett fquare, and air-tight, furniflied
\vith a ver)- large pair of organ bellows, to or from which
air is to be conveyed through the wall by a copper pipe,
with valves for opening inwardly and outwardly as occafion
(hall require. With thefe bellows, the air in the room ii
eitlier to be condenfed and made heavier, by forcing air in,
or lighter and rarer by conveying air out of the room. See
his Aero-Chnlinos, or Phil. Tranf. N° 133. See Venti-
LATOR and Bio'zi'ing-W Ht.)iL.

AiR-giw, or Il^ini/-i;iii!, a machine which fervcs to explode
bullets, and other fliot, with great violence, by the expan-
five force of the air. This fort of implement, charged with
air, has an effeft fcarcely inferior to that of a common fire-
arm charged with gun-powder ; but it difchargcs itfelf with
a mucii lefs report ; and it is this which probably gave oc-
cafion to the fable of white gun-powder. The firll account
of an air-gun, that has been noticed, is found in the FJemens
d'Artillerie of David Rivaut, who was preceptor to Louis
XHL of France. He afcribes the invention to one Marin,
a burgher of Lifieux, who prefented one to Henry IV.

The common air-gim [Pncumr.t'ics, Plate iii. Jig. 14.)
is made of brafs, and has two barrels : the infide ban-el K
A of a fmall bore, from which the bullets are fliot, and a
larger barrel E C D R on the outfide of it. In the flock
of the gun there is a iyringe, S M N P, whofe rod M
draws out to take in air, and pifton SN drives the air before
it through the valve E P into the cavity between the two
ban-els. The ball K is put down into its place in the fmall
barrel with the rammer, as in another gun. There is another
valve at S L, which, being opened by the trigger O, per-
mits the air to come behind the bullet, fo as to drive it out
with great force. If this valve be opened and ftiut fuddenly,
one charge of condenfed air may make fevcral difcharges of
bullets ; becaufe only part of the injefted air will go out
at a time ; and a new bullet may be put into the place K ;
but if the wliole air be difcharged on a fingle bullet, the

3O bai

A I R

bail win be expilicd more forcibly. This difchnrge is cf-
fcfted by means of a lock. /■ / {fg. IJ.) placed here as in
other RUDS ; for the trigger being puUtd, the cock /• will
go dow'.i, and drive a lc\>.r o, that will open the valve, and
let in the air upon the bullet K.

An .lii-gyn nf the mod modern and approved conftniclion
is reprelented \njig. l6. A is the iron gun-barrel, witli the
lock, ilock, ram-rod, &c. of alxnit the fi/.e and weight of
a common fowling-piece. Under the lock at h is a round
fleel-tube, with a Iniull inovealile pin in the inlidc, which is
pulled out by the fpring of the lock, when the trigger a
is pulled. To this tube, b, is fcrcwed a hollow copper-ball,
f, containing a fpring-valve at its aperture ; and perfectly
nir-tiglit. Each gun has ufually two of thefe balls, which
are fnl'y charged with condenfed air by means of the con-
denfuig fyringe B, fg. 17. Having rr.wimed down the
leaden bullet into the barrel, and fcrewed the copper ball
home to the h>ck at b, let the trigger, a, be pulled, and
the pin at b will be forcibly and inftaiitly driven out againlt
t!te valve in the ball, and will thus liberate a portion of the
condenfed air ; vhich, milling up through an aperture in
the lock into the barrel immediately bcfm-e the ball, will
impel it to the dillance of, at leall, 60 or 70 yards. By
recocking the piece, another difcharge may be immediately
wade, and thus repeated 15 or 16 times, with a very imall
Iiifling noife, which at a diilance is not audible. The con-
denfed air is forced into the bail by the following apparatus.
The ball, c, is fcrewed to the brals fyringe B (fig. 17.)
t^uile clofe. In this fyringe is adapted a moveable plllon
a.nd i'on rod, a, at the end of which is a ilrong ring, into
v/iiich is placed a flout iron rod, k k : upon tills rod the feet
are firmly placed, and the hands are applied to the wooden
handles, / /, fixed to the fyringe. By ilcadily moving the
barrel B, up and down on the rod a, the bal'., c, will
':iecome charged writh condenfed air ; and it is eafily known
when it is filled to the iitmoft by the inellitible action which
the air makes againil tlie pillon, when you are working the
fyringe. At the end cf the rod k, is ufually an eight-fquare
hole, which ferves as a key to make the ball fall on the
fcrew, b, of the gun, and on the fyringe. The piflon-rod
\^orks air-tight by a collar of leathers on it, in the barrel,
IJ ; and therefore, when the barrel is pulled up, frefli air
will ru(h in at the hole b ; when the barrel is pufhed down,
the air in it can only pafs into the ball at top ; the barrel
being drawn upwards, the operation is repeated, until the
.-Cndenfation is fo Ilrong as to refill the aftion of the piflon.

Dr. Macbride (Exper. EfT. p. 8j.) mentions an improve-
:rient of the air-gun bv Dr. Ellis, in which the chamber for
( ontaining the condenfed air is not in the flock, which makes
the machine heavy and unwieldy, but has live or fix hollow
ipheres belonging to it, of about three inches diameter,
fitted to fcrew on the lock of the gun. Thefe fpheres are
contrived with valves for confining the air, which is forced
into their cavities, fo that a fenant can cany them ready-
charged with condenfed air j and thus the gun of this con-
llruftion is rendered as light and portable as one of the
fmallell fowling-pieces.

The magazine air-gun is an improvement of the common
air-gun, invented by an ingenious artift called L. Colbe.
By his contrivance ten bullets are fo lodged in a cavity, near
the place of difcharge, that they may be drawn into the
fhooting barrel, and fucceffively iTiot fo quickly, as to be
nearly of the fame ufe with fo many different guns; the
only motion required, when the air has been previoufly
injefted, being that of fhutting and opening the hammer,
and cocking and puUing the trigger. In fg. 1 8, is exhi-
bited a fcftion of the gun, as large in every part as the gun

A I R

itfclf ; and fo much of its length is (licwn as is nfceffary
to give a complete idea of the whole. A E K is part of
the ilock ; G is the end of the injeflion fyringe, with its
valve, H, opening ivito the cavity, F I F F, between the
barrels. K K is the fniali or fliooling barrel, which receives
the bullets, one at a time, from the magazine, E D, which
is a ferpentine cavity, wherein tiic bullets, b, b, &c. are
lodged, and glofed at the end D. The circular part, S I j * M/,
is the key of acock, having a cylindrical hole, I K, through
it, equal to the bore of the fmall barrel, and forming a part
of it in the prefent fituation. When the lock is taken off,
the feveral parts, Q, R, T, S, W, &c. come into view, by
means of which the aifcharge is made, by pufliing up the
pin, P/i, which raifes and opens a valve, V, to let in the
air againil the bullet, I, from the cavity, F' F F; which valve
is immediately fliut down again by means of a long fpring
of brafs, N N. This valve, V, being a conical piece of
brafs, ground very true in the part which receives it, will
of itfelf be fufficient to confine the air. To make a dif-
charge, pull the trigger, Z Z, which throv\'s up the feer,
V X, and difcngages it from the notch, x ; upon which the
ilrong fpring, ^V W, moves the tumbler, T, to which the
cock is fixed. The end, u, of this tumbler bears down the
end V, of the tumbling lever, R, which, by its other end, m,
raifes the flat end, /, of the horizontal lever, Q_, by which
means the p:n, P/>, is pufhed up, and opening the valve, V,
dlfcharges the bullet ; all which is evident from a bare view
of the figure.

To bring another bullet inflantly to fucceed I, there is a
part H, called the hammer, reprefented 'in fig. 19. ^ni.Jig. 20.
wliich by a fquare hole goes upon the fquare end of
the key of the cock, and turns it about fo as to place the
cylindric bore of the key I k, in any fituation required.

Thus, when the bullet is in the gun, the bore of the key
coincides with that of the barrel K K ; but when it is dif-
charged, the hammer H is inflantly brought down to fhut
the pan of the gun ; by which motion the bore of the key
is turned into the fituation //■, fo as to coincide with the ori-
fice of the magazine ; and upon lifting the gun upright,
the ball next the key tumbles into its cavity, and falling
behind two fmall fprings, s s, fig. 18. is by them detained.
Then opening the hammer again, the ball is brought into
its proper place, near the difcharging valve, and the bore of
the key again coincides with that of the ihooting barrel. It
appears how expeditious a method this is of charging and
diicharging a gun ; and if the force of condenfed air was as
great as that of gunpowder, fuch an air-gun would ac-
tually anfwer the end of many guns, and prove the befl de-
fence cigainil highwaymen or robbers ; becaufe, when there
is reafon to fufpett them, they might then make five or fix
difcharges before the robber can come within pidol-fhot.

From the experiments of Mr. Robins, in his New Prin-
ciples of Gunnery, (See Mathem. Trafts of Robins, by
Wilfon, vol. i. p. 73.) it appears, that the force of gun-
powder, at the moment of its explofion, is 1000 times
greater than that of the elaflicity of common air ; and,
therefore, that the latter may produce the fame effeft with
the former, its condenfatlon niufl be 1000 times greater
than that of its natural flate. But as the velocities with
which equal balls are impelled are diredlly proportional
to the fquare roots of the forces, the velocity with which
an air-gun, coutaining air condenfed only ten times, will
projeft a ball, will be xotli °f that arifing from gun-powder ;
and if the air were condenfed 20 times, it would com-
municate a velocity of ith of that of gun-powder. In
the air-gun, however, the refersoir of condenfed air is
commonly veiy large, in proportion to the tube which
6 contains

A I R

•contniiis tlie b.ill, and its tknlky ^ill be vfiy liulc
altered by expanding l;hroiigli that narrow tube ; eonfc-
quently tlie ball will be urged by nearly the fainc uniforin
force with that of the lirll inllant : whereas the clallic fluid
of inflamed gun -powder, bears a fmall proportion to the
barrel of the gun, and by dilating from the fmall portion of
it near the but-end into a comparatively large fjiaco, its
eladic force will be proportionally weakened, and itr. aClion
on the ball in the barrel will become gradually lefs and lefs.
Hence it appears, that the air-gun will projcft its ball with
a much greater proportional degree of vefocitv than that
vhich is above llated ; infomuch that air condenfed ten
times will produce a velocity not much inferior t'> that
arifuig from the gun-powder.

However, iii this kind of gun, and in all cafes which re-
quire a very confiderable condenlation of air, it will be re-
cjuiiite to have the fyrlnge of a fmall bore, I'iz. not exceed-
ing half an inch in diameter; becaufe the preQure agaiiifl
every fqiiare inch is about 15 pounds, and againil ever)- cir-
cular inch about 12 pounds. If, therefore, the fyringe be
one inch in diameter, when one atmofphere is injetted, there
will be a reiillance of !2 pounds againil the pillon ; when
two, of 24 pounds ; and when ten are injefted, tliere will
be a force of 120 pounds to overcome ; whereas ten atniof-
pheres aft againil the circidar half inch pillon, whofe area
is but one-fourth part fo big, with a force but one-fourth
as great, viz. 30 pounds ; or 40 atmoiphcres may be in-
jefted with fuch a fyringe as well as ten with the other.
Uefaguliers's Exp. Phil. vol. ii. p. 398, &c. Martin's Pliil.
Brit. vol. ii. p. 1H9, &c. Adams's Left, on Nat. and Exp.
Phil, by Jones, vol. i. p. 133.

AiR-jaciet, a jacket of leather, furnillied with bags or
bladders of the fame material, inflated with air, and fer\ing
to buoy up the perfon who wears it, and to prevent his
finking in water, without any effort of fwimming. Thefe
bags communicate with each other, and are filled v\ith air
by means of a leathern pipe, having at the end of it a flop-
cock, accurately ground, fo as to adinit the injefted air,
and, when clofed, to prevent its efcape. The jacket muft
be well moiftened with water before the bags are filled :
otherwife the air will efcape through the pores of the lea-
ther.

Ai?.-Iamf>, a pneumatic machine, formed by the com-
bination of inflammable air and eleftricity, which, by turn-
ing a ftop-cock, produces a flame that may be reitrained or
continued at pleafure. The contrivance of machines of this
fort was iuggefled by the experiments of Mr. Volta, Dr.
Ingenhouz, Sec. The air-lamp is now conftrufted in
the following manner. A, {P/a/em. Ptmtmatics, fg. 21.) is
a glafs jar for containing the inflammable air ; B, an open
glafs urn, that contains water, by the preflfure of which the
air is forced out of the jar A, through the brafs-pipe a ;
C, is the llop-cock, lo perforated, that the water may de-
fcend from B into A., and the air pals out through the
pipe a. By turning the bar of the llop-cock to an hori-
zontal pofition, the communication between the two velTels
is clofed, and the paffage of the air obflrufted ; and by
turning it into a vertical pofition, the communication is
opened. The lower jar, A, is fupplied with inflammable air
by means of the bladder, {^fg. 22) ; and two bladders of
this kind accompany each lamp. It is ufed in the follow-
ing manner : Take off the cover D, from the lamp, and
turn the ilop-coek upwards ; then pour as much clear wa-
ter into it as will till the vefleU A, up to the pipe a; un-
fcrew this pipe, and in its Head fcrew the fmall brafs piece
{^Jig- 23.) and to tliis fcrew one of the Hop-cocks and blad-
der, [Jig. t2.) ^^'ith the bli;ddcr under one arm, oiv.- hand

A I R

to th? cock at C, and the other to that of the bladder,
open the apertures and pnfs the bladder at the fame time ;
and thus the air will be forced upon the water in A, and
driven up the glafs pipe through the lube into B, with a
bubbling noife. When the veffel, A, is thus charged with
air, the llop-cocks are to be turned, fo as to cut off the
Communication with the external air. Care muft be taken
that the common atmofpheric air does not mix with tli'"
intiammable ; for if a mixture of thefe airs were fired, the
explollon would be iJr.'it and dangerous.

Tiic apparatus for lighting this lamp is of the eleftrical
kind ; and it is as follows. The mahogany bafis, E E, if
a fort of box, about 1 2 inches fquare, and 5 inches deep ;
and in this is placed an eleftrophorus, confilling of a refi-
nous cake c, and metallic plate (/, wliich by a hinge at it»
back, admits of being pulled upwards and let down bv the
filkcn flring b, connefted both with it and with the ftop-
cock C. When this cake is once excited, its eleftrical
cflect upon the metal plate will be continued for a long
time. A metallic chain, G, communicates with a v.-ire
and ball r, jjafllng through a glafs tube below, in the boK
over the plate, and above with a fine wire palFing through a
glafs tube. This upper wire is bent lo about ^tii of an
inch diftance from the flame-pipe. It is evident tliat when
the eleftrophorus in the box is previoufly excited, and the
ilop-coek, C, turned, the lllken llring, h, will raife the
metallic plate ; and this will give an cletlric fpark to tlic
ball and wire above, which will convey it inftantly to the
flame-pipe, and inflame the air ilfuing out of the pipe, in
confcquence of the preflfure of the water in its defcent into
the vefi'el A. The cock, C, being turned back, the flame
ceafes ; and turned again, appears ; and will fcrvc to light
a candle, matcii, ixc. whenever it may be thought proper.
The number of times in which light may be produced will
be very great, and will depend on the quantity of the in-
flammable air in the veffel A. If tiie cock is not turned
back, the flame will continue till the whole of the inflam-
mable air is confumed. The light thus produced will be
fufficient for reading a large print in the night, or feeing the
hour by a watch. When the eleftrophorus is to be excited,
the filken firing, b, is unhooked from the plate, and the
apparatus taken out of the box ; and the metallic plate is
lifted up, whilil, with a filken or diy cat-fliin rubber, you
briflcly rub the furface of the rcfinous cake. Al>out 20
revolutions in rubbing will be fufficient, fo that the plate will
give a fpark to the knuckle about the diflance of an inch ;
and by the llrength of the fpark the degree of excitation is
to be eilimated. The filken ftring and fmall glafs tubes,
through which the wire, G, paflfes, fliould always be very-
dry, that the paflTage of the eleftrical fpark may be quite
perfeft. The whole length of this apparatus is about 22
inches ; but it may be made of any dimenfions. Dr. In-
genhouz ufed a fmall apparatus, conllrufted upon a fimilar
principle, in obtaining light for domeflic purpofcs, both
when at home and on his travels. Adams's LecT.urs by
Jones, vol. ii. p. 99, &c.

AiR-pipes, a contrivance invented by Mi;. Sutton, a
brewer of London, for clearing the holds of fliips and
other dole places of their foul air. The principle upon
which this contrivance is founded is well known. It is
no other than the rarefying power of heat, which, by
caufing a diminution of the deufity of the air in one place,
allows that which is in contact, with it to rufh in, and to
be fiiccceded by a conllant fupply from remoter parts,
till the air becomes every wliere equally elailic. If a
tube, then, be laid in the well, hold, or any other part
(if a iliip, and the upper part of this tube be fufFicicntly
3 U 2 htate4

A I R

hcntcJ to i-arcfv llic impending column of air, the cqiiili-
briiim will be maintained by the pntiid air iVom the bultom
ol the tube, which being thuj drawn out, will be luocttdcJ
by a fupply of frefh air from the other parts of the (liip ;
and by continiiiiif^ the operation, the air will be clianged in
all parts of the (hip. Upon this principle, Mr. tjutton pro-
pofed to purify thebad air of a (hip, by means of the (ire
uftJ for the coppers, or boiling places, willi which cveiy
fliip is provided. Under eveiy fuch copper or boiler there
n:e two holes feparated by a grate, one for the (ire and the
other for the aflies ; and there is alfo a flue, communicat-
ing with the fire-place, for the difcliarge of the fmokc.
Tile fire, after it is lighted, is prefervcd by the conltant
draught of air through thele two iioles and the flue ; and if
the two holes are clofed, the fire is extiiiguiilicd. But
when thefe are clofed, if another hole, communicating
with any other airy place, ar.d alfo witli the fire, be opened,
the fire will of courfe continue to burn. In order to clear
the holds of the fliips of the bad air, Mr. Sutton propufed
to clofe the two holes above mentioned, I'/is. the fire-place
and alh-plac£, with fubllantial iron doors, and to lay a
copper or leaden pipe of fufficicnt i'r/x from the hold intjj
the alh-place, and thus to fupply a drauglit of air tin- feed-
ing the fire ; a conltant difcharge of air from the hold will
be thus obtained, and frelh air will be fupplied down tlie
hatches, and by fuch other communications as are open into
the hold. If other pipes are connected with this principal
pipe, communicating eitiier with the wells or lower decks,
the air that fervcs to feed tlie fire will be drawn from fuch
places.

In large (hips, there is not only a copper, but a fire-
grate, like thofe ufed in kitchens ; behind tliis grate an iron
tube might be fixed, and inferted quite through the brick-
work and through the deck, fo that one end of it might
ftand alwut a foot, or fomewhat more, in the chimney above
the brick-work, and the other made to enter into the hold
or any otiier part of the (hip. When the upper end of this
tube is heated, the draught of air will be fupplied from be-
low, as in the other cafe. Mr. Sutton's pratlicable and
ufeful contrivance was much oppofed at its firll propofal ; and
though his pipes were recommended by Dr.Mead and Mr. W.
"Watfon, after feveral trials of their effect, they were very
flowly introduced, and in procefs of time very much neglefted.
Mr. Sutton, after eonfiderable delay, and with no fmall
difliculty, obtained a patent for his invention.

Mr. Watfon recommends the ufe of thefe pipes for the
circulation of trefii air in houfes, prifons, hofpitals, wells,
&c. And they have undoubtedly this obvious advantage,
that by caufing the putrid and noxious air to pafs into the
fire, they not only diflipate but deftroy it. Phil. Tranf. abr.
vol. viii. p. 628. 630. Mead's Works, p. 397 — 437.

For other inventions adapted to the fame purpofe, fee
AiK-trunk, Bellows, iSA/^'j-LUNGs, Ventilator, Blonu-
t«j'-wnEEL, and WiND-/2;;/r.

A\v.-pump, a machine, by means of which the air may be
fxhauiled out of proper vefTels.

The ufe and effect of the air-pump is to make what we
popularly call n nmcmim ; but this, in reality, is only a degree
of rarefaction fufficient to fufpcnd the ordmaiy effefts of the
atmofphere.

By this machine, therefore, we learn in fomc m.eafnre,
what our earth would be without an atmofphere ; and how
much all vital, generative, nutritive, and ;Jterative powers,
depend upon it.

The principle on which the air-pump is conftrufted, is
the eladicity of the air ; as that on which the common, or
water-pump is founded, is the gravity of the fame air.
7

A I R

The ftniAure of the air-pump jvi" itfelf, more fimpEe
even than that of the water-pump.— The latter fnppofes two
principles, gravity and elaflicity liliewife : fo that ttie water-
pump inufl iirfl be an air-pump, /. c. it muft rartty the air
before it can rail'e the water. — In effeft, water being 3
dormant unelallic fluid, needs fonje external agent to make
it alcend ; whereas air afeends in virtue of its own elaftic
adtivity : its natural tendency is to feparate and leaye a
vacuum ; and all that remains for art is to prevent the am-
bient air from fupplying the place of that which thus fpon-
taneoudy efcapcs. I'o make water afcend, the force
wlierewith it is prefied dovvnwaj-ds is either to be diminiflied
or increafed in one part more than another ; like a balance

in ivquihi

hr'io, one of whofe fcales may be made to rife, cither
by diminifiiing its own weight, or increafing that of the
other ; the water, therefore, recedes from the common centre
of gravity by the veiy power with which it tends towards it
indireetly or fecondarily applied ; becaufe, two fimilar cen-
tripetal forces being made to ai£l contrary to each other,
wiiat in the one over-balances the other muft have the effeft
of a centrifugal force — Whereas, the principle whereby air is.
rarefied or diminilhed, does not refpeiSt the centre of the earthy
but the centres of its own particles ; being no other than a
certain implanted power, whereby they immediately tend
to recede from each other.

The invention of this noble inilrumcnt, to which the
prefeut age is indebted for fo many fine difcoveries, is af-
cribed to Otto dc Guericke, the celebrated conful of Magde-
burg, who exhibited his firll public experiments with it,,
before the emperor and the ftatts of Germany, at the break-
ing up of the imperial diet at Ratlfbon, in the year 1654;.
but hisdefeription of the inilrumcnt, and of the experiments
performed with it, is contained in his " Experimenta nova
Magdeburgica de Vacuo Spatio," and was not publifltcd
before the year 1672, at Amfterdam.

Dr. Hooke and M. Duhamel, indeed, afcribe the invention
of it to Mr. Boyle ; but that ingenious autlior frankly con-
fefTes de Guericke to have been beforehand with him. la
a letter which he wrote to his nephew, Lord Dimgarvan,
at Paris, about two years after Schottus's book was pub-
lilhed, he introduces the acknowledgment of his obligation,
for the difcovery of this ufeful machine, to what he had
heard of it, though he had not then perufed it, by that
wcll-appllcd paflage of Pliny, kcmgnuin ijl el plenum higcnui
puiloris fat:rl per qiios profeeeris. Some attempts, he afiures
us, he had made upon the fame foundation, before he knew
any thing of what had been done abroad : but the infor-
mation he afterwards received from Schottus's Mcchanica
Hydraulico Pneumatica, publiflied in 1657, wherein was an
account of de Guericke's experiments, firft enabled him to
bring his deiign to any thing of maturity. From hence,
with the affiftance of Dr. Hcol;e, after two or three un-
fuccefsful trials, arofe a new air-pump more eafy and ma-
nageable than the Gennan one ; and hence, or rather fi-om
the great variety of experiments that illullrious author
applied it to, the engine came to be denominated mach'ina
B'jyl'mna, and the ■vacuum produced by it, -vaciiui/i Boy~
liamim.

A\K-p!imp, Jirudure and ufe of the. The bauf or eflential
part in the air-pump, is a metalline tube, anfwering to the
barrel of a common pump, or fyringe ; having a valve at the
bottom, opening upwards ; and a moveable piiton or em-
bolus, anfwering to the fucker of a pump, furnifhed hkewife
with a valve opening upwards. The vshoie muil be duly
fitted to a veffel as a recipient or receiver.

The refl, being only circumftances chiefly refpefting
convenieacy, have been diverfified aud improved from time

to

A I R

in tline, according to tlie fevcral views and addrefs of the
makers.

In our further account of the air-pump,, we (hull trace
the various aherations it has undergone from the rude and
inconvenient conllruftion ot Otto de Giicricke to its pre-
fect improved ftate. Guericke's uiachine is exhibited in
P. '.!!<: iv, Ptifumatics, Jig. 24. It eonfills of an iron tlu'ee«
l'-''.;'a;ed frame, a b c d f, fuppoiting a round iron plate, h c,
in the middle of which is inlerted a hrafs fyringe, _;■ h. The
upper part of this fyringe is furniflicd with a rim of lead,_y,
(Jig. A.) ; and it is faftened below by means of an iron ring,
i i, and three iron arms, 000, to the legs of the frame.
Within the rim y, there is a brafs plate m n, (_/%'. B.) en-
compalfed by a ring of leather, and fixed by three ferews
which tern-.inates upwards in a fmall tube n, into which the
pipe connetted with the vetl'el to be exhaulled is inferted,
as occafion requires, and to which, on the lower fide, is
adapted a valve of leather, through which the air paifes
into the fyringe. In this plate there is alfo another fmall
valve at z, opening upwards, through which it efcapes.
This plate is covered by a copper veffel, x x, intended for
containing water. The pillon of the fyringe s /j, {Jig. 24,
and Jig. C.) is conncftcd by a joint at /, with the iron rod
/ ti, which is failencd to the handle, tv u u ; and this moves
ri/und the pin at to, by which it is connefted with one of
the legs of the frame. In order to prevent air from en-
tering into the fyringe, a copper veifel of water is fnfpendcd
by hooks to the arms, 0, 0, 0, io that the lower part of the
fyringe at i i, and the pillon, may be always covered with
water, when the niachine is at work. The receiver, L, is
a glafs fphere, adapted to a brafs cap, P P, which has a
pipe with a Ilop-cock, ij r ; and this pipe is fitted to the
tube, n, above mentioned. From this brief defcrlption of
the machine, its operation will be eafily undcrdoud. When
the pifton, s h, is depreffed, the air will be expanded in
the fyringe, g h, and that of the receiver will defcend into
it through the valve in the lower furface of the plate, m n ; but
when the pifton is elevated, and the air is compreffed, this
valve (hutting upwards will clofe the paffage to the receiver,
and make its cfcape through the valve z, which opens up-
wards. In order to render the exhauftion more complete,
a fmall exhaufting fyringe is adapted to the plate, which is
reprefented at tn. See Guericke's Exper. Nov. Magdeb.
Amil. 1672. lib.iii. c. iv. and v. p. 77.

This machine, though it might be deemed an excellent
contrivance at the time of its invention, when the doftrine
of the elallicity and expanfion of the air was new, had
many defeats which it is hardly neceffai-y now to mention.
The force necelfary for working it was very great, and the
progrefs of its operation veiy flow. Befides, it was to be
wrought under water, and it allowed of little change of
fubjefts for experiments. Mr. Boyle, whofe ideas of this
machine, firft fuggefted to him by Schottus's report of
Guericke's conilruclion, were executed by Dr. Hooke,
whom he then employed as his operator, removed fome of
thefe inconveniences and diminiftied others.

The form of Mr. Boyle's air-pump appears in Plate iv.
Pneumatics, Jig. 25. It confifted of a fpherical receiver. A,
with a round hole at the top, whofe diameter, B C, was
about four inches ; this was covered with a plate, having a
brafs rim, D E, which was firmly cemented to the ring of
glafs that furrounded the hole ; and to the tapering orifice
of the brafs rim was adapted a brafs hopple, F G, ground
fo exactly as to exclude as much as polfible the admihion of
air. In the centre of the cover was a hole, H I, of about
half an inch in diameter, provided with a focket, to which

A I R

the brafs ftopplc, K, was fo fitted as to prevent the entrance
of air ; and the lower part gf this llopple was perforated
with a hole, through which paficd the llrlng, 8, y, 10, for
the convenience of moving to and fro the mbjcfts of expe-
riments. To the neck of the receiver a Hop-cock, N, was
failened ; and to the ihank of the cock, X, a tin-plate,
MTU W, was fo cemented as to preclude the adminiun of
air. The lower part of this machine confilled of a wooden
frame with tluee legs, ill, and a tranfverfc board, 222,
on which the pump relied. The cylinder of this pump was
caft brafs ; and it was fitted with a fucker, 4 4, 5 5 ; of
which one part, 44, was covered with (hoe-lealhet, fo as
cxailly to fill the cavity of the cylinder ; and to this was
faftened the other part, which was a thick and narrow plate
of iron, 5 j, fomewhat longer than the cylinder, indented
on one edge with narrow teeth, io as to admit the coiTef-
ponding teeth of a fmall iron nut, faftened by two ftaples
to the under fide of the tranfverfe board 2, 2, 2, on which
the cylinder refts ; and this is turned to and fro by the
handle, 7. The la ft part of this cylinder is the valve, R, con-
fifting of a hole bored through at the top of the cylinder,
fomewhat tapering towards the cavity ; into which hole is
ground a tapering, peg of brafs, to be thrull in and taken
out at pleafure. In order to prevent more efiedlually the
adniiffion of air, and to prepare the fucker of the pump for
motion, a quantity of fallad oil was poured in at the top of
the receiver and alfo into the cylinder. The operator, having
fixed the lower fliank, O, of the ftop-cock into the upper
• orifice of the cylinder, turns the handle, and thus foixes the
fucker to the top of it, fo that no air may be left in its
upper part. Then fliutting the valve with the plug, and
turning the handle the other way, he draws down the fucker
to the bottom of the cylinder, and thus its cavity, into
which no air is admitted, wiU be in an exhaufted ilate. By-
turning the ftop-cock, and opening a paflage between the
cylinder and the receiver, the air contained in the one will
defcend into the other ; and this air being prevented from
returning, by turning back the key of the Ilop-cock, will
be made to open the valve and to efcape into the external
air by forcing the fucker to the top of the cyhnder ; by al-
ternately moving the fucker upward and downward, turning
the key and flopping the valve, as occafion requires, the ex-
hauftion may be continued. See Boyle's Works, by Bircli,
vol. i. p. 7 — 10.

Mr. Boyle has defcribed a fecond air-pump in the firft con-
tinuation of his Phyfico-mechanical experiments. See his-
works, vol. iii. p. 180. This, like the former, had only-
one barrel, by which the receiver was exhaufted ; bat it was
fo contrived as to be every where furrounded with water,
that the ingrefs of air might be more eftei'luallv prevented.
Befides, the receivers, which were of feveral forms and
fizes, were faftened to an iron plate by means of a foft
cement, fo tiiat they coidd be removed and changed at
pleafure. The interpofition of a moiftened leather for fixing
them, does not feem at this time to have occuired to him.

Notwithilanding all the precautions of Mr. Boyle, and
his contrivances for excluding air by oil and leather, he
found that the working of his pump by a fingle barrel was
laborious, on account of the preft'ure of the atmofphere, a
great part of which was to be removed at evei-y elevation of
the pifton, when the exhauftion was nearly completed :
and he himfelf candidly acknowledges, that it was rarely
and with great difficulty, that he was able to produce any-
great degree of rarefaftion. This ufefid macliine was gra-
dually improved by Papin, Merfenne, Mariotte, and others ;
but the introduftion of a fetond bai'rel and pifton was the

principal

A I R

pvincipal improvement wliich it received about tliis- pcviod.
To whom this waj owing, it is not cafy to decide : fomo
Blcrihe it to Div Hoolce, other; to I'apiii, and others again
to Haukfbee. An eni^jine of this kii.d, with a double
tulie, iodefcribtd by Mr. Boyle, in the fecoiid continuation
of riivfieo-mechanical Experiment.-;, (works, vol.iv. ;). 510.) ;
but tiie manner of working it, by mtauo of a pulley and
v\' iro;i llirrups or triddlcs, upon which the operator Hood,
mull have been extrenuly inconvenient. However, by the
ufe of a feeond barrel and pifton, contrived to rife and fall
alternately with the other, and by t!ie ir-troduclion of valves,
which in this tiiird air-pump of Mr. Boyle fupplicd the
place of the plug and Hop-cock wiiieh he had before ufed,
ao well as by the fubfcquent iu'.provement.s of Haukfbee,
the preffure of the atniofphere on the defcending pillon al-
ways nearly baknieed tliat of the afceuding one ; fo that the
wiiich which worked them up and down waseafdy moved by
a gentle force with one hand ; and the exhaultion was alfo
made in much lefs time. See HaukP.iet's Phyfico-Mecha-
nical Experiments, p. 1, &c. Mr. Vreani, a pneumatic
operator, employed by Defaguliers, made an improvement in
Haukdiec's air-pimip, by reducing the alteniate motion of
the hand and winch to a circular one. In his method the
winch is turned ipiite round, and yet the piilons are alter-
nately raifed and deprelled ; by which the trouble of ibift-
inp- the hand backwards and forvvards, as well as the lofs of
time, and the Ihaking of the pump, are prevented. See
Defagulitrs's Courie of Exp. Philof. vol. ii. p. 378. For
a brief account of the progrelTive improvements of the
air pump, fee Cotes's Hydroftatical and Pueumatical Lec-
tures, left. xii. p. 156, &c.

The llruCtnre of the air-pump, thus improved, is repre-
fented in Plate v. Pneumatics, Jig. 33. It confifts of two
brafs barrels or cylinders, a a, a a, which communicate with
each other by the ciilern, d J, and with the receiver, 0000,
which is ground level at the bottom, and fet over a hole in
the plate, by means of the bent pipe, /j h. In thefe barrels
the piltons, which are fallened fo tight that no air can get
between them and tiie barrels, are worked by a toothed
wheel, turned by the handle, bb\ and thus the racks, c c,
with their piftons, are worked alternately up and down.
The gage tube, //, is immerfcd in a bafon of quickfdver, »;,
at the bottom, and coinmunicates with the receiver at the
top ; from which it may be occafionally difengaged by turn-
ing a cock ; and /; is another cock, by turning of which the air
is again let into the exhaiiiled receiver, paffing into it with
a hiffing noife. Tiie attion of the toothed wheel and pif-
tons is reprefented in Jig. 3^.

As the handle is turned backwards, it raifes the pifton d e,
in the barrel B K, by means of the wheel E, and rack
D d : and as no air can get between the pifton and barrel,
all the air above d ia lifted up towards B, and a vacuum is
made in the baiTcl froin e \.q h ; upon which part of the air
in the receiver by its fpring rufhes through the hole in the
brafs plate of the pump along the pipe G G, communicat-
ing with both barrels by the hollow trunk I H K, and pudi-
ing up the valve b, enters into the vacant part b e, of the
barrel B K. Then, as the handle F, is turned forward, the
pifton d e, will be deprcffed in the barrel ; and the air
which had got into the barrel, finding no way of efcape
through the clofed valve b, will afcend through a hole in
the pifton, and make its way into the external air through a
valve at d ; and it will be prevented by that valve from re-
turning into the barrel, when the pifton is again raifed.
At the next elevation of the pifton, a vacuum is again made
in the fame manner as before, between b and :- ; upon wJiich

A I R

more of the air that was left in the receiver will get out by
it:; fpring, and flow into the barrel, B K, through the
valve b. The other pifton and barrel aft in the fame man-
ner ; and as the handle, F, is turned back'.\ ards and for-
wards, it alternately raifes and deprefies the piftons in their
baiTels ; one being raifed v.hilft the other is deprefted. By
thus repeating tlie operation again and again, the air in the
receiver is at length rarefied to fuch a degree, that its dcn-
fity does not excek;d the thin air remaining in the barrel when
the pifton is raifed : which done, the effeft of the air-pump
is at an end ; the valve cannot now be opened, or if it
could, no air would pafs it ; there being a juft equilibrium
between the air on each fide.

To judge of the degree of exhanftion, there is added
the gage-tube, //, open at both ends, and about 34 inches
long {Jig. 33-)> affixed to a wooden ruler, which is divid-d
into inches and parts of an inch, from tlis bottom where it
is even with the quiekfilver In the bafon, w, and continued
to the top, a little behnv the plate of the air-pump, to 30
or 3 I inehe?. Hence the air in the tu!)e raref) ing as faft
as that in the receiver, in proportion as the exhauftion ad-
vances, the mercury will be raifed by the prefl\ire of the
column of external air, prevailing over that of the column
of air included ; till the column of air, and mercury toge-
ther, become a balance to that of the external air. When
the mercui-y is thus rifen to the fame height as it ftands in
the barometer, which is indicated by the fcale of inches
added to the gage, the inftrument is a juft Torricellian
tube ; and the vacuum may be concluded to be as perfeft
as that in the upper end of the barometer. When the
cock, n, is turned, fo as to make a communication with the
external air ; this rufties in, and the mercury in the gage
immediately fubfides into the-bafon. See G.1GE.

In eftimating the gradual afcent of the quiekfilver in the
gage, it is evident that, as we continue to pump, the mer-
cuiy continues to afcend ; and that it approaches always
more and more to the ftandard altitude, or about 29^ inches,
more or lefs according to the variety of feafons. 7\nd it is
eafy to prove, that the dcfeft of the height of the quiek-
filver in the gage from the ftandard altitude is always pro-
portionable to the quantity of air which remains in the re-
ceiver ; that the altitude itfelf of the quiekfilver in the gage
is proportionable to the quantity of air which has been
exhaufted from the receiver ; and that the afcent of the
quiekfilver, upon every turn of the pump, is proportion-
able to the quantity evacuated by each turn. Let it
be confidered, that the whole preffure of the atniof-
phere upon the ciftern of the gage is equal to, and may be
balanced by, a column of f^uickfilver of the ftandard alti-
tude ; confequently, when the quiekfilver in the gage has
not yet arrived to the ilandard altitude, the dcfeft muft be
fupplied by fome other equal force, and that force is the
elaftic power of the air remaining in the receiver ; which
communicating with the upper part of the gage, hinders
the quiekfilver from afcending, as it w'ould otherwlfe do, to
the ftandard altitude. The elafticity of the air in the re-
ceiver is then equivalent to the weight of the deficient
quiekfilver ; but the weight of this is proportionable to the
fpace it fhould polfefs, or to the defeft of the height of the
quiekfilver in the gage from the ftandard height ; therefore
the elafticity of the remaining air is alfo proportionable to
the fame defeft. But the denfity of any portion of air is
proportionable to its elafticity, and the quantity in this cafe
is proportionable to the denfity ; and therefore the quantity
of air remaining in the receiver is proportionable to the defeft
of the quickfdver in the gage from its ftandard altitu<h'.

Hence

A I R

A 1 R

Hence it follow,', that the quantity of air which was at fivd;
ill tlic receiver before you began to pump, is proportionable
to the whole ilandard altitude ; and confequcntly the dirt'er-
aice of this air, which was at lirll in the receiver, and tliat
which remains after any certain number of turns, that is,
the quantity of air exhaulled, is proportionable to the dif-
ference of the ilandard altitude and the before-mentioned
defect, that is, to the altitude of the qiiic'ililvcr in the gage
after that number of turns. Hence again it apjiears, that
the quantity of air exhauiled at ever)- turn of the pump is
proportionable to the alcent of t'.ie quickillver upon each
turn, tiee Cotcs's Hydrolt. and Pneum. Leftures, leC.t.

13. See Gage.

Tiiere are fevcral inconveniencies attending air-pumps of
the common lorm, though much improved from what they
uied to be formerly, and many attempts have been made to
remedy them. It is a well-known fad, that pumps merely
ferve to rarefy the air to a eoniiderable degree, and that
none of them can produce a complete exhauilion ; as the
mercury in the gage is not railed by any of them to the
height which it occupies in the Torricellian tube, when well
purged of air. Few pumps will bring it within ["jth of an
inch. Haukd^ee's, fitted up according to his own inllnic-
tions, will leldom bring it within J-th ; pumps with cocks
of 'the belt conftruftion, and in the mod favourable circuui-
ftances, will bring it witliin ^'oth ; but none with valves
fitted up with wet leather, or to any part of which water
or any volatile fluids have accefs, will bring it nearer than -Jth.
Before we proceed to give an abridged account of the im-
provements that have been made in air-pumps, we obferve,
that the air-pumps moll commonly ufed are made cither
with brafs flop-cocks, or with valves of oil-fl-:in or of lea-
ther, lor preventing the return of the air into the receiver,
out of which It had been exhauded. Pumps with flop-
cocks, when well made and newly put together, are gene-
rally found to rarefy the air to a greater degree than thnfe
which are made with valves ; but after having been ufed for
fume time, they become lefs accurate than thofe with valves.
But the valves are alfo imperfeft ; as the external air, pref-
fing upon that in the pillon, prevents its rlijng, when tiie
elallic force of the air in the receiver, under exliauftion, is
much dimininitd. Attempts have been made, particularly
by the abbe Nolkt and Mr. Gravefandc, to pcrfedl the con-
ilruifliou of cocks. In Gravefande's double-barrelled pump,
the cocks at the bottom of the piltoris are turned by an
apparatus that is moved by the handle of the pump : the
pilloa has no valve, and the rod is conncAcd with it by a
flirmp, as in a common pump. This rod has a cylindric
part, which paffes through the flirrup, and moves fliffly in
it through the fpace of about half an inch, between a
(houlder above and a nut below. The flirrup fupports a
round plate, which has a fhort fquare tube, tliat fits tight
into the hole of a piece of cork, and w hich has alio a fquare
fliank, that goes into the fquare tube. Between the plate
and the cork is put a piece of thin leather, foaked in oil,
and another is placed between the cork and the plate which
forms the fok of the flirrup. When the winch is turned to
raife the piilon from the bottom of the bairel, the fritlion
of the pillon againfl the barrel keeps it in its place, and the
rod is drawn up through the ftiiTup. The wheel has thus
liberty to turn about an inch ; and this is fufficient to turn
the cock, fo as to cut off the communication with the ex-
ternal air, and to open that with the receiver. When this
is done, the continued motion ferves to raifc up the piflon
to the top of the barrel. When the winch is turned in the
oppolite direftioD, the pifton remains fixed till the cock is

turned, fo as to Hnit the communication with the receiver;
and open that with the external air. The cock lias one
perfcnation diametrically th.rougii it, and anotlier in a per-
pendicular direction to this ; and after reaching the centre,
it pafies along tlie axis of the cock, and C(nnm\micatcs with
the open air. By tiiis communication, wlien it is opened,
the air ruflies in, and balances the pretfure on the upper fide
of the pillon in this barrel, fo that the preluire on the other
mull be countciv.cled by the pcrfon who works the pump.
In order to obviate this inconvenience, Gravefandc put a
valve on the orifice of the cock, by tying over it a (lip of
wet bladder or oiled leather ; and by means of this the pif-
ton is preffed down, as long as the air in the barrel is rarer
llian the outward air, jull as if the valve was in the pillon
itfelf. Gravefandc, and alfo Mufchenbroek, extol the ope-
ration of this pump, as exceeding that of pumps with
valves. But it is evident tliat no precifc ellimate of its per-
formance can be obtained, whilll the pillons, valves, and
leathers of the pump are prepared by llceping them in oil,
and afterwards in a mixture of water and fpirits of wine.
With this preparation the gage could not be brought within
'th of an inch of the barometer. Bclldts, a eoniiderable
fpace is left between the pillon and cock, from which the
air is never expelled ; and if this be made very fmall, the
pump mull be worked very flowly ; othcrwife the air will
not have time to diiTnfe itfelf from the leceiver into the bar-
rel, efpecially when the expelling force or the clallicity of
the air, towards the clofe of the operation, is verj' fm;ill.
The rarefaftion vv'ill likewife be retarded by the valve, which'
will not open till the air below the piflon is confiderably
denfer than the external air. The cocks in pumps of this
kind are fubject to become loofe by ufc, and to admit air :
an inconvenience which might, indeed, be prevented by
placing the barrels in a difli filled with oil. For a figure and
defcription of Gravefande's pump, fee Gravefande's Mathem.
Elem.ofNatuia! Philofophy,byDefaguliers,vol. ii. p. 14. &c.-
Thefe pumps, if they were ever ufed in England, have been
long fupcrfeded by the cheaper and more fimple contrivance
of valves, formed by tying a llrip of bladder over a fma'l hole,
through which the air is allow'ed to pafs in one direction only.
Ill the year 1750, the ingenious Mr. Smeaton direft-'
ed his attention to the improvement of valve pumps.-
In confidering the flrufture of thefe pumps, he obfer-
ved, that the principal caufcs of their imperfeftion are,
partly, the difaculty of opening the valves at the bot-
tom of the barrels, and, partly, the pillon's not fitting ex-
actly, when put down to the bottom, which leaves a lodg-
ment of air that is of bad effcdl. The firfl of thefe imper-
feftions is owing to the fmallncfs of the common valves*
which are made of a piece of thin bladder flretched over a
hole generally much lefs than -rl,th of an inch in diameter,
and to the adhcfion of the bladder to the plate upon which
it is fpread, by reafon of the oil or water with which it is
moiflened : as the rarefaction of the air in the receiver is
continued by the operation of the pump, its fpring becomes
fo weak, that it is not able to overcome the cohefion of the
bladder to the plate, the weight of the bladder, and the re-
finance occafioned by its being flretched. The larger the
hole is, over which the bVjddcr is laid, a proportixiiiably
greater force is exerted upon it by the included air in order
to lift it up ; and yet the aperture of the hole cannot be
made veiy large, becaufe the prefTure of the incumbent air
would either burfl the valve, or fo far force it down into
the cavity as to prevent its lying flat and clofe upon the
plate. In order to avoid thefe inconveniences, inflcad of
one hole, Mr. Smeaton makes, ufe of fevcn, all of. equal

fliC

A 1 R

(ize and fhapr, one being in the centre, and the other fix
round it, fo that the valve is fupportcd at proper dillancfs
by a kind of grating, formed by the lolid parts between
thefe holes, andrcfembling a honeycomb; and that the points
of conlaift between the bladder and grating may be as few
as pofTiblc, the holes are hexagonal, and the partitions are
fjcd almoil to an edge. Tlic breadth of thefe hexagons is
T?jths of an inch, and confequently the fiirface nine times
larger than common ; and as the circumference is three
times greater than tliat of the common valve, and the cohefion
to be overcome is, in tiie firil moment of the air's exerting
its force, proportional to the circumference of the hole, the
valve over any of thefe holes will be raifed with three times
more eafe. llefidts, the niifing of the valve over the centre-
liole is aided on all fides by thofe that arc placed round it ; and
as tliey all contribute as much to raife the bladder over the
centre hole, as the air immediately afting under it, the
valve will be raifed with double the eafe already iuppoled,
or with a fixth part of the force commonly neceflaiy. After
the bladder begins to riie, it will expofe a greater furfacc to
the air underneath, which will caufe it to move more eafily.

The other defect in the common conftruftion would ilill
hinder the rarefaclion from being carried on beyond a certain
degree. For as the piilon does not fit fo clofely to the
bottom of the barrel, as totally to exclude the air, this air,
as the piilon rifes, will expand itfelf ; and preffing upon the
valves in proportion to its denfity, hinder the air within the
receiver from coming out. Hence, if the vacancy were equal
to the 150th part of the capacity of the whole barrel, no
air could pafs out of the receiver, when expanded 150 times,
though the piftcn v.-ere conftantly drawn to the top; becaufe
the air in the receiver would be in equilibrio with that in the
barrel, when in its moft expanded {late. In order to obviate
this inconvenience, Mr. Smcaton fliut up the top of the
barrel with a plate, having in the middle a coUar of leathers,
through wliich the cylindrical rod works that carries the
piilon. The external air is thus prevented from prefling
upon the pifton ; but for the difcharge of the air that pafles
from belo«' through the valve of the piilon, there is a valve
applied to the plate at the top, which opens upwards. By
this conftruction, when the piilon is put down to the bottom
of the cyhnder, the air under it will evacuate itfelf fo much
the more, as the valve of the piilon opens more eafily, when
prefled by the rarefied air above it, than when prefTed by
the whole weight of the atmofphere ; and as the pifton may
be made to fit as nearly to the top of the cylinder as it can
to the bottom, the air may be rarefied as m.ich above the
pidon, as it could before have been in the receiver. Hence
it follows, that the air may now be rarefied in the receiver
in duplicate proportion of what it could be upon the com-
mon principle. By this conilruftion, the pump, confifting
of a fingle barrel, may be worked with more eafe than the
common pump v.'ith two barrels, becaufe the prelTure of the
outward air is taken off by the upper plate ; and when a
confidcrable degree of larefailion is defiredj it will produce
it more fpeedily.

Mr. Smeaton has alfo contrived a new gage, which mea-
fures the expanfion with certainty, to much lefs than tlie
lOOOth part of the whole. It confifts of a bulb of glafs,
in ihape refembling a pear, and fufficient to hold about half
a pound of quickfilver. It is open at one end, and the
other is a tube hennetically fealed at top. A fcale divided
into parts of about -p'^th of an inch each, and anfwering to
a 1 000th part of the whole capacity, is annexed to it. This
gage, during the exhauftionof the receiver, is fufpended in
It by a flip-wire. When the pump is worked as much as is
thought neceflary, the gage is pullied down, till th« open

A I R

end is immerged in a cillem of quickfilver placed under-
neath. The air being then let in, the quickfilver will
be driven into the gage, till the air remaining in it be-
comes of the fame denfity with the external ; and as the air
always takes the highcil pl.ice, the tube being uppentioft,
the cxpanlion will be determined by the number of divifions
occupied by the air at the top. See Gage.

'I'his ingenious artill has lucceeded io well in his con-
flru£lion of the air-pump, as to be able to rarefy air about 1000
times : whereas the bell of thecommon air-pumps, elleem.ed
good in their kind, and in complete oider, never rarefied it
above 140 times. Mr. Smeaton's air-pump acls alfo as a
condcnfing engine, by the very fimple apparatus of turning a
cock; fee CoNDENSKR. This air-pump is thus eafily made
an univcrfal engine, for fliewing any effect arifing from an
alteration in the denfity or fpring of the air ; and with a
little addition may be made to fliew the experiments of the
(W-FOUNTAIN, hiK-giin, &c. Phil. Traul. vol. xlvii. p.

4«5— 42.1-

A pcrlpeftive view of the principal parts of this pump
is exhibited in Plate vi. Piwutnalics, Jig. 45. A is the
barrel, B the ciilern, in which is included the cock, with
feveral joints, which are covered with water to keep them
air-tight ; and a little cock to let the water out of the ciftern
is marked 6. C cc 1% the triangular handle of the key of
the cock, which, by the marks on its anns, fiiews how it
muft be turned, that the pump may produce the effttl de-
fired. D H is the pipe of communication between the
cock aud the receiver. E is the pipe that communicates
between the cock and the valve, on the upper plate of the
barrel. F is the upper plate ot the pump which contain*
the collar of leathers d, and V is the valve, which is covered
by the piece y. G I is the fyphon-gage, which is fcrewed
on and off, and adapted to common puipofes. It confifts
of a glals-tube hermetically fealed at c, and furniflicd with
quickfilver in each leg, which, before the pump begins to
work, lies level in the line a b ; the fpace b c being filled
with air of the common denfity. When the pump exhaufts,
the air m b c expands, and the quickfilver in the oppofite
leg lifes, till it becomes a counterbalance to it. Its rife is
fliewn upon the fcale I f, by which the expanfion of the air
in the receiver may be nearly ellimatcd. When the pump
condcnfcs, the quickfilver rifes in the other leg, and the
degree may be nearly judged of by the contraftion of the
air in 3 c ; marks being placed at \ and j of the length of
b c from c, which Ihcvv v.-hen the receiver contains double
or treble its common quantity. K L is a Icrew-frame to
hold down the receiver in condenfing experiments, which
takes off at pleafure, and is fufficient to hold down a re-
ceiver, the diameter of whofe bafe is feven inches, when
charged with a treble atmofphere ; in which cafe it adls with
a force of about i 200 pounds againll the fcrew-frame. M
is a fcrew that fallens a bolt, which Aides up and down in
that leg, by means of which the machine is made to Hand
fall on uneven ground. The ftruClure, connection, and re-
lative ufes of the feveral parts of this pump will be further
perceived in the following account of Smeaton's air-pump,
conftrufted and improved by Mr. Nairne.

A perfpedlive view of it appears in Plate vi. Pneu-
matics, Jig. 46. A, A, are the two barrels of a fimple
double-barrelled air-pump ; the tube q q conveys the air
from the receiver placed in the pump-plate T, and the cock
Q^ferves to cut off the communication between the receiver
and the barrels A, A, when the exhauftion is completed.
In the front of the pedeftal Z is a fcrew, fening to admit
air into the barrels, that the valves may not be preffed after
the cock Q^is turned ; the button i readmits air into the

receiver ;

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A IR

receiver ; the fyphon-gage y is mnde in the ufual manner ;
but the cillerns x, x, prevent the gages from being dirtied
by the oil, on the readinifTion of the air. The large barrel
C has a lolid plunger, worked by the rod R, which pafTes
through the collar of leathers u ; for the conilruftion of
which, as well as the internal llruiture of the barrel C, fee

■fis- 47- .

This is a vertical feflion of the barrel, &c. ; the top or
cup U fcrews on to the fcrevv it, and the cavity h is made
conical ; the holes e, e, are made jull large enough to let
the pifton rod pafs freely ; the cavity h is filled with circular
greafed leathers, through the center of which a hole is
made, that barely admits the pillon rod to pafs j thefe
leathers are croudcd into A, and three or four thiekuefles of
them are left above the furface, f; and confequently, when
the cup U is ierewcd down, ihcfe leathers are forced into
the fmaller part of the cor.ical hollow /i ; and therefore they
bind as much or as little as is requifite on the pillon rod.
The head a is fcrevvcd with eight fcrews on the upper
flaunch or pait of the barrel C ; the bottom B fcrews on
the lower flaunch or lower end of C ; the plug D is accu-
I rately ground into a conical hole in the bottom B and has
I the lever L Handing at right angles. As the whole nicety
[ of the cxhauftion of this air-pump depends upon this part,
it fhould be very particularly defcribed. The lever L is re-
prefented as (landing to the left hand ; and the hole z with
its valve l is feen in connettion with the pipe P, and confe-
quently with the receiver ; fee the horizontal ftdtion L D
P. But if the lever L is brought towards the word
" CLOSED," the hole 2 with its valve l has moved onwards
towards D ; no hole is oppoiite to the hole of P, and con-
fequently all communication between the receiver and the
inlide of the barrel C is cut off ; but upon moving the lever
L more towards the right hand, the hole 3 having " no
valve" will be in conneftion with P, anj confequently
there will be a direft or uninterrupted pafTage between the
receiver and the infide of the barrel C. Upon attentively
infpefting the fe&ion, it will be perceived by the direftions
in which the valves open and clofe, and the poiition of the
paffages which are drilled through the thicknefs of the
. barrel, that the afcent or defcent of the folid plunger N
equally exhaulls the pipe P, and confequently the receiver.
It muil be remarked, that the valves exhibited in the feAion
are drawn like lids of boxes, with joints for the purpofe of
fhcwing in what dircilion they open ; but in realitv the
valves are made of oiled filk ; and as on the nice conlhucl;ion
of thefe tiie good ailition of the pump much depends, the
bed mode of making them will be illuilratcd in the fcition,
fy. A A, which lliews the plug D, on which the valve is to
be fixed. In the iirft place, a groove muft be turned, of a
convenient fize, fo as to leave a cylindrical knob F, whofe di-
ameter may be four or five eighths, or more, of an inch ; the
hole which the oiled filk valve is intended to cover, is made
through the axis or center of this knob, as is (hewn by the
dotted lir.es H ; the ring G is to fit nicely into the groove, and
to be fluih with the general fnrface of the brafs ; the furface
of the knob V muil be turned away about double the
thicknefs of the oiled filk for the purpofe of preferving the
oiled filk from injury by the pifton's linking it ; a flip of
oiled filk about the width of four times the diameter of the
hole, which it is to cover, mull he laid over the hole in the
center of the knob F, and the ring G carefully put in its
place and there fixed by two or three fcrews. Fig. B B
fliews the conllrudlion of the refcnoir x x, (fig. 46,), for the
piirpofe of keeping the gages clean. The end of the gage
G, for inftance, paffes through the bottom of the refer\-oir
X, and reaches nearly to the top ; and a piece of metal, flat
Vol. I.

or like an inverted tea-fauccr, is fixed to the top of ic, ^g.
B B. The oil which comes from the pump through m is
thrown on the back of the faucer, and running to its edges
drops into the bottom part of the rcfcrvoir, and thus prevent*
any filth from getting into the tube G, /i^. 46.

Having defcribed the particular parts of this pump, we
fliall next explain the mode of working it, fo as to obtam the
great I'll degree of exhauHion. A receiver well ground and
made diy, w ith oil put upon its edge, is to be placed on the
pump plate T, (fig. 46.), over the aperture of the pipe P ;
and the lever L is to be moved fo as to Hand under the word
" valve." By working the pillon of the cylinder C up
and down, from the top to the bottom, the receiver becomes
partly exhaulled, and the mercury will rife from the cillem
M up into the tube of the barometer gage G ; the exhauilion
mull be continued till it will rife no higher ; and turning the
lever L under the word " closed," the pillon mull be
moved two or three times up and down ; let it then be left
at the bottom of the barrel C ; move the lever L under the
words " NO valve," and gently ra;fe the pillon to the top
of the baiTcl. As there is now a direft communication be-
tween the receiver and the barrel C, without the intervention
of a valve, the air will expand itlelf freely into the barrel,
and the mercury of the gage will rife ; keeping the pifton
at the top of the barrel, turn the lever again under the word
" closed," and repeat the operation as before ; unfcrew
the receptacle tor dirty oil O, and fcrew in its place the
complete Imall exhaufting iyringe S j work this a few times,
and repeat the operation with the barrel and the lever L as
before, till the mercury will rife no higher in the gage.

By the procefs now- defcribed, the cxhauftion has been made
fo perfeA, that when an open ciftern barometer, fnfpended m
the room, has been on the rife, the mercuiy in the gage G has
rifen within -^^ih of an inch as high.

The double-barrelled air-pump A A being placed on the fame
ftand, and having a communication with the pump plate T, as
well as the improved pump C, is inteirded for exhaufting large
receivers very expeditioufly ; as both pumps maybe worked at
the fame time; and moreelpeciallyforpreventingtheimproved
pump from being ufed for trifling experiments, or thofe where
water is made ule of. In the pump plate T are two holes,
fituated near each other, one communicating with the
double-barrelled, and the other with the improved pump,
and ferving the purpofe of cutting off the communication
of either with the receiver at pleafure. Indeed, when the
double-barelled pump is only ufed, the hole of the pipe P,
leading to the barrel C, ihould always be carefully flopped
to prevent moillure of any kind from getting into it.

Since the time of Mr. Smeaton the air-pump has received
very material improvements; for which we are indebted to the
Rev. Mr. Prince, of Salem, in North-America; and to Mr.
Cuthbertfon, late of Amfterdam, andfince fettled in London.

Mr. Smeaton's fuccefs in facilitating the opening of the
valves, at the bottom of the barrel and in the pifton, led Mr.
Prince to conceive, that if thefe valves were entirely re-
moved, and the remaining air in the barrel conld be more
perfectly expelled, the rarelaclion might be canned ilill far-
ther. Upon this plan he conftructed his air-pump. He
removed the lower valve, and opened the bottom of the
barrel into a ciftern on which it was placed, and which had
a free communication with the receiver ; f»rthe valve on the
upper plate, at the top of the barrel, conftrufted like Mr.
SmeaVon's, made it unneceflary that there fliould be any at
the bottom, in order to rarefy the air in the receiver. The
ciftern was made deep enough to admit of the pifton's de-
fcending into it below the bottom of the barrel. If the
piftou be folid, that k, without a valve, when it enters the
3 P banel

A I R

A I R

barrel and riles to the top-plate, which is made air-light with
a collar of leather!, like Snn.taton's, it forces out all the air
above it ; and as the air cannot return into the band on
account. of the vhIvc in the top-plate, when the pitton
defccnds, there will be a vacuum between it and the plate ;
tvery thing being fuppofed pcrfedt. But in working the
pump, the pillon is not allowed to dcfccnd entirely into the
cilleni fo far as to leave the bottom of the banel open ; but
it defcends below a hole in the lidc of the banel near the
bultom, which opens a free communication between the
barrel, cilleni and receiver. Through this hole the air
rulhes from the cillern into the cxliaulled buntl, when the
pillon has dropped below it ; and by its next afcent this air
is forced out as the other was before. If the capacity of
the receiver, cidern, pipes, fee. belov.- the bottom of the
barrel, taken togcthe,-, be equal to the capacity of the
barrel, half the remaining air will be expelled by every
U:oke. Put as the working of this pump with a folid piftou
v.uuld be laborious, on account of tlie refillance it would meet
with iu its defcent from the air beneath, though it would
be lefTened by ever)' ftroke as the air became more rarefied,
Mr. Prince pierced three holes in the pillon at equal dillance.,
from each other, and by a circular piece of bladder, tied
over the top of the piilon, formed a kind of valves over the
lioles, which opened with fufficient eafe to prevent any labour
in working the pump, by allowing the air to pafs through
the pillon fn its delcent. The efcape of the air does not,
however, depend upon a pafiage through the pillon into tlie
barrel ; for when the air, weakened by rarefaftion, cannot
open tliis valve, it. will ftill get into the barrel when the
Communication is opened by the hole at the bottom. This
pillon will therefore defcend as ealily as any other, nor will
the valves impede the rarefaftion. By this coiiiliuclion the
valves, made to open with inore cafe by Mr. Smeaton, are
rendered unneceflary for i-arefying the air ; and that at the
bottom of the barrel is entirely removed ; the valve on the
top-plate being the only one neccllai-)' in rarefying the air.

Having fet afide the valves, which partly prevented the
air from entering the baiTel above the pillon, Mr. Prince's
next attempt was to expel the air more perfeftly out of the
barrel than Mr. Smeaton had done, by making a better
vacuum between the pillon and the top plate, lo that more
of the air might be allowed to expand itfclf into the barrel
from the receiver. Mr. Prince alfo contrived to conneft the
valves on the top plate with the receiver occafionally by
means of a pipe and cock, by the turning of which the
machine might be made to exhauft or condenfe at pleafure.
In order to remove the preffure of the stmoiphere from the
valve on tlie top plate, fo that this valve might open as
cafily as the pillon valve, he connefted with the dutl on the
bottom piece, which conveys the air from the valves to the
cock, a fmall pimip of the fame conilruftion as the large
one ; having the barrel opening into the ciftern, the piftou
rod, which is fohd, moving through a collar of leathers,
and a valve near the top, through which the air is forced
into the atniofphere. This pump with one barrel is called
the valve-pump ; its chief nfe being to rarefy the air above
the valves, or to remove the weight of the atmofphere from
them.' When this valve pump is ufed, the pafiiige through
the cock is (liut up ; and, therefore, inilead of placing three
duels at equal dillances round ttie cock in the manner cf
Mr. Smeaton's, Mr. Prince divided the whole into five equal
parts, leaving the diftance of onc-tifth part between the
dntts leading from the cillern and tlie valves to the cock,
and two-fift!is between each of thefe and the one leading
from tlie coek to the receiver. By this adjullment, v.-hen
the communication is open betv/een the receiver uni the

valves for condenfation, the other hole through the cock
opens the cillenis to the atmofphere ; but when the com-
niunication is made between the ciftems and the receiver fur
exhauilion, a folid part of the key comes againll the dud
leading to the valve, and (huts it \:p, and the air which is
forced out of the barrel pafles throuf^h the atmofphere into
the valve-pump ; for the valve of the fmall pump may be
kept open while the great one is v.orktd.

U])on this coii{lruction, the pump with two bands n'ay
be m.ide like the common pump, which cannot be conve-
niently done where the lower valve is retained. In this pump
the pillons do not move the whole length of the barrels ; an
horizoi.tal fettion being made in them u little more than half
way ftom the bottom, where the top-plates are ii.ferttd.
Tiie pump is thus made more convenient and limple, as the
head of it is brought down upon the top of the barrels in
the fame manner as in the common air-pump. The bands
alfo Hand upon the fame plane with the receiver plate, and
this plane is raifod high enough to admit the common gage
of 32 or 33 inches to Hand under it without inconvenience
in working the pump : as the winch moves through a lefs
portion of an arch at each flroke than it would do if the
pillons moved through the whole length of the barrels.

A gage for meafuring the degree of condenfation having
a free commimieation with the valves, cock, &c. is placed
between the barrels in this pump ; and the gage is fo con-
ftrufted that it will alfo fervc to meafure the rarefaction
above the valves when the air is worked off by the valve-
pump. It confills of a pedeftal, the die of which is made
of giafs, which forms a cillern for the mercury, a hollow
brals pillar, and glafs tube hermetically fcaled at one end,
which moves up and down in the pillar through a collar of
leathers. When the pump is ufed as a condenier, the degree
of condenfation is fhewn by a fcale marked on one edge of
the pillar ; when it is ufed as an exhauller, the degree of
rarefaction of the air above the valves is iliev.-n by a fcale on
the other edge of the pillar. This gage will alio (hew, when
the valves have done playing, either with the weight of the
atmofphere on them or taken off, in the manner which the
author ha? cefcribed. The degreeof condenfntion rriay be aL'b
meafured by the number of ilrckes of the winch. For the
piu"poftsof great condenfation, Mr. Prince has fitted acon-
denfer of a Imaller bore than the barrel of the great pump
to the ciAern of the valve-pump, to be fcrewed on occa-
fionally. Or, without this condenfer, the valve -pump may
be adapted to the purpofe by being made a little larger, and
by having a plate made to fcrew into the bottom of the
cylinder, v.-ith a valve on it opening into the cillera ; a hole
muft be made to be opened on the fame occafion near the .
top of the cylinder, to let air in below the pillon when this
is drawn up above it.

The common gage, which is generally plf.ccd under the
receiver-plate, is placed in the front of this pump, that it may
be feen by the perfon who works it, and that the plate may
be left free for other ufes. The plate is fo fixed to the pipe
leading to the cock, that it may be taken off at pleafure,.
and ufed as a transferrer ; and it may alio ferve for other
purpofes.

The head of this pump is made whole, except a fmall
piece on the back, where the wheel is let in ; and the v.heel
is freed from the pillon-rods by pufning it into the back part
of the head, and it is kept in- its place by a button fcrewed
into the focket of the axis behind. By this apparatus the
piflon-rods are diilodged from the wheel, and let down into
the cifterns, when the pump is not ufed ; and in thefe cillema
they may alfo have the advantage cf being covered with oil.
The principal joints of tLis pump arc fur.k iato fockets, that

tlie

A I R

A I R

tlic leathers which clofe them may be covcrdl willi oi! tn
prevent leaking. The lowei- pai't of the pump is fitted with
drawers to contain the neceiTary apparatus.

A jjerfpeftlve view of a double-barrelled pump, made by
Air. Jones, according to the conftruilion of Mr. Prince,
may be feen in P/,iie vii. Piic-umnlics, Jig. 48. A, A, are
two brafa barrels in which the pillons move ; the barrels
c>)mmunicate with the receiver placed on the pump by means
of the pipe B C, and canal D E ; the rods of the pillons
;ue feen at F, G ; each of thcfe is connefted with a rack or
piece having teeth on one fide. At I th.ere is a wheel,
whofe teeth are laid hold of by thofe of the rack ; fo that
by tui-ning the handle H the piftons are alternately raifed or
depreffed, and the air is exhaulted out of the receiver K L,
the tube B C, and the canal 1) E, which communicate
with one another. At the top of each barrel is a plate, on
which is A boK m n, containing a collar of leathers ; through
this the cylindrical part of the pifton rod moT.e3, air-tight ;
o 9 is the place of the valve on the top plate, into which a
pipe is foldered that conveys the air from the valves to the
duft, pafiing under the valve-pump P, which is dcllgntd for
preventing the prefl'ure of the atmofphere from ailing on tlse
valve of the top plate. Q^is the pifton rod of this pump,
and R the handle by which it is worked. Y is a cock to
cut off occalionally the communication between the receiver
and the working parts of the pump. At S is a fcrew,
whic'i clofes the orifice of the canal D E, by unfcrewing
which the air may be admitted when required. Z is an oil-
veilel for receiving the oil driven over by the a£lion of the
pump ; and there (hould be ahvays a fmall quantity of oil in
the cups of the boxes m, it, that hold the collar of leathers
through which the pillon rods move ; n b c h the barometer-
gage ; d e the box or ciftern containing the mercury ; and
there is a divided box-fcale affixed to the tube, for afcertain-
ing the rife or fall of the mercur)' ; a fmall ivory tube en-
compaffes the lower end of the glafs tube, and floats upon
the quickfilver in the ciftern ; the upper end of this is
always to be brought to coincide with the lower divifion of
the box fcale, by means of the fcrew under the ciftern ; and
whjn it thus coincides, the divillons on the fcale give the
true diftance from the furfacc of the mercury in the bafon.
The key f ferves for tightening or loofening the fcrews of
the pump. When either pifton is down, in the operation of
this- pump, there is a free communication from the receiver
through the tubes and the canal to the part of the barrel
above the pifton ; when the pifton rifes, it forces out the air
above it through the valve in the top plate ; and as this
valve prevents the air from returning into the barrel, when
the pilton defcends, a vacuum is formed between it and the
imder furface of the top plate; as foon, therefore,as the pifton
has defcended below the holes communicating, by the tubes
and pipe, with the receiver, the airnifties into the exhaufted
tarrel ; on the next afcent of the pifton, this air is forced
out as before. To prevent the pifton from meeting any re-
fiftance in its defcent, there is a valve in it through which
the air paffes as the pifton defcends ; but the air does not
-neceifarily depend upon a paffage through the pifton in order
to get into the barrel. By thefe means the pifton defcends
as eafily as in any other conftra^ion, w^hile the valve in it
does not impede the rarefaction. The valve pump P is, as
we have obferved, ufed for taking off the prelTure of the
atmofphere trom the valve on the top plate of the pump,
and for forming a more perfeft vacuum between this plate
and the pifton, that nothing may prevent this inftrument
fj-om exhaufting as far as its expanfive power will admit.
The barometer gage a b c, ferving to meafure the exhauftion
«f ihe receiver, confitts of a tube, divided by an annexed fcale

of inches and fraftional parts of an inch, wliofe higher orifice
communicates with the receiver, and the lower is inimcrfid
in a ciftern of mercmy. Before any exhauftion lias t.ikeii
place the mercury in the tube and ciftern is upon the f;iiiie
level ; and after any number of turns of the handle oi" the
pump, the air in tlie lube and receiver i.s equ.'.Uy rarefied,
and the mercury will afcend in the tube till the wciglit of the
column above the furface of that in the cillern, and elafticity
of the air in the receiver, taken together, be equivalciit to
the' weight of the atmofphere ; and if the altitude of the
column is equal to the ftaudc.rd altitude, the vacuum in the
receiver, and that above the mercury in tlje barometer, arc
the fame. Eor an account of the fyphon-gagc, occalionally
fubftituted for the barometer gage, and the pear gage ; fee
Gage.

In a contrivance, fuggefted by an ingenious workman of
the late Mr. Adams, and annexed to the pumps conllrufted
by Mr. Jones, one of the lower flexible oil-feins, or leather
valves in the two barrels, is attached to a brafs ring, which
is allowed an interval of motion of -j'^th of an inch ; a long
wire is fixed to a bar over the diameter of the ring, which
wire pafles along the body of the pifton and rod turough a
collar of Icatlurs in the pifton. By the friction of thefc
leathers upon the rod, asrthey move up and down, the lower
valve is occalionally raifed and deprclfed ; and thus a com-
munication is ojjciied with the barrel and receiver, and of
courle the cxhauli c 1 is carried to as great a degree a the
nature of the air itfelf appears to admit. By a comparifon
of the height of the merjuiy in a good barometer tube, Mr.
Jones did not oblerve the 4'?;th of an inch difference between
this and that of the barometer gage to the pump ; and con-
fequently the rarefaftiou was about 1 200 times ; and hence
he concludes that it was equal in power to that of Mi\
Cuthbertlon or any pi:mp .whatever.

We fliall now defcribe more minutely the parts of which
Mr. Prince's improved air-pump confifts. Fig. 49. Pl^ile
vii. reprcfents a perpendicidar fcftion cf one of the ban-els,
the two eifterns, condenfing gage, &c. ; where A B is the
barrel, C 1) is the ciftern on which it ftands, a a a a the
leathered joint, funk into e focket,and buried in oil ; E F i«
the pifton, with the cylindrical rod pafiing through a collar
of leathers, G G, in the box H I. K Ihews the place of
the valve on the top plate K, covered by the crofs piece M
M, into which is foldered the pipe O O, that conveys the air
from the valves to the duel going under the valve pump, as
maybe feen mfg. 51. : 0 is part of the faid duft ; p is the
joint funk into a focket in the crofs piece P P, wliich con-
neils the eifterns, and has a duct through it leading to
them. Into this duft open the dufts q and r, the firll
leading to the gage in front of the pump, and the other to
the cock and receiver. The other bane! is left out of the
figure, except Q-, which is the top of it bmught down
out of its place for tlie purpofe of fliewir.g the top plate
that fliuts up the barrel, feparated from the box, which
contains the collar of leathers. S is one of the holes in tlie
plate over which the valve lies, and which is covered I^y K
in the crofs piece. V V is the pifton fticwing the valve o.peu
on the toji, which is to prevent labour wlien the pump con-
denfes. W X is the ciftern, in which is more diftinctly feen
the flioulder for the leather, which clofes the point between
this and the barrel, and alfo the focket in which the oil lie*
over the leather. Y Z is the condenfing gage, with the
orifice of the tube raifed above the furface of the quick-
filver ; c If is the collar of leathers, through which the glaf$
tube moves ; and / is a fmall pipe coming up through the
quickfdver to form a communication between the valves and
the gage. In^fj^- 50. is feen the tipper furface 01 the top
3 P 2 plate

A I R

plate which ctofe? the barrel, being foldered into It, (hewing
the place of tlic valves over the three fmall holes. /Vf. 5 I, is a
peqicndicLilar IcCtion of the button) piece, pipes, valvc-pun-.p,
coii, &c. at right angles with the other fei^ion, /i;^. 49. Tlie
button 0 is fcreweif here into the top inllead of the gage.
C D ii the valve-pump and ciftern, c the place of the valve
iimhr the cnp ; K I" the cock, (hewing the duct through it
leading to the atniofphere ; G H the pipe leading from it to
the fteni of the receiver plate, in which is the cock I, to
ihut up the AuA wiion the plate i> \ifed as a transferrer. K
K is the plate; I. a piece to fluit up the hole, into which
tubes, &e. art occalionally fcrewed to perform experiments
without removing the plate. Tlie dotted line at O (liews
the place of the ferew which preflcs the plate againll the_
pipe ; P Q^ tiic pipe and common gage Handing in fjont of
the pump. fi;;. 52, is a horizontal fettiun of the cock, and
pieces containing the duds leading from it to the receiver,
the cifterns and the valves on the top of the barrels ; A B
the duft, connecting the ciilcrns together ; C D tlie dud
leading from the cillerns to the cock ; G H the duc\ leading
from tile cock through the pipe A li (fg 51.) to the valves ;
1) E the dud through the cock, which occafionally con-
neds the two lail mentioned duds with the dud E F,
leading from the cock to the receiver ; I the dud in the
cock leading to the atmofphere, which, when conneded
with tlie dud at D, lets the air into the cillerns and b;u-rcls
for condcnfation ; the other dud thnKigh tlie cock at the
fame time conncding H and E. This dud alio, when con-
neded with E, rcllores the equilibrium in the receiver. K
L is part of the dud leading from the citterns to the gage.
The dotted circles Ihew the places of the pipe and valve-
pump on the piece, and /-the place where the air enters the
valve-pump from the dud G H, and is thrawn into the at-
mofphere when the pump exhaulls. Fig. 53, (licws tlie
under furface of the boxes which contain the collars ot
leathers with the crofs piece which connedis them together,
having a dud tlirough it, as reprelented by the dotted line,
through which the air paffes from the valves into the pipe.
This figure is chiefly defigned to Ihew the places in which
the valves play, as at I. American Tranfai^tions, vol. i.
Bofton, 1785. Nicholfon's Journal, vol. i. p. 1 21-128.
Adams's Ledures on Nat. and Exp. Philof. by Jones, vol. i.
p. 51-54, p. 153.

The air-pump of Mr. Cuthbertfon is fo excellent in its
ftruduie, and (0 powerful in its effed, that it claims parti-
cular notice and deicnjition. A perfpedive view ot it
apf>ears in PLte viii. Pneumat'us, Jig. 56- Its two prin-
cipal gages are fcrewed into their places ; but tliefe need
nbt be ufed together, except in cafes where the utnioft ex-
adnefs is required. In common experiments, either of them
may be taken away, and a llopfcrew put into its place.
When the pear-gage is ufed, a fmall round plate, large
enough for the receiver to Itaiid upon, muft firft be fcrewed
into a hole at A ; but when this gage is not ufed, this hole
mud be clofed with a ilop-fcrevv. When all thefc gages are
ufed, and the receiver is cxhaulfed, the ftop-fcrtw B, at the
bottom of the pump, mull be unfcrewcd, to admit the air
into the rect-ivcr ; biit when the gages are not all ufed, the
ftop-frrew at A, or either of tlie other two which are in
the place of tlic gages, may be uiifcrewed for this purpofe.
In /ig, jy^ C D repix'fent.s one of the barrels of the pump,
Fthe collar of leathers, G a hollow cylindrical veflll to con-
lain oil ; R Is alio an oil-vefTel, which receives the oil that
is driven with the air through the hole a a, when the pillon
■is drawn upwards ; and when this is full, the oil is carried
over with the aiv along the tube T, into the oil velTel G ;
*c ji a wjre wijich is driven upwards from the liole a a, by

AIR'

the patTage of the air : and as foon as this has efcapeJ, falls
down again by its own weight, (luits up the hole, and pre-
vents any air from returning by that way into the barrel ;
at titi are fixed two pieces of brafs, to keep the wire cc in
fuch a diredion as may prefcrve the hole air-tight. H is a
cylindrical wire, whieli carries the piilon I, and is made
hollow to receive a long wire, q y, that opens and clofes the
hole L, which forms the communication with the receiver
Itanding on the plate ; m is part of a pipe, one end of
which is fcrewed into the wire q y, that open;, and fhuts
the hole L ; and upon the other end, O, is icrewed a nut,
which, ftoppiiig in the InuiUer part of the hole, prevents
the wire from being lilted too high. This wire and fcrew
are more clearly leen in j'lg. S''^' and ^_f. 62 : they Hide
through a collar of leathers, rr. Jig. 58, and_^^f. 61, in the
middle piece of the pilton. Figures 60 and 61, are the two
main parts which compofc the piilon ; and when the pieces
iu Jigures 59 and 67, are added to it, the w hole is repre-
lented hy Jig. 58. Fig. 61, is a piece of brafs, turned in a
conical form, with a ihoulder or ledge at tlie bottom ; a
long female-fcrew is cut into it, about two-thirds of its
length ; and the remaining part of the hole, in ivhich there
is no fcrew, is about the iame diameter as the fcrew part,
except a thin plate at the end, which is of a breadth exadly
equal to the thicknefs of q q. That part of the infide of
the conical piece of brafs, in which no thread is cut, is filled
with oiled leathers with holes in them, through which q j
can Aide air-tight ; there is alfo a male-fcrew with a hole in
it, which is fitted to q q, and ferves to prefs down the lea-
thers r r. In Jig. 60, a a a a is the outiide of the pifton, the
infide of which is turned exadly to fit tl\e outfide oijig. 6r ;
b h are round leathers, about 60 in number ; rr is a circular
plate of brafs, of the fize of the leathers ; and dd is a
Icrew, which ferves to prefs them down as tight as is necef^
faiy. The male fcrew, at the end of fig. 59, is made to fit
the female fcrew wvjig. 61. ^^J'g- f'2, be pufhed '\\\X.ofg. 61,
this \\\1oJig. 60, and _^. 59 Icrewed into the end oi Jig. 61,
thcfe will compofe the whole piilon, as reprefentcd by^c'. 58.
H, mjig. 57, reprelents the fame part as H m Jig. 58, and.
is that to which the rack is fixed. If this, therefore, be
drawn upwards, it will make Jig. 61 fhut clofe into fig. 60,
and diive out the air above it ; and when it is puihed down-
wards, it will open as far as the fhoulders a a, {Jig. 60.) will
allow, and fuffer the air to pafs through. A A [Jig. 63.)
is the receiver plate ; B B ii; a long fquare piece of glafs,
Icrewed t-o the undermoll fide of the plate, through which
a hole is drilled, cor.'elponding with that in the centre of
the receiver plate, and with the three female fcrews b b s.

In Older to conceive how the rarefadion of the air ij
effeded, fuppofe the piilon to be at the bottom of the bar-
rel, and a receiver to lland upon the plate, the infide of the
barrel, from the top of the piilon to a, is full of air, and
the pifton fluit : when drawn upwards, by the hollow cylin-
drieal wire li, it will drive the air before it, through the
hole a a, into the oil-vcffel R, and out into, the atmofphere
by the tube T. The piilon will then be at the top of the
barrel at a, and the wire q q will (land nearly as it is repre-
fentcd in the figure, jull railed from the tube !>, and pre-
vented rifing higher by means of the nut 0. While the pif-
ton is moved upwards, the air will expand in the receiver,
and be driven along the bent tube vi, into the infide of the
barrel. Thus the barrel w-ill be filled with air, which, as
the piilon riles, will be rarefied in proportion as the capa-
city of the receiver, pipes, and barrel, is to the capacity of
the barrel alone. When the piilon is moved downwards
again by H, it will force the conical part, jff. 61, out of
the hollo iv part, Jig. 60, as far as the Ihoulders a a ; Jig. 58,
I. will

A I R

will refl upon a a, fy.. do, which will then be fo far open as
to peimit the air to pals freely through it, while at the fame
time the end oi g q is forced agaiiill the top of the hole,
and clofes it in order to prevent any air from returning into
the receiver. Thus tlie pillon, while moved downwards,
fufFers the air to pafs out Ijetween the fides oi fig. do. and fy.
6i, and when it is at the bottom of the hanel, will have the
column of the air above it ; and, confequently, when drawn
upward, it will fluit and drive out this air, and by opening
tlie hole L, give a free palTage to more air from tlie re-
ceiver. This procefs being continued, the air will be ex-
haulled out of the receiver as far as its expanfive power
will permit : for in this machine there are no valves, as in
tlie common air-pumps, to be forced open by the air in the
receiver, which, when its elalHcity is diminilhed, it becomes
unable to alfeft j nor is there any thing to prevent tlie air
from exp;uuling to the greatell degree.

In uflng this machine for exhaultion, no direftions are nc-
ceffary belides thofe which relate to common pumps, nor is
any peculiar care required to keep it in order, except that
t)ie oil-veffel, G, be always kept about half fidl vi' oil.
When it has ftood for a confiderable tiiiie without being
ufed, it will be proper to draw a table-fpoonful or two of
oil through it, oy pouring it into tlie hole in the middle of
the receiver plate, when the pillon is at the bottom of the
barrel ; then, by moving the winch backward and forward
to raife and deprefs the pillon, the oil will be drawn through
all the parts of the machine ; and the fiiperfluous part will
he forced out through the tube T, into the oil-ve(l'el G.
Near the top of the cylindrical wire H, is a fquare hole,
which is intended to let in fome of the oil from the vefTel G,
tliat the oiled leathers, through which the wire q q Aides,
may always be duly lupplied with it.

When the pump is required to condenfe, either at the
tjme when it exhaulls, or feparatcly, the piece which con-
tains the bent tube T, mull be taken away, and_/?f. 64. put
into its place, and fallened by the fame fcrcws. In the
plate, jig. 64, is drawn as it is made for a double-barrelled
pump ; but for a Imgle barrel, one piece is ufed, reprefented
by baa, the double piece being cut off at the dotted line a a.
In this piece is a female fcrevv, for receiving the end of a
long brafs tube ; to which a bladder, if fufficient for the
experiment, mull be tied ; or elfe a glafs, properly confined
for this purpofc, mufl be fcrewed to it. Then the air,
which is exhaufted out of a receiver Handing on the plate,
will be forced into tlie bladder or glafs connefted with
the brafs tube. But if the pump be double-barrelled,
the apparatus, as reprefented by Jig. 64, mull be ufed,
and the long brafs tube fcrewed into the female fcrew
at C.

The two gages are reprefented in Jig. 6^. and Jg. 66 ;
the one is the fyphon-ga;^e, and the other the barometer
or long gage. When thefe are ufed,^. 6^. mull be fcrewed
into the female fcrew, c h, or into that at the other end c.
Jig. 63. ; 7\\\AJig. 66 into tlie female fcrew n b, fig. 63.

If it be ufed as a fingle air-pump, either to exhauft or con-
denfe, the fcrew K, which fallens the rack to the cylindri-
cal wire H, muil be taken out ; then turning the winch till
this wire is deprefled as low as pofiible, the machine will be
rendered tit to exiiaull as a fingle air-pump ; and if it be
required to condenfe, the direffions already given with re-
gard to the bent tube T, and_y^. 68, mufl be obferved.

Mr. Cuthbertfon has, by a variety of experiments with
this air-pump, fliewn its great powers of exhauflion. With
the double fyphon gage, and alfo with the long gage, com-
pared with an attached barometer, in which the mercury
bad been repcaudly boiled,thc diflcrencc between the heights

A T R

of the merourial column proved to he no more than xsth of
an inch, the barometer Handing at 30 inches, which gives
an exhauflion of i 200 times. On fome occaiions, wlien the
air was in a ven,' dry Hate, he obferved the differenie to be
as low as -rV^t'^ "f •"> inch, which indicates more than dou-
ble the rarefadioii. See Delcription of an improved Air-
pump, by John Cuthbertfon, 8vo. London: for an ubIlraCt,
Nicholfon's Journal, vol. i. p. 128 — 130.

^\'e Ihall clofc our account of the two pumps of Prince
and Cuthbertfon with the following judicious remarks of
Mr. Nicholfon (in his Journal, vol. i. p. 131.) on tlitir re-
fpcftive merits and imperfections. " There is no provifion
to open the upper fixed valve of Prince's greater barrel, ex-
cept the difference between the preffurcs of the elalllc fluid
on each fide of the itrip of bladder ; and this may rcafon-
ably be inferred to limit the power of his fmall pump. In
Cuthbertfon's pump, the fame valve is expofed tb the action
of the atmofphere, together with that of a column of oil in
the oll-velfel. The mifchief in either inllrument is probably
trifling ; but in both, the valve might have been opened me-
chanically. If this were done, the fmall pump of Prince
might perhaps be unnecedary in moll Hates of the atmof-
phere. With regard to the lower valves, Cuthbertfon, bv
an admirable dilplay of talents as a workman, has iiilurcd
their aftion. Prince, on the other hand, has, by the pro-
cefs of reafoning, fo far improved the inllrument, that no
valves are wanted. In this relpeit, he has the advantage of
fiinplicity and cheapnefs, with equal cffecl. The mecha-
nical combination of Cuthbertfon's pump reduces the ope-
ration to one fimple aft of tlie handle : but Prince's engine
requires fome manipidation with regard to the play of the
fmall pump ; though this might have been remedied by a
more Ikilful difpofition of the tirll mover."

" The moll perfeft fcheme for an air-pump, taking
advantage of the labours of thefe judicious operators, feems
to be that in which two piilons of the conflrudion of Prince
(hould work in one barrel ; one pillon being fixed at the
lower end of the rod, and the other at the middle. The
lower pillon mull come clear out of the barrel when down,
and work air-tight through a diaphragm at an equal dillance
from the effective ends of the barrel. In the diaphragm
mufl be a metallic valve, of the form of Cuthbertfon's
lower-valve, but with a fhort tail beneath, that it may be
mechanically opened when the pillon comes up. Above the
diaphragm muil work the other piflon, fimilar to the firll ;
but as it cannot quit the barrel when down, a fmall portion
of the barrel mull be enlarged, jufl above the diaphracm,
fo that the leathers may be clear in that pofition. Laftly,
the top of the barrel mufl be clofed and fitted with a valve
and oil-veffel, according to the excellent contrivance of
Cuthbertfon."

" If we fuppofe the workmanfhip of fuch a pump to
leave the fjiace between the diaphragm and lower pillon,
when up, equal to one-thoufandth part of the tpace pafied
througli by the ftroke of that pifton, the rarefaftion produced
by this part of the engine will in theory bear the fame pro-
portion to that of the external air ; and the lame fuppolition
applied to the upper pillon, would iucreafe the effedl one
tliouland times more : whence the rarefaclion would be
one million times. Plow far the pradical effefl might fall
fhort of this from the imperfeftions of worknianlhip, or the
nature of the air, which in high rarefaftions, may not dif-
fufc itfelf equally through the containing fpacts, or from
other yet unobferved circumllances, cannot be deduced from
mere reafoning without experiment.'''

It Is obferved in the Encyclopa-dia Britannira, (vol. xv.
p. 107.) that a conftruftion of the air-pump, fimilar to that

t>f

A I R

af Mr. Cuthbertfon, was iiivental, and, in f;ift, esccuteJ,
before tlic end of 1779. by Dr. Daniel Rutherford, after-
wards profclTor of botany in the vinivcrfily of Edinburgh.
He made a drawing of a pump, having u conioal metal
valve in the byttom, fiuni(hcd with a long (lender wire,
fliding in the infidc of the pillon rod with a gentle fridlion,
fufficitnt for lifting the valve, and fecured againft all cl'ance
of failure by a fpring at the top, which took hold of a
notch in the infide of the pillon-rod, about a quarter of an
inch from the lower end, fo as certainly to lift the valve
during the lall quarter of an inch of the pillon's motion.
He had executed a valve on this principle ; but his thoughts
were diverted from the further profecution of the bufincfs.

In Phil. Tranf. (vol. Ixxiii. p. 43 J,) we have a defcrip-
tion by Mr. Cavallo, of an air-pump contrived and executed
by Melfrs. Haas and Hiutcr, inllrunient-niakers in London,
ill tlie conlli-uftion of vhich thefc artifts have revived
Guerieke's method of opening the barrel-valve during the
lall ftrokcs of the pump, by an external force ; of this piuup
Mr. Cavallo fays, that when it had been long ufed, it had,
in the courfe of fome experiments, rarefied 600 times.

Tlie drawing and defcriptiou of a new air-pump, afting
by means of a quantity of oil in the barrel, and invented by
James Sadler, Efq. have been publilhed by Mr. Nicholfon,
in his Journal, vol. i. p. 441, &c. He fays, that it poirefics
the deiinible rcquifites of fmiplicity, cheapnefs, and power ;
though at the fame time he very properly fuggefts, that the
oil, in procefs of time, may become changed by the circu-
lation, and lefs fit for the purpofe, and probably carry
with it bubbles of air. He does not mention its pradlical
effects.

A new air-puaip, fimilar in its principle to thofe of
Mr. Smeaton and Mr. Cutlibertfon, has lately been con-
ftniifted by the Rev. Mr. Little, of the county of Mayo in
Ireland. The princijial parts of this machine are one baiTcl
and pillon, one llop-cock, one valve, and two pipes of
communication. It is of a portable iize, and fo contrived
as to be confined in a very fmall fpace. The barrel is placed
horizontally, and the rack by wliich the pilton is moved
underneath the barrel, fo that the machine may be packed
in a box two feet long,. 18 inches wide, and feven in depth.
It is adapted to the purpofes of a condenfing as well as of
an exhauiling engine. As to the eflefts of this pump, the
author informs us, that in feveral trials of exhauflion, in
the months of July, Auguft, and September, 1795, the air
being generally very di-y, the rarefaClion produced, as (hewn
by the pear-gage, was, five times, between 3000 and 4000 :
the mercury in the barometer gage (landing at the fame times
always above -roTj^h part of an inch higher than it ilood in
a ftandard barometer of a wider bore, which was filled with
mercury made very hot and poured into a hot tube, and the
mercu;-y in the reduced barometer-gage funk below the level
of the furrounding mercury. In the other nine trials, the
rarefaflion, as (hewn by the pear-gage, was from 9000 to
26000 ; v.-hen the barometer-gage ftood at -;-= ^^ths of an
inch higher than thai in the (landard barometer, and fur.k
in the reduced barometer ftill lov.-er than before beneath the
ftagnant mercury'. For a particular defeription and draw-
ing of this inftrument, and a minute detail of its praclical
effecls ; fee Tranfaftions of the Royal Iii(h Academy,
vol. vi. p. 319 — 391.

The portable or tulle atr-pump diEFers principally in fize
and the Itrufture of the gage from the common air-pump
defcribtd at the beginning of this article. It has two brafs
barrels, which are firmly retained in a perpendicular fitua-
tion to the fquare wooden table on which they reft by a
tranfverfe beam, which is prelTed upon them by fcrews at

A I R

the top of two pillars. From the hole in the center of tlitf
pump-plate, there is a perforation or canal in a bnifs piec^",
to the fore part of the frame of the pump ; and from thi-;
canal there is a perforation right-angular to the former, paf-
fing to the center of the balls of each barrel. At each of
thefe centers a valve is placed opening upwards to admit tlie
air into the barrels. To each barrel a piftoii is fo fitted that
the air cannot pafs between it and tlie (ides oi the barrel..
Eacii pillon has a valve opening upwards, that the air in'
the lower part of the barrel may efcape through them Into .
the common air. They are alio coimefted with a rack,
and are railed tir depreffed by a haHclle, the lower part of
which is fixed to the axis of a cog-wheel, v,hofe teeth lay'
hold of the t-ack. One pillon is raifed and the other is de-
preffed, by the fame turn of the handle. The operation of
exhauiling is the fame as in the common pump. Two bar-
rels are advantageous, becaufe they perfonn the work more
fpcedily, and "alfo becaufe the weight of tl-.e atmofphere,
preffing upon the riling pillon, is counterbalanced by the
fame weight preffing upon the other pillon defcending.

Behind the large receiver upon the pump-plate, there is a
fmall plate for fuilaining a fmall receiver. From the hole at
the center of this plate there is a canal communicating with'
that which paflTes from the large receiver to the barrels.
Under the receiver is a fmall bottle containing mercury, a
fmall tube filled with mercury and freed from air, and in-
verted with the open end in the mercury ; this is called the
(hort barometer-gage. As the air is taken out of the re-
ceiver on this fmall plate, it is taken at the fame time from
the larger one ; and the defcent of the mercury in the tube
v.ill point out the degree of rarefaftion in the receiver.
The mercury, however, does not begin to defcend in this
tube till near three-fourths of the air have been exhaufted %
and the air is faid to be as many times rarer than the atmof-
phere, as the column of mercury fullaincd in this tube is lefs
than the height at which the mercury (lands, at that time,
in a common barometer. The fyphon-gage, which is fome-
times ufed, is a glafs tube, bent in the form of a fyphon,
hermetically fealed at one end and open at the other. The
longell leg Is four inches, each of which is divided on an
adjoining fcale, into 20 equal parts. After confiderable ex»-
hauftion the gage begins to aft ; and whilft the mercury
falls in one leg, it rifes in the other ; and the quantity of
air remaining will be determined by the difference of the
height, at which it (lands in both tubes. This gage is
placed in the fame fituation with the (hort barometer gage.
See Gage.

The fmall fingle-barrelled pump has two plates, one for
receivers, and the other for a (liort barometer-gage. Its
principle is the fame with that of the air-pump juft def-
cribcd ; excepting that it has only one barrel, and that its
pillon is merely worked by the hand. In general the fingle-
barrelled pump is made only with one rccciver-plate and a
mahogany bafis, to favc expences, and with its fmall appa-
ratus, to be packed in a portable mahogany cafe.

Air-pump, la-uos nf rarefa3'i(jn in the receiver of it.^
I. For the proportion of air remaining at any time in the
receiver, (fuppofing no vapour from moiihire, 5;c.) we have
the following geiicral theorem. — " In a velTel exhaufted by
the air-pump, the primitive or natural air contained therein,
is to the air remaining, as the aggregate of the capacity
of the veflel and of the pump, {t. e. the cylinder left vacant
in an elevation of the pillon, with the pipe and other parts
between t'he cyhnder and the receiver) raifed to a power
whofe exponent is equal to the number of ftrokes of the
pifton, to the capacity of the velTel alone raifed to the
fame power." M. 'Varignon gives ;m algebraical demon-

ftratioa

A I R

flration of tliis theorem, in the Memoires de I'Acad. Roy.
an. 1693, p. 233, feq. Id. an. 1705, p. 397, feq. ; hut it
may he alfo demonftrnted pneumatically, thus : — Calling the
air remuining after the fail llroke, u\e firjl njsdttal ; that
after the fccond, the ftcoiul rijnluiil, &c. and remembering
that the air in the receiver is of the fame dcnfity as that in
the cylinder, when the pillon is raifcd ; it is evident, that
tlie quantity of air in the receiver, is to the quantity of air
in the cylinder, pipe, &c. as the capacity of the receiver to
tl\at of the cylinder, and confequcntly, the aggregate of
the air in the receiver and the cylinder. I.e. the whole primi-
tive air, is to the air in the veiTel alone, ;'. e. to the firil
refiduul air, as the aggregate of the capacity of the receiver
and tlie cylinJ^r, to the capacity of the receiver alone.
After the fame manner it may be proved, that the quantity
of the fidl relidual air, is to the fecond rcfidual, as the
aggregate of the capacity of the receiver and cylir.der to
the capacity of the veffel alone. And the fame proportion
does the fecond rcfidual bear to the third, and fo of the
reil.

This may be ilhiflrated by an example. Siippofe the
capacity of the receiver to be twice as great as the capacity
of the cylinder or barrel, then will the capacity of tlrj
barrel he to that of the barrel and receiver together as one
to three ; and the quantity of air exhaufted at each turn of
the pump is to the quantity of air which was in the receiver
immediately before that turn, in the fame proportion. So that
by the tiril llroke of the pump, a third part of the air in the
receiver is taken away ; by the fecond llroke a tiiird part of
the remaining air is taken av.ay ; by the tliird ftmke a third
part of the next remainder is exhauiled ; and fu on con-
tinually ; the quantity of air evacuated at each ftroke de-
crcafing in the fame proportion with the quantity of air
remaining in the receiver immediately before that ilroke ;
for it is very evident that the third part, or any other de-
terminate part of any quantity muft be diminifhed in the
fame proportion with the whole quantity itfclf. And as the
quantity of air in the receiver is by each ftroke of the pump
diminiflied in the proportion of the capacity of the receiver
to the capacity of the barrel and receiver taken together ;
each remainder will therefore be always lefs than the pre-
ceding remainder in the fpme given ratio ; or, in other
words, thefe remainders will be in a geometrical progreflion
continually decreafing. To recur to the preceding example;
the quantity exhaufttd at the firft turn was a tlurd part of
the air in the receiver, and therefore the remaining air will
be tvvo-Uiirds of the fame ; and for the like reafon, the re-
mainder after the fecond turn will be two-thirds of the fore-
going remainder ; and fo on continually ; the deereafe being
always made, in the fam.e proportion of two to three ; con-
fequently the decreafing quantities themfelves are in a geo-
metrical progreflion. And as the quantities exhaufled at
every turn deereafe in the fame proportion with thefe re-
mainders ; therefore the quantities exiiaufled at every turn
are alfo in a geometrical progreflion. Thus it appears, that
the evacuations and the remainders do both deereaie in the
fame geometrical progreflion. If the remainders deereafe in
a geometrical progreflion, it is plain that, by continuing the
agitations of the pump, you may render them as fmall as
you pleafe ; that is, you may approach as near as you pleafe
to a perfeft vacuum ; but you can never entirely take away
the remainder.

From the above reafoning it appears, that the produft
of the primitive air into the firft, fecond, third, fourth, &c.
refiduals, is to the product of the firft refidual into the
fecond, third, fourth, fifth, &c. as the product of the ca-
pacity of the receiver and cylinder together, multiplied as

A I R

often into itfelf as the number of ftrokcs of the pifton con-
tains units, is to the faftum arifing from the capacity of the
receiver alone, multiplied fo often by iti'elf ; that i";, as the
power of llie aggregate of the capacity of the receiver and
cyli^ider together, whofe exponent is the number of ftrokcs
of the pifton, to the capacity of the vefl'el alone, niifed fo
the lame power. ConfeqU'-ntly, the primitive air is to the
lall refidual, in the ratio of thofe jiowers.

2. Tlie number of ftrokes of the pifton, together with
the capacity of the receiver and cylmder with the wire, &c.
being given ; to find the ratio of the primitive aifto the air
remaining.

Subtract the logarithm of the capacity of the receiver,
from that of the finn of the cipaclly of the receiver and
the cylinder ; tiien, the remainder being multiplied by the
number of ftrokes of the pifton, the produc't will be a loga-
rithm, wluifc natural number (liews how often the primitive
air contains the remainder required.

Thus, if tiie capacity of the receiver be 460, that of
the cyhnder 580, and the number of ftrokes of the pif-
ton 6 ; the primitive air will be found to the remaining air as
133,5 to I, or 1335 to 10.

For, fuppofe llie capacity of the vefTel = -v, that of the
cylinder and veffel together := a, the number of ftrokes
of the pifton = «, and the remaining air = i. Since the
primitive is to the remaining air as a" to v'', the primitive
air will alfo be to the remaining air, as a" ■—■ V to I. Con-
fequcntly, if the remaining air be I, the logarithm of the
primitive air is log. a — log. -v x n.

3. The capacity of the receiver and the barrel being
given ; to find the number of ftrokes of the pifton required
to rarefy the air to a given degree.

Subtract the logarithm of the remaining air from the
logarithm of the primitive air; and the logarithm of the capa-
city of the receiver, from that of the aggregate of the ca-
pacity of the receiver and cylinder ; then, dividing the for-
mer difference by the latter, the quotient is the number of
ftrokes required.

Let the primitive air be p, the remaining air r, and th.e
other quantities as before ; and we ftiail have ji : r : : a'' : ^'";
and the log. p — log. r =z n X log. a — log. i\ ; and n =
log. p. — log. r -r- log. n — log. ^'.

Thus, if the capacity of the cj-linder be fuppofed 5S0,
that of the receiver 460, and the primitive air to the re-
maining air, as 1335 to to: the .number of ftrokes required
will be found to be 6.

4. The proportion of the primitive air to the remaining
air, together with the capacity of the receiver and the num-
ber of ftrokes of the pifton, being given ; to find the capa-
city of the barrel.

Let the firft-mentioned proportion be that of ^ to r ; the
capacity of the receiver, %<, that of the barrel, .v, and the num-
ber of ftrokes of the pifton, n ; then p : r : : v-\-x\" : -0" ;
and log. p — log. r z= n x log. ij -j- .v — n X log. v : con-

fequently, log. •y + - ■* ' -^ = log. t' -)- .v. Hence,

n

find the logarithm of the capacity of the receiver and bar-
rel, and from this the capacity itfelf, and fubtrafting
that of the receiver, the capacity of the barrel will be known.
For^ : /• : : 1335 : 10, t':=46o, andn=;6: confequcntly,

/3. 1 25:6530 — i.cooocoo \

log. -v + x = 2.6627578 + (■' ^ "— ^ =)

.3542755=3.0170333, the log. of 7040. Confequcnth-,

.V = 1040— 460 = 5S0. See Wolf. Elem. Math. tom. ii.

p. 2S9, Sec. Cotes's Ilyd. and Pneum. Leiflurcs, Iccl. T3.

7 To

A I R

A I R

To the air-pump belongs a large apparatus of other vefTcls,
accommodatal to various kinds of experiments.

Befidcs the efiecls, and the phenomena of the air-pump,
recounted under the articles Vacuum, Air, &c. we may
add fon-.e others ; whicli, related at large, make the fub-
ft.mcc of Mr. Boyle's Phyfieo-Mech. Exper. — As, that the
flame of a candle in viiruo ulually goes out in a minute,
though it fomctlmes lails two, but the uiek thereof con-
tinues ignited after ; and even emits a fmoke, which alcends
upwards. — That a kindlid charcoal is totally extinguilhed
in about five mimites, though in open air it remain ahve
half an hour ; that it goes out by degrees, beginning from
the top and the outfides. — That red-hot iron is not affected
by the abfe;icc of the air; and yet that fulphnr or gun-
powder will not be hghted thereby, but only fufcd. — That a
match, after lying fcemingly extinct in viinio a long time,
revives again upor the re-admiffion of the air. — That a flint
and fteel ftrike fparks of lire as copioufly in vacuo as out of
it ; and that the fparks move in all direClions, upwards,
downwaids, &c. here as in the air. — That magnets and
magnetic needles, are the fame iti -vacuo as in air. — That
fmoke in an exhaufted receiver, the luminary being extindl,
j^radually fettles to the bottom in a darkifli body, leaving
the upper part clear and tranfparent ; and that inclining the
Ncffel lometimes on one fide, and fometimes another, the
fume keeps its furface horizontal, after the nature of other
fluids — That the fyphon does not run in •vacuo. — That water
freezes in -vacuo. — That heat may be produced by attrition
in the exhauiled receiver. — That camphor will not take fire
in -vacuo ; and that gun-powder, though fome grains of a
heap be kindled by a burning-glafs in vacuo, will not give
fire to the contiguous grains. — That glow-worms lofe their
hght in proportion as the air is exhaufted, and at length
tecomc totally cbfcure ; but upon the re-admiflion of air,
prcfently recover it all. — That eledricity appears like the
Aurora borealis. — That vipers aud frogs fwell much in
vacuo, but will live an hour and half, or two hours ; and
though feemingly quite dead in that time, come to life again
after being fome hours in the air. — That fnails furvive ten
hours ; and efts or flow-worms, two or three days ; leeches
five or fix — That fifiies will rife up to the top of water,
placed under an exhaufted receiver, beeaufe the air-bladder is
expanded, and they are thus made fpecifically fighter than
water ; but if the bladder breaks, they fink down to the
bottom and rife no more. — That animals who five in water
viU not die by exhaiifting the air out of the receiver, unlefs
they are kept for a confiderable time in vacuo. — That
oyfters will remain alive in vacuo 24 hours without harm —
That the hea.t of an eel taken out of the body, continues
%o beat in vacuo, more nimbly than in air ; and this for a

good part of an hour That warm blood, milk, gall, &c.

undergo a confiderable intumefcence and ebulhtion in vacuo.
— That a moufe, or other animal, may be brought, by de-
grees, to furvive longer in rarefied air, than naturally it
does. — That air may retain its ufual prefTure, after it is be-
come unfit for refpiration. — And that filk-worms' eggs will
hatch in vacuo.

Befides the above-mentioned phenomena, many others are
recited by different writers on this fubjeft, and they may be
found in the Philofophical Tranfaftion of various Academies
and Societies, and in the works of Torricelli, Pafcal, Mer-
fenne, Guericke, Schottus, Boyle, Hooke, Haukfbee,
Duhamel, Mariotte, Hales, Mulchenbroek, Gravefande,
Defaguhers, Franklin, Cotes, HeKham, Martin, Fergufon,
Adams, &c. &c. We fhall fubjoin for the exercife and
amufement of our readers fome farther experiments, arranged
under diflinft heads. For experiments that require peculiar

accuracy, the receiver fhould not be placed upon leather*
either oiled or foaked in water ; but the plate of the pump
fliould be made very dry, and the infide of the receiver
fiinuld be dried and rubbed with a wami cloth. The re-
ceiver may then be let upon the plate, and hog's lard, cither
alone or mixed with oil, be froeared round its outward edge.
After performing any experiments, the pump (hould be
cleared of any vapour tliat has been geiieialcd, by exhauft-
ing a large receiver to ad great a degree as pofiible ; and the
vapour that remained in the banel and pipes will be diffufed
through the receiver ; and if this be large, one exhauftioii
will be iuflicient for clearing the pump. With fmall re-
ceivers the operr.lion fliould be repeated two or three times.
In fome of the beft pumps, the plate and edges of the re-
ceiver aie grc','nd lo accurately as not to require any
leathers ; but as the plate is liable to befcratched by fetting
the receivers upon it, hog's lard or tallow ipread ujKm their
edges will be ufeful. This will prevent the edges from da-
maging the plate, and will not admit any vapour. When
leathers are ufed for connefting the receiver with a pump
plate and for making the junftion air-tight, they are prc-
vioufly foaked in water, oil, or a mixture of melted bees*
wax and hog's lard. Vi^hen experiments are performed that
require the ufe of mercury, a fmall pipe fhould be fcrewcd
into the hole of the pump plate, in oiiler to prevent any of
it, that may be accident dly fpilt, from pafTing into the air-
pipe and barrels ; which would loofen the folder and conode
the brafs.

I. Experiments for fhewing the weight and prefTure of
the air.

1. Exhauft of its air acopper ball.fuch as C (P/a/c- V. Pneu-
matics, Jig. 26.) the neck of which is furnilhcd with a ftop-cock
and a fciew by means of which it may be fixed to the plate of
an air-pump ; fufpend it, when exhauiled, on the end B of
one arm of a bHlarice, A B, and lay upon it the fmall weight
p, which muft be counterpoifed by a weight P in the op-
pofite fcale of the balance. Turn the cock of the ball, and
the air will rufh in and render it fo much heavier, that the
weight p muft be removed in order to reftore the equilibrium.
If the ball holds a gallon, it will thus be found that a gallon
of air weighs about the fixth part of an ounce. See
Weight of the Air.

2. Place the fmall receiver O {Jig. 35'.) over the hole of
the pump plate, and upon ex'iauiiing the air, the receiver
will be fixed down to the plate by the prefTure on its outfide ;
and this prefTure will be equal to as many times 15 pounds
as there are fquare inches in that part of the plate, which
the receiver covers. By turning the cock of the pump and
readmitting the air, the receiver will become loofe. In
order to prove tbat the receiver O is held down by the
prefTure of the air, fufpend it on the hook of the wire P P
pafTing through the collar of leathers at the top of the re-
ceiver M, by which it is covered, and thus let it down on
the plate of the pump ; and when the air is exhaufted from
both receivers, the large receiver M will be fixed to the plate
by the prefTure of the external air ; but the fmall one O
will be loofe and may be eafily removed ; on letting in the
air, the lefTer O will be fixed down upon the plate and the
other will be rcleafed.

3. Place a fmall brafs or glafs vefTel A B (Jig. 27.) which
is open at both ends over the hole of the pump plate, and
cover the top of it with the hand ; which, when the air is
exhaufted, will be prcfTed down by the weight of the ex-
ternal air, fo that it cannot be releafed without difficulty till
the air is readmitted.

4. Tie a piece of wet bladder, as b (f.g, 28.) over the
open top of the glals A ; when it is dry, fei the open end

A 1 R

A I R

A over ihii hole of die pump plate, and as you exhauft'the
air, tlie bladder will be prcfled down and aiTiime within ih.;
glafs a concave figure, and at length it will break with aloud
report. If a piece of flat glafs be laid upon the top of this
receiver, and joined to it by a rim of wet leather, the pvcfl'ure
of the outward air will break the glafs, when the internal
air is cxhaufttd.

5. Immerle the nee!; c ^ of the hollow glafs b<all e h {fg.
29.) in the water of liie phial a a ; place it on the plate of
the pump, and cover it and the hole of the plate with the
receiver A ; exiiauil this receiver, and the air will cfcape by
its fpring from the ball c li, through the neck d c, rife in

. bubbles llirough the water, and pafs off into the external
all-. When it has done bubbling, turn the cock of the
pump, and the air that is admitted will by its preffure on
the iurface of the water foice it up in a jet into the ball <■ I,
and ahnoll fill it ; the ini^ll quantity of remaining air, which
occupied the Vvholeijall, and which is now reduced to a fmall
fpace of condeniation, preventing the water from filling the
whole cavity of the bail. This experiment may be varied
by fcrewing the end A of the brafs pipe A B F {Jig. 30.)
into the hole of the pump plate, and placing, bv means of
wet leather, upon the plate c ii d tall receiver G H clofe
at the top, exhauiling the receiver of its air and flopping
the pipe by the cock e ; when this is done remove the ap-
paratus from the pump, fet its end A in a bafon of water,
and open the pipe by turning the cock e ; and the pref-
fure of the air on the water will force it up through the pipe,
fo that it will afcend in a jet to the top of the receiver.
See FouxTAiv.

6. Set the jar D (fy. 31.) containing quickfilver, near
the hole of the pump plate, and cover botli with the tall
open receiver A B. Into the plate C, placed upon the upper
end of this receiver, introduce the open glafs tube g /', im-
merfed at its lower extremity in the quickfilver of the jar D,
and fcrev.-edby a brafs top annexed to it at h to the fyringe
H, which is itfelf ferewed to the plate C. By the ring I
draw up the pifton of the fyringe, and thus exhaull the tube
of its air ; and the quickfilver in the bafon prcfTed by the
undilated air of the receiver A B will afcend in the tube.
That this afcent is owing to the preffure o^ the air, and not
to what fome have called fuftion, may b-. evinced by ex-
haufting the receiver of its air, which will caufe the quick-
filver to defcend into the jar, and by readmitting the air,
which will raife it again in the tube, although the piitou of
the fyringe be not moved. If the tube be about 32 or 33
inches high, the quickfilver will rife nearly as high in the
tube as it ftands at that time in the barometer. If the
fyringe has a fmall hole at m, and the pifton be drawn up
above that hole, the air will pal's through it into the fyringe
and tube, and the quickfilver will immediately fall down
into the jar.

7. Place the jar A (y?f. 32.) with quickfilver in it on the
pump plate, cover it with the receiver B, and pulh the open
end of the glafs tube Jf through the collar of leathers in
the brafs neck C, almofl down to the quickfilver in the jar.
Exhauft the receiver B of its air, and the tube d e, which is
clofe at thetop_/', will at the fame time be exhauftcd. When
the receiver has been well exhauftcd, pufti the open end of
the tube ivto the quickfilver of the jar ; and though the
lube be exhauftcd of its air, the quickfilver will not rife in
it, becaiife there is no preffure on the furfaee of that in the
jar. But upon admitting the air into the receiver, the
quickfilver will immediately rife and (land as high as it did
In confequencc of the aCiJon of the fyringe in the preceding
cxperimcHt,

Vot. I.

Thcfc two laft experiments not only exhibit the Weight
and prefFure of the air, but they alfo Ihew that thefe are iii-
c.'cafed or diminilhed in proportion to the increafeor decreafe
of the air's depth. See Baromlter and ToRRictLLiAN
F.xpcnminl.

S. Join the two brafs hemifphercs A and B together {fy.
36.) by the interpolition of a wel leather, v.lth a hole in tlic
middle of it ; then fcrew the end D into tlie plate ol the
pump, and turn tlie cock E of the pipe, C D, conununicating
with the hemifpheres ; and having exhaulled the air, turn
the cock fo as to Hop the pipe. Having removed it from
the pump, fcrew at the end D, the piece V h ; and two
ilrong men pulling at the handles g and h will lind it dilficull
to feparate the hemifpheres ; for if the diameter be four
inches, they will cohere together with a force ccjual to iSS
pounds, the area being equal to the fquare of the diamtler
multiplied by ,7854, and the predure on every fquare inch
being 15 pounds; ;. c. i6 x, 7SJ4 x 15 = l!)8,4i;(»
pounds. If they be fufpendcd by either of the rings
on the hook P of the receiver M {Jig. 3C.), and the re-
ceiver be exhaulled of its air, they will fepai-ate of Uiem«
felves.

9. iSet the fquare phial A {Jig. 37.) upon the pump plate,
and cover it with the wire cage B ; then placing it under a
clofe receiver, exhauft the receiver and the phial which has a
fmall hole under a valve at L of their air ; and the air upon its
readmiffion into the receiver, being prevented from palfing
into the phi;J by the valve- b, will break it into a number of
pieces by its prefiure. Q^iiekfilver may be alfo forced into
wood, and made to pafa through it by the prefiure of the
air.

II. Experiments for fliewing the elafticity or fpring of
the air.

I. Place a bladder, containing a fmall quantity of air and
well tied up, under a receiver ; and when the receiver is ex-
hauftcd, the air will expand and fill the bladder fo that it
Villi appear as if it were blown with common air. Upon
letting in the air, the bladder prefied by it will be re-
duced to its original flaccid ftate. This bladder put into a
box under a weight of 20 or 30 pounds, and covered with a
receiver, will, upon the exhauftion of the receiver, raife the
weight by means of the fpring of the internal air.

3. Take the glafs ball {Jig. 29.) which was filled with
water, a fmall bubble of air at the top of it excepted, and
having placed it with its neck downward into the empty jar
a a, and covered it with a clofe receiver, exhauft the receiver
of its air, and the air-bubble will expand itfelf, and by its
elaflic force protrude the water out of the ball into the jar.
Or, fcrew the pipe A B {Jig. 30.) into the pump plate, and
place the tall receiver G H upon the plate c <!; exhaufl the
receiver, and then remove the apparatus and fcrew it into the
copper veffcl C C {Jig. 38.) half filled with water. Then
turning the the cock e {fig. 30.) and the air confined in this
vefl'el will by its fpring force the water through the pipe A
B, and caufe it to form a jet into the exhauftcd receiver,
equal to that which was produced by the preffure of the
air In a former experiment ; other circumtlances being
alike.

3. Let the balls annexed to the heads of the hollow glafs
images {fig. 39.) contain watc- fufftcient to render them fpe-
cifieallv heavier than water. Place them under a receiver
and exhauft it ; and the air in the bulls will dilate, force part
of the water out, and relider the images lighter than water,
fo that they will afcend. On re-admitting the air, they will
defcend. Sm;ill apertures made in the feet of thefe images
will vary the experiment, and anfwer the fame pui-pofe.

3 Q, 3. Animak

A I R

3. Animals that die in an exhaiiftcd receiver are evidently
opprcffcd at firll as with a great weij^ht, t!ien coiiviilfeil, and
at lalt expire in apparent agony. Inllead of rtptiiting ex-
periments nf this kind, the effctt of exliaiillion is afcertained
by what is iilually, though improperly, called the hiiigs-
glafs. This cuniilis of u bladder tied round a iiiiall tube
which palTes into a bottle, and fealed fo tight, that the air
cannot efcape any way but through the tube. AVhtn this
machine is put under a receiver and the air begins to be ex-
hauUed, the fpring of that, which is contained in the bottle,
and wliieh cannot efcape, comprtlTes the bladder ; and when
air is again let in, the bladder expands ; and thefe alternate
motions of compreflion and dilatation have been fuppofed
analogous to thofe of the lungs. See fg. 40.

4. i'our qnicklilver into the bottle A (^.41.) and fcrew
the brafs collar c, of the tube B C, into th-, hrais neck h of
the bottle, and let the lower end of the tube be immerfed
into the quickfdver, fo that the air above the quickiilver
may be coiilincd there. Covtr this tube, which is open at
the top, with the receiver G and large tube E F, fixed by
brafs collars to the receiver and clofe at the top. Esliauil
the receiver and its tube ; and the air will be thus exhauiled
out of the inner tube B C through its open top C ; and
then the air confined in the bottle A will, by its fpring, force
the quickiilver in the inner lube as it was raifed in a former
experiment by the prelTure of the atmofphere ; and thus it
appears that the elafticity of the air is equivalent to its
weiglit.

5. Screw the end C of the pipe C D (/^. 42.) into the
hole of the pump plate, and open the communication be-
tween the three pipes E, F, and D C, and the hollow trunk
A B, by turnuig the three cocks d, G and H. Cover the
plates g and h with wet leathers, having holes in their middle,
fo as to communicate with the pipes ; place the clofe receiver
T upon the plate g ; (hut the pipe F, by turning the cock
H ; and exhauft the air out of the receiver I. Shut out
the air by turning the cock d ; remove the machine from the
pump ; fcrew it to the wooden fland L ; and put the re-
ceiver K upon the plate h, on which it will be loofc whilft
it is full of air; but upon turning the cock H, and opening
the communication between the pipes Fand E, through the
trunk A B, the air in K will, by its fpring, pafs from K to I,
till it becomes of equal denfity in both receivers ; and then
they will be held down with equal force upon tb.eir refpeftive
plates by the prefTure of the atmofphere, and the force with
which K was held down will be divided between K' and I.
Thus it appears, that a force equal to half the elaftic force
of common air will aft within the receivers againft the whole
preflure of the common air on their outfides. This inftru-
ment is called a double transferrer, and it ferves to transfer
the air from one veflel into another.

6. Fallen a cork in the fquare phial A {fg. 37.) v/ith wax
or cement ; put it upon the pump plate, cover it with the
wire cage B, and place a clofe receiver over the cage. Upon
exhaufting the receiver of its air, that which was enclofed
within the phial will dilate itfelf, and having no counter
prefTure on the outfide, will break the phial outwards by the
force of its fpring.

7. Place a fhriveUed apple under a receiver, and as it is
exhaufted, the fpring of the air within the apple will plump
it out and caufe the wrinkles to difappcar ; but upon read-
mitting the air, it will return to its (hrivelled ftate.

8. Put a frefh egg, from the fmall end of which a little
of the fhell and film is removed, under the receiver ; and
when the air is pumped out, the fmall bubble of air con-
tained between the fhell and film at the larger end, will dilate

A I R

itfelf, and protrude the contents of the egg into the receiver.
If llie egg be placed in a jar of water imder the receiver, its
furface will be covered with bubbles of air in the progrefs of
cxhaulliiMi.

9. Warm beer ]nit under a receiver, cxhaufled of its air,
will dlfiharge bubbles, which will rifi- to the fuifaee, and
at lengtii give it the appearance of boiling.

10. A piece of dry wainfeot or other wood, being put
into v. arm water and covered with a receiver, will diiehargc
air, as the receiver is exhaufted, and exhibit bubljies of air,
efpecially about its eufU, becaule the pores lie leng;hwife.
A cubic inch of diy wainfeot has lo much air in it, that it
will continue bubbling for half an hour together.

If a piece of wood be made to pals through a plate co-
vering the top of a receiver, witli one part expofed to the
air and the other immerfed in a jar of water under the re-
ceiver, and the thumt be put on the top of Hie wood whilft
the pump is working, the air contained in the pores of the
wood will rufli in bubbles through the water; but if the
thumb be taken off, a llream of air will flow in through the
wood ; and thus by alternately taking off the thumb and
placing it on the wood, the influx, of the air will be alter-
nately admitted and interrupted. See AiR ar,d Elasticity
of the Air.

III. Experiments for fliewing the refiflance of tlie air.

I. The machine {jig. 43.) confills of two mills, a and I,
of equal weight, and moving independently and freely on
their axes. Each mill has four thin vanes or fails, fixed in
the axis ; thofe of the mill a having their planes perpen-
dicular to the axis, and thofe of the mill I having their
planes parallel to it. When the mill a turns round in com-
mon air, it will fuffer little refiflance, becaufe its fails cut
the air with their thin edges ; but the mill h is much refilled,
becaufe the broad fides of its fails move againfl the air, when
it turns round. Each axle has a pin near the middle of the
frame, which pafles through the axle and projefts a httle on
each fide of it ; upon thefe pins the Aider t-/may be made to
bear, and thus hinder the mills from going, when the flronw
fpring c is fet on bend againft the oppofite ends of the
pins. Having fet the machine upon the pump plate, draw
up the flidcr dxo the pins on one fide, and fet the fpring t
at bend upon the oppofite ends of the pins ; then pufh down
the fiider ;/, and the fpring afting with equal itrength or*
each mill will fet them at work with equal forces and velo-
cities ; but the mill a will run much longer than b, becaufe
it meets with much lefs rcfiilance. Draw up the fiider a-^ain,
and fet the fpring upon the pins as before ; then cover the
machine with 'the receiver M [Jig. 35.') upon the pump plate ;
and having exhaufted it, pufh down the wire P P, through
the collar of leathers in the neck q, upon the fiider, which
difengaging it frcm the pins will allow the mills to turn
round by the impulfe of the fpring ; and as there is no air
in the receiver that yields any fenfible refiftance, they will
m.ove for a longer time than in the open a-'r, and when one
ftops, the other will ftop alfo. Hence it appears, that the
air refifts moving bodies, and that equal bodies meet with
different degrees of refiftance, according as they prefent
greater or lefs furfaces to the air, in the planes of their
motions.

2. Put the guinea a and feather h (Jig. 44.) upon the braf&
flap c ; turn up the flap, and fliut it into the notch d. Then
putting a wet leather over the top of the tall receiver A B,
which is open at both ends, cover it with the plate C, fa
that the tongs e d may hang within the receiver. Then
having exhaufted the receiver, draw up the wirey, and the
tongs c d will be opened by a piece at. its end, and the flap

e fallirir

A I R

A I R

c faHIng ilown, llic guinea and featlscr will hz obfci-vcd to
dffccnd with equal velocities, and by looking llcadily to the
bottom of the receiver, to fall to the pump plate at the fame
inftant. When air is in the ivceivcr, the guinea will fall in
an iiidant, and the feather will defcend gently and by an in-
direft motion. This apparatus is fonictimes fo conllruftcd
as to let three guineas with thr-r feathers fall A parately at
three different times, without taking it off or txhaulliug the
air afrefli. See Resistance of lie y/ii\
IV. Mifcellaneous Experiments.

1. Screw the fyringe H (Jig. 31.) to a piece of lead,
weighing at leall one pound ; pull up t'le pillon, which will
eaufe a vacuum in the lynnpe,aiid the air by its prcTure will
drive back the lead upon it ; raifing it and eouiu. rafting its
natural weight. But if the fyringe and annexed weight be
placed in an exhaufted receiver, they will fall upon the pifton
by their natural gravity, and upon readmitting the air, they
will be drove upward again, fo that the pilion will be at
the bottom of tlie lyringe.

2. To a balance A li, Plate vii. Pin-timnl'ics, fg.$.:^- fufpend a
weight of lead, and let it be in equilibrio witli a piece of cork.
Place this apparatus under a receiver and exhauit the air, and
tlie cork will preponderate; but let the air be admitted, and
the equilibrium will he rellored. As the air is a fluid, all
bodies lofe as much of their weight in it as is equal to the
weight of an equal balk of the fluid ; and as the cork is
largert, it lofes more of its abfolute weight than the lead,
and of eourfe mull be heavier in order to compenfate tins
greater lofs ; but when the air is removed, all bodies gra-
vitate according to their quantities of matter, and therelore
the cork, which balanced the lead in air, will appear to be
heavier in vacuo. A more elegant apparatus for this expe-
riment, confilliag of a light glafs ball A, and a brafs weight
B, is exhibited u\Jig. 55.

3. Set a clean receiver upon the plate of a pump, and
when you begin to exhaull it, hold a candle to the fide of
the receiver oppofite to your eye, and icveral colours, re-
fenibllng a halo, will appear about the candle, which are oc-
cafioned by the vapours that arife from the wet leathers and
their refradion of the light.

4. Place a lighted candle under a tall receiver, and if it
holds about a gallon, the candle will continue to burn about
a minute ; and its light will gradually decay and at length
be extinguillied. The fnioke of the candle will afcend and
form a kind of cloud at the top of the receiver ; but upon
exhaulling it, the fmoke will fall down to the bottom ; thus
fliewing, that fmoke does not afcend becaufe it is pofitively
light, but becaufe it is lighter than air.

5. Let the pipe reprefented in Plc!te\-m.Piteumatics,fg.6^,
be annexed to the top of an open receiver, and the air be ex-
haufted ; then place one end of the pipe in the middle of a
charcoal lire, and open the cock ; and the noxious air of the
charcoal will pafs tlirough the pipe into the receiver ; remove
the pipe from it, and let down a fniall lighted wax taper into
the receiver, and it will be immediately extinguidied. A moufe
or bird let down into the receive;' will be killed by the air
which It contains. If a candle be let down gently, it will
purify the air as it defcends.

6. By connecting the wire that palTes through the collar
of leathers of a receiver with the trigger of a piilol lock,
placed under it, exhaulling the air, and then drawing the
trigger, the flint vyill ftrike the fteel and produce fparks of
fire, which will not be vifible as in the open air. Or, if
two iron bullets be made red-hot, and one of them be under
an exhaarted receiver, it will not appear luminous, like the
«tlier wliieh remains in tlie open air.

7. Set a bell upon acufliion under a receiver on the pump
plate ; and fliake the pump fo as to make the clapper
ilrike againfl the bell, and the found will be di(lin6\ly
heard ; but exhaull the receiver, and if the clapper be
made to ftrike with great foivc againll the bell, it will make
no audible found ; hence it is inferred, that air is neccflaiy
for the propagation of found.

AiR-sHAFTs, among Miners, denote holes or (hafts let
down from the open air to meet the adits, and furnifli frefli
air. The damps, want, and impurity of air, which occu"-,
when adits are wrought 30 or 40 fathoms long, make it
neeeirai-y to let down alr-fliafts, in order to give the air
hberty to play through the whole work, and thus difchargc
bad vapours, and furmfli good air for refpiration : the ex-
pence of which (hafts, in regard of their vail depths, hard-
nefs of the rock, drawing of water, &c. fometimes equals,
nay exceeds, the ordinaiy charge of the whole adit.

Sir Robert Murray defcribes a method, ufed in the coal-
mines at Liege, of working mines without air-fliafts. Phil.
Tranf. N"^ 5.

When tlie miners at Mendip have funk a groove, they
will not be at the charge of an air-fliaft, till they come at
ore ; and for the fupply of air have boxes of elm exaftly
clofed, of about fix inches in the clear, by which they
carry it down about twenty fathoms. They cut a trench
at a little dillance from the top of the groove, covering it
with turf and rods difpofed to receive the pipe, which they
contrive to come in lide-ways to their groove, four feet from
the top ; which carries down the air to a great depth.
When tliey come at ore, and need an air-fhaft, they link it
four or five fathoms diftant, according to the convenience
of the breadth, and of the fame fafliion with the groove,
to draw as well ore as air. Phil. Tranf. N° yj. See
Mining.

Air-threads of fpiJers. See Threads.
AiR-TRUN'K, a fiinple contrivance by Dr. Hales, for
preventing the ftagnation of putrid effluvia, and purifying
the air in jails and clofe rooms ; which eonfifts of a fquarc
trunk open at both ends, one of which is lixcd in the cieling
and the other is extended to a conliderable height above
tlie roof. The noxious effluvia, afcending to the top of the
room, efcape by this trunk. Some of thefe have been nine
and others fix inches in the clear ; but whatever be their
diameter, their length fliould be proportionable, in order to
promote the afcent of the vapour. As the prefTurc of
fluids, and confequcntly of the air, correfponds to their
perpendicular altitude, the longer thefe trunks are, fo much
the greater will be the difference between columns of air
prefting at the bottom and at the top ; and of eourfe fa
much the greater will be their eft'eft. See Ventilator. •
Air-vessel, \n HyJiaulics, is a name given to thofe me*
talline cylindei-s, which are placed between the two forcing-
pumps in the improved riRE-fw^/n.-j-. The water is injefted
by the aftionof th'^ piftons through two pipes, with valves,
into this vclfel ; the air prevloufly contained in it will be
compreflcd by the water, in proportion to the quantity aid-
mitted, and by its fpring force the water into a pipe, which
will difcharge a conllant and equal ftream ; whereas in the
common fquirting engine, the ftream is difctrntinued between
the feveral ftrokts. Other water-engines are furnifhed witU
veflels of this kind.

AiR-vrffi-fs, in Botany, are certain canals, or dufts, where-
by a kind of abforption and refpiration is effefted in vege-
table bodies.

Air-vefl'els havt been dl(lingui(licd from sA?-veff?ls ; the
fonnev being fuppoled to correfpond to the trachea, and

3 Q_2 lungs

A I R

A I R

liir^rs of animals ; the latter to tlicir larteals and l)lo<i<.i-
vcfli-h.

Dr. Grew, in an enquiry into the mot!i)ii and e'aule of
the air in vegetable:;, lhe«s, that it enters them various
ways, not only by the trunk, leaves, and other parts above
groiuid, but at the root. For the reception, as well as
txpult'ion of air, the pores arc fo very larjje in the trunks of
fume j;lants, as in the better fort of thick walking canes,
that they are vifible to a good eye witliuut a glals ; but
with a glafs, the cane feems as if it were ihick full of large
pin-holes refenibling the pores of the ll<in in the ends ot the
tingers, and ball of the hand. In the leaves of the pine,
through a gl^fs, they make an elegant Aiow, Handing
ahnoll exaftly in rank and file throughout the length of the
leaves.

But though the air enters in partly at the trunk and alfoat
other parts, efpecially in foinc plants, yet its chief admidion is
at the root : much as in animals, lomc part of the air may
continually pafs into the body and blood by the pores of the
(kin ; but the chief draught is at the mouth. If the chief
entrance of the air were at the trunk, before it could be
mixed with the fap in the root, it mull defcend ; and fo
move not only contrary to its own nature, but in a contrary
courfe to the fap : whereas by its reception at the root, and
its tranlition from thence, it has a more natural and eafy
motion of afccnt. See Circulation of /aj>.

The fame fact is farther deduced, from the linenefs andfmall-
nefs of the diametral apertures in the trunk, in comparlfon
of thofe in the ro<it ; which nature has plainly defigne'd for
the feparation of the air from the fap, after they. are both
together received into them. Grew, Anat. of Root, c'lap.
iii. p. 127.

Air-veffels are found in the leaves of all plants, and are
even difcoverable in many without the help of gkifl'es ; for
upon breaking the ftalk or chief iibres of a leaf, the llke-
nei's el a fine \\ holly fubftance, or rather of curious fmall
cob-wcbs, may be feen to hang at both the broken ends.
This is taken notice of only in fome few plants, as In
f,:abious, where it is more viiible : but may alfo be feen
more or lefs in moft others, if the leaves be veiy tenderly
broken. This wool is really a flvcin of air-veffels, or ra-
ther of the fibres of the air-veffels, loofed from their fpiral
pofition, and fo drawn out in length. Id. ibid. chap. iv.

That air is infpired by vegetables, has been fully proved
by Dr. Hales, in his Statical Effays, (vol. i. p. 155, &c.)
and he has in many inllanccs fhewn, that air freely enters
the veffels of trees, and that it is in great abundance wrought
into their fubllance. But as to particular air-veffels in
plants, he feems to fpeak doubtfully. He fays, by way of
queftlon, may not the ufe of thofe fpiral v^-reaths, that are
coiled round the infides of thofe veffels, which are fuppofed
to be air-veffels, and which are manifellly to be feen in feve-
ra! trees, and alfo in the leaves of the vine and fcablous,
may not thefc be defigned by nature to promote the quicker
afcent of air, by being in fome meafure conformed to its
elaftic contortions ? For fuch fpiral wreaths feem to be alto-
gether ufelefi;, for promoting the afcent of any liquor, as
the fap, which afcends raoll freely through innumerable
other capillary veffels, having no fuch fpiral coik in them :
not that we are to fuppofe the air in its elallic ilate actually
to touch, and thereby to be determined In the courfe of
thefe fpirals, as any liquor would be. But as the rays of
light, when they are reflefted from a folld body, are found
to be reflected, without . actually touching the reflecling
body in the point of rcfleftion ; fo it is not unreafonable to

fnppofe, that elaftic air niay, like light, be diverted from
one courfe, and fo be determined to another, by the folid
bodies it approaches, without touching them, but rebound-
ing like light from thofe folid bodies near the point of
contaft.

Dr. Hales has obferved, that thefe fpirals are coiled in a
courfe oppolite to the courfe of the fun, thiit Is, from well
to eall. Vide Static. Eff. vol. 11. p. 265, 266.

Dr. Darv.ln, in his Phytologia, obferves, that the veffels
wlilch Malpighi, Grew, and many others, have denomi-
nated bronchia, and erroneoufly thought to be air-veffels,
and to ferve the pnrpofe of refplratoiy organs, are abfor-
bent veffels, dcftined to imbibe the luitriment of plants, and
that they arc the genuine lungs of vegetables. Thefe
abforbcnt veffels, he fays, which refemblc the lafteals of
animal bodies, are found in the roots of plants for imbibing
nourldiment from the moHl earth, on the external furfaces of
the bark and leaves, for abforbing the humidity of the at-
mofphere, and alfo in the internal lurfaces of the cells and
cavities of tlie vegetable fyllem, where they abforb the fe-
creted fluids, after they have perfonned the offices to which
thev are adapted. The exillence of the hrft fort of abfor-
bents, is evmced by the growth of plants, whlllt moilhire
is apphed to their roots, and by tlurlr withering when it is
withdrawn. Thofe of the fccond fort are manifefted by
plucking off a leaf and laying it in water, which is found
not to wither fo foon as if it were left expofed to the dry
air. The third clafs of veffels of this kind will be perceivtid
to perform its office by molftenlng the alburnum or fap-wood,
and the inner furface of the bark of a branch fevered from
a tree, which are thus preferved, whilff the fame parts left
unmollteneei in the dry air arc obferved to wither. Befidcs,
if vegetables be infertcd in glafs-tubes or narrow veffels, filled
with water, the furface of the water will be feen to fublide
much fooner than b)' evaporation alone in iimilar circum-
ftances. Dr. Darwin alfo contvived to evnnce thefe abfor-
bent veffels to the eye, by rjipping twigs of a fig-tree in a
decoction of madder and of logwood, which after fome
time, upon cutting off about an inch of the ftalk near the
bottom, exhibited a circle of red points, believed by him
to be the coloured ends of the abforbents, that exHied in
the newly formed alburnum. This ingenious writer expref- '
fes his alloniniment that any perfon Ihould have conceived
thefe veffels, that are found in the alburnum, and which con-
fift of a fpiral line, to be air-veffels or tubes. He farther
obferves, that the abforbent veffels of trees, in paffing down
their trunks, coniift of long hollow cylinders, of a fpiral
fonn, and of fuch large diameters in fome vegetables, e.g.
in cane, as to be viiible, when di-y and empty, to the naked
eye. Through thefe air will pafs rapidlv upward and down-
ward ; and hence Dr. Hales has been led to coincide with
Grew and others in opinion, that they are air-veffels or
lungs, defigned for refpiration, and receding atmofpherical
air in their natural Hate. But to their ufe as air-veffels he
objefts, becaufe they have no communication with the hori-
zontal air-veffels of plants, and they exilirin the roots as
well as in the trunks of plants, where, not being expofed
to the atmofphere, they cannot ferve the purpofe of refpi-
ration. Air, however, in its combined ftate, or diffolved
in water, may be abforbed by thefe veffels ; and may appear
when the preffure of the atmolphere is removed in the ex-
haulled receiver, or when it is expanded by heat, as is the
cafe in the froth obferved at one end of a green ftick, when
the other is burning in the fire. Dr. Darwin apprehend*,
that the ftruclure of thofe large vegetable abforbents, which
have been erroneoufly called air-veffels, confifts of a fpirjl

line,

A I R

line, and not of a vcflR.! inte-.TupUd with v:i1vcs • and in tliis
rcfpedt it difTtrs from thjl of luiiir.iil lymphatics.

According to this writer, tin; proper uir-vtiTcIs are liori-
2oiitiil veffels of liirffe diameter, whicli pafs tlirou;rIi tiie
bark of trees to the alUurnnm. Malpi jl\i Iihj given a figure
of thefe veffcl.i, and Duhamel mentio!:s fine hin-izontal per-
forations through the bark, of trees, wiiieh he believes to
be peripir;itory or excveton' organs ; and befides tliefe, he
takes notice of others, tlv.it are larger, ilunding promincnr
in the birch-tree, aild piercing the exterior bark ; which
probablv contain air during the living ilatc of the tree. Dr.
Darwin i'uppofes, that the horizontal vefTels full mentioned
contain air, enclofed in a ihin moill membrane, which may
ferve the purpofe of oxygenating the (iuld in the extremities
of fome fine arteries of the embryo buds, in a manner fimi-
lar to that by which the air at the broad tnd of the egg is
thoiiglit to oxygenate the fluids in the termination ot the
placental veifels of the embryo chick.

AIRA, Aifoc of Hippocrates and Theophnilhis, /jiiir-
grafs, in Bo.'anv, a gjnus of tlie tr'nuulriii ili{;\-iii,! clais and
order, and of the natural order of gnuiiirin or grafies. Its
characters are, that the calyx is a two-floivered, two-valved
glume ; the valves ovate-lanceolate, acute and equal ; the
corolla bivalve, the valves like the former; neitary two-
leaved, leallcts acute, gibbous at the bafe ; the ilamiiia have
capillary hlaments, ot the length of tlie flower, with oblong
anthers, forked at each end ; tlie pillillum is an ovate germ,
the ttyles fetaceous fpreading, with pubefccnt itigmas ; no
pericarpium ; the feed fabovate, crowned with the corolla.
It differs frjm Melica, in having no rudiment of a third
between each pair of flofcules, the number of which varies.
Martyn enumerates 14, and Gmclin, in his edition of Lin-
na:us, 25 fpecies ; fome of which are naked or awnlefs,
and others awned.

Of the former, Martyn fpecifies, l. A. arunii'inacea,
or reedy hair-grafs, with oblong panicle, on one fide
imbricate, and flat leaves, found in the Levant and in
Cochinchina. 2. A. mlnutit, with loofe panicle, almofl
level-topped, and very branching ; an annual graf. found in
Spain. 3. A..aqiiat!ca, water hair-grafs, with panicle fpread-
ing, flowers fmooth, longer than the calyx, and leaves flat.
This grafs generally grows in the margins of pools and
watery places, running in the water to a contiderable dif-
tance, and is known by the purple or bluifh colour of the
panicles, and fweet tafte of the flowers : perennial, flowering
in May and June. This, fays the author of the Farmer's
Diftionary, is the grafs which contributes chiefly to the
fweetnefs of Cottenliam cheefe, and the finenefs of Cam-
bridge butter. There is a variety of this which grows in
dry foils, with the calyces five-flowered, and the flowers
very remote from each other. It occurs in fandy lands near
Exmouth, about Northfleet in Kent, in Lancafliire, and
Yorkfliire. In Dr. Withering's arrangement it is the poa
d'ljlans ; and Dr. Stokes fiifpetls the poa rdrofacla of Mr.
Curtis to be the fame with this. Gmelin adds to the clafs
of the naked airtz ; 4. A. capcnfs, with a ramofe culm,
racemous flowers, and hairy corolla. 5. A. korn'igu, with
denfe panicle, fmooth calyces, and afcending culm ; the/o//
InfJora of fome authors. 6. A. bengaL-nfu, with ereft pa-
nicle, three-flowered pedicle?, and petals woolly within ;
the arundo bcngalenfis of other writers. 7. A. miliacea,
with very numerous panitles, with flofcules in three's, obtufe
and dillindl, and fmooth itiiated leaves. 8. A. ic^'ilopfotdes,
with flowers turned to one lide, y/ith one valve of the co-
rolla ovatcd and acuminated, and the other columnar and
obtufe. Dr. Smith (Flor. Brit, vol.i. p. 83.) adds, K.cr'if-
/«/■«,. with panicle fpicated, calyces longer than the peduncle,

A I R

petals acuminattrd and unequal. It grows in high bnrren
palhiresand walls ; perennial ; flowering in July and Augud.
The awned a'lr^ enumei-ated by Martyn arc as follow :
9. A. fuhjpicata, with leaves flat, panicle fpiked, fio'vers
awned on the middle ; awn reflex and locie ; found on the
mountains of Switzerland, Savoy, Deiunark, and Lap-
land ; perennial. 10. A. cttfphofa or turfy hair-grais, >vith
leavei flat, panicle fpreading, petals villous, and awned at
the bale ; awn tlrail and ihort : growing in moift meadows
and woods, peremiial, flowering in June and July, fome-
times trailing on the ground to the length of fevend feet:,
and the panicle exhibiting a beautiful purple filky appear-
ance. Dr. Withering mentions a variety of this with pani-
cle viviparous, flowering in October, and found on Higlifuid
mountains. This is apt to grow in tufts, and oceanon irre-
gularities in the furfaee of meadows. Cows, goats, and
Iwine eat it ; but horfes are not fond of it. It is the roughell
and coarfell grafs that grows in palhires or meadows; and
cattle will not touch it, unlefs compelled bv hunger, it i.s
called by the vulgar haflocks, rough-caps, and bull's faces.
To get rid of it, the land ihoiild firft be drained, and the
tntls of this noxious weed pared ott and burnt ; and tin-
aflies they yield will be a good manure. II. K. Jlexuof,;,
or waved mountain hair-grafs, with leaves fetaceous, culms
almoll naked, panicle fpreading trichotomous, peduncles
flexuofe, and awns geniculated ; perennial; flowering in July,
and growing in heaths, woods, and barren paliures; eaten
by horfes, kine, and Iheep. Dr. Withering fuggcfts, that
this is a variety of the A. moiilana, or rather the fame in a
more mature ilate. This is a principal grafs on Ijanliead
Down, Mendip, &c. and is equally fine and jiutritivc
with Iheep's fefcue. It isofdilHcult cultivation. Dr. Smith
(Fl. Br. vol.i. p. 85.) mentions two varieties; one with
a panicle, lefs ipreading, and peduncles icarcely flexuofe.
This is the A. montaiui of Hudfon, Withering, Relhan,
and Leers, but not of Linnaeus. The ^.fctacea of Hudfon
does not difler from this ; but the A. molilalia of Linnxus is
a vei"y different grafs, and has not yet been found in Britain.
The other has a culm more leafy, a white panicle, fcarcely
flexuofe, and grows in fliady places. 12. A. montana, with
leaves fetaceous, panicle narrowed, flowers hairy at the
bafe and awned, awn twilled and very long ; fiippoicd to be
a variety of the former ; perennial, in July and Augull; a na-
tive of high heaths and landy palUires ; eaten with avidity
by Iheep. A variety, called ftlacca, with awns twice the
length of the florets, is mentioned by Hudfon. 13. A.
alphia, with leaves fubulate, panicle denfe, flowers hairy at
tlie bafe and awned, awn (hort ; growing on the mountains
of Germany, Savoy, and Lapland. 14. A. villoj'ii, with
leaves fubulate, panicle long and narrow, flowers fefquial-
teral, fliaggy, awned ; awn ilraight and Ihort : found by
Thunberg at the Cape of Good Hope. 15. A. cuii.'/i.cns,
grey hair-grafs, with leaves fetaceous, culm leafy, the upper
one involving the panicle at bottom, like a fpathe ; awns
clavated at tlie apex, Ihorter than the calyx ; a native of
fandy Ihores, on the coalls of Norfolk and Suffolk, the
walls of Balil, and the fandy fields of Germany and Pied-
mont ; perennial, flowering in July ; the avrna caiujceiis of
Wiggcrs. 16. A., pritcox, early hair-grafs, with leaves fe-
taceous, Iheaths angled, flowers panicle-lpikcd, flolcules
feffile, naked at the bafe and awned on the back ; found on
dry commons, in ditches, on banks of ilreams, and in wet
meadows ; perennial, flowering in May and June, ripening
its feeds hi June ; and called by Wiggers, nvtiia piifdUi. It
has a fweet tafle ; cows are very fond of it ; and it is eaten
by horfes and fheep. 17. A., caryoph'ilka, filver hair-grafs,
with leaves fetaceous, panicle divaricated, trichotomous,

flofcules

A I R

flofcules feflile, dorfal awn gcniculated ; a native of fandy
paftures, and heaths of England, fiance, Switzerland,
Piedmont, Gennany, and Denmark ; annual, floweiing in
July. 1 8. A. antarHlca, fouth-fea hair-grafs, with leaves
flat, p-(nicle compound, fpreading, calyces three-flowered,
flofcules awncd hi the middle, awn elongated ibaightilli ;
a native of New Zealand. 19. A. involiicrntn, with pani-
cle fpreading, involucred with bridles at the bafe ; flofcules
awiilefs ; a native of Spain, on barren hills near Madrid ;
annual, and flowering in June and July. To thefe Gmeliu
adds, 20. A. pnliidojii, with flat leaves, patent panicle, flof-
cules hairy at the bafe, and the awn (hoit and bent inwards.
2 1. A. fijliicohles, with filiform leaves, erecl panicle, leaves
coloured, and awned beyond the middle. 22. A. juncen,
with leaves fubulatc, panicle patent, very obtufc, awn from
the bafe of the length of the calyx. 23. A.Jiiwri/is, with
fetaceous leaves, ereft panicle, and villous flofcules. 24.
A. media, with fetaceous leaves, narrow panicle, flofcules
haiiyatthe bafe, awn fubteriiiinal, fliorter. 25. A, purpurea,
with leaves fubulate-fctaccons, panicle fcattered, one valve
of the corolla entire, plumofe, and culm ereft. For the
propagation and culture of Aira ; See Grass. Gmelin's
Linnxus. Martyn's Miller. Withering's Botanical Arraiig.
vol. ii. p. 135, &c.

AiRA. See Mf.lica, PoA, Cynosurvs, and Holcus.

AiRA Capenfis. SccEbharta.

A I R A Itidirii. SccPanicum.

AiRA p'^aria. Sec CvNt s jrus.

AIRANI, in Church Hijlnry, a fcA of Avians, in the
fourth centuiy, who der.ied the cunfuWlaiUiality of the
Holy Gholl with the Father and the Son.

They are otherwife called yliraii'ifttv, and are faid to have
taken tiieir name from one Airas, who diftinguifhed hiinfelf
at the head of this party, in the reigns of Valentinian and
Gratian.

AIRANO, in Geography, a town of Italy in the Mi-
lanefe, 10 leagues fouth-eaft of Como.

AIRAULT, Peter, in Laiin JErocl'ius, in Biogrnphy,
Jientenant-criminal in the prefidial of Angiers, was born
there in the year 1536, and executed the oftice in a manner
that obtained for him the title of the " Rock of the Ac-
cufed." He died in 1601, and left feveral trcatifes. His
eldeft fon was educated by the Jefuits, and retained in their
fociety, notwithftanding all the remonilranees and efforts of
his father. Ciog. DicT;.

AIRAY, Hknrv, an Englifh divine, was born in Wcfl-
moreland, educated under the care of Bernard Gilpin, and
ient to St. Edmund's Hall, Oxford, in 1579, at the age of
i.ineteen years. He was aftenvards removed to Qiieen's
college, where lie was fucceffively fervitor, fellow, and maf-
ter. In 1598, he was chofen provoit, and in 1606, vice-
chancellor of the univerfity. He was a conftant and zeal-
ous preacher, and a zealous calvinift. He was much ef-
ttemed for his learning, gravity, and pitt)', and for his
induflir^'- in difcharging the duties of his office ; and died in
1616. 'J'he following treatifes, written by him, were pub-
Ufhed after his death, viz, *' Lectures on the Epiftle to the
Philippians, 410. 1618." "A Tieatife againft Bowing at
the Name of Jefus." And, " A juft and ntceffary Apo-
logy refpecting a Suit at Law." Biog. Brit.

AIRE, in Geography, a town of Fiance, in the department
cf Landes, fomierly Gafcony, and in the diltrift of St. Sever,
fituate on the Adour, 15 j leagues from Paris, and 5 leagues
fouth-eaft of Mont-dc-Marfan. It is a very ancient town,
and the fee of the fuffragan bifliop of Auch, containing
241 parifhes. Its ancient name was Vicus-Juln, having
faten taken by the Romans, under the command of Julius

A I R

Csfar. The Vifigoths aftenvards took pofTeflion of it ;
and Alaric, one of their kings, adorned it and foitillcd it
with a calUe. It has often fince changed mailers, and
fufTcrcd much during the religious wars in Trance. N. lat.
43° 3J'- E. long. 5- 26'.

Aire, a town of France, in the department of Pas-de-
Calais, formerly Artois ; fituale on the Lys, fortified by a
caftle, and communicating with St. Omci by a canal; and
alfo with the fort St. Francois. It was taken by the allies
in 1710, and reflored to France by the peace of Utrecht.
It is 9 leagues from St. Omer, 9 from Dunkirk, and 51
north of Paris. N. lat. ;o"^ 30'. E. long. 2° 17'.

Aire, a river of England, iffuing into the Humber, and
navigable to Leeds in Yorkfhire.

AIRING, in the general fenfe of taking, or going into
the frelh air, is too well known to need any explanation.
See Aerophobia.

The word is particularly ufed for exercifing horfes in the
open air, which is of the greatell advantage to thefe animals.
Many of the difeafes to which horfes are liable, are brought
on bv negletting to exercifc them.

Airing a horfe, fliould be diilinguiflied from that fpecies
of exercifc uied in training horfes tor racing, as this is con-
duced at regular periods, and has in view not only the
general health, but particularly the acquirement of wind
and fpeed. Airing a horfe, in a general way, may be done
at any part of the day, but when the heat of the lun is too
intcnle, as by this means he perfpires too much, and is ren-
dered irritable from the ftings and bites of infects. It is
better to give a horfe a moderate airing twice a day, than a
longer one at one time. It fliould be avoided immediately
after a full meal ; at thofe times the cheit has not room to
expand, therefore the wind is endangered ; the food is hkc-
wife hurried, by the pred'uie of the abdominal mufcles, too
foon through the flomach to be digefted, and too foon
through the inteftines, to be properly abforbed by tiic
lafteals. In an airing tlie horfe fhould lirft be walked, then
trotted, and laftly moderately galloped ; it is ufually prac-
tifcd in a fnafBe bridle, the propriety of which depends on the
horfe's mouth, and the hand of the rider ; if the groom is
not perfeftly acquainted with the art of riding with a fine
hand, which few of them are, a large bitted fnaiBe fliould
be ufed. An airing fliould be continued long enough to
give a horfe an appetite, but not fo long as to weaken his
itomach. When horfes are very fat it (hould be continued
longer, that the abforbents may be Simulated to take up
more of the adejis of the body. In foul, grofs, greafy horfes,
the airings fliould be gentle, but continued for fome time ;
in farcy this {hould be particularly obferved. And in all
diftafts where there appears a defect in the abforbents, the
exercife flionld be gentle, continued long, and frequently
repeated. The numerous cautions made ufe of to air fueli
particular horfes, at particular times, have their foundation
in whims and caprice : reafon and fcience point out, that
anv time between the meals, when the fun is not in its full
lullre, is proper for airing them. See Exercise.

AI ROLA, in Geography, a town of the canton of Uri,
in Switzerland, fix leagues north of AltonT.

A I RON, a river of France which runs i.ito the Loire
near Decife.

AIRS, in Horfemanjhip, denote the artificial or praftifed
motions of a managed horfe.

Such are the demi-volt, curvet, capriole, crnupade, balo-
tade,ftep, and leap ; alfo, advancing, yerking, ?.iid bounding.

Some authors take airs in a more extenfivt fenfe ; and di-
vide them into low and high.

The low air? include the natural paces, as walking, trot-
7 ting,

A I S

ting, galloping, and terra-a-terra. To which may be add-
ed, praiicin^'T, fidliTiff, ftoppinjr, and turning.

The hij;h, or railed airs, are nil fuch motions as rife

higher than tlie terra-a-terra ; as the demi-vult, curvet, SiC.

AIRVjVUI-T, in Cco^nipl.'\<, a town of France, in the

departnieni of the two Sevres, in the dillritt of Thouars,

four leagues north-noi-th-eall of Partcriay.

AIRV^ tr'iplicily, among /IJlrohgers, the figns of Ge-
mini, Libra, and Aquarius. See Triplicity.

AISA, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the kingdom
of Arragon, two leagues and an half north of Jaca.

AISCH, a river of Germany, in Franconia, which rifes
near Iflelhcim, and difcharges itfelf into the Regnitz, be-
tween Bamberg and Forcheim.

AISE, a river of France, which runs into the Orne,
three leagues above Caen.

AISEAU, a town of Germany, in the circle of Weft-
phalia, three miles call-fouth-eall of Chalklct.

AJSEDABAD, a town of Peri'ia, in the province of
Irak Agenii, 22 leagues north-north-eall of Aniadan.

AISEREY, a to\Yn of France, in the department of
the Cote d'Or, in the difti-icht of St. Jean dc Lofne, three
leagues fouth-fouth-eaft of Dijon.

AISEV-LE-DUC, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Cote d'Or, in the dillrift of Chatillon, 2t
leagues fouth of Chatillon.

AISIAMENTA, in Laiv. See Easement.
AISNE, in Geography, a river of France, which rifcs in
Champagne, runs by Soiflbns, and falls into the Oife above
Compicgne. It gives name to a department \>.hich is one of
the fix formed of the ci-iLvmit Soiffonnois, le Beauvoills,
and le Vexin Francois ; and it is one of the five into which
the ancient Ifle de France is divided. It is bounded on the
north by the department of the North ; on the eall, by that
of the Ardennes, and part of that of Marne ; on the fouth,
by part of Marne, and the department of Seine and Marne ;
and on the well, by the departments of the Oife and Somme.
The extent is about 1,467,881 fquare acres, or 749,183 hec-
tares ; its population about 408,172 individuals; and it is
divided into five communal diibifts. Its chief town is
Laon.

AISTULPH, or AsTULPHUS, in Biogniphy and Hif-
forv, king of the I^ombards, was cliofen to fucceed his
brother Rachis, who rcfigned the crown, A. D. 751 ; and
by his gallantry in the field and wifdom in council advanced
the kingdom to a pitch of grandeur, which occafioned its
total ruin. Having ratified a peace with pope Stephen, and
extended the term of it for 40 years, he feized the oppor-
tunity, which was aflbrded him by a war with the Saracens
and Bulgarians, that engaged the attention of the eallern
emperor Conilantine Copronymus, to invade the exarchate
of Ravenna, which he fubdued, with all its dependencies,
and added to the kingdom of the Lombards. Thus ter-
minated the exarchate, vi-hich was reduced by the Lombards
to a dukedom. Ailhilphus proceeded to invade the Roman
dukedom, and marching towards Rome, threatened to
plunder the city and maffacre the inhabitants, unlefs they
acknowledged his fovereignty and paid him a yearly tribute.
Pope Stephen was alarmed, and applied to the emperor for
fuccour ; but deriving no effeftual afliilance from the em-
peror, he recurred to Pepin, king of France, who marched
an army into Italy, and after routing Ailhilphus and his
army inverted Pavia, where he had taken refuge. The
Lombard king was glad to pnrchafe peace by reltoring all
the places he had taken, and even the exarchate, which was
furrendered by Pepin to the fee of Rome. But as foon as
Pepin had departed, the Lombftid king, in violation of his

A I T

engagements, and regardlefs of Iiis hoftagcs, approached
Rome with his army a;ul elofely beficgcd it. Stephen re-
newed his application to liis proteiitor, and by the fuppliant
llylc of tiie letters which he addreifed to him engaged him
again to have recourfe to arms. Aiilulphus threw himfclf
a iceond time into Pavia, whitiier he was purfmd by Pepin,
who clofclv invelled the citv. Tlie fiege was prilled with
vigour, and Ailhilphus reduced to fuch diftrefs, that he was
under a nccefTity of fuing again for peace, wiiieh he ob-
tained upon a promife to perform immediately the treaty that
had been made the year before, and as an additioiuJ fecurity
to deliver up to the pope the city of Commachio, which
was a place of great importance. Upon this Pepin renewed
his donation to the pope ; yielding to St. Peter and his fiic-
cclTors the exarchate, jEmiha now Romagna, and Penta-
polis now Marca d'Ancona, with all tiieir cities, to be held
by him for ever. See Exarchate. Aillulphus, lamenting
the hum.bled ftatc to which he was reduced, began again to
prepare for recovering by force what he had been obliged to
refign ; but in the midil of his hodile preparations, lie was
killed whilll he was hunting, A. D. 756, and left no mule
iffue. The code of laws which he piiblilhcd in the 5th year
of his reign is Hill extant. Anc. Un. Hilt. vol. xvii. p. 4S2,
&c. Aiilulphus and his queen arc made the fubjeCt of a
curious tale, of the free kind, to be fownd in La I'ontaine
and other Novellifts. Gen. ISidg.

AITHALIA, in Geography. See jEthalia andELHA.
AITOCZU, a confidcnible river of Leffcr Afia, which
rifes in Mount Taurus, and falls into the fouth part of the
Euxinc fca.

AITON, William, \x\ Diogrjpl.y, an eminent botanifl
and gardener, was born in 1731 at a fmall village near Ha-
milton, in Lanaikfliire, in Scotland. Having been trained
betimes in the feience and prattice of horticulture, he came
into England in 1754, and was engaged as an afhilant by
Mr. Philip Miller, well known as the author of the Gar-
dener's Dictionary, who was then fuperintcndent of the
phyfic-garden at Chelfea. In this fituation he foon attrafted
notice, and in 1759 he was recommended to the Princefs
Dowager of Wales, as a fit perfon to manage the botanical
garden at Kew. In this office to wlileh lie was then ap-
pointed he continued during life ; and here he laid the foun-
dation both of his fame and fortune. As the garden at
Kew was dclhned to be the repolitoi-y of all the curious
plants, that could be colleftcd from the various quarters of
the globe, Mr. Aiton had the moll favourable opportunity
for indulging his tafte, and employing liis care and Ikill in
their cultivation ; and in fo doing he acquired dillinguillied re-
putation amongll the lovers of this feience, and the ])artieular
etteem of his royal patrons. Under his fiipcrinteiidenee Kew
gardens became the principal fccne of botanical culture in
the kingdom. In 1783 Mr. Aiton was promoted to the
more lucrative oflice of managing the picalure and kitchen
gardens at Kew, which he was allowed to retain in con-
nexion with the botanical department which he had before
occupied. In 1789 he publilhcd his " Hortus Kcwenfis,
or Catalogue of the Plants cultivated in the Royal Botanic
garden at Kew," in three vols. 8vo. with 1 3 plates ; a
work, which had been the labour of many years, and whicii
iuftly entitles him to ref])edlful commemoi-ation among the
promoters of feience. The number ot fpecies, contained
in this Catalogue, is between 5 and 6000. A new and cnrioua
article in it relates to the firft introduftion of particular
exotics into the Englilli gardens. The fyftem of arrange-
ment is that of I^innxus, with fuch improvements as the
advanced ilatc of botanical feience required. To Sir Jofeph
Banks, Dr. Solander, and Mr. Dryandcr, Mr. Aiton re-

fpcdfully

A .1 U

fpcclfully acknowledges his oblit^ations for alTiftance in fcm-
piliiig tliis cclcbi-ntcd work. The "Ilonus Kcwciifis" was
much valued bv ihc bell judges, and a large inipreflion of it
found a riipid fale. Notwilhllanding the temperance and
acHvitv of Mr. Aiton, he laboured under the incurable
nialadv of a fcirrhous liver, wliicli occalioneJ his death in
\~t)7i, in his 62d year. Iliseldcil fon, devoted to the lame
purluits, and dillinguiflicd by his talents, was appointed, by
the kincr's own uomination, to all his father's employment.^.
"^I'hc private character of Air. Aiton was highly ciHmablc
for mildncfs, benevolence, piety, and eveiy domeilic and
focial virtue. He was inteired in the church-yard ol Ke\v,
amidit a mod rcfpeclable cor.conrfc of friends. Gen.
Hiog.

ArrOKA, in Geography, a fiuall town of Spain in Cata-
loira, the capital of a niariiuifate.

Al'l'ONIA, in Bolany, fo called from Mr. \V. Aiton,
his Majefty's 'ate gardener at Kcw, a genus of the mona-
tlelphia nclaiulr'ia clais and order, and of tlie natural order of
culumii'ij\i;e. Its charatlers are, that the calyx is a one-leafed,
ereft, four-parted, fliort perianthium, divided into four
ovate, Iharp fegments ; the corolla has four erect, equal,
broadly-ovate, concave, very obtufc petals ; the llamina
iiave filaments, joined as far as the middle, divided above
into eight, awl-lliapedj furrowed. Handing out of the co-
rolla, and having ovate, furrowed anthers ; the pillilhun has
a germ luperior, ovate, fniooth, fnbangular, Ityle one, fili-
form, of the fame length with the llamina, Itigma obtufe,
undivided ; the pericarpium is an ovate dry, membranaceous,
four-cornered, one-celled, brittle berry, the corners are pro-
duced and lliarp ; the feeds many, fixed to a column, glo-
bular and fmooth. It varies with five-cleft, ten-£lamcncd
flowers. There is one fpecies, 111%. A. capenju, found at
the Cape by Thunberg, and introduced here in 1774 by Mr.
F. Maifon. It has a Ihinbby ihdk, lix feet high, and a fruit
refembling that of the winter-cherry. With us it is of flow
growth and feldom exceeds three feet in height. At a fuf-
iflcient age it produced flowers and fruit through the greatcll
part of the year. It is I'aifed only from feeds, and mull be
kept in the green-houfe or cape-ftove. Martyn.

AITTERBACH, in Geography, a river of Aullria,
which runs into the Traun, near Wels.

AITZEMA, Leo, in B'wgmphy, an eminent hiilorian
and diplomatill, was born at Doccum, in Friezland, in the
year 1600. He was counfellor of the Hans Towns, and
their refident at the Hague for 40 years ; where he died in
1669, with the reputation of an excellent linguiil, an able
politician, and amiable manners. His " Hiilory of the
United Provinces," written in Dutch, contains a large col-
lection of treaties of peace, memoirs of ambafladors, letters,
capitulations and other public acls, which is very valuable.
The hiftory is more faithful than elegant, and as far as it
concerns religion, it is written with impartiaUty. The work
was publifhed in ly volumes 410. and was fucceeded by
another edition of fevcn volumes in folio. The period whicli
the hifloiy comprehends begins with the year 162 1 and ter-
minates with i663, and it has been continued to 1692.
Gen. Dia.

AJUBATIPITA Brasiliensium, in Botany, the name
of a (hrub that bears a black fruit like an almond, which
yields much oij.

AJUGA, Bugula of Juflieu, Tournefort and Miller,
hugh, a genus of the d'ulyiiainia gymnojpermia clafs and order,
and of the natural order of verhctUats or labiats. Its cha-
raftcis are, that the calyx is a one-leafed, ftiort perianthium,
cut half-way into five clefts, with the fegments nearly etjual ;

A J U

the corolla is monopetalous and ringent ; tube cylindric and
bent in, the upper lip, very fmall, ereft, bifid, obtufc, lower
large, fpreadiug, trifid, obtufe, middle divilion very large
and obcordate, fide ones fmall ; the llamina have fubulate,
Cleft filaments, longer than the upper lip, anthers twin ;
the piilillum has a four-parted germ, ilyle filiform, and with
refpecl to iitnatioii and length as in the llamina, iligmas
two, fleiuler, the loweil fliorter ; no pericarpiLirn, the calyx,
which is converging, fofters the feeds, which are fomewliat
oblong. There arc fix fpecies, vit. i. A. oriaitalis, eafttrn
bugle, with flowers inverted ; firll brought into Europe
from the Eevant by Tournefort, fince oblerved bv Thun-
berg in japan, and by Loureiro in Cochinchina ; cultivated
in 1732. Of this there are two or three varieties, diflering
only in the colours of their flowers. 2. A. pyraiiiulal'u,
pyramidal bugle, of which the fpike is a quadrangular vil-
lous pyramid, the leaves approximating, the root-leaves very
large, the braifteoe nearly entire ; biennial, flowering iu
April, or with us later ; a native of Italy, France, Germany,
Switzerland, Sweden, Denmark, Wales, and Scotland. ],.
A. alp'ma, alpine or mountain bugle, with Hem fimple,
leaves fmooth, unequally dentated, fubuniform, the remoter
verticilli bearing many flowers ; growing naturally on the
Alps, and in mountainous places in Carnarvonfliire. Dur-
ham, and on the lummit of a mountain near Cailleton,
Derbyihire ; admitted into gardens for variety, and propa-
gated by its trailing flalks ; requiring a moiil fliady fitua-
tion ; perennial, and flowering in July. This is the A. py-
ranutlal'u of Hudfon, and the A., geneveiifis oi Withering.
4. A. gcitevenjis, Geneva bugle, with leaves downy, ftreaked
with lines, lowermoil narrower, calyces fliaggy, braftex or
floral leaves generally three-lobed ; growing wild about
Geneva, and in many of the fouthern countries of Europe ;
cultivated in 1759, by Miller. 5. A. reptans, common bugle,
fmooth, with lolitary item, and creeping by runners ; pe-
rennial, flowering in May ; growing in moift meadows, paf-
tures, and woods in mofl; parts of England ; becoming fome-
what hairy in high and dry iituations, with a rounder Hem
and fhorter creepers. Prof. Martyn mentions two varieties,
one with a white and the other with a pale purple flower,
which grow in feveral parts of Wefl;moreland ; but they
difler only in the colour of their flowers from the blue fort.
The common bugle, called by officinal writers, confollda me-
dia, or middle confound, is recommended as a vulnerary
herb, both internally and cxte nally. For this purpofe, in.
fufions of the leaves, or the exprefled juice, have been ad-
minillered ; and alio as mild allringents and corroborants in
fluxes and other dilorders. Decoctions of them have been
commended by Riverius and others in phthifes and internal
ulcerations. Malouin recommends a gargarifm of the root
in the angina. The roots appear to be conliderably aftnn._
gent, both by their talle and by their ftriking a black co-
lour with folution of chalybeate vitriol. Lewis Mat. Med.
Murray Mat. Med. vol. ii. p. 154. 6. A. decuinbcvs, Japo-
nele bugle, decumbent and villous ; leaves obovate and
toothed ; with flowers in v.-hirls, fmall and blue ; claffed by
Loureiro as a variety of A, reptans.

To this genus Dr. Smith adds (Flor. Brit, vol.ii. p. 605.)
the TEUCRIUM chamiipitys of Linnaeus, the ground pine of
Englifli writers. Accordingly the A. chamrrpitys is de.
fcribed as having a fpreading raraofe Hem, trifid linear en-
tire leaves, and folitary axillai-y flowers. It grows in fandy
fallovv fields in Cambridgefliire and Kent ; is annual, and
flowers in April and May. The leaves of ground pine are
moderately bitter, and of a rcfinous fmell, approaching in
this refpert, as well as in their external form, to thofe of
i the

A J IT

tlie pine-tree. Tlicir v!rt"cs aro extraflcd both hy water
and Ipirit, but moil pffeftly by the latter. The iiqucoua
liiictuio is yellowifli, and the ipiritiious green. Tlie wa-
tery extrad is bitter and a',;(lere ; the fpiritiious is lliglitly
Iwcetilh and warm. Tho oil, collected by dillilliiig large
(iM.mtities of the herb, appro-\ehes in quality to that of
lurpentlnc. The leaves are recommended as aperients, and
corroborants of the nervous fyftem ; and arc faid to be
particularly ferviceable in female obllruitions, paralytic dif-
orders, and when continued for a long time, in rheumatic,
ifchiadic, and gouty pains. It was denominated by fome
of the ancient botanills yua arlhritna, from its ufe in ar-
thritic pains. It has been recommended by foreign writers
in (low fevers, allhma, and apoplttlic feizures ; and alfo in
infarttions of the vifcera and jaundice ; and externally for
cleanling and confolidating ulcers, as well as for an antidote
to the cancer. But its medical reputation has, in later
times, conliderably declined. Lewis's Mat. Med. Murray
Mat. Med. vol. ii. p. 152.

The fuit fpecics of Ajuga may be propagated by feeds,
fown when they are ripe in a pot filled with earth, and
placed in a lliady fituation till Autumn, and then removed
under a frame. In the Spring, they fhouldbe tranfplanted
into feparate pots. In the hard froft of Winter they
fhould be covered. This fpecies may be alfo more flowly
inereafed by ofi-sets, of which it affords but a few. The
lixth fort may be propagated in the fame manner. As for
the rert, they are hardy and eafily multiplied by the fide
flioots : they delight in a moill (liady fituation, and are apt
to fpread too much. Martyn.

AJURU Parrel, Pftltacui JEJlhnu, in OrmtMogy, the
^juru-Curaa of Marcgrave, the Aourou-Coitraou of Buffon,
the middle-fized parrot of Willnghby, and the common
Amazons pan'ot of Latham, is of a green colour, (lightly
(potted with yellow ; with a blue front, blood-red (lioulders,
and fiefli-coloured orbits. It is 12 inches long, and its body
about the t'lze of a pigeon : the back has a number of
tawny yellow feathers, feattered through its green plumage.
The face is yellow, with a blue forehead and white crown ;
the tail-quills are green with paler tips : the firfl, fecond,
nnd third on each fide are red on their inner webs near the
bafe; the outer web of the firrt being blue : the (houlders
are cither tawny or blood-red ; the primary- wing-quills are
black, with bluil}i tips, the outer webs being green, and
the inner black ; the firft four or five of the fecondarics
have their outer webs red pear the bafe ; the bill is black
at the tip. This fpecies of parrot inhabits Amazonia,
Guiana and Brafil ; and it has feveral varieties, to the four
firft of which the above defcription is applicable : c. g. I.
The A. of Jamaica, with the head and breall yellow, the
front and chin bluifh, the edges of the wings and ventlet
red. This is the pfittacus viridis melanorinchos of Aldro-
vand, the black-billed green parrot of Willnghby, and the
Jamaica pan-ot of Brown and Latham. 2. The main A.
parrot, with the lefTcr wing coverts red ; the crown yellow,
the cheeks and chin paler ; the forehead blue ; the under
half of the five middle wing-quills, and the inner webs at
the bafe of four tail-qulUs on each fide, red. This variety
i.ihahits Guiana and Amazonia. 3. Brafilian A. parrot,
with cap blue, variegated with black ; a yellow fpot on the
crown, and one on each fide below the eyes, and a blue
chin. This is the pf. Brafil. eyanocephalos of BilfTon,
tlie Ajuru-curuca of Marcgrave, Ray and Willnghby,
and the blue-topped parrot of Latham. The primary wing
quills, according to Mr. Latham, are variegated with
yellow, red and violet blue. It inhabits Brafil. 4. Va-
ried A. parrot, with th.e crown, checks and chin yellow,

Vou L

A J U

and the front blue. The crown is varied with blue, tli<
fcrag and upper part of the back with ycllaw, and the bill
is aih-colourcd. This is the Ajuni-C'urau fccundus ot
Marcgrave and Ray, and the Well-India green parrot ol'
Kdwards and I^atham. 5. Amazonian A. parri>t, palf
green, with a pale yellow front and tawny temjilcs. 'I'his
IS the pf. amazonitus of Gnielin, and the Brafilian yellow
fronted parrot of Latlinm. It inhabits Brafil and Amazo-
nia. Tliis variety is almofl twice the fize of thofe above-
mentioned. 6. Great A, parrot, green, witii a blue fore-
head ; the crown, cheeks and chin, and middle of the belly
yellow. It is nearly as large as the former, and inhabits
Brafil. 7. Yellow-necked A. parrot, green, witli yellow
head and neck, and red (lioiilders ; of the fi/.c of the
former, and like it, the wing-quills are marked with a red
fpot, and the lateral tail-quills are red at the Ijafe. 8.
Coui^terfcit A. parrot, green, variegated with yellow, hav-
ing aljlue forehead and red nioulders. It inhabits Bra(il.
Gmelin's IJnn. toni. i. p. 340. Kerr's Linn. p. 598. Buf-
fon's Birds, vol. vi. p. 187.

AJURU-CATINGA, the Guiana red billed parrot,
a variety of the psittacus rujirujhis, the pfittaca aqunnim
Liifi'taniin inj'ula of Briflbn, the Guiana green parrot of Ban-
croft, and of Latham ; has the bill, legs, feet and claws of
a whitlib red colour, and the orbits a(h-eoloured. It in-
habits South America; and is about the fi/.e of a thrulh,
and the irides have two coloured circles, of which the outCf
is reddi(h, and the inner afli-coloured.

AJURU-PARA, a Brafilian fpecies of pairot of a
fmall fize, all over of a beautiful green, and with white legs,
a white beak, and white Ikiiiny circles round its eyes.
Marcgrave.

AiUS LoQ_UENS, or Locutius, i.e. a fjient'wg voirr,
in Mythology, the name of a Roman deity, to whom a tem-
ple was eretted at Roirre, on the following occafion. — M.
Cxditius, a plebeian, informed the tribunes, that, as he
was paffing through the New Street in the night, he heard
a fupernatural voice near the temple of N'^ella, which warned
the Romans of the approach ot the Gauls ; but the warn-
ing was difregarded on account of the meannels of the
perfon who reported it, in confequence of which, the Ro-
mans fuffered very much from their invafioii. Camillas,
however, delivered them, and advifed them to expiate the
offence by erefting a temple in the New Street to this ima-
ginaiy deity. Cicero, de Divin. lib. i. $ 45. Oper. torn. iii.
p. 45. Ed. Olivet. Plutarch in Cam. Oper. torn. i. p. 144.
Ed. Xyland. Livy lib. v. c. 50. Oper. torn. ii. p. 220. Ed;
Drakenb.

AJUTAGE, or Adjutage, formed of the verb, ajou-
ler, to adapt, in Hydraulics, part of the apparatus of an
artificial fountain, or jet d'eau; being a fort of tube, fit-
ted to the mouth or aperture of the velTel, through which
the v-iater is to be played, and by it determined into any
figure and direftion.

It is chiefly the diverfity in the ajutages, that makes the
difierent kinds of fountains. — And hence, by having feveral
ajutages to be fupplied occafionally, one fountain comes to
have the effect of many.

Mairiotte inquires into the beft kind of ajutages, or fpoutc,
for jets d'caii, affirming, from experiment, that an oen po-
lilhed round hole, in the end of the pipe, gives a higher jet
than either a cylindrical, or a conical ajutage : of which,
however, the latter is the better. Vide Trait, du Movcm.
des Eaux, part. iv. Phil. Tranf. N" 181.

The quantity of water difcharged by ajutages of equn)
area, but of dilTcrent figures, is the fame. But for thofe of
like figures, and dilFc-ryit lizes, the quantity dilchargtd it
3 R ' dircdly-

A I X

dircflly proportional to tlie aica cf tlic njatagci or to t!ie
fquaitf ot" its diameter, or of niiy fide or other linear di-
nieiilion : thus, an aiiitage of a double- diameter or fide
will difcharffc four times the quantity of water, of a triple
diameter, uuic times the ipiaiitity 5;e. ; fnppofmg that they
are at an equal depth below the fiiiface or licad <>1 water.
But if the ajutages be at ditfeant depths, the celerity with
wiiieh the water flows, and coiifequently the quantity it-
fuing in any jjiven time, is directly proponional to tlie Iquare
root of the altitude of tlie head, or the deptli of the liolc,
fo thai at four timrs the depth, tlie celerity, and of conrfc
quantity, are double ; at nine limes, triple, &e. It has
been fi>und by experiment, that the jet is higher or lower
according to the fize of the ajutage ; that a circidar hole of
about an inch and a quarter in diameter jets highcft ; and
that it is worfe as it recedes from that fize. Experience
alfo lliews, that the pipe leading to the ajutage fliould be
muth larger than the ajutage itfelf ; and if the pipe be
long, it Ihoidd be wider acconJing to its dilhmce trom the
ajutage. Encyclopedic Phyfique, torn. i. p. 152. Mutton's

i)ia.

Eor the vai-ious forts of ajutages, their ftruftnre, applica-
tion, &c. fee Fountain. See alio Fluid and Jet
o'Eau.

AIX, in Geograplf, a city of France, the capital of tlic
department of the Bouches du Rhone, formerly Provence,
ar.d one of the molt pleafant and bell-built cities in ihe
kingdom. It is fituated north of the river Arc, between
hills planted with olives and vines. It is faid to have been
fcumded by C. Sextius Calvinius, a Roman conful, who ef-
tablilhed a Roman colony in it A. U. C. 630, about 124
years befm-e Chrift, and called it y/y«« Sext'ia from his own
Fame, and the warm baths which he found there. It is
ratlier populous than large ; its houfes are well built, and
its llreets are ftraight and well paved ; and within the city
there is a fpacious walk called Orbitelle, which coniiils of
three rows of trees interfperfed with fountains, and iur-
roiuided by many handfome and fpacious buildings. The
picacher's Iqnare, as it is called, is feated on the iide of a
hiU, about 160 yards long, encompafTed with trees and lofty
houfes built with ftone. Of the public buildings fome of
the principiJ are the town-hall, the hall of audience, the
hotel of the city, the cathedral churcli, which is a fine
gothic llrufture, the church of the fathers of the oratory,
the chapel of the blue penitents, and the convent of the
areaehers, in whofe church is a fdvev ftatue of the Virgin
Mary, almoft as big as hfe. There are alio other churches
and buildings, which contain many paintings and other
rarities. Adjoining to tlie baths, which were re-difcovercd
in 1 704, there are many edifices that have been niifed at a
great expence for the accommodation of thofe who ufe the
vaters. Thefe waters were formerly fuppofed to poflefs
peculiar virtues in cafes of debility ; as feveral altars confe-
crattd to Priapus, and bearing infcriptlons exprelTive of
gratitude for his affiftance, have been dug up in their vicinity.
Aix was an archbilhopric with five fulTragans, and 84 pa-,
rilhes ; and it was the place of refort of the nobility of
Provence and of hteraiy men. The neighbourhood affords
excellent wines ; but its chief article of trade is oil. Some
fluffs are alfo manufaclured here. It is diilant five leagues
north from Marfeilles, and 163 fouth-eaft of Paris. N. lat,
43° 3>' 35"- E-long. 5° 26' 15".

Aix, a town of France, in the department of the Upper
Vienne, in the diilriCt of Limoges ; two leagues welt-fouth-
we(l of Limoges.

Aix, Aqiid: Gratianit, or Stikiui/ica, ylHolroguni, a fmall
town of Savoy, fituate near the lake of Boiuget, between

I

AIX

Chambery, Anneey and Rumilly, with tlie title of a Mar.
qniiate. The hot baths, which were originally conftriiCled
bv the emperor (Iratian, are free of acceis without expence,
and are much fncpiented. In this place are feen the ruins
of a Roman tiiuinphal arch. N. lat. 45^ 40'. E. long. 5'*
48'.

Aix, a fmall Kland on the wefl coatl of France, between
the ille of Oleron and the Continent ; about i 2 miles north-
well of Rochfort, and as far fouth-fouth-well of Roehello.
Its tort was dellroyed by the Eiiglllli in 1757, and again ia
1761, hut afterwards rebuilt. N. lat. 46" 5'. E.long. l" 8'.

Aix en Qihe, a town of France, in the department of
the Aube, in the dillrift of Ervy ; five leagues well of
Troyes.

Aix (V AnguV.lon, a town of France, in the department
of the Cher, in the dillritl of Bourges ; three leagues nonh-
ead of Bourges.

AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, a free Imperial city of
Germany, in the circle of Weitplialia and duchy of
Juliers, and the capital of the department of Roor,
This is a verv ancient city ; and appears from the teili-
monies of C-.efar and Tacitus, to have been occupied and
fortified by Roman colonics in their wars with the Germans.
It was called in I-,atin Aquis-Granum, or the waters of
Granus, Aqus, and Urbs Aquenfis, in Gemian, the city of
Aachen or Achen, and alfo Aach ; and derived its name
from its warm baths, which have been long held in high
eillmation. By the French it is denominated Ais!-la-Chapclle,
by way of diitinftlon from other places called Aix, on account
of a chapel of the Holy Virgin built by Charlemagne, who
repaired and beautified the city, which had been dellroyed
by the Huns in the rtign of Attila in 451, and who made
it the place of his ufual refidence. The king of the Romans
or emperor, was genendly crowned in this city, as the place
appointed by the golden bull for this purpofe ; and on this
account called the Royal citv ; and it is the depolitaiy of
the fword of Charlemagne, the belt, a book of the gofpcls,
and other jewels of the empire, that are ufed in the ceremony
ot coronation. Charles V. was crowned here in 1520, and
Ferdinand his brother was crowned king of the Romans in
tliis place in 1531. Charlemagne died and was buried in
this city, to which he had always manifelled a peculiar at-
tachment, and on which he conferred many fignal privileges.
On the Rhcnilh bench, in the college of the cities of the
empire, and among the Imperial cities which have a feat and
voice at the Diets of the circle of Wcilphalia, Aix-la-
Cliapellc poflcfies the iecond place ; and it lays claim to the
firll on the Rhcnilh bench. The town is fituated in a valley,
and though furrounded with mountains and woods is not
unwholefome. It coniiils in reality of two cities, cnclofcd
one within the other. The inner city, which is the molt
ancient, is flanked with ten towers, and is about three quar-
ters of a league in circumference ; the outer, founded about
the year 11 72, has eight gates, and the circuit of it is about
two leagues. There are feveral rivulets which run through
the city, and 20 public fountains, befides feveral private
ones. The principal buildings, which are conllrudled of
ftone from quarries in the vicinity of the town, are the ftadt-
houfe and the cathedral. The (ladt-houfe is adorned with
the ftatues of all the emperors fince Charlemagne ; and in
the front of it there is a fountain, on the top of which is.
placed the ftatue of this emperor, made of brals gilt,.
holding in his right hand a fceptre, and in his left a globe.
Tlic upper ilory of this building confills of one room, 162
feet long and 60 broad, in which the newly clefted emperor-
formerly entertained all the cleclors of the empire. The
governmait of diis city ia eiitrulUd with the great and little,

fcnate ;

A I X

A I X

foliate; tlic foimcr compolVd of 129 peifoiis, wIjo iiuUtc in
criminal cafes, and tlic latter of 41 memheis, who have jii-
lifdiclioii over the police and commerce of the citv, and the
management of the public revenues. Tile duke of Bnibant
is protcftor of the city ; and the duke of Juliers is hurgo-
inalKr or perpetual mayor of tin. burghers, 'i'lie title of its
magillracy is that of burgonialter, (herilF, and council of
the lioly Roman Imperial free city of Aix-Ia-Chapelle. Tlic
prevailing religion is the Roman Catholic ; and tlie Froteftant
inhabitants, both I^utherans and Calvinills, not allowed tlie
free exercife of their religion williiu the city, celebrate their
worllilp at Vaels, about au hour's journcv from the city in
the ducliy of Liraburg. The manufaClures of the city are
thole of chith, copper and brafs. Couueiis have been held
in this city in the eighth and ninth centuries, and treaties of
peace have been concluded here; particularly thofe between
France and Spain in 166H, and between France and F.ngland,
and other belligerent powers in (748. Bufching. vol. iv. p.
369. Mod. Un. Hiil. vol. xxxii. p. 223.

It was taken by the French in 1792, loft after a fevere
battle in 1793, ""'^ retaken in 1794. It is 21 miles from
Spa, 30 well from Cologn, and 36 north-eall from Liege.
N. latl 51° 55'. E. long-; 5' 54'.

Aix-la-Chapelle, fays Mr. G. Forfler, in liis Travels 1792,
which once contained above 100,000 inhabitants, has not
now a third part of this number, and has loft all its ancient
wealth and profpcrity ; owing partly to the rife of rival
towns, but principally to religions intolei-ance and a bad
government. The ftreets now fwarm with beggars, and the
morals of the people are licentious and corrupt. Thofe
whofe Ikill and induftry might have enriched the city are
driven from it by the partial and oppredive conduct of the
guilds, and have eftablidied their manufaclories in other
places, where they enjoy greater liberty. Thofe, he adds,
of Burfcheid, Vaels, Eupen, Monjola, and of other places
in the duchy of Eimburg, are in a very floiuKliing llate ;
the wool is imported from Spain, and the cloth is exported
chiefly to the Levant. Vaels, which 30 years ago, was an
ineonfiderable village, is now become a reipeitable town ;
the protellants, wearV of the opprefPion and bigotry which
they had experienced at Aix-la-Chapelle, were eaiily induced
to fettle in a place where they were allowed the advantages
of religious freedom ; and it has now five different churches,
in which Roman Catholics, Lutherans, Calvinifts, Ba]itifts,
and Jews, worfliip the Deity according to their feveral fen-
timents, and live peaceably with each other.

Aix-la-Chapelle, or Ak en Waters. Therniic ylquis-
granetifes.

The thermal fulphureous waters of Aix-la-Chapelle
have long held a moft diftinguilhcd place among the mi-
neral fprings of Europe, and have not a little contributed
to the celebrity and opulence of this ancient city.

Thefe mineral waters rofe to very high reputation in the
time of Charlemagne, who made Aix his Imperial refidence;
and he appears to have much delighted in the ufe of its
"haths, which he rebuilt and improved.

The hot fulphureous water rlfes in great abundance from
frvcral copious fprings in different parts of the town ; and
is more than amply fuffieient to fupply the numerous baths
and refervoirs in which it is collected. The principal Ipring
is enclofed in a fquare ftone ciftern, the upper part of
which is vaulted and contracted in its dimenfions; and
over the top a large llone is fitted in, and clofely cemented,
to prevent the eicape of the fulphureous vapours, on which
depends fo much of the efficacy of the water. A re-
n>arkable circuniftance takes place in this ciftern, which is,
thcaclual futliination o£ a quantity of pure fulpbur, which

is carried up from the water along with the fulphureoiu
gas, and is depofited beneath the upper ftone, to which it
adheres in the foini of a line powder. This is taken out
from time to time, and fold under the name of y//.v ful-
phtif.

The baths of this city are numerous, and very commo-
dious for the purpofe of warm and vapour bathing. The
natural heat of the water is fulTicient for both thefe pur-
poles; and for the latter, openings arc made in the brick
channels that convey the water to the baths, througll
which the vapour afcends. Thefe vapour baths are fo con-
ilruded that the whole, or any part of the bodv may be
expofed to its adion ; and likewife many of the batits are
furnidicd with pumps, from which the hot water may be
daflied on any part of the patient. This operation i?
known by the technical name of tlie drmche.

Aken water pofleffes veiy ftriking fenlible properties,
particularly to the feeling and the fmell. The water rifes
with great rapidity through the fprings; and at the fame
time lends forth very c(>i>lous air-bubbles, which break
on the furface with a (liglit explofion. It is at firft per-
fcclly clear and colourlefs, and emits a large volume of
fteam, mixed with fulphuraled hydrogen gas of great vo-
latility and pungency. The odour of this vapour, (which
refembles that of Harrowgate water, is fo ])Owertul as to
be perceived by ftrangers at a conilderabie dillance from
the fpring head. The irjhaliilants, from lung cullom,
fearcely regard it.

The temperature of Aix water is various, according to
the dillance from the fpring at which the obfervation is
made. The highell is about 14^^^ of Fahrenheit ; and at
the pump, where it is drawn for driidcing, it is about 1 12.
The heat is therefore i"o great, that the water rtquhes to
Hand for 15 or iS hours before it can be ufed as a bath.

This water, though perfectlv clear when lirll drawn
from the fpring, becomes turbid and fomewhat milkv a»
it cools, and dcpolits a calcareous fediment, at the fame time
it lolcs its fulpiiureous fmell. To the to\ich, the water it
foit and fomewhat faponaeeoiis, owing doubtlefs to the
Imall tpiantity of foda which it contains. It will even, in
fome degree, lather by agitation ; and is ufed for fulling
and cleanfmg wool and linen, to which alfo, the Ileal
much contributes.

The chemical analylis of this water is curious and in-
terefting. The moll ftriking feature is its gafeous contents,
wliieh are a fmall quantity of carbonic acid, but efpecially
much fulphiu"ited hydrogen gas ; not merely in tlie ftate
in which it is found, in the cold fulphureous waters of Great
Britain, but highly fuperfaturated with fulphur, which is
fublimed in a folid form, as we have jull mentioned. The
whole of the fulphur contained in the water ii volatilized
by evaporation, for no traces of this inflammable fubllancc
are to be deterted in the reliduum of any quantity of the
water boiled down to drynefs.

The folid contents of this water are few. The mofl
important of thefe is a quantity of nncombined foda, fuf-
licient to give the water the properties of a very dilute al-
kaline folution ; and which probably affills in the union of
fo large a portion of fulphurated hydrogen, and caufes it
to adhere to the water with fomewhat more force than it
would do if no alkali were prefent. Hence it is, that
even after the water has Hood for many hours in the baths
to cool, it ilill retains enough of the fulphureous vapour to
give it all the requilite medical virtues. The other folid
contents are, a fmall quantity of common fait and car-
bonated lime, which lall is depolited as the water cools,
and the carbonic acid efcapes.

3 R 2 No

A I Z

A K A

No traces of metal of any kind are difcoverable in this water.

Tlie folid conttnts of Aix water are varioufly cftimatcd
as to quantity. From Bergman's analyfis, we may reckon
the following to appruximate pretty accurately to the
trutli. A win.' pint (Englifh weight and mcalure) contains
Of carbonated lime, four grains and three quarters.
Of common fait, five grains.
Oi caibonattd foda, twelve grains.

The proportion of the gafcou5 contents has not been
afcertained with accuracy.

Tlie above analyfu will explain the appearances which
take place with tiie common reajrents.

Solutions of l.ad and filver, added to the hot frelh water,
produce a blackllh precipitate, compofed of the fulphurated
metal, butmixtdwilh the muriate; for.when the fame folutions
}re added to the cooled water, the precipitate is white.

A piece of polilhcd lead, fulpended in the vapour of
the water, is foon blackejied, and in a few days corroded
tlu"oughout.

Syrup of violets changes to a green, even after the car-
bonate of lime has precipitated by cooling, indicating
tliereby the prefence of an alkali in excels.

The effcfts of this water, as a medicine, are very ftriking
and well eftabhihed. Its immediate operation, when drank
in a moderate quantity, is to raife the fpirits, and in lome
pcrfons to produce a (kgree of vertigo. This is the greater,
e.ctcris paribus, the hotter the water is. It afterwards
proves diuretic, encreafe.i pcrfpiration, and keeps the ilcin
in a foft, moiil Hate, highly favourable to the removal of
many diforders.

The waters are reforted to for a great variety of com-
plaints, particularly in the complicated diforders of the
digellive and biliary organs, which follow a long li:ibit of
free living. They are alfo liighly ferviceable in difeafes
of the kidnies and bladder.

Aken w-aters, like all the moft celebrated thermal
fprings, were long in high repute as baths, before phy-
ficians ventured to prclcribe them internally. The vail
profuiion of water which is tlirown up, the high tem-
perature which it poffefTes, Its ftroug impregnation with
aulphur in a very attive form, and its alkaline irgredient,
give it moft valuable properties for external ufes. It is
fmployed to ftimulate cold paralytic limbs ; and to foftcn
the rigidity of the joints and ligaments left by gout and
rlieumatifm. It is alfo of great fervice in cutaneous com-
plaints, to the cure of which, the fulphur and the alkali
probably biglily contribute. A long continued courfe of
this, (as of every other) fulphureous water, cauies the whole
body to acquire a fraell of fulphur, and tarnilhes filver kept
in the pockets.

Thefe water* have been imitated artiHcially by paffing ful-
phurated hydrogen gas through a hot and ver\' weak alkaline
water, but the imitation is attended with much difficulty.

See Blondel's Defcript. Therm. Aquifgranenfium — Lucas
on Mineral Waters — and Saundtrs's Treatife on Mineral
Waters, 1800.

AIXO, or Aixos, flats or fhallows within the fecond
fort, at the entrance into Carthagena harbour, on the Sf>a-
nilh main. South America, which ftritc-'n out nearly fouth-
fouth-eaft, towards the main land within tlie iflands that lie
before the harbour.

AIZENA-Y, a town of France, in the department of
Vendee, in tlie diftrift of La Roche fur Yonne ; ten leagues
fouth of Nantes.

AIZOON, Asi ^uov, ffiiiper-iHvtim, or ever-living, in £0-
■tany, a genus of the icofandria fentagynia clafs and order, of
the natural order <ji JucadaiU, and of the JicoiJea of Juffieu.

6

In Gmelin's Linnxus, it is a genus of the polyandria pcnitt'
J,' I'"''' clafs and order. Its characlers are, that the calyx is 3
one-leafed peiiantliinm, divided into five lanceolate, per-
manent fegments ; no corolla : the ftamina have ver)' many
capillary filaments, inierted by bunches into the finufes of
llie calyx, the anthers fnnpk ; the piftlllnm has a germ five-
coiaiered, fupcrior, the llyles five ar.d finiple, the fiigmas
finiple : the perieai-pium is a five-celled, five-valved, fwelling
and rctufe capfule ; the feeds are feveral, roundifli or kid-
ney-(haped. There are ten fpecies, vi%. i. A. canarienf;
])urflane-leaved A. with leaves wedge-ovate, flowers feflile ;
the Jjcoides of NilTolius, and tali of Plukenet : a native
of the Canai-y iflands; annual; cultivated la 1 73 1. 2. A.
hifpaniaim, Spanifh A. with leaves lanceolate ; flowers fef-
file ; the JkotJca of Dilienius ; an annual plant, growing
naturally in Spain and Africa ; a variety of this v.'as brought
from the Cape, and cultivated in 1728. 3. A., laiiccolaluin,
panicled A. with leaves lanceolate, flowers paniclcd ; bien-
nial ; growing natui"ally at the Cape of Good Hope ; cul-
tivated in 1759. 4. h.. Jarmentojum, with leaves linear-fill-
form, panicle dichotomons, flowers folltary, peduncled ;
brought from the Cape by Sparrman. 5. A. paiiiculatum,
fhaggy, leaves lanceolate, flowers felTile, branches ere6l.
6. A. perfoUatum, downy, leaves inverfely-ovate, conjoined,
cryltalline-dotted-flowers, peduncled. 7. A. glinoides, hairy
A. ihaggy, herbaceous, procumbent, leaves ovate, flowers
felTile, diltindf. 8. A. fecundum, ibag-hoai")', herbaceous,
procumbent, leaves ovate, flowers iefiUe, imbricate, one-
ranked. 9. A.fruticofum, ihrubby A. fhrubby, ereft, fmooth,
leaves lanceolate, flowers feffile. 10. A. rigidum, iliff A.
flirubby, procumbent, downy, leaves ovate, flowers fcflTile,
remote. The fix latt ipecies were brought from the Cape
by Thunberg. The three firft fpecies may be raifed on mo-
derate hot-beds, in the fpring ; and the other fpecies mull
be managed like other Cape plants.
AizooN. See Sedum.

AIZLT, in Geography, a town of Japan, and capital of
a fmall country of the fame name.

AKABA, a gulf or arm of the Red-Sea, formed by a
tongue of land, which is part of Arabia, that feparates this
gulf from that of Suez ; about 30 leagues long and ^ wide.

AKABAR, or Calaat el Akaba, atmvn of Arabia,
on the gulf to which it gives name ; 57 leagues fouth Jeru-
falem, and 53 leagues eaft Suez.

AKACHAN, a river of Siberia, which joins the Judoma.
N. lat. 60° 8'. E. long. 139° 22'.

AKALCALAKI, a town of Georgia, in Afiatlc
Turkey, about 70 miles fouth-we!l of Teflis, and 88 miles
north-weft of Erivan.

AKALZIKA, orAcAL2iKE\ a town of Afiatic Tur-
key, in the province of Satabago, a country of Georgia.
See Acalzike\

AKAM, or AcAM, a country of A&ica, on the coaft
of Guinea, near the fource of the Volta.

AKANIMIMA, a town or village of Africa, on the
Ivory coaft, near Cape Apollonia. It ftands on rifing
ground, and commands an extenfive fea and landprcfpedt.
AKANNL SeeAcHEM-.

AKANSA, a town of North America, in South Ca-
rolina, fituate on the river Miffiffippi, near a river of the
fame name. N. lat. 36°. W. long. 89° 46'.

AKAOT, a town of Hindoftan, in the diftricl of Berar.
N. lat. ii" 13'. E. long. 77" 3S'.

AKARA, in Butane, a fpecies of Calophyllum.
AKAS, in Geography,.^ fmall town of Tn n'ylvania, be-
tween the river Cnrafna and a branch of that river, not far
from Zatmar,.

AKASAKI,

A K B

A KAS AKI, a town of Japan, in the province of Mikava.

AKASI, a town of Japan, in tlie province of Fariina.

.IKASSEB-ASSELAM, a town of Egypt, marking
the boundary of Afia and Afnca.

AKAST, a town of Arabia, 25 leagues eaft of Jeru-
falem.

AKRARjOr Akuer, Sultan, in B'lngmphy and Hlflory,
t[\i fixtli of the defcendants of Tiu\ar Bek or Tamerlane,
who reigned in Hiudollan under t!ie ajjiicllalion of Moguls,
was born in 1542, and fucceeded his fatlier Ileniaiun in
1556. He was proclaimed emperor at Calarior, in ihe pro-
vince of Lahore, and aiuimed the title of 'Jilnl (filin, q. d.
the aggrandi/.er of reli;'ion. Having overthrown tiie Patans
and taken pollefllon of Dehli, he was inaugurated in this
city, and alTLinied the government which had been at firft
adminiilercd by his tutor, Beyram Klian. He then made
himfell mailer of the llrong iortrefsof Chitor, afterafevere
engagement with a 'rebel chief, and quelled other infur-
reftions ; and having obtained an interval of tranquillity, he
made a pilgrimage, barefoot, to Azmir, at tlie dillanoe of
200 miles, for the purpofe of viliting tlie tomb of Haji
Mondi, and of obtaining children liy the inLerceifion of this
faint. During his abode at Fettipur on his return, he was
informed of a rebellion at Guzerat, v.hich hallcned his march
to this province ; and having fubdued the rebels, reduced
the callle of Surat, and fecured the province bv fortifying
AhiTied-abad, he returned to Hiudollan. In this year he
finifhed the caftle of Agra at an expence of two millions 500
thoufand rupees, laid out I5 million on the walls and palace
of Fettipur, and began to eredl the fumptuous fepulchres of
his family at Schander, iive miles from Agra. At this time
he direded his views to the conqueft of Bengal, and having,
after a long fiege, taken poifelfion of Patau, he became
mafter of the whole countiy. His next acquifitions were
Kabtd, Kandahar, Kaihmir and Sindi. Having^ united
thefe countries to his empire, he employed a powerful army
in the invafion of Dekan, which, notvvithftanding vigorous
refiilance on the part of the queen of this counti-y, fubdued
feveral provinces and ainiexed them to the Mogul empire.
Whilil Akbar was engaged in the profecution of the Dekan
■war, his proiperity was interrupted by a concurrence of do-
meilic misfortunes. He was deprived of two of his fons,
'c'rz. Sultan Morad, in 1598, and Sultan Danul, in 1604,
by intemperance ; and his fon Selim took the advantage of
his abfence, for feizing his treafures and marching a nume-
rous army towards Agra, in order to take poffefiion of his
fatlier's throne. Akbar, as foon as he received intelligence
of his fon's rebellion, haftened back to Agra, and having
m:(de ineifeftual overtures of accommodation, in enforcing
which his Vizir Adul Fazl loft his life, he refolved to
turn his arms againll Sehra. But as he had loil his other
fons, he once more attempted to perfuade his fon into fub-
mifiion. With this view he employed the tutor of Selim
to convey letters to him, in which he reproaclicd him for
his rebellion ; but at the fame time declared, that, as he was
his only fon and heir, he was ready to receive him to favour.
The father's letters and the tutor's- arguments p.oduced
eiTecl ; Selim returned to Agra and fubmitted. Akbar at
firll treated him with autlcnty, but at Icngtii pardoned him,
though he iliU retained fufpicions of his fon's lidelity. Tile
emperor did not long lurvive this reconciliation. Bei,ig ia-
cenfed againft a Mirza, who governed one of his provinces,
he rctolved to remove him by poifon ; and for this purpofe
he ordered two pills of opium, in one of which there was
poifon. Having held tliefe in his hand for fome time, lie gave
one to the Mirza, and by millake took the poif ^ned one hi:n-
i'elf. Tiie confequence, notvvithltanding the ufe cf remedies as

A K B

foon as the miftake was difcovercd, was fatal. Wlien Selim paid
his dying father a vilit, he put his own turban on the prince's
head, and gin him with his father Hcmaiun's fword ; but on
the 1 2tli day after he had taken the poifon, Akbar died,
A. D. 1605, at the age of 63 years, and was buried in the
family lepuiclnc near i\gra.

Akbar was dillinguilhed by his conquefts, and by his
fuccefs in reducing almoll the whole of India to obedience.
He was alfo one or tiie few fovereigns intitled to the appel-
lation both of Great and Good, and tlie only one of the
Mohammedan race, whofe mind was fo far divclled of the
illiberal prejudices of the fanatical religion in which he was
educated, as to be capable of forming a plan wortliy of a
monarch who loved his people, and was folicitous to render
them liappy. Although he was not attached by profcffion
to any form of religion himfelf, he was not a perlecutor of
any. In 1582 he wrote a letter to liie king of Portugal,
preferved by Frafer, and containing an avowalof fcntimcnts,
liberal and enliglitened ; in which he defues that a tranllatiou
of tlie Chrillian Icriptures into Arabic or Perfian might be
feiit him, and at the fame time a learned perfon to explain
the Clirillian rehgion. One Geronimo Xavier was deputed,
and with this view learned the Periian language ; but tlie
gofpvls, which were tranflated into this language, and pre-
fented to the Mogul in r6o2, were fo intermixed with popilh
legends, that they were not '-kely to he vei7 intelligible or
to produce any very good eli'ett. As in every province of
his ey.tenfive dominions, the Hindoos formed the great body
of his lubjecls, Akbar endeavoured to acquire a perfetl
knowledge of their religion, their fciences, their laws, and
their inftitutions ; in order that lie might conduft every part
of his government, particularly the adminilh-ation of jullice,
in a manner as much accommodated as pofiible to their own
ideas. In thefe generous views he was feconded by Abul
Fazl, a miniiter v/ho!"e undcrftanding was not lel"s enliglitened
than tliat of his mailer. By their affiduous refearches, and
conlultations of learned men, fuch information was obtained
as enabled this Vizir to puhliih a brief compendium of
Hindoo jurlfprudence in the Ayeen Akbeiy, which may be
confidered as the firll genuine communication of its prin-
ciples to perfons of a different religion. In what cdimation
the mild government of Akbar was held by the Hindoos
we may learn from a beautiful letter of Jeffwant Sing, Rajah
of Joudpore, to Aurengzebe, iiis fanatical and pcrfecuting
fucceffor. " Your royal ancellor, Akbar, whofe thnme is
now in heaven, condufted the affairs of this empire in equity
and firm fecurity for tiie fpace of 52 years, prcfcrving every
tribe of men in eaie and happinefs. Whether they were
followers of Jefus, or of Mofes, of David, or of Mahomed j
were they Brahmins, were they of the fed of Dharians,
which denies the eternity of matter, or of that which
aiciibes the exillcnce of the world to chance, they all
equally enjoyed his countenance and favour ; infomuch that
his people, in gratitude for the indiferiminate proteftiou
whicii he afforded them, dillinguiflied liim by tlie appellation
of "Jug^ot Groiu, guardian of mankind. — If your Majelly
places any faith in thofc books, by dillinftion called divine,
you will there be inftrutled, that God is the God of all
mankind, not the God of Mahomedans alone. The Pagan
and the Mu'.fulman are equally in his prcfonce. Dlllinflions
of colours are of his ordination. It is He who gives exift-
ence. In your temples, to his name the voice is raifed in
prayer; in a houfe of images, v.'here the bell is fliakcn. Hill
He is tiie objert of adoration. To vilify the religion and
cuitonis oi oilier men, is to fet at naught the pleafure of
the Almighty. When we deface a pidiure, we naturally
incur the refentmeut pf the painter j and julUy has the poet

laid,

A K E

faiJ, prcrumc not to an-ait^n or to fcnitinize tl>« various
works of Power divino." Vor tliis valuable communication,
we are indebted to Mr. Ormc ; Tragmcnts, notes, p. 97.
Trafer's Hill. Nadir Shah, p. II— iS. Mod. Un. Hiit.
vol. V. p. 365—375. Robtrtlou's Hill. Dilquilitiou con-
cerning India, p. 424. f X, 1- ■

AKBi:ns.-13ABA, in Gtssraphy, a town of Natolia, in
Afiatic Turkey, 12 leagues north of Kutaja.

AKDASCH, a large and fluurilluiig market town ot
Schirwan, in the territory of the Chan of Scheki ; iituate
to the foulh of Nuchi, on the bank of the Knr, and con-
lilling of about 300 houfes. To tliis town all tlie neighbour-
ing nations refort for trade and the barter of their com-
modities. /~. 1 1

AlvEARADI, a country of Africa, on the Gold

AKF.rORD Bay, lies on the north fide of t!ie idand
Holmlly, to the weil of the North Cape. N. lat. 71" 10'.
E. long. 24 30'.

AKEN, John Van, in Biography, an engraver, who,
from tiie ilyle of his etchings, is fuppofed to have lived in
the 1 6th ctntuiT. He is a difFeient perfon from Achan
the painter.

AKENSIDE, Mark, M. D. more known as a poet
than as a phyiician, was born at Newcallle-upon-Tyne, in
1721, and intended by his parents for a minitler among the
IVotellant OilTenters ; and with this view he was feat to
Edaiburgh, in 1739, at the age of 18. Having here ac-
quired a llronger propcniity to the iUidy of phylic than to
that of divinity, he removed to Leyden in 1742, and took
his degree of doftor in that faculty in i 744. In that year,
belides'his thcfis, " De ortu et incremento foetus humani,"
delivered on account of his degree, he publillied his cele-
brated poem " on the Pleafures of the Imagination," which
was received with great applaufe, and advanced tlie author
to poetical fame. It is faid, that when Pope was Ihcwn the
poem in manufcript by Doddey, to whom it had been of-
fered for a larger fum' than he was inclined to give, he ad-
vifed the bookfeller not to make a niggardly offer, for the
author of it was no every day writer. It has been alfo fur-
mifcd, that this poem and fome others were written before
lie went to Edinburgh. The poem, on its publication, was
ftverely attacked by Mr. (afterwards liilhop) Warburton,
not on account of its poetry, but for lome remarks which
t'ne author had introduced on the nature and objefts of ridi-
cule ; and vindicated by an anonymous friend, fince known
to be Mr. Jeremiah Dyfon. The next publication was
" an EpilUe to Curio," which contained a warm invcftive
iigainfl Pultcney, earl of Bath, on account of his political
conduft. In 1745, our author publiflied ten odes on dif-
ferent fubjects, and in different tlyles and manners. In his
fubfequent publications he was more (low. His ode to the
earl of Huntingdon appeared in 174.8; and in 1758, he
attempted to roufe the national Ipirit, by an ode to the
country gentlemen of England. Molt of his remaining
poetical eltufions appeared in Doddey's colieAion ; and ot
tliefe t'le moll conliderable is, a " Hymn to the Naiads."
His poems were collected and publiflied in a quarto volume,
in 1772, by Mr. Dyfon.

On his return .from Leyden, he fettled as phyfician at
Northampton ; from thence he removed to Hampltead ;
where he continued about two years and an half ; and finally
fettled in London, where Ills friend, Mr. Dyfon, allowed
him 300I. a year, in order to enable him to maintain his
rank as a phyfician. His medical reputation and practice
{gradually increafcd, and he was chofen a fellow of the
Hoyal Society, appointed phyfician to St. Thomas's hof-

7

A K E

pital, admitted by mandamus, to the degree of doctor ia
phyfic, in the univei-fity of Cambridge, elected a fellow of
the Royal College of Phylicians in London ; and, upon the
eltablilhment of the queen's houfhold, advanced to the rank
of one of her majelty's phyficians. Notwith Handing his
acknowledged abilities, and tlie lingular patronage by which
he was dillinguiflied, he never arrived at any vcr^- conlide-
rable eminence in his profefiion. It has been faid, that he
had a kind of haughtinefs and ofl:entation in his manners,
which were not calculated to ingratiate him with his brethren
of the faculty, or to render him generally acceptable.

He died of a putrid fever in June 1770, in the 49t!i
year of his age, and was buried in the parilh-church of St.
James's, Weltniinlter. His books and prints, of which he
was a curious collector, came, after his death, into the pof-
feflion of Mr. 1)) fon.

His medical writings were his " DilTertatio de Dyfcnte-
ria," written in Latin, and much admired for the elegance
of the language, publillied in 1764, and twice tranllated
into Englilh ; " Obfcrvations on the origin and ufe of the
Lymphatic veflTels in animals," printed in the Phil. Tranf.
for 1757 ; and vindicated againlt the remarks of Dr. Alex.
Monro, in a fmall pamphlet, publillied in 1 758 ; " An
account of a Blow on the Heait and its effects," piiblilhed
in the Phil. Tranf. for J 763 ; " Oratio Anniverfaria, ex in-
ftituto Harvcii, &c." read in 1759, and publiflied in 4to
in 1760; "Obfcrvations oif Cancers;" "Of the ufe of
Ipecacuanha in Aithnias :" " A method of treating AVhite
Swellings of the Joints," all publillied in the liril volume
of the Medical Tranfactions.

In Dr. Akenlide's poems, and the notes annexed to them,
we may difcover his extenlive acquaintance with ancient
literature, and his ardent attachment to the caufe of civil
and religious liberty. His politics were thought to incline
to republicanifm, but no evidence to this purpofe is dedu-
cible from his poems ; and liis theology is luppofed to have
verged towards deifni : and yet, in his ode to Hoadly, and
to tlie author of the Memoirs of the Houfe of Brandcn-
burgh, he has tellilied his regard for pure Chriltlanity, and
his dillike of attempts for letting men free from the re-
Itraints of religion. Our readers may be gratified with the
following extract from the fii It of thefc odes.

" To him the teacher blefs'd,

Who lent religion from the palmy field

By Jordan, like the morn to cheer — the weft.

And lifted iiptlie veil which heav'n from earth conceai'd,

To Hoadly thus his mandate he addrefs'd :

Go, then, and refcue my diflionoured law

From hands rapacious, and from tongues impure ;

I>ct not my peaceful name be made a lure,

Fell perfecutlon's mortal Inares to aid :

I>et not my words be impious chains, to draw

The fi'ce-born foul in more than brutal awe.

To faith without affent, allegiance unrepald."

Dr. Akenfidc's rank among the Englilh poets is alTigncd
to him in confequence of his " Pleafures of the Imagina-
tion," founded on Addifon's well known papers on the
fame fubject, in the Spectator : — " the moft beautiful di-
dactic poem," fays Mr. Cooper, in his letters concerning
talle, " that ever adorned the Englilh language ;" and
though abltrafted in its nature, fo popular, tliat when It
firll appeared, it palfed through feveral editions, and " is
llill read," fays an excellent judge (Dr. Aikin), " with
enthufialm by thofe who have acquired a rclllli for the lolty
conceptions of pure poetry, and the llrains of numerous
blank vcrfe." The merit of this poem, and of the wnter,

is

A K R

pus were flayed alive. This happened, according to tlie
Jcuifh clironoloj];ills, in the year 120; but, according to
Baliiage (lib. vii. c. 12.), in 13S. Akiba was honoured
by the Jews, after his death, as an eminent doi^lor of theii'
law ; and his tomb, fui)])oted to be at Tiberias, was vilitcd
with great lolemnity. He is faid to have altered the He*
brew text of the Bil)le, with RTpeft to the age of the pa-

A K I

IS fo juflly appreciated by Mrs. Barbauld in an EfTay pre-
fixed to an ornnmented edition of this poem, publifhed in
179J, that we fliall jrratify our readers by fubjoining a part
of the funimaiy witii which it concludes. " If the genius
of Akenfide is to be ellimated from this poem, it will be
found to be lofty and elegant, challe, correct, and claf-
fical ; not marked with llrong ti-aits of originality, not

ardent nor exuberant. His enthufiafm was rather of that triarchs, when they began to have children, which is greater
kind which is kindled by reading and imbibing the fpirit of according to the Septuagint than in the Hebrew text ; and
authors, than by contemplating at firil hand the works of he did this, it is faid, to put off the period of the MelTiah'3
nature. As a verfilier, Akeniide is allowed to Hand amonirlt advent, which, according to the tradition of the Jews, was
thofe who have given the moil liniihed models of blank not to take }>lace till the completion of 6000 years. It lias
vcrfe. His periods are long but harmonious ; the cadences been argued, that the tranflation of Aquila, which was pub-
fall with grace, and the meafure is fupported with uniform lilhed in the 12th year of Adrian, agrees with the Hebrew
dignity. His mufe poffefles the mitn ereil, ami high com- text of this time, and that tliis Aquila having gone over

from the profelHon of Chrillianity to that of the Jcwifli
reliijion, and enlifted among the dilciples of Akiba, pei-

■nuiniFiNg gtiit. We fliall fcarcely find a low or trivial expref-
fion introduced ; a carclefs and untinilhed line permitted to
l*and. His ftatelinefs, hoCever, is fomewhat allied to lliff-
iiefs. His vcrle is fometinies feeble throiiirh too rich a re-

fuaded liis mailer to make this alteration. Pezron Antiq.
c. 16. Tliis charge, however, is feebly lupjjorted, and the

dundancy of ornament, and fonietimes laboured into a de- diflbnance between the two texts is a difficulty that remains

Gen. Dicl. Brucker's

gree of obfcurity from too anxious a delire of avoidin
natural and fnnple expreiTions." Biog. Brit. Gen. Bioij.

AKERKUl", in Geogriiphy, a mountain of Aiiatic Tur-
key, call of the Euphrates, iu the cjovernment of Bagdad.
Tavernier placed it between the Euphrates and the Tigris,
fuppoling that the ruins found here are thofe of the tower
of Babel.

AKERMAN, or Bielcorod, in Geography, a town of
Beffarabia, on the coall of the Black Sea, at the month of
the Dneiller, 22 miles fouth-call of Bender. E. long. 31"
14.' N. lat. 46'' 8'.

AKERSLOOT, William, in Biugraph\', a painter and he fuggells that it is the A'i/-, i. e,
and engraver, who hved at Haarlem, and flouriflicd in 1624. in Scripture. Amos. ix. 7.

AKERSITND, in Geography, a bay on the coall of AKKIA, an ifiand near the weft coall of Eaft Green-
Norway, ten leagues wcil-northlweil of Frederickftadt. land. N. lat. 60° 38'. W. long. 46'.

AKHISAR, q. d. U'hhc-cajUc, a name given by the AKKIAH, a town of Romania, in European Turkey,
Turks to the ancient Thyatira, on account of the white eight miles call of Burgas.

marble that abounds there. It is a town of Natolia, in AKON]), an officer of jullice in Perfia, who takes cog-
Afiatic Turkey, 13 leagues eail-fouth-eaft Pergamo ; nizance of the caufes of orphans and widows ; ofcontratHs,
fituate in a fertile plain on the river Hemius, abounding and other civil concerns. He is the head of the fchool of
with grain and cotton, and carrying on a commerce of opium law, and gives leftures to all the fubaltern officers ; he has-
and Turkey carpets. N. lat. 38'^ 50'. E. long. 28" 30'. his deputies in all the courts of the kingdom, who, with the

AKI, a province of Japan, in the weftern part of the fecond y;;.*-^, make all contracts,
ifland of Kiphon ; with a town of the fame name " ""

illU to be fatisfactorily folved.
Philos. bv Enfield, vol. ii. p. 200.

A KliVl, in Geography, a town of Africa, on the Gold Coaft.

AKlUKECli, -I town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia,
eight leagues eaft-louth-eall of Kallamoni.

AKKER, a city of Syria, fituate uiron mount Bargy-
his, about nine leagues to the fouth-eall of Toitofa ; alfiv
a river that runs by it. This, fays Dr. Shaw, (Trav. p. 2^iy.)-
mull have been formerly as noted for its ilrcugth, extent,
and beauty, as it is now for tlie-goodnefs of the apricots,
peaches, nettarincs, and other fruit, wiiich it produces;

the city, mentioned

AKIliA, in B'iugraph\', a famous Jewiffi Rabbi, lived in
the firil century of the Chriilian xra, loon after the dellruc-
tion of Jciufaleni, and devoted himfclf to the lludy of the
Cabballllic philofophy. In the earlier period ot his life,
and till he was 40 years of age, he was a fliepherd in the
fcrvice of a rich citizen of Jerufalem ; but his mailer's

AKOUSCHY, in Zoohgy, the Cavia Acufchy, the
olive cavy of Pennant, has a (hort tail, with the upper
parts of the body of an olive colour, and the under part
whitilli. Some have reckoned this animal a variety of the
Agouti ; but it differs from it in having a tail, which the
other wants, or rather a longer tail than that of the others
in being fmaller ; and i)i having its hair of an olive, and not

daughter having promifed to marr)- him, if he became a a red, colour ; which are diiFliences, fays Bufton^ fufficient

learned man, he affiduoufly applied to lludy. So fuccefs-
ful was his application, that he became one of the moll fanunis
teachers in the fehools of Jewilh learning, firil at Eydda,
and afterwards at Jafna ; and if the Jewilh accounts may be
credited, he had 24,000 dilciples. The Jews of Palelline

to conllitute two dillinft fpecies. It is about the fi/.e of a
half-grown rabbit, is eafily tamed, is hunted with dogs, anet
reckoned the fined game in South America. Its flelli is
white and delicate, and much elleemed by tlic inhabitants of
Guiana, Cayenne, and Brafil, v.liere tliis animal is found.

elleemed him fo highly, that they fcrupled not to fay, that It inhabits the woods, and lives on iTuits; has fuih a dread

God revealed to him what he had concealed from Mofes. of water, that it will fubmit to be feized by the dogs rather

The book intitled Jet/irah, which has been afcribcd to than go into it ; and it will fonietimes, though rarely, cry

AbrahaiJi, is faid to have been written by him, and, though like the reftlefs cavy. liuflon by SmeUie, vol. v, p. 61,

it abounds with trifles anel abfureiities, it was quoted by the vol. viii. p. 270.

jews at this period, as of divine authority. Towards the AKQUEIDAN, in Geography, a town of Africa, with

dole of his life, Akiba joined the llandard of the impollor a Dutch faftory, on the Gold Coall.

Barchochcbas, who appeared under the charafter of the AKRIDA, a town of Macedonia, in Eir-opean Turkey,

Meffiah, to deliver his counti^men from the power of the fituate on the Drino, 124 leagues weft of Conllantinople,

i-niperor Adrian. When this impoftor was taken prifoner, and 45 leagues fouth-call of Ragufa. N. lat. 41^46'. E.long,

and his followers put to the* Iword, Akiba and his Ion Pap- 20° 36',

AKSE,

ALA

A L A

AKSA, a fiver of Georgia in Afia, that nins into tVie
Gafpi-.m Scs, ncarZitrach or Tcreck.

AKSCHINSKA, a town and foiti'.-fs of Ruffia, 16
li;agin;s foiitii of Doroninfl;.

AKSERAI, a town of Natolia, in Afiatic Tmkey, 20
leagues eaft-north-eaft of Konieh, or Cogni. N. lat. 38"
26'' E. lon(T. •^4"' 14'.

AKSHEDSHAR, a town of Natolia, nine leagues
fouth-well of r.regri.

AKSHEHR, a town of Natolia, 23 leagues welt of
Konieh. N. lat. 38° 26'. E. long. 31=" 36'.

AKSU, a province of Little Bukharia, to the north of
Kalhgnr, and well of the province of Turfan, about 350
miles long, and 70 in brcacUh. Its chiff town, of the fame
name, lies on thi: north lide of a fmall river, which runs
fouth-eall, and lolcs itfclf in the fands. N. lat. 42° 30'.
E. long. 83° 26'.

AKULA, an ancient city of Afia, fituate on the eaftern
bank of the Tigris.

AKITN, Akvn'ok, and Akutan. See Fox IJlands.

AKURA, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the govern-
Tiient of Tarabuc, or Tripoli of Syria ; feven or eight
leagues from mount I/ibanus. It has a Maronitc bifliop.

AL, an Arabic particle, prefixed to words, to exalt, or
give them a more cmphalical fignification — As, in y//koran,
^^/gebra, &c.

AL, or Ald, in our Anc'ieiil Writings, fignifies as mucli
as old, ancient. — This being prefixed to the names of places,
expreffes their antiquity ; as v//r/ borough, y/A/gate, S:c.

ALA, a Latin term, literally fignifying wing, ufed, in
Aiiatnmy, for feveral parts of the body, which bear fome
refemblance to the figure of a wing.

Thus, tl'.e lobes of the liver are fometimes called alse.

The foft fpongious bodies in x\\i. pudendum mul'ithre, ufually
ealled the iiymphir, are denominated aire.

The two cartilages of the nofe, which form the noftrils,
are called alae.

And the fame denomination is given to the tip of the
AURICLE ; and to the whole cartilaginous part of the ear,
liy way of diftlnftion, from the tip and pendent part below,
called the lobe. It is alfo applied to the procefs of the os
fpbcnotdes.

The tenn alas is fometimes applied to the arm-pits, other-
wife called axilltf. Thcfe parts abound with glands, and are
great receptacles of humours ; whence a rank fmell fome-
times exhales, called fdlrjr alarum.

Ala, in Botany, a name given by the Latin writers of
Medicine, in the later ages, to the helenlum, or elecam-
pane.

Ala is alfo ufed in Botany, for the angle which the
leaves, or the ftalks, or pedicles of the leaves, form with
the ftem, or branches of the plant from which they arife.
This angle is ufually acute, and always is direfled upwards.

Ala is fometimes alfo applied to the angle formed by the
branches themfelves with the flem, which is alfo obferved
to be very regular and uniform.

Ala has feveral other different fignifications. It moft
frequently is ufed to exprefs the hollow of the ftalk of a
plant, which either the leaf or the pedicle of the leaf, makes
with it ; or it is that hollow turning, or Jinus, placed be-
tween the ftalk, or branch of a plant, and its leaf, from
whence a new ofFspring is wont to put forth. Sometimes
it is taken alfo for a little branch, as when we fay, a ftock,
or ftem of a plant, is armed with many a/if ; becaufe thefe
fmall branches ftand out from it, in form of fo many wings.

Al;e is alfo ufed to fignify thofe petals, or leaves of the
papilionaceous flowers, placed between thofe others which are

called the vexillum and the carina, which make the top and
bottom of the flower. Inftances of flowers of this ftruc-
turc are feen in the flowers of peas and beans, in which the
top leaf or petal, is the vexillum, the bottom tiie carina, and
the fide ones the ate.

A.\.K. is aUo ufed for thofe extremely flcndcr and membra-
naceous parts of fome feeds, which appear as wings placed
on them, as in the plumeria, the fruit of the trumpet-flower,
the fruit of the maple, and the hke, which arc called by
botanifts alated feeds.

Al;e is finally ufed alfo for thofe membranaceous expan-
fions, which run all the way along the ftems of fome plants,
and are therefore called alaled ftalks.

Kiijc, in the Military Art, the two wings or extremes of
an army ranged in form of battle.

An ala of horfe, amongft the Romans, confiited of 300
horfemen, and was divided into turmic and decuriac ; each
turma confifting of 30 men, and, each decuria of ten ; fo
that tiiere were in every ala ten turma:, and in cvei"y turma
three decurix.

Ala, in Geography, a town of Japan, in the province of
Satzuma.

Ala, or Al, a town of Arabia, 21 leagues north-eaft of
Hagiaz.

Ala-Miliarensis, in Ancient Geography, an epifcopal
city of Africa, in the Mauritania Csefarienfis.

Ala-Nova, a town of Pannonia, according to Antonine.

ALABA, a fmall ifland in the Indian ocean, near Ta-
probana, according to Ptolemy.

Alaba, or Alava, in Geography, a fmall diftritl or
province of Spain, extending along the river Ebro, from
the mountains of Bifcay to the frontiers of Navarre, and
comprehending about feven or eight leagues in length, and
fix or feven leagues in breadth. The foil is fruitfid in r)'e,
barley, vines, and feveral forts of fruits ; and the iron mines
of the country furnifli materials for the manufafture of arms
and other utenfils, which furnifli articles of commerce. The
chief town is Victoria.

Alaba, a large kingdom of Africa, fonning a part of
Monemugi, is fituate to the eaft of Cambate, and extends
to the coaft of Zanguebar. It is inhabited by a cruel peo-
ple, called Gallas.

ALABAGIUM, in Ancient Geography, a promontoiy
of Afia, in Carmania, upon the borders of the Ichthyophagi,
according to Ptolemy.

ALABAMA, in Geography, a confiderable river of
America, in Eaft Florida.

AIjABAMA, an Indian village, delightfully fituate on
the banks of the Mifliflippi. The inhabitants are the re-
mains of the ancient Alabama nation, w'nich inhabited the
eaft arm of the great Mobile river, that ftill bears their name,
now pofteftcd by the Creeks, or Mufcogulges, bywhomthe^
were conquered.

Alabama is alfo the name of a river in America, which
is formed by the junftion of the Coofee or High-town river,
and Tallnpoofee river, at Little Tallafee, and runs in a
fouth-weft direftion, until it meets Tombigbee river from
the north-weft at the great ifland which it there fonns, 90
miles from the mouth of Mobile bay, in the gulf of Mexico.
Tills beautiful river has a gentle current, pure waters, and
excellent fifli ; and its banks abound with valuable produc-
tions in the vegetable and mineral kingdoms. Travellers
have failed down this river in boats, in the month of May,
in nine days from Little Tallafee to Mobile bay, a diftance
of about 350 miles.

ALABANA, a town of Arabia Felix, placed by Pto-
lemy in long. 74'^ 30'. and lat. 20° 15.'

ALABANDA,

A I. A

AI.AEAN'DA, a town of Carii;, in Afia Minor, fouth
{■!" the ri\cr Mroaiidtr. It was foiiiulcd by Ah'.bniichir, wlio
(in tills account \v:is vvoriliipptd hy its ir.liabit.'\iits, callid
Alabandi, Alabamlii, and Alabandi.iifi.!;. Jii tlie time of
I'liiiv it was a free city, ul. tree it was proverbiailv dei'.omi-
linted tbe mod tortiinate tity of tiie Carians. .Stral o (v(;l.
xii. p. 976.) rtprefeiits the Alabar.denlVs as luxurious and
gluttonous, and devoted to p'.eafure. Home writeis have
given the name Abdiauda to Antuh ni.\.

ALA15ARCHA, iu Julirjuily, a kind of Uiagiftratc
among the Jews of Alexandria, whom tlie emperors al-
lowed them to clc6t, to have the fuperintcndeuey of their
policy, and to decide differences and diiputes wliich arofe
among them.

ALAEARDA, the name of a fj^ear anciently ufcd by
the Helvetians and Germans.

ALABASTER, William, in 7i'wt;rti/)l<y, an Englifti
divine, was born at Hadlcigh, in Suflolk, in the 16th cen-
tuiy, educated in Truilty college, Cambridge ; and accom-
panied the Earl of EfTex, as his chaplain, in his expedition
to Cadiz, in the reign of Queen Elizabeth. Fickle in his
temper, unfteady in his pruiciples, and difFatisfied with his
fituation, and at the fame time ieduced by the pomp of the
RomiHi worfliip and the rtfpeft paid to its priclls, he became
a convert to the church of Rome. But in his new connec-
tion he was difappointed ; ar.d upon his return to England,
he refumed the Proleilant profeilion, and obtained prefer-
ments in the Englifli church ; being appointed to a living
in Hertfordfhire and a prebend ot St. Paul's, tie was wtU
acquainted with the Hebrew language ; but fo much at-
tached to the unintelligible myfteries of the Jewifli cabbala,
that his knowledge of the original language of the C^ld
Teftament was of little fervice to him in the intei'prctation
of fcriptUre. Of liis talenlB as a Biblical commentator,
we mav form fome judgment by the ferm.on which he
preached on taking his degree of dc'ftor in divinity at Cam-
bridge. His text was iCliron.i. i. Ad;mi, Seth, Enos ;
and having juft touched upi'U the literal fenfe, he enlarged
on its myiUcal meaning ; explaining Adam bv mis.fortunc
and raifeiT, and lo of the reft. He wrote a Lexicon Pen-
taglotton, which was printed in folio, in 16^7 ; and other
works of a myllic;;! kir.d, viz. " Apparatus in Revclatio-
ncni Jefu ChrHH," jirinted at Antwerp, in 1607; " Spira-
culumTubarum feu fons Spiritualium ixpofitionum ex cqui-
vocis Pentatcuchi Jignilicationihus," and " Ecce Sponfus
venlt, feu Tuba pulchritudinls, hoc ell, demonllratio quod
non lit illlcitum, nee impi.lTibile, computare durationem
Mundi ct tenipus fecund! adventus Chrilli," all printed in
London. He was alio the author of a Latin tragedy, in-
tilled Roxana, which, at its exhibition in a college at Cam-
bridge, produced a fingular accident. When the laft words,
fcquar, fcqii.ir, vvere pronounced, the voice and mauner of
the attor lo terrified a lady who was prefent, that flie irre-
coverablv loih I'.er fenfes. Alabailcr died in the year 1640.
Gen. Diet.

AtABASTtR, aWi'iire, Fr. ahlajlntes of Pliny, in Mine-
ralogy. Some derive the word from ollui, btcauie of the
whitenefs of this ftone. Others from a''.y.hy.r(o;; which they
form from the privat. a, and 7-.<xjji'Sayw, aipio, lo take ; this
llone beuig too Imooth and flippery for the hand to fallen
hold of it. Under this name are confounded two minerals,
wholly dllUiu'l from each other when pure, but W'hich, in
fome of the varieties, are occarionally mixed together.

The compiifl gypfum of Kirwan (Alabalb-ite, I. a Meth.
albatre gypfeiix tic Li/le. Dichter Gvpllein, IVerner)
when of a white or yellowifh, or greenilh colour, femi-
tranfparent, and capable of receiving 1 polifji, is known

Vol. L

ALA

nmong tlutiiaries by the nam': of alabaftcr, which term is
alfo retained asi a fceondary appellation i.i utoII book* ct
mineralogy ; and U ccitaiuly iho ah'l.aflritcs of Plii.y.
which is charafterifed by that aullior as a llone rcfernbllm;
gypfum. When its coloitrs are diipoled in bandi or clouds,
it is called, in the lldl cafe, onyx alabailcr, ar.d in the lat-
ter, agate alabafter. It not unfixquently contains a fufii-
cient ])ortinn of carbonated lime lo produce a brifk eficr-
vefcence with nitrous acid ; and hence has originated the
confufion of authors, who make the circurr.llaree cf tflfl-
vefcence an client iul diiUndive charafter between the gyp-
feou.s and calcareous alabafters. Its fpecilic gravity feldorn
exceeds 1.9. Its fradure is compacl — fphnU'ry, fometimeti
verging on the fme-grdincd foliated. In Iranfparency, it i«
conliderably fuperior to white wax, allowing light to pal*
readily through it, but not tranfnulting the forms of objertts.
By night calcination it is converted into Paris plafler.

Gypfeous alabailer is veiy eafily worked, but is not fuf-
ce{>tlble of a polifli equal to marble, it is made into va.
fes, columns, tables, and other ornamental articlee of fur-
niture ; thin flabs of it have even been ufed in one of the
churches of Florence inllead of window glals. Its brit-
tlenefs liowever, and want of luftre, have caufed it to In-
alnioll wholly fuperfeded by more durable materials. Among
the ancients, the moll eileeraed came from Carmania, Up-
per Egypt, and Syria : of the variety called onyx, the
boxes for holding perfumes were raoftly fabricated ; thuk,
in Horace, vve meet with " Nardi parvus onyx."

The calcurei.ut nlahnjler, or linter (albatre calcaire), is •
llone of the fame family as flalaftite, confiding chierty of
carbonat of lime, and exhibiting a confiderable variety cif
colours ; fuch as pure white, yellowilh, greenidi, rcddifli,
and blulfli grey : its fraflure is llrialed or fibrous, the ftrix
fometimcs parallel and Ibmetlmrs di\crgcnt : its hai-dnefs is
fomewhat inferior to that of marble, which neverthelc(s
does not prevent it from rcCLi\li!g a gocd pollfii : its fpe-
cilic gravity from 2.4 to 2.^ : its tranfpaiency is nearly equaJ-
to that of white wax: it iffervefccs with acids and burns
to lime. Two forts of alabadcr are ('.idinguinied by da-
tuarics, the common and orieiit.J ; under the latter of thefe
are ranked the hardeil, the lined, and the bed coloure.l
pieces ; a suniber of fub-varieties ai-e alio prodv:ced by the
colours being in veins, or dendritic, or in concentric undu-
lating zones. Italy and Spain yield the mod beautiful
fpeclir.ens ; the inferior kinds are found in Germany and
France. It is manufaftured, I'ke the gypfeous alabadcr,
into tables, vales, datuts, cliimney-pieces, &c.

Many of the hot fulphurtous waters rife out of the
ground of a turbid wheyilh colour, on account of a large
quantity of gypfum and chalk, which they hold fulpinded,
and in a date of half folution ; as thefe grow cool and lofc
their carbonic acid, the earthy particles are for the mod
part depolitcd, lining the bottom and ddcs of the channels
in which they (low whh a compact alabadcr. Advantage
has been oecafionally taken of this circumdance to obtain
very beautifid impreffions of bai reliefs, by cxpoiing the
moulds lo a current of fuch water, till they have become^
filled with the earthy dtpofit. The mod remarkable of
thefe fprings in Europe, is that which fupplies the baths
of St. Phlhp iiiTufcany: it Is fitualed on a mountain near
Radicofaiii, and fonns tlie fourcc of the little river Paglia,
'J'he water as it ill'ues fortii is veiy hot, fprings out with
great impetuolity, has a lliong fulphureous odour, and
holds in folution a large quantity m calcareous matter.
From its veiy fourcc it flows in deep channels, covered with
a thick crud of ilaladltc, of a dazzling white, efpecially
w hen the fun fhiius upon it ; and which is harder or fofttr
<! S i«

ALA

jn proport'on to the rr.pidity of the ftrcam, ard the (b-
limiity of its fall. Tliis circumdancc fiiggcHtd to Dr.
Vfgn'i the idea of cftabhfliing, on this moiiiitnin, a niami-
fa<\in-e of artificial alabafter. For tliis piirp(jfL-, he tiifl:
coMidtd a number of plailtr modtU, of the bill bas-relitis,
in Rome and other phiecs of Italy. Tliefe models fei-ve to
iorm the hollow moulds, wliieh are n :ade of fiilphur, ac-
cording to the following procefs. The philUr model is
rubbed over with boiled liiileed oil, and lurroundcd witii
an edging of plafler, of the fame height as the inteiidid
thieknels of the fiibfeqiicnt ba'i-relief. 'I'hcn fulphur,
melted with jull fiithcicnt lieat to make it floM , is poure<l
on tlie plaller model, and fills it to tlie height of the edg-
ing. 'I'hc fulphur moidd tiiiis made, is placed in a kind
of wooden tub, roughly put together, open at top and
bottom, and of lefs diameter below than above. This
tub has on the infide a falfe bottom, made of (lips of
wood laid crofs-wife, in order to detain, for a (liort
time, the water which dallifs on them. Juft above this,
is a row of wooden pegs, fallcned to the tub, around its
whole inner circumference, on which the fulphur mould is
let down, and thus fnpported. The whole is then placed
under the boiling fpring, and inclofed with walls, to pre-
vent it from being dilplaced by the wind. The water,
which thus dalhcs on ihe moulds, depofits its earth both
witliiii and witliout them, giving the impreflion in bas-relief
within, and dt-fpofing itfelf in an undulated furface on the
outfide. The hardncfs of the alaballer depends on the degree
of obliquity at which the mould is placed, in order to receive
the dalhing of the water. The more vertical its pofition,
the harder is the alabafter. However, as the hardeil mo-
dels are not fo white as the fofter, the water is in fome
cafes caufed to make a circuitous courfe, in order to de-
pofit all its groffer particles before it arrives at the mould,
tven ■ the fofter ones, however, are as hard as Carrara
marl)le, and furpafs it in whitenefs. The time required for
thefc produAions varies, according to the thicknefs, from
one month to four. When the fulphur mould is fuffici-
cntly filled, and the ground of the model has acquired a
thicknefs capable of fupporting the figures, the whole is
removed from the water ; the wooden fupports are broken
by gentle ilrokes of the hammer, and the incruftation on
the outfide of the moijd is chipped off by repeated ilrokes.
Then the tub is ftruck with a fmart blow of a hammer,
which feparates the model from the mould ; generally, how-
ever, cracking the latter. The briUiancy of the models
is completed by brufhing them with a llift" hair-bru(h, and
rubbing with the palm of the hand.

The compofition of this alabafter is gypfum, mixed with
a fmall proportion of carbonated lime. Dr. de Vegni has,
after many attempts, fucceeded in giving a fine black, or
flefh colour to the figures thus formed, by putting a vefltl
half full of colouring matter into the water, before it
arrives at the mould. The colouring may alfo be varied,
Hsy protecting particular parts of the mould, while the
water continues charged with colouring matter.

A fpring of the fame kind as that juft defcribed, and
applied to fimilar purpofcs, is that of Guancavelica in
Peru. The water riles from the ground into a large bafon
boiling hot, and of a muddy yellowifh w hite colour. At
a little diilance from the bafon, the water becoming cool,
depofits calcareous matter in fuch vaft abundance, as to
fill large moulds with a compaft ftone, of which fome of
the houfes of the town are conftrufted. The moulds of
^atuaries, in like manner, being expoled to the water, are
filled with hard confufedly cryftallized alabafter, and the
bus reliefs thus produced, by polilliing, become femitranf-

ALA

parent and very beautiful. The images mede ufe of by
the Cathol'cs of Lin;a, in their religious ceremonies, are
faid to be all fonned in this manner.

Pliny Nat. Hill. — Hauy, Traite de Mineralogie Kir-

wan's Nlineralogy. — Bomare, Diet. d'Hill. Kat. — Journal
de I'hyfiquc, vol. i.^:.

Alabaster, in Anliqtiily., is alfo ufed for a vafc, wherein
odoriferous liquors were anciently put.

The reafon of the denomination is, that veHels fur this
purpofe were frequently made of alabafter-ftonc, which Pliriy
and other ancients reprefent as peculiarly proper for this
purpofe.

Several critics will have the box mentioned in the Gofpils
as made of alaballer, to have been of glafs. And though
the texts fay, that the woman broke it, yet the pieces feera
miraculoufly to have been united, finee we are told, the
entire box was purchaled by the emperor Conrtantine, and
pi'eferved as a relic of great pr.ce.

Otheis will have it, that the name alabafter denotes the
form rather than the matter of this box. In this view, they
define alabafter-, by a box without a handle, deriving the
.word fi-oni the privative a, and ?.a?>i, an/a, har.cUe.

The expreflion, o-nrpiiarai to aXafixrfov, ufed by the
evangelift Mark, (xiv. 3.) and which oiu- tranflators have
rendered " She brake the box," has occafioned fome
difficulty in the interpretation of this paffage ; but by i-e-
ferring the term ;rv»Toi4 a?:^ to the ointment, and not to the
alabafter box ; and rendering the words, with Bifhop
Peaice, "breaking fire poured the box," ;'. e. breaking the
parts of the ointment, and liquefying them by fliaking it,
ihe poured fome of the ointment out of the box upon his
head ; or, with Mr. Wakefield, " After fhaking the box
together-, fire poured it out upon his head," the difficulty
is obviated. Tojuftify this tranflation, and interpretation
of the word c-uvrfi^oura, it may be obferved, that Luke
(ix. 39.) ufes awTfi^u-j for bru'ifing. Blackwall, Sacred
Claffics, vol. ii. p. 166. has remarked, that the fliaking of
liquids of this nature breaks and feparates their parts, and
thei-eby makes them miOre liquid and fragi-ant ; and that
the word 3-t7Tpi4.ao-5i is an excellent one for that purpofe;
and he very juilly quotes, on this occafion, Plato in Phasf-
done, AixTfi^-"? fo $:»f^axov : Martial's Epigrams, iii. 55.
Ed. Delphin.

" Et fluere cscujh cinnama fufa vitro."

and Lucretius iv. 700.

" Frafta raagis redolere videntur

Omnia quod contrita."

See Peai-ce's Com. vol. i. p. 276. Wakefield's
Silva critica. Pars. ima. p. 156.

Sir Edward Knatchbull and Dr. Ham.mond have fug-

gefted the fame interpretation of this palfage.

Alabaster is alfo faid to have been ufed for an ancient
liquid meafurc, containing ten ounces of wine, or nine of
oil, and in this fenfe the alabafter was equal to half the
fextarj'.

Alabaster IJlnnd, in Geography. See Eleuthera.

ALABASTRA, in Botany, arc thofe little herbaceous
leaves which encompafs the bottoms of flowers, pai-ticularly
the rofe. See Calyx, &c.

Some, with Jungius, explain alabaftra, by the globe or
roundifti bud of the rofe juft peeping out.

ALABASTRA, in Jinaent Geography, a town of
Phrygia, mentioned by Steph. Byz. on the authority of
Herodotus, but probably miftaken for Alabanda. Ptolemy
meations a town of this uame in Egypt.

ALABASTRIT^,

ALA

ALA

AI.ABASTRIT.E, nlnhnfers, \n N„t,n:il irjlory, tlio
name of a genus of fofiils allied to the marbles, and dcliiied
to be ftoiies compofed of large feparatc concretions, of gicut
hrightnefs, and an elegant, liut ftiatttiy itinfture, not very
hard, not giving fire with Heel, effervcfcing with and folublc in
acids, and calcining in a lligiit fire. See Alauaster.

ALABASTRITES is often ufcd as fynonymous with
alabader. But Anfclmus Bottius dilHnguiilies between ala-
bafterand alabaftriies, in making the criterion of the former
to be fo foft, that it may be cut with a knife ; and of the
latter, that it is fo hard that it cannot be fo cut.

Grew fpeaks of a fort of alabaftrites reprefenting the
tranfverfe feftion of the trunk of a tree.

ALABASTRUM ihiiJro'ul;; a name given by authors
to a fpecies of alabafter, found in great abundance in the
province of Hohenilein, and famous tor the elegant delinea-
tions of trees and other figures defcribed in it. See Ala-
baster.

Alabastrum, in yiiu'n-nt Geogrnphy, a town of the
Thebaid, in Egypt, where Pliny fays topazes were found.

ALABASTlvUS, a river ol Troas, which flowed from
Mount Ida.

ALABATER, a promontory of Carmania.

ALABON, or Alabus, now Cntaro, a river of Sicily
between Myla and Megara, which Diodorus (lib. iv. c. 78.
torn. i. p. 321.) reprefents as a large river, which difcharged
itfelf into the neighbouring fea. Stephanus Byz. (vol. i. p.
58.) mentions alfo a city of this name.

ALABOR.G, a town of the ancient Rufsland, fituatcin
the prcfcnt government of Olonetz.

ALABUA, in Geography^ a fmall town of Arabia
PetitEa, where it is faid Abdalla, the father of Mahomet,
died, and which is a ftation of the pilgrims that vlfit
Mecca.

ALABURIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Syria,
mentioned by Stcphan. Byz.

ALACH, in Geography, a prccfetlurate belonging to the
territory of Erfurt, containing 13 pariihes.

ALACHUAH Savannah, a level green plain in the
country of the Indians of that name in Eail Florida, fituatc
about 75 miles well from St. Auguftine. It is about 15
miles wide and 50 miles in circumference, and encircled with
high floping hills, covered with waving forells, and fragrarit
orange groves, which rife from a veiy fertile foil. The
ancient Alachuah town ilood on the borders of this Sa-
vannah, but the Indians removed to Cufcowilla, about two
miles dillant, on account of the infalubrity of the fituation.
The horned cattle and horfes bred in thtle meadows are large
and fat, but they are fubjetl to mortal difcafes, fuch as the
water rot or fcald, occafioned by the warm water of the
Savannah.

ALACRANES, a range of rocks and fhoals on the
fouth fide of the gulf of Mexico, fituate over againll the
pcninfula of Yucatan ; eail from Stonebank, and well from
Cape St. Antonio, within the 23d degree of north lati-
tude, and between 89" and 9!" W. long. They are faid
to derive their name from the great number of fcoi-pions
that are found there.

ALADA, an ifland in the Indian Ocean, near the coaft
cf Siam. N. lat. 9" 27'. E. long. 97" 52'.

ALADAG, or Amadag, the highcll m.ountain of
Natolia, in Aha, north of Angora, and not far from the
Cape of Coromba. N. lat. 40" 10'. E. long. 52" 40'.

AI^ADINISTS, a fcftvamong the Arabs, anfwcring to
free-thinkers among us.

The Aladinifts multiplied greatly under the two learned
kings Almanfor and Miramolinus.

ALADULIA, a confidcrable province of Turkey in

Afia, between Amafia and the Mediterranean, toward*
Mount Taurus. Some have reprefcntcd it a.s the third d;-
vifion of Afia Minor, and made it to comprehend Cspp:!-
docia and I^efler Armenia. It joins on the fouth to Tre-
bi/.ond, and is called by the Turks the beglerbegate o*
Marafch, and fometimes Dulgadir. The full is unfit for
tillage, but aft'ords abundance oi paftine, which breeds a
great n\imber of cattle, efpeeially horfes and camels, and
uirge herds of flieep and goats. Cappadocia, befides its
pailure grounds, produces wines and fruits in great plenty;
and its mountains, particularly tlic chain called Antitaurus,
have mines of filver, copper, iron and alum. Marafch and
Cxfarea are well built and populous cities. Armenia the
lelTer, fo called by v.ay of dilHnCtion from the greater Ar-
menia, has this country which bi longs to Perfia on iheeafl,
Syria on the fouth, the Euxine on the well, and Cappadocii
on the north. The people are addicled to war and plunder.

AIv/liNUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Britain,
according to Ptolemy, fuppofed to be the river Ax, and its
mouth Ax-mouth. It was fo called perhaps from the Brilidi
A latin ill, the full river.

AL7ESA. SccAlesa.

ALAFOENS, in Geography, a diilricl of the pro\ino:
of Beira, in Portugal, containing 37 pariflies, and creiied
into a duchy in 1718, by John V.

ALAGNON, a rapid river of France, in the late pro-
vince of Auvergne, wliofe fourcc is at Cantal, and which
falls into the Allicr.

ALAGOA, a town of Africa, in Upper Guinea, where
the Portugucfe have an cftablifliment.
^Alagoa bay lies on the eaftern coaft of Africa, in the
Indian Ocean. S. lat. 25° 30'. E. long. 33° 28'.

Alagoa is alfo the name of a town of South America, i»
the country of Brafil, and government of Fernambuc.

ALAGON, a river of Spain, which rifes in the mountain
of Leon, and runs into the Tagus, a little above Alcantara.
It is alfo the name of a fmall town of Aragon, Handing on
a peninfula formed by the rivers Ebro and Xalon, about tour
leagues from SaragofTa.

a'VLAGTAGA, in Zoology, the Tartarian name of the
Siberian Jkrboa, fignifies an animal which cannot walk.
Bafl'on (i\a:. Hill, by .SincUle, vol. vii. p. 202.) characlcrifei
it as having legs like thofe of the Jerboa, but with five toea
on the fore feet, and three on the hind, with a fpur, that may
pafs for a thumb or fourth toe, much fiiorter than the others.

ALAIGNE, a town of France, in the department of the
Aude, and dillrift of Linioux, two leagues north-well of
Linnuix.

ALAIN, Chartier, in Biography, fccrelai-y to Chai-les
VII. king of France, was bom in 1 386. He was ihs
author of feveral works in profe and verfe ; but his confidcr-
able work was the " Chronicle of king Charles VII." It
is faid that Margaret, daughter to the king of Scotland^
and wife of the dauphin, finding him alleep fainted hinj
before all who were prclent : and when they exprefied their
furprife at hereondefcenfion to a perfon who pollelfed fo few
charms, flie replied, " I did not kifs the man, but the
mouth, from which proceed fo many excellent fayings, fo
many wife difcourfes, and fo many elegant expreflions."
On this incident Fontenelle lias founded one of his Dialogue*
of the dead. Pafquier extols the characler of Alain, and
compares him to Seneca, on account of the infinite nmnber
of beautiful fentences, that are interfperfed in his writings.
Gen. Dia.

Alain, John, a Danidi writer, was born in 1563, and

died in 1630. He publilhed a treatife " On the Origin of

the Cimbri, and their various Eliabliflimcnts ;'' another

" On Logic, natural and artificial^' and a third " On the

3 S 2 Pro-

ALA

A I. A

pronunciation of tltc Grcok Language, v,-ith an Apology
for Saxo Grammnticus."

Alain, J)^ /Jft,aiM\vc of Lide, in Fhind^rt, floiirifhed
in till- thirttcnth ccntuiy, with fiich reputation for his (kill
in thcolorjv, philofuphy and pnctry, that he was called the
Univcrfaf Doaor. lie died in 1294, and left behind him
many pieces in profe and verfe, whicli uxre colledcd into
one volume in folio, at Antwerp, in 1^153. His fame was fo
prcat, that it was thought a happinefs to know him ; and
it WIS proYcihlally faid, " Suffice it to have fccn Alain."
Uupin. I'.ccl. Hill. vol. v. p. 57. Cave. H. L.tom. ii. p. 287.

ALAINK, in Cioxr.i/'hj; a fir.all river of France, in
the department of Nievre.

ALAJOli, one of the four (luarters into which the
idand of "Minorca is divided, fo called from a fmall place
near it.

AL.AIS, or Alfz, a large and populous city of France,
in t!ic department of the Card, fittrate on the river Gard,
at tlie foot of the Ccvennes. Julius Ctefar in his commen-
taries calls it Al-.cfia. A billiopric was founded in this place
in 1691, with a view, as it is faid, of coiuertiag the pro-
teftauf;, who were numerous ; and a cit:!dcl had been built
in i68q, in order to awe them. The diocefe confills of 80
parifhes. The country about it is well cultivated, and pro-
duces grain, olives and mulbenies, but the principal wealth
of the place has formerly arifen from its manufaftures of
ferges and ratteens, and from its exportation of raw and
wrought filk. It is diftaut 14 leagues north of Montpelicr,
and 140 fouth -eall of Paris. N. lat. 44' 8'. E. long. 3° 46'.

ALAISEE, in Heraldry, the fame with hiimetty, or rac-

COURCY.

ALAISKIAN Monritains, in Geography, a part of the
Altay mountains in Ruffia, compriling that range which
advances from the origin of the Alay to the two fides of
this river, and between it and the Oiiba and Irtifli, and runs
•ut into the great Saline plain, which is flcirted by the Alay,
the Irtilh, and the Oby. See Sludina.

AL ALCOMENIA, in Ancient Geography, a town in the
iflandof Ithaca, whcrc,accordingtoPlutarch,Uly (Fes was born.

ALALCOMENIUM, or Alalcomkn^., a fmall town
cf Bceotia, fouth-eaft of Chaeronsa, near the lake Copais,
foUT'.ded according to Paufanias (in Bceotic, lib. ix.) either
by Alalcomcnius, foller-father of Minerva, or by Alal-
comenia, one of t!ie daughters of Ogyges, the nurfe of Mi-
nerva, near which ihe had a temple, and a ilatue of ivory,
which was removed by Sylla to Rome. Hence Homer de-
duces the epithet Alalcomeniana, afcribed to Minerva.

ALALCOMENIUS, in Ancient Chronology, the Boeo-
tian name for the Athenian month M.emacte rion, which
was the fourth of their year, and anfwered to the latter part
cf our September and beginning of Oftober.

ALALIA, or Alalis, in Ancient Geography, ?i town a{
Syria, placed by Ptolemy in the Palmyrene, near the Eu-
phrates, and by M. d'Anville, north-well of Refafa.

ALAMA, a town of Afia, in Mefopotamia, fituate on
the river Billcha, north-weil of Nicephorium.

ALALOEI, fmall iHands in the Arabian gulf, where,
according to the Periplus of Arrian, turtles were iound ;
the fame with the Alloeu of Pliny.

ALAMAGAN, or the ijlr.vd of the Conception, in Geo-
graphy, one of the Ladrones, or Marianne idands, about
10 miles from Guguan, and 18 miles in compafs. There is
a volcano on the north-wcH part of this ifland, which ftands
clofe 'o the fea, forming a cone in height about 500 yards,
with a bafe of about 400 yards ; and the fides are marked
by ilreams of black lava, which, pafiiiig through a rich
vegetation of cocoa-nut trees, may be traced to the fhore,
where they hav>; entered the fea. This cone is encompafled

with ciniiers, whicli, at the diftance ot about n mile and a
half, are covered with a black vegetable foil, which produces
trees as large as any upon the ifland. At a nearer dillance there
is not for feveral acres the Icall lign of vegetation. In the
year 1 799, the volcauo ieemed to be preparing by it.s rumbling
noifc, and the fmoke that iflued from it, for a new eruption.
The lower parts of the illand are covered witli trees of a
thick foliage ; fome few open fpots produce a thick and long
grafs ; but the moll plentiful produflions of the idund are
the cocoa-nuts, which grow in clumps near the diores clofe
down to the beaches, and which may be eafily obtained in
great abundance. Trees, rcfembling the pines of Port
Jackfon, bearing a fmall cone, and riling to the height of
30 or 40 feet, are very numerous. A fupply of the fruit
of the papau tree may be gathered about the middle of
Augull. No quadrupeds have been obferved upon this
idand except green-tailed li/ards ; land crabs are numerous
and large ; partridges and quails, owls, thrulhcs, bullfinches
and pigeons are found here. The idand may be feen at the
dillaiice of 12 or 14 leagues. Its diores are rocky to wind-
ward, but in the bay to leeward there arc two or three
beaches. On the well or left fide of the idand the (hore
bends into a kind of bay, where, as the trade wind in ge-
neral blows (leadily to the eallward, (hips might ride fecurely
as long as they had occafion to Itay. N. lat. 18° 5'. E.
long. 146' 47'. The variation of the compafs in 1799 was
4} eaft.

ALAMAN, a town of Switzerland, in the Canton of
Berne, three leagues north-eall of Nion.

ALAMANDUS, Lewis, Fr. Aleman, in Biography,
archbidiop of Aries and cardinal of St. Cecilia, was one of
the greatell men in the 15th century. He prcfided in the
council of Bafil, which dcpofed Eugenius IV. and elefled
the Antipope Felix V. iEneas Sylvius highly commends '
him, as a man admirably^ formed for prefiding in fuch aflcm-
blies, firm and vigorous, iUullrious by his virtue, learned,
and endowed with a memory, w-hich enabled him to recapi-
tulate every thing that had been faid by the orators and dif-
putants. Although he was deprived of his dignities by
pope Eugenius, and very injurioudy treated, he is faid to
have performed miracles at his death, and he was beatified
by Clement VII. in the year 1527. He died at the age of 60
years, in 1 450. Gen. Dift.

ALAMANNI, Luigi, or Lewis, was bom at Flo-
rence, of a family of dillinftion, in 1495 ; and by his early
progrefs in philofophy and Greek hterature, acquired great
reputation. He was at firll attached to the Medici family,
but having entered into a confpiracy againft; Cardinal Julius
de Medici, who became pope Clement VII., he was obliged
to take refuge at Venice. He was afterwards imprifoned
at Brefcia, and upon his relcafe he was under a necefiity of j
abandoning his country, and of wandering, as an oiile in 4
France and in Genoa, till the year 1527, when he was re-
called to Florence, on the expulfion of the Medici family.
When the authority of that family was re-etlab!idied in 1530,
he was again difgraccd, and retired to Fiance, where he was
chiefly occupied in poetical compofitions. At k-ngth Fran-
cis I. called him to court, invelled him with the order of St.
Michael, appointed him to a confiderable office in the houfe-
hold of Catharine de Medici, and employed him in various
concerns at Rome and Naples. In 1544 he was fent on an em-
balTy to the emperor Charles V. ; and having been entruiled
with different negociations by Henry II. he died at Amboife
in 1556, and left two fons, one of v.'hom was made bllbop
of Ma^on. The works of Alamanni confift of Italian
poetry. The firfl publication of them at Lyons in IJ^z
and 1533, contained elegies, eclogues, fatire3,foniiet3, hymns,
piialms, ccc. and a tranflation of the Antigone of Sophocles ;

which

ALA

A L A

which are much elleeiiKd for their cltgaiice. A diilai^llc
poem on Agric Ilk lire, in bhuikvcrfe, " Delhi Coltivationc"
hril printed at Paria in i 541^1, added to liis reputation. A
pleee of greater bulk, intitled, " Giroiie il Cortefe," taken
from a French romance, " Giron the Courteous," was puh-
liflitd in 154H. His epic poem, called " rAvarchide," on
the fii-'gc ot Boarjjjes, and his comedy " J. a Flora," \vhich
he letl behind him, did not much fuceeed^. But his Tufcan
epigrams, a Ipecies of writing, firll attempted by himt'elf,
were well received, and produced manv imitators. Alamanni
is conlidereil upon the whole, as a writer to whom Italian
poetry lies under particular obligations.

ylntuuio yl/iiiNii/i/ii, whole burlelquc poems were printed
with thofe of BurchicUo, was a relation of lAiigi. Gen.

Dia.

ALAMANNICUM, in ylntlquky, a tribute impofed on
the people by the emperor Alexius AngeKis, for railing the
fum of iixteen talents of gold, to be paid the Aiamauiii, on
the conditions of a peace ilipulated with them.

The ecckriallics themfelves were not exempted from this
tax.

ALAMATOU, in Botany, the fruit of a tree that grows
in Madagafcar, rcfembling in its talle the black plum, but
inllead ot the ilone of the plum, it has 10 or 12 Hut kernels ;
the leaf of the tree is like that of the plum-tree. There are
two forts of this fruit, one like llie plum and the other like
the tig, which is dangerous when taken to excefs.

ALAMBAY, in Geo'^r.iphf, one of the Sonda idands in
the Pacific Ocean, 30 leagues fouth of Borneo.

ALAMEH, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia, 53
leagues fouth of Kutaja. N. lat. 35° 35'. E. long. 31 " Hj.

A-LA-MI-RE, in the Guidonhin ScciL of Mufic, or
Giimmut, IS the oftave above A-nE, or A in the firll ipace in

e-i

the bafe

^EB

As A is the note above G in every

part of an inllrument, it is, of courfe, the third found be-
low each tenor clef ; and is likewife the found that occuj:)ic3
the iecond fpace, and the fixth line in the treble. The
letter A itfelf is an abbreviation of A-re and A-la-mi-re
in the fcale of Guido ; and is the found to which all in-
llruments are tuned at an opera, concert, or other mulical
performance. A in the Italian mulical language, when it
precedes a fubllantive, has the power of ;';; ; as A LattiHn, in
time, or meafure, after recitative, or an ml Illttum. A capella,
facred mufic, compolitions in the church ftylc. See Gam-
MUT and GuiDONiAM Scale.

ALAMODALITY, alanwilaUtns, is defined by a late
writer, a iludy or endeavour to accommodate a man's lelf
in point of behaviour, drefs, converfation, and other actions
ot life, to the reigning talle or cuilom, from a motive of
complaifance, and to avoid the imputation of lU-breed-

Ala MODALITY of wriling, ahimotlnliliis f-nbcr.dl, is de-
fined by the fame perfon, a particular iludy or endeavour of
learned men to adapt the produtlions of their minds, both
as to the choice of fubjeft and the manner of treating it, to
the genius or talle of the times, in order to render them more
acceptable to the readers.

A German writer, under the name of Geamoenus, has a
diffcrtation on alamodality in writing.

ALAMODE, in Commerce, a thin, light, glofiy, black
filk, not quilled or crofled ; chiefly ufcd for woman's hoods,
and men's mourning fcarvcs.

The name is French, though not given in that country to
this fabric, for which they have no other name than laflas
lioir h.Jlri. .

AIwXMOS, BALrMA/AR,iM /y;<;i,'/i7/'/i_v, a Spanidi writer,
was born at Medina del Campo, in Callile. He lludiid
the law at Salamanca, lerved in a lubordiiiale tifiice uiiih r
Philip 1 1, was iinprifoncd upon the difgrace of his |)atron,
Anthony Pere/., fecretary c<f Hate to this |)iince, and after
a confinement of 1 1 years, releafed by Philip III. I'y the
duke of Olivare/, the favourite of Philip IV. he was called
to public employments. He was deemed a man of wit and
judgment. He died in the ysih year of his age ; and his
Spaiiilh trandation of Tacitus, with marginal aphurifms,
was publilhed at Madrid, in 1614. Biog. Did.

Alampo, Alampy, or I^ay, in Gca^riiphy, a town on
the gold coall of Africa, call of Ningo, and four leagues
from the mountain Redoiido, which prefents itlelf in the
form of a fugar-loaf to the Horth-north-weil. The tow.i
is fituated on tlie declivity of a mountain, which has :i
northern afpect ; and the adjacent coall is bounded by hills
of confideial)le lieight, that art covered with palm-trees.
The inhabitants arc gentle and timid ; their principal com-
merce is that of (laves. The anchorage of this port is very
good. N. lat. 5". W. long. 3".

AI.AN, or Eynn, yHiiinu ile I.ynnn, in Biography, an
Eiiglifli divine of the 15th centuiy, was born at Lynn, in
Norfolk, educated at Cambridge, and dillinguiflied as a
iludent and a preacher. He was addicted to allegorical in-
terpretations of Scripture, and to the application of the hil-
torical parts of the Old Tellament, to the concerns of reli-
gion and moral condua, a prartice blamed by Bale, but
commended by Pits. He wrote tracls on the interpretation
of Scripture, fermons, and elucidations of Ariilotle ; and
be was famous for the pains which he took in making in-
dexes to moil of the books he read, of which Bale has
given a lo:ig lill. He at length became a Carmelite in the
town of his nativity, and was buried in the convent of his
order.

Another perfon of this name was abbot of Tewkefbiiiy,
about the year 1 177, and died in 1201. He wrote a book,
" De Vita et E^ilio Thomx Cantuarienfis. Biog. Brit.

ALAN, Allen, or Allyn, William, a cardinal-
pricll of the Roman church, was born at Roffal, in Lanca-
fllire, in the year 1532 ; and entered, in 1547, at Oriel col-
lege, in the univerfity of Oxford, where he made a confider-
able proficiency, particularly in logic and philolophy, and
paiTed through ieveral gradations of hoiuuir. In 1556, he
became principal of St. Mary's hall, and one of the proiElors
of the univerfity : and in 1558, he was made canon of York.
But on tlie acccfilon of queen Elizabeth, as he was a zeal-
ous catholic, he lull all hopes of preferment; and in 1560,
retired to Louvaiu in the Spanilh Netherlands, where he
connected himfelf vi'illi the Englilb college, and was much
ellcemed on account of his learning and the urbanity of his
maimers. In this fituation he dillinguifhcd himfelf by
writing in favour of the catholic caiile ; and his firll piece
was " A defence of tiie Doctrine of Catholics, concerning
Purgatory and Prayers for the Dead," printed at Antwei-j),
in 1565, which commenced a controverfy of fome conti-
nuance. The Hate of his health, which liad been injured
by his application to lUidy, rendered it advifable to return
to his native countiT, in 1565 ; but he foon became ob-
noxious by the zeal of his attachment to the principles and
profefiion of popery, and by his indiillry in making profe-
lytes ; and he was under a necefTity of concealing himfelf in
the neighbourhood of Oxford. In this retreat he wrote an
apology for his party, entitled, " Brief Rcafons concerning
the Catholic Faith ;" and he profeeuted his labours for re-
claiming apollates and encouraging the waveiing, to luch a
dev/ree, as to make it necelTary for him, notwithilanding the

patronage

A I, A

pntrona^e he enjoyed, to L'avc tlic coiintiy and to retire to
Vlp.ndei<!, in i^6>?. Such was the leimtation wliith he had

f allied by his learning and laboui-s, that on his fetllenient at
. Icchlin he opened a divinity lecture, which was received
with great apjilaufe ; at Doiiay, h.c waa honoured wiih the
dejrrec of doClor of divinity ; and he was advanced to the
diuingiiifhed prcfcnnciit of canon of Cainbray, and after-
wards to that of Ri\eims. I-Tavin<; ellabliihed a fcminary at
Douay for tlie education of Engliih feholars, he transferred
it to Rheims ; he ])rocured others to be elhihhihed tor the
fame pni-pofe at Rome and in Spain ; and he perie\Tred in
writing a variety of trails in defence ot tlie doctrines and
practices of the catholics, which were conveyed to England,
and which were prohibited, by royal proclamation, to be
fold or read. Dr. Allen was now conhdered :J:i an avowed
.enemy, not only to the protellant religion bnt to the Kng-
lifti government ; correfpondence with him was regarded
as a treafonable ofience ; and Thomas Alfitld, a jefuit, was
tried and executed in 1585, for bringing fome of his trai-
terous books into his majeltv's dominions. Amongft other
exceptionable and otrenfive padages contained in his writings,
and particularly in his " Defence of the twelve Martyrs in
one year," which tend to difTolve all focial obligations, he
euprefsly alTerts, " that parents who become heretics, lofe
the fuperiority and dominion they ha\-e bv the law of
nature over their own children. Therefore, let no man
marvel, that in cafe of herefy, the fovereign lofeth the fu-
periority over his people and kingdom." But Allen was
!iot fatisfied with avowing his hollility to the religion and
government of England by his writings, he proceeded,
under the inftlgation and with the adviee of his friend, Ro-
bert Parfons, tlie jefuit, to unite with fome fugitive Englilh
noblemen, who relided in Flanders, in perfuading Philip II.
of Spain to invade England. At the fame time he wrote a
vindication of the bafe conduct of Sir William Stanley and
the forces under his command, who garrifoned Daventer, in
furrendering it to the Spaniards. In recompence of this
treafonable practice, he was created cardinal in 1587, and
appointed by the king of Spain, to an abbey of great value
in the kingdom of Naples, with affurances of greater pre-
ferment, which were duly fulfilled. Thus encouraged, he
was active in forwarding the deiigns of the Spanifh amiada,
in 15S8 ; and for this purpofe he either himfelf wrote, or
concurred with Parfons and other jefuits, in writing a book,
ef which many thoufand copies were printed at Antwerp,
and which were intended for difperiion in England, upon
the landing of the Spaniards. This book confifted of two
jiarts ; the firft was intitled " A declaration of the fentence
of Sixtus V." in which it is maintained, that by virtue of
the pope's bull, queen Elizabeth was accurfed and deprived
of her crown, which was transferred to the king of Spain ;
and the fecond part was " An admonition to the nobility and
people of England," pronouncing Elizabeth a fchifmatic
and heretic, a pretended queen, and ufurper, who had com-
mitted aftions which rendered her incapable of reigning,
and even unworthy of life ; and declaring all her fubjctts
abfolvcd from their oath of fidelity. When the enterprife
failed, moll of thefe books were deftroyed ; but fome of
them were preferved, and their contents are faid to have
been univerfally diiliked by all fober catholics as well as
proteftants. The earl of Arundel, who had been three
years in prifon under a charge of high treafon, was tried
and found guilty by his peers, and his chief crime was his
correfpondence with cardinal Allen. Allen, however, was
promoted by the king of Spain to the archbilhopric of
Mechlin ; but continued to refide at Rome, where he lived

ALA

in great fplendour, and employed his interell in fervlng hi8
fugitive countrvmen ai;d the catholic faith. Towards the
clofe of his life he is faid to have repented of the meafures
wiiicii lie had been inijrumental in promoting againil his
country, and to have dlfapproved the diipolltion and conduct
of the jefuits with whom he had afted. This change of
fentiment is inferred from a letter, dated in 1593, and found
among the papers of lord Burleigh, in which he profefTes
affection to his native country, folieitude fur its welfare, and
a dtfire of effecting a reconciliation bttwcn tlie proteftants
and catholics. It is further alledgcd, that he wilhed on his
death-bed to have an interview with the Englifh iludents at
P.ome, but was prevented by the attending jtfuit. He
died in 1594, not without fufpicion of being poifoned by
the jefuits, ard was buried with great pomp, in the chapel
or the Englifli college at Rome, where a monument was
erected to his memory, with a Latin infcription in the higheil
flyle of panegyric.

As a zealous catholic, Allen might unqueftionably allcdge
the obligations devolved upon him by the conviftion of his
mind ; but how far the plea of confcience will juilify the
avowal of fentinients, and the encouragement of practices,
incompatible with the fundamencal principles of perfonaland
focial virtue, wc mull leave for thofe who undertake tlie
vindication of his charafler to determine. As an Englifli
fubjedl, he was undoubtedly a traitor and rebel ; and no
cafuiiliy can juflify his attempts to overturn the government
of a country, deferted by himfelf, but approved by a ma-
jority of its inhabitants. As a writer he may be juilly cou-
fidcredas one of the ableft advocates of the Romilli church,
at the period in which he lived. His works, bef.des thule
already mentioned, are, " A defence of the lawful power
and authority of the priefthood to remit fins," to which are
annexed two other trafts, wi. " The people's duty in con-
fefTmg," and " An explanation of the doctrine of the Ca-
tholic church, with refpect to indulgences ;" printed at
Louvain in 1567, 8vo ; " of Sacraments in general, of the
Eucharifl, of the facrifice of the mafs ; three books, ad-
drefied to pope Gregory XIII." printed at Antwerp in
1576; " Of the worlhip due to faints, and their relies;"
" A true, fincerc, and modcll defence of Chriitian Catholics,
that fuffercd for their faith at home and abroad, &c."
printed in 1583, which was an anfwer to a book written by
lord Burleigh, and elleemed the befl of the cardinal's
writings ; fo that the learned Edmund Bolton fays of it,
" a princely, grave, and flouriihing piece of natural and
exquifite Enghlh is Cardinal Alan's Apology. Biog.
Brit.

Alan, in Geography, a town and province of Tiukeftaia
in Perfia.

Alan, or Camfl, a river of England, rifes north of
Camelford, and runs into the fca two miles below PadlloWj
in Cornwall.

Alan Bay, lies on the wcfl fide of Corfica, in the Me-
diterranean.

ALANA, in jlnacnt Geography, a town of Ethiopia in
Egypt, according to Pliny.

ALANCH, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Mouths of the Rhone, two leagues north-
caft of Maifeilles, and four fouth of Aix.

ALAND, an ifland in the Baltic, at the entrance of the
Gulf of Bothnia, fituate between the province of Upland
in Sweden and Finland, gives name to a duller of iflands, and
is about /{O miles in length, and from 12 to 16 in breadth.
It contains about 15 villages, and 9000 inhabitants, who
fpeak the Swedifh language ; but are included under the

government

ALA

ALA

government of Finland, fincc the year 1634, hotli as to
fpiritual :inJ temporal alTiiirs. The bafis of the foil feemcd
to Mr. Ciixc, ■who vifited it, to be granite. It is fo fertile,
that the inhabitants fcldom experienee any fearcity of corn ;
it lias alfo rich palUnes, forells of wood, and lime-ftonc
quarries. Tiie inhabitanti chiefly fnbfill by agriculture,
hunting, and iidiing ; and they traflle in butter, wooden-
ware, coalii and lime. The principal place is Caltelhohn.
This duller of iflands appears like a ridge of rocks, which
had been once j<,'ined to each other, and the continent, but
undermined and kparated by the fea. N. lat. 60° 18'. E.
long. 19° 40'.

^Vi.AND is alio the name of an ifland on the Norway
coall, nearly v.eil of Bergen.

Aland, a river of Germany, which runs into the Elbe,
Bear Schnackenburg, in the principality of Lunenburg.

Aland'j- Bay, hes on the fouth coall of Ireland, between
the harbour of Waterford and Tramore bay ; eight miles
fouth of Waterford.

A LANDER, in j^naent Geo^rnphy, a river of Afia
Minor, the fource of which is referred by Livy to Phrygia
Major.

ALANDSHAGE, a cape at the foulhern extremity of
the iOand of Amack.

ALANS, or Alanm, a people who, like the Huns,
were of Afiatic origin, but reprefented by Ammianus Mar-
cellinus, as " viclu mitiores et cnltu ;" more polilhed in their
curtoms and manners. Pliny (f-f.N. lib. iv. c. i2.)erroneonny
places them in Europe, beyond the mouth of the Danube :
but Jofephus (De Bell. Jiid. lib. vii. c. 29.) traces their
origin more accurately, and defcribes them as Scythians,
who dwelt between the river Taiiais and the lake Mxotis.
Ptolemy mentions two forts of Alans, the one in Europe
and the other in Afia. From M. de Guignes, Hill. Huns,
torn. ii. who has taken pains in inveftigating their origin
and hillory, we laarn that the name .^/;'« fignifies mountain,
and that thefe people derived their appellalion from the
mountains which they inhabited towards the fources of the
Jaick and near the dillrifts of Oufa,and Solemfl<oi. In pro-
cefs of time they migrated fouthward, to the plains that are
fituated to the north of Circaflia and Derbend. Abcnit
A. D. 73, they formed an alliance with the king of Hir-
cania, and entered Media ; but being prevented at this
time, and afterwards by Adrian, A. D. 130, from purfuing
their march to the fouth, they direfted their courfe weft-
ward, and eftablilhed themfelves on the borders of the
Danube. About the year 406, they advanced from the
banks of the Danube to the Rhine, and being joined by
the Vandals, and fome other nations, they traverfed Gaul,
and fettled at the foot of the Pyrenees. In 409 they
took the advantage of the revolt of thofe troops who were
ftationed to guard the paffage of thefe mountains, and pro-
ceeded into Spain, where they fettled in 411. Some of
them entered Lufitania, and others the province of Cartha-
gena : and many of them remained in Gaul, particularly in
Brittany and Normandy. The Goths in Spain, and the
Franks in Gaul, diliperfed the Alani, fo that they were at
length confounded with their conquerors. The Alani, ac-
cording to Ammianus Marcellinus, had no other houfes
than their waggons, which they removed to fnch places as
they found moil convenient for their flocks and herds, which
conftituted their wealth, and fupplied, with their flefh and
milk, the means of their fublillcnce. War was their chief
occupation ; and vvhilft their wives and children were left at
home, all who were able to bear arms renewed, from time
to time, and as they advanced in their progrefs, their mili-
tary {allies againft theiv neighbours. They deemed it dii-

graccful to grow old and die peaciaMy with their famillrt {
thofc were reckoned the happitft who diid in battle, and
wlio had killed the greateft number of their enemies ; the
fcalps (if tl'.ofe whom tiny Ikw formed thecolUy trappings of
their lunfcs; ar.d fo devoted were thefe peo;)le to military
occupations, that a naked fcyiretar planted in the ground
was tlie only objcft of their religious v.'orfl;ip. Tliiir di-
vinations were performed by means of rods, chofen with
proper charms.

On the banks of the Vanais, fays Mr. Gibbon, the miii-
tai-y power of the Huns and the Alani encountered each
other with equal valour, but with unequal fucccf-i. 'J'hc
Huns prevailed ; the king of the Alani was killed ; and the
remains of the vanquifhed nation were difperfed by the or-
dinary alternative of flight or fiiimiflion. A colony cf
exiles found a feeure refuge in the mountains of CaiicafL",
between the Euxine and tiie Cafpian, where they ftill prc-
ferve their name and independence. Another colony ad-
vanced With n-.ore intrepid courage, towards the fliores of
the Baltic ; afTociated themfelves with tiie iiorthoni tribes
of Germany, and .liared the fpoil of the Roman province*
of Gaul and Spain. But tlie greatcll part of the nation of
the Alani embraced the oflers of an honourable and advan-
tageous union ; and the Huns, who elleemed the va-
lour of their lefs fortunate enemies, proceeded with an in-
creafc of numbi rs and confidence, to invade the limits of
the Gothic empire. Ammianus xxxi. 2. M. de Giiigncx
Hill, des Finns, torn. ii. p. 279. Gibbon's Flilt. of the
Deel. and Fall of tiie Rom. Empire, vol. iv. p. 373.

ALANI, a mountain of Seythia, on one lide of Imaus,
and call of the Hyperbmean mountains.

ALANGUER, or Alesq^'kr, in Ce'j^ra;tL\, a town
and dillriifl of Portugal, in Eilremaduia. Tlie town is faiit
to have been built by the Alani, and was anciently called
Ahnht-r Kana, i. e. the temple of the Alans. It cortaina
about 2500 inhabitants, five churches, one cafa da miferi-
cordia, one hofpital, and three convents ; and it is the
chief town of the queen's cllates.

ALANORARIUS,inour y'/nc;<«/ Ctijlnttis, a keeper or
manager of fpaniels, or fctting-dogs, for tlie fjiort of hunt-
ing, hawking, &c. The word is formed from the Gothic,
alcin, a greyhound.

ALAPA, ill Gccgraphy, mountains of Aftatic RnlTia,
in Siberia, extending from the lake of Jaiokaia to the con-
fines of Baflcina, all having mines of very rich copper.

ALAP./EV, a town of Ruifia, in the government of
Perm, on the river Tagil. N. lat. 58°. E. long. 61'' 14'.

ALAPI, in Ornithology, is a fpeeies of TuRnus, in the
Linnsan fyllem by Gmelin, and the white-backed thrufli of
Latham ; its fpccific charadlers are, that the colour above
is olive-brown, the throat and breaft black, the abdomen
cinereous, and the tail wedge-fhaped and blackilh. Its leg.i
are yellowifli, the wings above cinereous-brown, and
fuperior coverts fpotted witli white : the male has 3
white fpot on the middle of the back ; the female has none,
but its chin is white, the retl of the under-pait of the body
and the points of the coverts of the wings mil v. Its
length is fix inches ; it feeds on ants ; feldoni flies for any
time, though ver^' agile, and is found in the thick woods
of Guiana.

ALAPIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Calo-
Syria, crilkd alfo Nerea.

ALANGIUM, in Botany, a genus of the lUcandria mo-
nogyn'ta elafs and order : the charatlers of which are, that
it has from fix to ten linear petals, from 10 to 1 2 ila-
mina, the calyx dentatcd, in fix to ten notches, and fuperior ;
the fniit a fpberical berry, lllghtly eoraccoiis, fingle celled,

aubt

A L iV,

A L A

aiid eontainiiig fic>;n one to tlircc- ftcc!^. TliCic is ont ipe-
ci.v. ■!•'"— t!iv; A.pu!(^.ns of Juiricr..

AT^APOULI, in Jj/Jmiy, tho name of an rail-Indian
tioc, a fpecics of the billr.ibi, wl.ieli is iifa! in iiHilieine as
a pnigf and vorrit, mixt with the fctils of niullard.

ALAPTA, in /ludaU Gi0^ni/>/.>y, a town oi Mace-
donia, near Ae.inthiis.

ALAQ^UECA, a medicinal Uone hroi'ght fiom the
Indies, in fniall glofTy fraijnients ; nuieh praifcd by fmiic
for its efticaLviii Iixnunrhages, wlau appHed txt^nially.

ALAR, in Cio^niphy, a river of I'erfui, uhicii runs
into the Caljiian fta.

AL-ARAF, formed from the Arabic verb arafa, to
/ti/linriiljl-, in the Malionietan T/jti,/o;^y, the p.irtition wall
that feparates heaven from hclh

Alaraf gives tlie denomination to the feventh chapter of
the Alcoran, wherein mention is made of tliis wall. Some
take it for a fort of Unihus for the patriarchs, prophets, &c.
oihers place here fach whofc good and evil works io exactly
balance each other, that they neither deferve reward nor
pnnifliment. Others again appr(!priate this intermediate
fpace to thofe who goto war withont the leave of their
parents and die, and arc excluded paradiie for their dif-
obeiiicncc, bnt efcape hell as martyrs. Sale's Prcl. Dif-
Courfe to the Koran, p. 95.

ALARBE6, a name given to thofe Arabians who
dwell in tents, and who are dillinguillicd by their drels
from otliers w ho live in towns.

ALARCON, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the
wellern part of New Callile, on the river Xucar. It was
mined in 117S, under the reign of the Moors, and re-
eitablinied by Alphonlus IX. N. lat. 39'= 40'. W.
long. 3°.

ALARES, in ylnt'iquity, are fuppofed by fome authors
to have been a kind of mllilia, or foldiery, among the
Romans ; fo called from ala, a wing, becaufe of their light-
nefs and fwiftnefs in the combat.

Others make them a people of Pannonia ; bnt others,
with more probability, take alares for an adjective, or epi-
thet, and apply it to the Roman cavalry ; becaufe they
were placed in the two wings, or aU, of the army ; for
which reafon, .a body of liorfe was called ala.

An ala, or wing of auxiliary horfe, conlifted of 400,
and there were two of tlicfe wings annexed lo each legion ;
and therefore, the wliole number of cavalry belonging to
a legion was 1 200, of which 400 were Romans, and 800
auxiliarlei.

AtAKiS mufiuli, m /Jnatomy. See Ptervcoideus.

ALARIC I., in B'wgraphy and Hijlory, king of the
Vifigoths, was defcendcd from the noble race of the Balti,
or bold, the moft illulhious of the Gothic nation, next to
that of the Amali. With his countrvmen, who were ex-
pelled by the Huns, and whofe number is faid to have
amounted to near a million of perfons, of both fexes and of
all ages, and of whom about 200,000 men were Gothic
warriors, Alaric paffed tlie Danube, A. D. 376 ; and ferved
with great reputation in the war between tlie Romans and
the Goths, which laded from that time to the year ^82,
when they all fubmitttd to Theodoluis, and were allowed
to fettle in Thrace, on coHditiim of ferving in the Roman
armies. Accordingly, he attended Theodofius in his ex-
pedition againll the ufurper Eugenius, with a body of his
countrymen under his command. But being refufed that
preferment to which he afpired, he was diffatisfied ; and
after the death of Theodofius, and, as it is faid, at the in-
Aigation of his miniller Rufinus, he affembled a numerous
arro^', confifting chiefly of his countrymen, and having firll

ravaged rai.minia and Dacia, he proceeded in 7f;fj to mnke
an in ujition into Greece. Having riarehed throtigh Mar
cediiii and Thtlfaly, he padVd through tlie llvaits of Ther-
ino])yl;e without oppofition on the part of Antiochus, pio-
conlnl of Aehaia, or Gai-ontius, who was appointed to giui'd
tluin, ard laid waitc tiie faireil realms of ancient Greece.
Tiic Atlienians preferved their city by del!%ering to the em-
peror the greatcft part of their wealth ; but the whole ter«
ritory of Attica, from the promontory of Surium to the
town of Megara, was delolattd by the march of his anny ;
lo that Athens itfelf, according to the alluuve language of
a contemporary p'lilofophcr, refembled tlie bleeding and
em.pty fliin of a llanghtered victim. The Gothic prince,
having been liberally and fplendidly entertained at Athens,
penetrated without deiav into i'eloponuelus, and wherever
he came defolation and dillrtfs marked his footlUps. Thof?
only could be deemed happy, whofe premature death pre-
vented their witnelfing the diOionour of their females, the
(iavery of their families, the conflagration of their cities, and
the deilnnifion of every thing valuable and curious which
thty poffefled. In tliis peninfula, the famous general Sti-
lieho, with his fleet and army, came up with Alaric, and
obliged him to retreat to the mountain of Pholoe in Ar-
cadia, and there invcfted his camp : but either by negli-
gence or connivance permitted him to efcape acrofs the
gulf of Corinth, to. Epirus. Being in full polTeffion of
this important province, Alaric had fuffieient time to con-
clude the treaty, which he feeretly negotiated with the
miniilers of Conilantinople. In confequence of this treaty,
he was declared inaftcr-general of the eaflern Illyrictim,
which comprehended the cities and provinces he had fo
lately laid walle ; and the enemy of Rome became the ally
and fervant of the emperors of the eaft. Whilll the Go-
thic prince was thus preten-ed by Arcadius, Stilicho was
declared a public enemy, and his eaflern poflcffions feizcd
and confifeated. At the fame period, A. D. 39S, Alaric,
with the unanimous confent of the barbarian chieftains,
was elevated, according to ancient euitom, on a fliield, and
folemnly proclaimed king of the Vifigoths. In the pleni-
tude of power which he had thus acquired, by the grant
of Arcadius, and the fuiTrage of his own nation, he
avowed his refolution of invading the dominions of the
weft ; and having amufed both Arcadius the emperor of
the eaft, and Honorius the Roman emperor, by deceitful
promifes, till he was prepared tor the execution of his pur-
poie, he entered Italy in the year 400, laid wafle the
country, and carried off a great quantity of fpoll and an
incrediVile number of captives. In 402 he ravaged the
provinces of Venctia and l.,iguria : m 403, advanced to-
wards Milan, whence Honorius luiitily fled ; and purlued
the timid emperor to the fortrefs of Aila, a town of Li-
guria, on the banks of the Tanarns. In the mean while
Stilicho, at the head of a chofcn and intrepid vanguard,
inarched to the relief of the Imperial captive, and arrived
foon enough to prevent the indignity of a furrender by ca-
pitulation, which the barbarians had propofed. By a fuc-
eefsful action, in which he forced his way through the
Gothic camp to the walls of Alia, he revived the hopes,
and vindicated the honour of Rome. On this oecafion, a
militaiy council of the Gothic nation was affembled, in
which Alaric difplayed the fpirit of the conqueror of
Rome, and concluded an animating fpeceh, by the folemu
and pofitive affurance, that he was refolved to find in
Italy either a kingdom or a grave. WhiUl the Chrlllian
Goths were devoutly employed in celebrating the feltival
of Ealler, Stilicho determined to attack them. The
camp of the Goths, which Alaric had pitched in tiv.>

neighbourhood

\

ALA

Wiighbourhood of rollentia, was thrown into confufion
by tho fiiddcii and impetuous cliargc vt' the Imperial c;i-
Viilry : the engagement which fiiccciutd was long main-
tained with equal valour and fuccels ; but at the moment
when the victory of Alaric was alnioll decided by the de-
feat of the cavalry, Stilicho led the Roman and Barbarian
infantry to the attack, and determined the fate of the
ilay. riie Goths retreated from the lield of battle ; the
intrenchments of tlv.ir can;p were forced ; and the fctnc
of rapine and ikuighter made fume atonement for the ca-
lamities which they had infliiitcd on the fubjecls of the em-
pire. The magniliccnt fpoils of Corinth and Argos cn-
riclied the veterans of the Weft ; the captive wife of Alaric
was reduced to the neceifity of imploring the mercy of
the infulling foe ; and many thoufand prifontrs, releaftd
from the Gothic chains, difperfed through the provinces of
Italy the prailcs of their heroic deliverer. Alaric [till main-
tained that iiivincible fpirit, which rifes fi;perior to every
misfortune, and derives new refources from advcrlity ; and he
boldly rel'olvcd to break tluough the unguarded pafles of the
Apennine, to fpread defolation over the fruitful face of
Tulcany, ar.d to conquer or die before the gates of Rome.
But Stilicho faved the capital, entered into a ncgociation
with the enemy, and iriduced him to rcpafs the Po, with the
remains of the fiourifliing army which he had led into Italy.
In his retreat, however, he took pofllflion of Verona ; but
having been defeated in a bloody adtiou near the walls of
this city, he efcaped by the fwiftnefs of his horfe. After
this difailer he retired with the fhattered remains of his army
to the mountains, where he loft, the grcatell part of them
by hunger and difeale, and by defertion ; and from hence
he fmally retreated into Thrace, and thus Italy was libe-
rated.

It was not long after this event before Alaric was recom-
Jiiended by Stiliclio to Honorius, and appointed by this
weak prince mafter-general of the Roman armies in Weftern
lUyricum. Whilft Stilicho rcfumed his pretenfions to tho
provinces of the Eail, and was anxious to employ Alaric
and his forces at a diftance from Italy, the Gothic king per-
ceived his defign ; and protratling his languid operations in
Theffaly and lipirus, he held a doubtful, and perhaps a
treacherous, correfpondence with the two rival courts, and
advanced to ilLmuna, on the confines of Italy, with a view
of enforcing his demand on the Roman court, for the re-
compence of incfleaual fervices. The demand was fup-
ported by Stilicho, who loft; his life during the hclitation of
the fenate ; and the delay furniftied Alaric with a pretext for
again entering Italy, in 408, By bold and rapid marches
lie pafti-d the Alps and the Po ; pillaged the cities of Aqui-
Icia, Altinum, Concordia, and Cremona, ivhich yielded to
his arms ; increafed his forces by the acceffion of 30,000
auxiliaries ; and at length pitched his camp under the walls
of Rome. The city was foon reduced to the utmoil extre-
mities of famine and peftilcnce, and a ncgociation was com-
menced and terminated in a ranfoni, tlie payment of which
induced Alaric, A. D.409, to raile the fiege, and to with-
draw his army into Tulcany. Here the Gothic ftandard
became the refuge of 40,000 Barbarian Haves, who had
broke their chains, and afpired, under the command of their
great deliverer, to revenge the injuries, and the difgrace, of
their cruel fervitude. About the fame time he received a
reinforcement of Goths and Huns, whom Ataulphus, or
Adolphus, the brother of his wife, had condufted, at his
prefling invitation, from the banks of the Danube to thofe
of the Tiber, and who had cut their way, with fome diffi-
culty and lofs, through the fuperior niimbers of the Im-
perial troops. Aiaric was now at the head of 100,000
Vol. I.

ALA

fightinjf men ; and tliougli Italy pronounced hiB name wilH
tenor and refpecl, he profelfed model ation, and tcpratcdly
declared, that it was his defire to be conlidertd as the friend
of peace, ar.d of the Romans. Ambaftadors were fent to
the court of Honorius qt Ravenna to negotiate a treaty ;
but he iniitled on his militaiy rank in the empire, and the
poflellion of Anne ot the provinces between Jialy and the
l)anubc. The terms' wei'c rejedlcd ; and Alaric again ad-
vanced to Rome, A. D. 409. Having taken pofleffion of
the port of OIlia, he ciim.pelled the city to furrender, and
elevated Attains, the prefect of the city, to the dignity of
Einpcror. He then conduced the new emperor to the gatei
of Ravenna, with a refolution of depriving Honorius ; but
Attains himfelf was difgraced witii A laric and depofed. The
court of Ravenna, however, inllead of taking the advantage
of this circumilance to eftetl a peace, offered an iufult to
Alaric, which provoked his refentment and induced him (o
march back to Rome with a detcrmini'tion to futiatc his
appetite for plunder and vengeance. C'l the 24ih of Au-
guft, A.D. 410, the Xiiithic army entered Rome; ar.d
thus 1 163 years after the foundation of the Imperial city,
which had fubdued and civih/ed fo confiderable a part of
mankind, it was delivered to the licentious fury of the tribe*
of Germany and Scytliia. As fomc of the Goths were
Chriiliar.s, they fpared tlic lives of the unrcfifting citizens,
and refpefted the churches as holy and inviolable fanctuarics ;
but the Huns, and other Heathen Barbaiians, con-.mitted
the moft honid maflaeres, rapes, and violence of eveiy
kind, without reftraint. After a pillage and devaftation of
fix days, the Gothic army evacuated Rome ; and their in-
trepid leader, at the head of an army, encumbcretl willi rich
and weighty fpoils, advanced to tlie fouthern parts of Italy,
deftroying whatever dared to oppole his paftage, and con-
tenting himfelf with the plunder of the unrcfifting country.
Having arrived at the extremity of Italy, his ambition was
excited by the near profpcft of the fertile ifland of Sicily.
But when the firft divifion of the Goths had embarked, in
order to pafs the Straits of Rhegium and Mefilna, r temped
arofe, which funk or fcattcred many of the tranfpoits, and
daunted the mariners, and their whole defign was defeated
by the premature death of Alaric, which fixed, afterafhort
ilinefs, the fatal teiTn of his conquefts, A. D. 410. His
funeral was celebrated with mournful applaufe ; his body
was buried in the bed of the fmall river Bufentinus, which
waftied the walls of Confentia, and which for this purpofe
was diverted from its courfe and then reftorcd ; and the
place of his interment was concealed by the maftfacre of the
prifoners who had been employed in the work. Of the
charafter of Alaric it is fufticient to fay, that he poflcfl'ed
more humanity, moderation, and iidelity to his engagement*
than many of the clals of Barbarian conquerors; and that
his exploits have rendered his name memorable in the moft
civilized paits of the world. Alaric. fays Lardncr, (Works,
vol. ix. p. llfo), was a Goth, and tliereforc called a Barba-
rian ; but he was a man of a great and geii' rous ir.ind, and
a chriftian of the Arian denomination. ^\ lien Rome was
facked and plundered, the calamity was attended with fomc
favourable eireumilances, refulting from the generofity of
Alaric, and his profefTion as a chriftian By ordering the
lives of men to be fpared as much as pofTible, and the churches
to be refpeiled, many Chriftians and Pagans were prcfcrved.
Altliough, adds this candid writer, the taking of Rome by
Alaric was the occafion of ir.any retleclions upon the Chril-
tians, from which tliey have been vindicated both by Au-
guftinc and Orofitis, the event Avas veiy prejudicial to the
intcrefts of Gentillfm, and confequently conducive to the
progrefs of the Chriftian religion. Anc. Un. Hill. vol. xvii.

Kr p. 191.

ALA

p. 191 — 197, 8vo. Gibbon's Hift. of tbe Decline and Fall
vt tuc Roman linijiiic, vol. v. p. 1-8 — 530, fivo.

Ai.ARic II. kiiiji of tlic Vifiijotlis, liKi-coded his fntlitr
Kuiic ill 4S4, and rcijfni-d over nil tlic country bttwecn the
Rhone and the (jaioinic ; adaiJtiiig to his own Hates the
Theodolian colletlion of laws, whieh he piiblKhcd as tiic
law of tiie N'ifigoths, and whieli has been fiiiee known liy
the title of the e<'de of Alarie. By peniiilTion of this Arian
prince, the orthodox prelatti held a eoiineil at Agdt in yo6 ;
but notwithllandinjr this inllance of toleration, Clovis, the
powerful kiiif^ of the Franks, engaged in a war witii a view
of difpofledini; him of his dominions, and alledgrd ;'S the
motive of it, that he was grieved to lee the Arians j.-ro-
prietors of the fairell portion of Gaul : " kt us march,''
lavs lie in his speech to the Nobles at Paris, " and with the
aid of God vanquiih the heretics, and then potfefs and divide
their fertile provinces." After holding a eonfcrcnee with
Alarie, in a fmall iiland of the Loire, near Amboilc, wliieh
feemcd to terminate amicably, Clovis marclied againil him
with the confidence and enthuliafm of a ineflVnger com-
niiifioned from heaven, and hv.ving pafTtd the ford of the
Hart, over the \ivonne, to which he v. as guided by a white
hart of fingular fi/t and bi.'au!y, lie haiteiied, under the di-
rection of a flaming meteor tln.t hovered over the cathedral
of Poitiers, to attack the Gothic army, more numerous
than his own, but enfeebled by a long and luxurious peace.
At a village about ten miles fouth of Poitiers, ftill named
Champagne St. Hilaire, tlie two armies engaged ; but that
of tlic Croths was prepared for a defeat by terror and con-
fuiioii. Thev rallied, however, in their extreme dillrefs,
and the martial youths, who had clamoronlly demanded the
battle, rcfufed to lurvive the ignominy of (light. The two
kings encoimtercd each other in fingle combat. Alarie fell
by the hand of his riv.-:l, A. D. 507, and the victorious
Frank was preferved by the goodneis of liis cuirafs, and the
vigour of his horfe, from the ipears of two defperate Goths,
v-ho furioufly rode againft him, to revenge the death of
their u^vereign. Alarie was fucceedcd by a natural fon,
Gefalaic, who took poffeflion of his throne. Mod. Un.
Hii'l. vol. xvi. p. 6. Gibbon's Hill. &c. vol. vi. p. 330 —

335- ^ .

A LA RIO, m Ornithology, Cap.' finch of Latham, or
fparrcw from the Cape of Good Hope of Albinus, a
fpeeies of Fringilla, with the head and breail black, the
body chefnut-colour and iinder white, and the four lateral
feathers of the tail marked with a fmall black line. It is in
length about 43 inches, ai;d found at the Cape of Good
Hope.

ALARIS vena, in Anatomy, the innioft of the three
Veins in the bend of the ann.

ALARM, in the Mihtary Art, properly denotes a fuddcn
apprehenfion, conceived from forae noife, or report, called
aifo alarm, and liguificd by firing a cannon, beat of a drum,
2£c., which makes men run to their arms, and ftand on their
guard.

Tiie word is Fn-iich, formed from the Italian nil' annc, !o
arms ; whence ^•/•;V,'a/V all' arme, q. d. to cull to arm^.

Alarms are either true, that is, founded on jult notice,
or falfe. Falls; alarms arc frequently given by an enemy,
either to fatigue the other's army, oir by way of diveriion ;
to keep tliemftlves fafc ai>d quiet from attacks. Alarms of
this kind are fometimes defigncd to try the vigilance of the
picket-guard, and to render them ftrictly attentive to their
duty. To remedy the inconveniences of formal alarms, and
prevent the horror and confnfion of trumpets, and noife of
warlike cries, the captains ufually give the alarm, by filent
advice, w/iihout noife.

Alasm bell, that which is rung to call the people to-

ALA

gather, on fomc fueli rccaficn as a fue, mutiny, or the
appearance of an enemy. This is wiuit the French call
torfiri. See IiKliry.

"A i.ARM-/^.', is the ground appointtd to each regiment,
by the (luarter-mafter-genend, to wiiich it is to march in cii(e
of an alarm. In a garrifon, the alarm-poll is the place
where every regiment is ordered to draw up, on ordinary
occafions.

Alarm, in l\ridng, denotes a Hep, or llamp, made on
the ground v itli the ad\ancing foot.

'i'his coincides v\ith what is otheiwife called an appel, or
challenge.

Alarm, or rather Alarum, is alfo ufed for an inflru-
mcnt to nwaken pcrfons at a certain hour; one very fimple
contrivance of this kind, is that ufed by weavers. iSee
\Vr A\ lr's Ahum.

ALARO, in Gi-ogrnphy, a river of Italy, which rife«
in the Apenniue, and runs into the fea near Cape Stilo, in
Calabria Ultra.

ALARODII, in Auc'unt Geography, a people who pro-
bablv inhabited a country near Colchis, whicli was terminated
by the weittrn jiart of the Enxine fea. tJtephaii. Byz. Not.
Herodot, lib. vii. c. 79.

ALARUM Thrush, va Ornhhohgy. SeeBrtFRY.

ALARYS Bay, in Geography, lies on the well coaft of
Ireland, nearlv fouth-eaft from Achill-head.

ALASARNE, a nation of the ifland of Coj.

ALASCANI, in Church H'ljlory, a feci of Antilutherans,
whofe diilinguilhing tenet, beiides their denying baptifm, is
faid to have been this, that the words. This is my boily, in
the inllitution of the euchariit, are not to be underftood of
the bread, but of the whole atlion, or celebration of the
fupptr. Thev are faid to have taken t!ie name from one
Joannes a Lafco, a Polifh baron, fuperintendant of th«
church of that country, in England.

ALASCHA, or Alaska, in Geography, a long penin-
fula on the north-weft coall of America, formed by Brillol
bay and tlie ocean on the north-weft and north, and by the
ocean and the waters of Cook's river, on the fouth and
fouth-e;i!t. A number of iflands, at its extremity, of which
the chief in their order wellward, are Oonemak, Oona-
lafka, and Oeumnak, form part of the clufter of iflands^
called the Morthern Archipelago. N. lat. 55 ' 30' to 58".
W. long. 151/' to 162".

ALASCHEIR, a town of Natolia, which, according
to fome Geographers, is the ancient Hypfus ; and according
to ethers, Philadelphia.

ALA SCO, John, in BiograJ^hy, a Polifh nobleman,
uncle to the king of Poland, as Fox (Ac1i and Monuments,
vol. iii. p. 32.) informs ns, was a member of the Catholic
churcli, and, as it is laid by fome writers, poffefTed epifcopal
dignity. But imbibinij the principles of the Reformation,
he became a Proteftant Divine ; and being under a necefTity
of leaving Germany by the perfecution that followed the
impofition of the Interim, he and his congregation found
an afvhim in London, under the protection of Edward VI.
Thisexrellent prince granttdthem-the church which had lately
belonged to the Auguftin Friars; and by a charter, A. D.
1550, crefted their congiegation into a ccrpoiation. John
Al'.ilco was aj)pointed fuperintendant, and four other mi-
nifters v'ere alibciated with him. Tliere were alfo 380 of
the congregation, that were made Denizens of England.
Burnet fay;', that he did not conduft himfelf with that
decency which became a ftranger who was fo kindly re-
ceived ; as he wrote againft the orders of the Englilh
church, " both in the matter of the habits, and the poihire
of the facranient, being for fitting rather than kneeling.
After die acceiTwn of Qiieen Mary, in 1553, their cou-
I gi-egatioft

ALA

gregation was diiTolvfd, their charter revoked, and they were
ordered to kavc the kingdom. Some few of them remained
with two of tlieir teachers ; but the greater mimher fought
refuge in foreign countries. Ahil'co, and many of liis com-
panions, embarked for Denmark ; but when it was under-
ilood that they were of the Helvetian confcfhon, tliey were
nquired to depart in the midtl of winter witliin two days.
I'Vom thence they emigrated, firll to Lubeck, then to Wif-
mar, and afterwards to Hamburg ; where difputes about the
mode of Chrift's prefence in the facrament excited fuch ani-
mofities, that after much barbarous ufage, they were baiiiilicd
out of all iliefe towns, and could find no fettlement, till the
fpring of the following year, when they were kindly re-
ceived at Embden, ia Friefland, and permitted to rcmair\
unmolefted. Such were the eminent talents and virtues of
Alafco, that, during liis (hort refidence in England, he had
formed a friendlhip with feveral confiderable perlons ; and
his charaAer was io highly efteemed by Queen Elizabeth,
that when {he came to the crown, he wrote Tetters of advice
and encouragement to her on the reformation of rehgion.
Among his friends were Melanfthon and Erafmus. Tiie
farmer addrefles him in terms of high refpedl, and calh him
his patron, and apprehending the neceffity of feeking an
efylum with him, he aflures himfelf of an hofpitable recep-
tion with one who could adopt the fentimcnt of the exiled
queen. " Non ignara mali, miferis fuccurrere difco."

" Touch'd with misfortunes I myfelf have known,
I view with pity woes fo like my own."

Virgil, JEn. i. 634.

Erafmus, in a letter written in 1527, fays of him, that
he found him " a man of fo amiable a difpofition, that he
fhould have thought himfelf lufficiently happy in his fingle
friendlhip ;" and in another letter, after enumerating hi,;
excellent qualities, he adds, " that which the young ought
to learn of the aged, I, an old man, have learned of this
youth." Tlie friendlhip between them continued as long
as Erafmus lived ; and Alafco was probably with him in his
lail ficknefs, as he purchafcd of him, when he lay on his
death-bed, his valuable library.

Alafco, by the favour of Sigifmund, patTed his laft years
in his native country, wiiere he died in iy6o ; " having, in
times and circumllances of peril, fupported a confiltent,
amiable, and refpeftable character." Burnet's Hid. Reform.
Vol. ii. p. 154 — 250. Gen. Biog. See Alascasi.

ALA Shakr, i. e. beaiiliful city, in Geo^rnfthy, a name
given by the Turks, to tl>e ancient city of Philadelphia, on
account of its beautiful fituation.

AIjASIA, a province of Thibet In Afia.
ALASSAC, a town of France, in the department of
the Correze, and diitritl of Brive, two and an half leagues
north north-well of Brive.

ALATA, a name given by Ptolemv to two towns , one
ia Arabia Dcferta, and another in Arabia Felix.

ALATA Castra, a town of Britain, placed by Pto-
lemy near the jElUiaiy of Bodotria, fuppofed to be the fite
of Edinburgh.

ALATAMAHA, a navigable river of Georgia in
North America, rifes in the Cherokee mountains, traverfcs
tlie hilly country though a dillance of 250 miles, and then
pafhiig through the flat cmmtry, imdcr the name of Oak-
mulgee, for 150 miles, and receiving the Oconee, ad'umes
the name of Alatamaha. After this junftien, it flows with
a gentle current for ico miles, and difcharges itfelf by
feveral mouths into the Atlantic, The north channel enters
the ocean between Sapelo and Wolf lllands ; the South
tliaiuiel, which ii tlic largeR and deepelt, purfuct il« courle

ALA

between M'lntofli and Broughton irtauds, and by the weft
coall of St. Simon'; found, between the fouth end of the
idand of that name, and the north end of Jekyl illand. At
its confluence with the Atlantic, it is JOO miles broad.

ALA'i'ED, or wiNGKn, in liolnny, an epithet applied
to the feed, item, or leaf-llalk. A feed is alated, when it
has an aia or membrane affixed to it, which by its flying
ferves to difperfe it. See Srrn. The foot-llalk, or petiole
of a leaf, is alated, when it fpreads out on the fide-., or it
winged with membranes. Alated leaves, arc thofe made
up of ieveral pinnated ones, or when the fides of a linglc
petiole conneit many folioles. Sec Leaf.

Alati.o i:htadnipeds, in Zoiilog\\ Sec QuADnuptn.
ALATERNOIDES, in Boiar.y. See Ph i-uca, Clu-
TiA, CrANoTui's, and Mvrica.

ALATERNUS. See Rhamnus and Phvlica.
ALATLI, in Ornhhukgy. See Achachactli.
ALATRL or Alatro, an ancient cilv of Italy, in the
Campagna di Roma, which is the fee ot a bifhop, and a
dukedom, five leagues fouth-call of Agnani, and 16 fouth-
eall of Rome. iC lat.4i° 44'. E long. 13° 12'.

ALATUNGA, in Ichthyology, a fpccies of the Scom-
ber, with the firll peitoral fins very long, and feven fmall
fins on each fide of the tad. It is found periodically grega-
rious in the Mediterranean.

ALATYR, in Geography, a town of Ruflia, in the go-
vernment of Kafan, and circle of Alatplk, 80 miles well-
north-well of Simbirfl<. N. lat. 54° 55'. E. long. 46" 14'.
Ai.ATVR, a river of Ruflia, which runs into the Sura,
near Alatyr.

ALAVA, EscLiivEL, Diego, \a Biography, a SpanifK
divine, biiliop ot Cordova, was born at Viitoriajn Abva,
and adiiled in the council of Trent, where he propofed the
prohibition for holding livings in coirmcnJam, and of all cc-
clefiallical pluralities. He died in 1562 : and wrote a valu-
able work, intitled " De Confiliis Univerfalibus, &c. ";. r.
or general councils, and the regulations that feem ncceiTary
to reform the religion and Hate of the church.
Alava, in Gcsgrapky, See Alaba.
ALAUDA, in Entorr.oh.~y, a fpccies of Cukcvlia,
cinereous ; fubglobofe thorax, liack marked with a t:-anf-
vcrfe band and black fpots, and brown legs : found in Po-
mcrania.

A LAV da non aijlata, in Ichtl-yologv, a name given by
Rondeletius and Gtfner to the Blexmus phalis of Liu-
narus, or y/HM//) Blenny.

Alauda, Lark, in Ornithology, a genus of birds of the
order oi pajfcrcs ; the charafters of which are, that the beak
is cylindrical, tubulate, and ftraight, bending towards the
point ; the mandibles are of equal fize and opening down-
wards at their bafc ; the tongue is bifid ; and the hinder
claw is llraightcr and longer than the toe. Pennant adds,
that the noihils are covered with feathers or brillles, and
the toes divided to their origin.

The name alauda is, according to Pliny, Suetonius, and
Varro, of Gaulifli extr^dtion ; and hence the French term,
aloiifttc.

The Greeks were acquainted with two fpecies of larks ;
the one had a tuft on its head, and waa denominated xofin.;.-,
or Mpi^Kyi/;, from nifij, a hehnet, which the Latins render
galcrita, or caflita ; the other, a common lark, wanted thit
tuft : though Willughby and Pennant fay, that it fomctime*
brilUcs the feathers on its head fo as to form an occafional
crell, which M. Bufion affirms alfo, from his own obferva.
tion, with refjittl to the male. The Germans call it terche,
pronouncing it fomctimcs Icriche, in imitation of itr. notes ;
lor, acoordiiig to Linnvrus, it prolongs its tiriky firilr, tiri/r.
3 T z GmicUv

ALA

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Gmelin enumerates 33 f;)ecies. i. A. Arvenfts, vulgaris of
Oliiia, Coelipeta of Kltin, alamla tion cr'ijlata of Gefner
and Aldrov:i!id, Valoucttc of BulFon, M\A JiilJ-lai-L or Jky-
hirk of R;iy, Willujrhby, Pennant, I^athani, Stc. the I'pe-
cifie charadtera of which are, that the two outcrmoft quills
of its tail are white lenjjthwife extcnnilly, and the inter-
mediate ones are ferruginous on the iniide : the lengtli is
about fcven inches. The males of this fpecies are fomewhat
browner than the females ; they have a blaek. coMar, and
more white on the tail ; their li/.e is larger, and their afpecl
bolder ; and they exclufively pofTefs the faculty of linging.
When tRe female is impregnated, fhe forms her nell between
two clods of earth, and lines it with herbs and dry roots,
being no Icfs attentive to the concealment than to the llrue-
ture of it. It fometimes builds its ncft among corn and in
high grafs. Each female lays four or five eggs, which are
grcyilli, with brown fpols ; and the period of her incuba-
tion is about 15 days. ' The young may be taken out of the
neft when they arc a fortnight old, and they are fo hardy,
that they may be eafily brought up. Some have faid, that
(he hatches three times in the year ; but this mull depend
on the temperature of the climate. Tlie parent is very
tender of her young ; and though, (lie does not always cover
them v.'ith her wing;;, (lie diitfts their motions, fupplies
their wants, and guards tliem from danger. The common
food of the young iky-larks is worm3, caterpillars, ant's-
eggs, and even grnfjhoppers ; and in maturity, tliey live
chiefly on feeds, herbage, and all vegetable lubltances.
Thofe birds, it is faid, that are dellined for fnging, ihould
be caught in Oftober or November ; and the males (liould,
as muck as poffible, be felefted : and when they are un-
traftable they fnould be pinioned, left they injure themfelves
by their violence againft the roof of the cage. As they
cannot cling by the toes it is needlefs to place bars acrofs
their cage ; but they (hould have clean fand at the bottom
of the cage, that they may welter in it and be relieved from
thevermm which torment them. In Flanders, the young ones
are fed with moiftened poppy-feeds, and foaked crumbs of
bread ; and when they begin to fing, with (heep's and
calves' hearts, hafhed with hard eggs ; to which are added,
wheat, fpelt, oats, millet, linfecd, and the feeds of poppy
and hemp, fteeped in milk. Their capacity of learning to
fing is well known ; and fo apt are fome cock larks, that,
after hearing a tune whiftled with the pipe, they have caught
the whole, and repeat it more agreeably than any linnet or
cajiary bird. In fummer the larks feek the higheft and
drieft fituations ; but in winter they dcfcend to the plains,
and aftemble in numerous flocks. In the former feafon they
are very lean, and in the latter very fat, as they are always
on the ground, and conftantly feeding. In mounting to
the air, they afcend almoft perpendicularly, by fucceffive
fprings, and hover at a great height ; but in defcending,
they make an oblique fweep, unlefs they are purfued by a
ravenous bird, or attradled by a mate, in either of which
cafes they fall like a ftone. Thefe fmall birds, at the height
to which they foar, are liable to be wafted by the wind ;
and they have been obferved at fea, clinging to the mafts
and cordage of fliips. Sir Hans Sloane obferved fome of
them 40 miles from the coaft, and count Marfigh met with
them on the Mediterranean. It is conjectured, that thofe
which are found in America have been driven thither by the
wind. Some have fuppofed, that they are not birds of paf-
fage, at leaft in the more fouthern and milder chmates of
Europe ; but they are occafionally concealed under fome
rock or ftieltered cave ; ami this concealment was known to
Ariftotle (Hift. Anim. lib. viii. 16.), and has been afcer-
faiaed by Klein. ' Thcvenot (Voyage du Levant, torn. i.

p. 493.) fays, that the larks appear in Egypt in the month
of September, and continue there till the end of the year.
See Migration.

The lark is found in all *he inhabited parts of both con-
tinents, as far as the Cape of Good iJope ; though Vil-
lault fays, that it is not found on the Gold coall ; nor, ac-
cording to Averroes, in Andalufia.

This bird, and the wood-lark, are the only birds which
fing whilft they fly. The higher it foara, the more it ftrains
its voice, and lowers it till it quite dies away in defcending.
When it afccnds beyond our fight, its raufic is diftinftly
heard ; and its fong, which is full of Iwells and falls, and
thus delightful for its variety, commences before the earlieft
dawn. Milton, in his. Allegro, has admirably exprefied
thefe circumftances ; and bifliop Newton obferves, that the
poet gives a fine pidure of the rtate of the mind, whilft he
is beautifully defcribing the fcene of rural chearfulnefs, in \
fituatron,

" To hear the lark begin his flight.
And Cnging ftartle the dull night.
From his watch-tower in the ikies,
Till the dapple dawn doth rife."

In a ftate of freedom, the lark begins its fong early in.
the fpring, which is its feafon of love and pairing, and con-
tinues to warble during the whole of the iummer. The
Hon. Daines Ijarrington (Phil. Tranf. vol. l.>;iii. part ii.
p. 282.), reckons this among the beft of the finging larks s
and as it copies the warble of ever)' other bird, he terms it
a mocking-bird. See Song of Birds.

Thefe birds, which are efteemed a delicacy for the table,
though Linnoeus thinks the food improper for gravelly com-
plaints, are taken with us in the greateft numbers, in the
neighbourhood of Dunftable. The feafon begins about the
14th of September, and ends the 25th of February; and
during this time, about 40C0 dozen are caught for fupply-
ing the London markets. Thofe caught in the day, are
taken in Clap-nets, till the 14th of November. See
DoRiNG. But when the weather becomes gloomy,' and
alfo in the night, thelarker makes ufe of a trammel-net, 27
or 28 feet long, and five broad, which is put on two poles
18 feet long, and carried by m.en under each arm, who pafs
over the fields, and quarter the grounds as a fetting dog.
When they fee or feel a lark ftrike the net, they drop it
down, and thus the birds are taken. The darkeft nights
are the moft proper for their fport ; and the net will not
only take larks, but all other birds that rooft on tlie ground ;
among which are woodcocks, fnipes, partridges, quails,
field-fares, and feveral others. In the depth of winter peo-
ple fomctimes take great numbers of larks by noofes of
horfe-hair. The m.ethod is this : take ico or 200 yards of
packthread ; faften at every fix inches a noofe made of'
double horfe-hair ; at every 30 yards the line is to be pegged
down to the ground, and fo left ready to take them. The
time to ufe this is, v.'hen the ground is covered with fnow,
and the larks are to be allured to it by fome white cats,,
fcattered among the noofes ; they will foon fly to thefe, and
in eating will be hung by the noofes. They muft be taken
away as foon as three or four are hung, otherwife the reft
will be frightened ; but though the others are feared away
juft where the fportfman comes, fome will be feeding at the
other end of the line, and the fport may be thus continued for
a long time. As the fl<y-lark is a kind of mocking-bird»
and apt to catch the note of any ether which hangs near it,
even after its own note is fixed ; the bird-fanciers oftea
place it next to one which hath not been long caught, in
order, as they term it, to keep the cng-.d fl<y-lark honeft.

The

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The method of catching larks by lime-twigSi pra(fHfcd
in French Lon-ainc, is as follows. For this puipofe, 1500
or 2000 willow rods, about three feet, ten iuehes long,
Itraiglit and well fmootlicd, are provided. Tlicfc are
ftarpencd and flightly burnt at one end, and the fpi'.ce of
about a foot from the other end is covered with bird-lime.
The ilakes are planted in parallel rows, in a fituation wliich
abounds with larks ; the rows are at fuch a dillanee as to
admit a perfon pafilng between them ; and the (lakes are
fixed at the dlilai.ec of a foot from each other, and op-
pofite to the interval in tlie next row. The chief art
confills in fo pi icing them, that they fliall retain their per-
pendicular pofition till they arc touched, and fall imme-
diately upon a lark's brudiing againll them in its flight.
When the limed rods are planted, an oblong fquare is
traced, with one of its fides prefented to the ground where
the larks are lodged, and at each corner is erefted a flag,
which ferves as a mark to the fowlers, and fo-.iietiraes as a
lignal for their manreuvres. In Autumn, about four or
five o'clock in the afternoon, the company attending this
fport is divided into two detachments ; one is aflembled at
the flag on the right, and the other at that on the left ;
and each obferving the moll profound lllence, extends itfelf
in an arch, fo as to meet at the diilancc of hall" a league
from the front, and then form one rank, gradually clofing
as it advances to the rods, and thus driving the larks be-
fore it. About fun-fet, th.e middle of the line ought to
be within two or three hundred paces from the front ; and
this is the time when they charge : that is, they proceed
cautioufly, paufe or lie on the ground, rife up or puili for-
ward, according to the commands of their leader. Upon
the proper conduct of thefe manceuvres depends the fuc-
cefs of the fport ; for thus the larks will be enclul,rd, and
mounting no higher tiian three or four feet, they will rufli
forward and be caught among the lime-rods, and falling to
the ground with thefe, they may be picked up by the
hand. If it be not too late, a fecond line is made on the
oppofite fide, at the dillanee of ;o paces, which drives
back the larks that had efeaped ; and this is called tncii/ig
about. One hundred dozen of larks or more are iometimes
caught in one of thefe fweeps, and the fport is reckoned
bad when only 25 dozen ai-e taken. Although fuch num-
bers are taken in this way, and others delhoyed by the vo-
racious tribes, their fecundity is veiy great ; and they are
naturally long-lived, the term of their exillence being, ac-
cording to OUna, ten years, and as others fay, 12, 22 and
even 24 years. Larks abound in various parts of Germany,
and Keyller (Travels, vol. iv. p. 3 15.) informs us, that thofc
about I^eipfic, where they are very numerous, are veiy fat,
and have a very delicate flavour. The excife on thefe birds
produces 6000 dollars, or about 900/. fterling annually.
They are alfo taken in great numbers in the country about
Nanmburg, Mefeburg, and Halle. Of this fpecies there
are three varieties ; viz. the w/.'ife Jhy-lark, which is feldom
of a fiiowy white colour, but tinged with yellow or 'orown,
and which is chiefly tound on the northern Ihores of the
Baltic, in Denmark w\A Sweden, and in Norway ; and oc-
caiionally in the vicinity of Hlldeflitim in Lower Saxocv,
and in other places. A fecond variety is t'ne b'acl Jky-livh,
reprefented by Albin as entirely of a dull brown and rcd-
dilh colour, verging to black, excepting the back of the
head, which is of. a dun yellow, and the lower part of the
belly, which has feathers edged v.'ith white : the fett, toes
and nails, being of a dirty yellow. The fubjeft of this de-
fcription was caught in a meadow near Highgate, where
fuch birds are found. A perfcftly black lark is mentioned
by Maiiduit, which was caught in the plaia of Mont-

ALA

rouge near Paris. A third variety is the to-i^-irg^fd /tirl
of Latham.

2. y/. pralenfis, or pratonim, fp'ipola alttra of Aldrovand
and AVillughby, ahiiiilU de pres, or l<i fai loiife of Iniifuu,
tit-lark of Pennant, Ray, Albin, and Lntham, iic. of
which the fpecilic eharatters are, that above it is grtenifli
brown ; its two outcrnioll tail-quiils arc externally white,
and it has a white line on its eyebrows. Thi'i bird is of
an elegant (lender Ihape ; five inches and a half long ; its
bill is black ; the back and head of a greenifti brown^
fpottcd with b!-ek ; the throat and lower part of the
belly are white ; the brcall yellow, marked with oblong
fpots of black ; the tail is diitl-.y : the exterior feather ia
varied by a bar of white, which runs acrofs the end and
takes in the whole outmoll web ; the c!;iw on tb.c hind toe
is very long, and the feet yellnwilh. The male has in ge-
neral more yellow than the female, on the throat, brcall,
legs and' feet. The tit-lark is found generally in meadows
and low marlhy grounds ; and, like other larks, it'nnkis
its iicll among the grafs, and lays live or ^1% eggs ; which
are roundi.'h, of a duHcy red colour, with many fmall
fpots. While tlie female hatches, the male fits on a neigh-
bouring tree, and rifes at times, finging and clapping' Jiib
vv'ings. It feeds chiefly on the worms and inf^tls wHich it
finds in ncw-plouglied lands; and it will live for a long
time on no other food than fmall feeds. Like the wood-
lark, it fits on trees ; but it is fluflied at the leall noife,
and (hooto with a rapid flight : it has a very remarkable fine
note, finging in all fituations ; on trees, on the ground,
while it is fporting in the air, and particularly in its de-
fcent. This bird, and many others, fuch as the thrufll,
blackbird, v/i!low-wrcn, &c. become filent about Midfum-
mer, and refume their notes in September ; hence this in-
terval is the moll mute of the year's three vocal fenfons.
Spring, Summer and .\utumn. Perhaps the birds are in-
duced to fing again as the autumnal temperament rekmbkj
the vernal. The tit-lark inhabits England, France, Ger-
many, Italy, and Sweden. Albin fays, that it appears in
England about the beginning of April, and that it de-
parts about the month of September. It is faid to be
fond of the company of its fellows ; and when it cannot
get the fociety of thefe, it will intermingle with the flocks
of finches and linnets, whicii it meets with in its prilliige. The
varieties of this fpecies are the luhite lil-liiri, differing from
the preceding in its plumage, which is yellowifli white,
but yellower on the wings, with brown bill and feet, feen
by Aldrovand in Italy, and reckoned by Rzacynlki among
the birds of Poland ; and the lit-l.irL with llnck feel. ■

3. A. nikorcat le ciijcUcr of Uulfon, ■wood-liirk of 'Engliih.
writers, is fpecifically charafterifed by a white annular belt,
encircling its head. This bird is fmaller than the Iky-lark,
and of a fliorter thicker form ; the colours of the phnnage
are paler ; the firll feather of the wing is fliorter tlian the
fccoiid ; the hind claw is very long and foniewhat bent ;
it perches on tr;-3 ; it haunts the uncultivated trails near
copies, withou.t penetrating the woods, whence its name ;
its, fong rcfembles more the warble of the nightingale, or
the whiiiling of the blackbird, tb.an that of tlic (ky-lark ;
its note being lets fonorous and kfs varied, though not
Icfs f.veet ; and it is heard not only in tlie day but iu the
aiglit, both' when it flies and ^hen it fits on a bough.

This bird builds on the ground, and forms its ncft on
the outildc with mofs, and on the inlide with dried bents,
lined with a few hairs, and conceals it with a turf; and the
fituation it feleds is ground where the grafs is rank, or
become brown. It l;.ys four or five eggs, which are diifliv
and blotched with deep brown ; its fecuirdity is inferior to

that

ALA

that of the (Icy-lark, and its numbers are not fo great : it
breeds earlier, lince its yoiiiij]; arc fometimcs flown in the
niidJlc of March, and therefore they pair in T'ebriiary, at
which time, and not before, they part with their lall year's
brood ; whereas the connuon hirk does not hatch before the
month of Mny. This is a very tender and delicate bird ; fo
tliat, aecordinr; to Albin, it i impoITible to rear the young
taken out of ihe iied : but this is the cafe only in England
and fuch cold climates, for in Italy they are removed from
tiie iiell, and reared at hrll like the nightingale, and after-
wards fed upon panic and millet. Tl e wood-lark feeds on
beetles, caterpillavo, and feeds ; its tongue is forked ; its
ftomach mufcular and llefiiy ; and it has no craw, but a mo-
derate dilatation of the lower part of the oeiophagus, and
its cica are veiy fniall. It lives ten or twelve years.
The males arc dillmgiiillied from the females by their larger
fi/.e ; the crown of the luad is alfo of a darker colour, and
the hind nail longer ; it.^ brcall is more fpotted, and its
great w ing-quills edged with olive, which in the female is
grey. The wood-lark mounts high, warbling its notes, and
hovering in the air ; it flies in flocks during the winter
colds ; it is found in Sweden and Italy, and is probably
difperfed through tlie intervening countries, and confe-
quently over the greatell part of Kurope. It is alfo found
in Siberia, as far as Kamtfchatka, and in the ifland of Ma-
deira. Of thefe larks, like the common fort, fome are
niio-ratory, and fome ftationaiy. In autumn the wood-lark
is fat, and is then excellent for food. There are three fca-
fons, according to Albin, for catching wood-larks. The
full is the fummer, or the months of June, July, and Au-
gud:, when the fmall branchers begin to chirp, before they
undergo the moulting. The fecond is the month of Sep-
tember, wl'.en they fly in flocks and roam from one country
to another, roving over the pafture grounds, and perching
on trees near lime kilns. The young birds now change
their plumage, and are not difl:inguilhable from the old
ones. The third and the moft favourable feafon for catch-
ing wood-larks, begins with the month of Januai-y, and lafts
till the end of February, « hen they feparate to pair. The
young birds, wliich are then caught, make generally the
beft lingers ; they chirp a few days after, and with a
clearer tone than thofe that arc caught at any other feafon.
Thofe that are taken in the Summer months are ufually
taken in nets, by the help of a hawk. With this view,
the fportfman is to go out in a dewy morning, and fixing
on fome hill, he is to go to that fide of it which faces the
riling fun ; for this is the place which they are fure to fre-
quent. He is then to take out a hawk, and a fmall net
at the end of a ftick : when he fees a bird, he is to (hew
the hawk, upon which it will fquat down ; and on his ap-
proaching near, and making the hawk flutter over the
place, the bird will only lie fo much the clofer, fo that he
may go up and lay the net over it, and thus take it without
injury. The beft wood-larks that are kept in cages, have
been caught in this manner. A better way of taking num-
bers of them, is to prepare a net made like that for taking
partridges, only with much fmaller meflies ; three or four
perfons are to go out with this, and one of them is to take
out a hawk, which ferves in the fame manner for the larks,
as the fetting-dog does for the partridges. Wherever a
flock of thefe larks is feen together, which is very com-
mon, the whole flight keeping with the female till the next
coupling feafon, the hawk is to be fhewn ; and on hia
hovering, they will all lie ftill, and the net may be eafily
drawn fo completely over them, that not one can efcape.
The bell time for taking this bird for the cage is July, or
the preceding or following montli. Thofe that are put

ALA

into the cage at this time, fing prefently, but their fong-
time is not lafiing, for they foon fall to molting, in which
ilate many die ; but if they get over it, they commonly
prove very healthful afterwards, become very tame and
familiar, and fmg fweetly. Thofe which are taken in the
latter end of September arc generally very flrong and
fprightly ; but they do not fmg till after Cl'.rilhnas. Thofe
taken in January and Februai-y iinaHy prove the beft of all ;
they generally begin iinging in two or three days, or at the
utmoil in a vvcek after they are taken.

The method of keeping them in health in the cage is
this : there muft be two pans of food, the one containing
meat, the other oatmeal and hempfeed. The following is
very good food : boil an egg very hard, to which add the
crumb of a half-penny loaf and as much hemp-feed ; let the
egg be chopped very fmall, and the hcmpieed bruifed in a
mortar ; when thefe are mixed, the bread is to be crumbled
in among the reft, and the whole to be rolled together with
a common rolling-pin, and kept for ufe. There muft be
fome fine fmall gravel ftrewed at the bottom of the cage, and
renewed at fartheft once in a week. This will prevent the
bird's feet from injuiy by being clogged with dung ; an i Kij
bad^Ling in this will alfo keep him from being loufy, after
which few bi.-ds are of much ufe. A perch muft be in the
cage, and it ftiould be lined with green baize, or made of
fine matting, of which the lark is very fond. When the
bird is firft taken, fome n»eat fiiould be ftrewed on the fand
in the bottom of the cage ; for the bird will be fometiraes
almoft f-imilhcd before he finds the meat in the pan. The
cock-bird of this kind is known from the hen by the loud-
nefs and length of his call, by his tallnefs as he walks about
the cage, and by his doubling his notes in the evening, as
if he were going with his mate to rooft. A better rule
than all others, however, is his fmging ftrong ; for the hen
wood-lark fings but very weakly. Both the cock and hen
of this kind are tender, and fubjeCi to many diforders ;
the principal of thefe are, cramps, giddinefs of the head,
and breeding lice. Cleanlinefs is the beft cure for the firft
and the Inft of thefe complaints ; but we know of no cure
for the other. A good ftrong bird will laft very well for
five or fix years, and frequently improve during the whole
of this time. The lark is not only a very agreeable bird for
the cage, but it will alfo live upon almoft any food, fo that
it have once a week a frefti tuft of three-leaved grafs put
into the cage with it. The wood-lark is one of the fweeteft
of our finging-birds, and is indeed very little inferior to the
nightingale, when in good health ; but we are not to
judge by fuch as are made feeble by improper food, or want
of cleanlineis in their cages.

4. A. CiiiiipeJIrii, la Jpipohtte of Bufion, ghireana of Gef-
ner, &c. in German gicnerl'm, braclLrhe and Irautlerchc^
meadow-lark of Latham, is rather larger than the tit-lark ;
being fix inches and a half in length. Its fpecific charafters
are, that its tail-quills are brown ; the lower half, except
two intermediate quills, white ; the throat and breaft, yel-
low. According to Willughby, the meadow-lark differs
from the other larks by the blacknefs of its bill and feet ;
he adds, that its bill is flender, ftraight, and pointed, and
the corners of its mouth edged with yellow ; that it has
not, hke the wood-lark, the firft quills of the wings fliorter
than the fucceeding ; and that in the male the wings are ra-
ther darker than in the female. Though the males are
hardly to be diftinguiftied from the females by their external
appearance, yet if another male be prefented, Ihvit up in a
cage, they wilPinftantly attack it as an enemy or a rival.
This bird has a flenderer body than the iky^lark, and is dif-
tinguiftied from it by the ftiake of its tail, like that of the

wagtail

ALA

ALA

wagtail and tit-larl:. Tt inluibits licaths Rr.d uncultivated
tra'^'i, and i'raiiiciitly tlic oat-ftubblc, after the corn is
reaped, where birds of tliis fj)ccies {jathcr together in numc-
TitHi flocks. In fpriiip, the male perches to difcovtr or to
woo his inr.te, and fomclinies he mouiils into tiie air, ling-
jng with all liis iniirht, and then defcends quickly to pair
on the gioiuid. When a perfon approaehea the neil, tlie
female betrays her fear by her cries; \\liercas, other larks
are iilcnt and miinovcd, when danger is r.ppiehended. They
make their nell dole to the ground, fonutimes in fur/.e-
bulhes, ami form it of mofs, lined with ilraw and horfe-
hair. The egg is half the fize of that of the fl;y-!ark,
which it refeinbles, and its tints are lighter. Where the
yo\uig males arc reared for the fake of their fong, they re-
quire great attention. The cage muft be covered with a
green cloth, little light be admitted, and plenty of ant's
eggs muft be provided. By degrees bruifed hen-.p-feeJ,
mixed with flour and yolk-i of eggs, may be fubllitvited.
The meadow larks are caught like tjie (l<y larks, with the
drag-net, and alio with lim; twigs, placed in th.e trees which
they h?.unt. They afTociatc with tlie fii'ches ; and both
arrive and depart with tliefe. Tliey are fjiuid in Italy,
Germany, England, Sweden, 5fc. They live on finall feeds
and infefls : and their flelli, wisen fat, is excellent. Tlie
meadow-lark of I'litain difiers from that of Linna:us ; as
in that of the latter, all the quills of the tail, except the
two middle o.ies, are white from their oiigin to halt their
length, but in that of the former, the two oiitenroll quills
only are white. Of this fpecies there is a variety, viz. the
fphwlelta.

y. A. trivia/is. A.. /cj>!aria o( llrinon, Jp.'^o/a /. aiit/.>us of
Aldrovand, L'alovtlte p'lpi of Buffon, XXm: f 'mil lark of Ray
and Willughby, the pip! l lark of Albin, ihc -^iii/hoppcr wcr-
ILr of Lathim, is dillinguilhed by brown lail-quills, the
outermoft half white, the fecond white at its v, ed,;e-i:ke tip,
with- a double whitiih line on the wings. The German
c-phhet pifp, and the Englidi pifipif, formed from the l\,atin
pipio, which fignifies to utter a feeble cry like ch.icken,-;, al-
ludes to the fibilous notes of this bird. Its cry, efpeeially
in winter, is like that of the graihopper, but llronger and
fhriller, and it utters this, both when perched on the tallell
branches among the bufnes, and when it is on the wing.
Its tones are foft, harmonious and clear. This little bird
bi:ilds its neft in folitary fpots, concealed imder a turf, and
its young are frequently a prey to the adders. It lays five
eggs, of a light grafs-green coloiu-, thinly fprinkled with
deeper coloured fpecks. The grafliopper larks appear in
England about the middle of Sejiteniber, and great numbers
of them are caught in the environs of London. They are
found in Sweden and Germany, as well as in England ;
they frequent the heaths and plains, and flutter at a mode-
rate height ; they chiefly feed, as the flender form of their
bilj indicates, on inleCts and Imall feeds, and from the dimi-
nutive fize of this bird, being about five inches and a half
long, it maybe inferred, that it is not long-lived.

6. A. crijlata, KopuiaXo; y.a^n ix'^ate., i. e. the helmet -lark
having a creft of Ariftotle ; the y.ihrita of Pliny and gale-
ritiii of Varro ; A. crijlnla of Brilion, A. cnjlata major of
Ray, Aldrovand, and Gefncr, Ird'ila capeUuta of Olina, le
eochevh of Buffon, lie'idclercbeoi the Germans, and crcjltd lark
of Willughby, Albin and Latham, is diflinguiflicd by black
tail-quills, the two outermoll white at their exterior edge,
its head crefted, and its feet black. Its length is about fix
inches and three quarters. It lives in the mcadpws and
fields, on the fides of ditches and the backs of furrows ; it
is often feen at the iriargin of water, and on the high roads.

rarely in the (l<irt£ of woods, perched on a tree, and fon-e-
times on the tops of lioufes, and i^f abbey?, &c. This lark,
though not fo common as the Iky-Iark, is iound in moll
parts of Europe, in Italy, France, Gciinany, Pol.md, Den-
mark, Uulfia, Scotland; and does not chu-ge its abode in
winter. The fyng of the males is loud, and yet n.cllow ar.d
pleafant : ard their warbling is ulually acconpauicd with a
quivering of the wings. 'I'liev arc the full to hail the re-
turn of Ipriiig, and the dawn of tlie morning, and they lon^c-
tinifs warble in tlie i.ight ; being animated l.y tine Wiatlier,
but depreffed and liienced by clouds ai d rain : and tliev
generally fiiig till the end of September, 'i'lie male is dil-
tinguifhexl, not only by the excellence of hi': warble, but by
the flrength of his bill, the bulk ol his head, and by u large
portion of black on his breall. The female condrn^ts her
nctb like the common lark, but often near the highways ;-
file lays four or five eggs, which are afli-colourcd, with nu-
merous dingy brown fpots, ;uid takes little concern in
hatching them ; but when the young are excluded, file pro-
vides tor them till they are flown. They are laid to breed
twice in the year. They are ealily reared, but cannot be
fupported in a cage, without difficulty, for a whole year :
their beil food i:. ant's eggs, ox and fhecp's hearts miiicej,
and bruifed hemp-feed and millet. The proper leafon for
raifing thefe birds is autumn ; and great numbers are then
caught in a plum]) Hate on the verge of the forefls. Tlu-y
may be decoyed by the call, and thus dilfcr from ll<y-larkr. ;
bcfides, they never confort in flocks ; their plumage is lefs
varied and more white ; tlii: bill longer, the tail and wings
fliorter ; they do not mount fo high in the air, are lefs able
to itruggle with the \7ind, and ret\;ni fooner to the ground.
In other refpecfs the two fpecies are alike.

The creited I-ark is the only one that may be inflrufted in
a month ; it learns many airs perfectly, which it repeats
without confufion, and retains nothing of its native warble ;
and in thefe particulars it is fuperlor to the canary.

7. A. rufn, I'ylluuettenrAr a'ltos fauve oi^uKov\,\.\ie rtifout
backed lark of Latham, is fpecifically diflinguiflied by its black-
ifli brown colour ; its neck and back rufous-orange, the tail-
quills rufous at their outward margin, the lelfer and middle
coverts of the wings blickifh and fulvous, or of a deep yellow
at their margin. Its length is fcarccly five inches, is much
fmaller than the commcm fl;y-lark, and fmind at Buenos-
Ayres. BulFoii obfcrving its plumage to exhibit fo ilriking
a refemblance to that of the Iky-lark, confiders it as a variety
of that fpecies.

8. A. cap^rfis, A. capitis bonitfpei of Briffon, la cravate
janne 01: calandre du cap di hannc cfperance of Buifon, cape lark

of L;'thaii3, has its three lateral tail-quills tlpt with white,
its throat yellow, margined with black, and its eyebrows
yclhHV. Its length is eight inches, and it is found at the
Cape of Good Hope.

9. A. calundra, A. non cri^ata major and tetraoparva o(
Gefncr, calandre of Buffon, calavdra of other writers, ta-
laiidrt lark of Latham, is fpcciticaliy dcfcribed as having it<l
ou'erinoll tail-quill externally altogether white, the fecond
and third tipt with white, and a brown flripe on the breaft.
This bird is mentioned by Oppian in the fecond century of
the Chrirtian Tlira, under the appellation of KaXxn^a ; and
he defcribes the bed method of catching it, fincc iccom-
mended by Olina, which is to fpread a net near the brook
to which it ufuaily reforts to drink. It is larger than tht
fl<y-lark, its length being feven and one-fourth inches, and
its b.ll flronger and fhorter : in other refpefts it exacftly rc-
femll.'s the common lark. Its warble is more fonorous, but
not kfs pkafant ; fo that in Italy a perfon who fings well is

complunented

ALA

ALA

complimented .by faying, that he fings like a calandre. It
can, hke the common l;irk, imitate ihc notes of fevcnil birds,
and even the chii-ping of cliickcns and the h)vc-fiiuall of tiie
(hc-eat. When ealandies are to be caged, in order to liave
^ood fingers, they fliould be taken from tlie nell before the
liril moult, and thofe are to be prefencd wh'ch are hatehed
in A;:guil. Their food fliouhi he pallc mixed with fliecp's
heart, together witli feeds and crumbs of bread ; and nibbifii
(hould be hild in the cage for wlietting their bill, and land
for them to welter in when ttazed with vennin. Their
wings fliould at firft be pinioni-d, and inllead of the top of
the eage, a canvas (hould be fubllituted. When they are
reconciled to their fitnation, they will ling inceffantly, and
even neglect their food to repeat their warble. The male is
larger and blacker round the neck than the female, which
has only a veiy narrow collar. The calandrc nellies on the
ground, like the common lark, under a grady tuft, and lays
lour or five eggs. It is found in Italy, .Sardinia, Provence
Jn l'"i%iiice, the Pyrenees, Syiia, near Aleppo, the fouthern
part of Raffia, the deferts of Tartaiy, and even America
whither it might have been driven by the winds acrofs the
Atlantic, alid there thrive and become naturalized. Adan-
fon regards the calandre as intermediate between the fl<y-
lark and tlie thruih ; but this is an analogy which mull be
rellriclcd to the plumage and external fomi, for the habits
of this bird and the thrufli are vti"y different.

10. A. clpejh'is, A. I'irglniana of BrKTon, haiijfe-col iwir
of Buffon, /ari, with a yelloiu throat of Catefby, ^nAJhore-
iark of Pennant, Latham, &c. has thefe fpecific charaders ;
the tail-quills are half white en the infide, the throat is
yellow, the ftripe und,;r the eyes, and on its breaft, is black.
Its length is fix and an half inches, and in bulk and habit it
refembles the common lark. It inhabits North America,
Siberia, R.uilia and Poland ; migrates in flocks, feeds on
oats and other grains and grades ; lives upon the ground ;
has little or no fong, and its flefh is delicious.

1 1. A. magna, mcnila omcr'icana torqiiata ofBrifTon, la fer-a-
cheval ou mtrls a collier d' amcrique of Buffon, large lark of
Catefby, and crefcer.t Jlare of Peiihant and Latham, is cha-
racterifed by Linnxus as having the undtr-fide of the body
yellow, a black curved band on the breail;, and the three
lateral quills of the tail white. Above, fays Latham, it is
variegated with rufty brown and blackidi, below yellow, with
a black curved ftripe on the breaft, and the three lateral
quills of the tail white. Its length is 1 1 inches. It is found
not only in Virginia and Carolina, but in almoft the whole
Continent of America ; and Linnseus afferts that it occurs
alfo in Africa. In the iUte of New York it appears in the
beginning of April, breeds in June, and retires in September
or October. It neftles on the ground, and its eggs are
whitifli. It lives in Savannas, perches on the tops of buflies,
has a brilli motion upwards and downwards of its tail, cats
fcarcely any thing but the fmall feeds that are found on
the ground, fuch as thofe of the yellow flowered orniiho-
galum ; fiiigs agreeably in the fpring ; and is reckoned good
food.

12. A. viiiior, hjfcr full larlt of Willughby, feld lark
of Latham, is of a reddilh brown colour, and the two outer
quills of the tail are exlenially white. The throat is yellow ;
the breaft alfo yellow, marked with large black fpots ; the
belly and vent feathers white ; the coverts of the wings
dulky, edged with white ; and the legs of a very pale brown.
It is larger than the tit-lark, but diftinguilhed from it by
tlie very fliort claw on the hind toe.

13. A. Jlalica, g-arola of Ray and Willughbv, girole
«f BufLn, and Italian lark of Latham, has the middle quills

of the tail bay, the laft but one white at the tip, the two
outermoit entirely white. Its lize is that of the fi<y-lak,
and it has a long nail projefting from each foot. Its head,
neck, back, and wings are of a mottled colour, rcleir.bliji;^
that of the quail. 1'he general colour of the feathers is a
chefnut brown, and their edges are yariegated with white,
yellow and red; the back pait of its head has a fort of
crown or ring of white feathers ; its belly is white ; its bill
red ; and the corners of the mouth yellow, and its tail is fo
fliort, that it teems to have none ; it is bifid, however, and
elegantly variegated with chefnut-colour and -white. 'I'he
feet are flcfh-coloured and the nails whitifli. It is eight
inches long, and inhabits Italy.

14. A. liido-oiciana, farloiizanne of Buffon, and Louijiana
lark of Latham, refembles tlie tit-lark. Its fpecific cha-
rafters are, that the laft quills but one of the tail are tipt
with white ; the outermoft arc partly brown, 'partly white.
Its length is feven inches. It is found in Louijiana.

15. A. ruhi-a, A. Peiifyhanicn of Brilfcn, alouctte aiix
Jones brunes de Penfd-vanie of Buffon, and redlark of Pen.

nant and Latham, is of a brown colour, and has the fpace
about its eyes black, and the two outennoft quills of the
tail white. It is about the lize cf the mcadov,-lark. Its
bill, feet, and nails are of a deep brown colour ; its neck,
breaft, and undcipavt of the body, of a reddifh fulvous
colour, fpeckled with brown ; and the brown fpot that fur-
rounds the eyes defcends on the cheeks and is bounded by
a zone, partly white and partly bright fulvous. This is a
migratoiy bird, common to both continents. It appears in
Penfylvania in the month of March, and advances north-
ward at the end of May ; and it was feen by Mr. Edwards
in the vicinity of London. He remarks, that when the
wing is gathered up, the third primary feather reaches to
the tip of the iirft.

16. A. mofellana, la ronjfeline of Buffon, and marjlj-lark
of Latham, is rufous, below rufous white ; its cheeks and
breaft are marked with brov,-n lines ; its tail is black -with a
nifous margin. Its length is fix and one-fourth inches.
The bill, feet and nails are yellowifh. It haunts wet
fituations, frequents the fandy margin of the Mofelle, and
fometinics breeds on its banks, near Metz, where it appears
annually in Oclober, and fome few are caught. It begins
its fong at dawn, which is faid to be very pleafant,

1 7. A. malalarica, Malalar lark of Latham, has the
primary and fecondary wing-feathers and the tail, of a fordid
brown colour, tawny at their margin. The bill is black,
the feathers that form the creft on the head are brown, and
their apex white ; thofe on the neck are tawny with a black
longitudinal ftreak paffing along the middle ; the throat and
abdomen reddifh white ; the feathers of the back and the
coverts of the wings brown, towards their edge tawny, and
marked with a white fpot, and the feet are tawnv. This
is a beautiful fpecies and found in Malabar.

18. A. gingica, Gingi lark of Latham, has the upper part
of the body cinereous brown, its under fide black. The
hill and feet are reddifli grey. Its length is four and one-
half inches, and it is found in Coromandel.

19. A. tartarica, A. jiigra of Falek, and ilaek lark of
Latham, has a fubbifurcated tail, the two intermediate
quills of the tail flightly white at their limb, the next
whitifli at the apex, and the lateral very black. This bird
inhabits the very dry fait dcfarts between the rivers Volga
and Ural, the Cafpian deferts, and the whole fouthern defert
of Tartary ; it is gregarious in winter, fohtary in fummer, .
and has fcarcely any fong.

20. A. mutabiUs, mutable lark of Latham, has a blacki

forked

A I. A

forked tail, tlie outer quills of the tail on both fides iin-
fpottcd, the reft grey at their apex, and the bill whitilh.
It is about fcven inches in length, and inhabits the defcrts
of Aftracan. This bird, when young, is wholly cinereous,
and the colour gradually changes Mito black.

2 1. A. nemoroj'a, A. crijlaia minor of Ray and BrifTon,
/(• /;//« of BiifTon, and /^;- cir/ItJ lark of Peiuiant, Wil-
liighby and Latham, is charatterifed by black tail-quills,
the two outermoll white on their exterior edge, its head
crelled, and its feet red. The crell is very long in propor-
tion to its fizc. This bird is dUHnguifiied by its cry, In, hi,
III, which is difagreeable, and never uttered except it flies ;
it likcwife mimicks oddly the fongs of otlier birds ; it fre-
quents heaths, commons, and even woods, where it builds
its neft ; and in the rigour of winter, when the ground is
covered with fnow, it reforts to dunghills, and picks up its
food about barns, and alfo haunts the highways for the fame
pui-pofe. It is found in Italv, Aullria, Silcfia, and Poland,
and feen in flocks in the northern counties of England. It
remains in Germany through the winter, and leaves the coun-
try about the equinox.

2 2. A. iindiilii, coqmUcxJc oi BuPTon, vmhitecJ lorh o{ \j!i.-
tham, has its tail-quills brown, tawny at the edge, its feet
yellowifh, and the feathers of its crell black, edged with
white. Its length is fix and three-fourth inches. This bird
can elevate its creft at pleafure ; it is properly the bird of
the morning, as it begins its fong with the earlieft dawn,
and feems to roufe the other birds. The male does not leave
,■ his mate when flie hatches, and when the one is employed

■ in feeking tlieir food, which confills of caterpillars, grafs-
' hoppers, and fnails, the other keeps watch, to give iignal

wiien danger threatens. It was found by M. Guys, in
Provence ; and Sonnerat brought a bird very like it from
the Cape of Good Hope, only that it had no creft, that
the colour of the under part of the body was more yellowiili,
and that none of the qnills of the tail or wings were edged
with white. It was perhaps a female, or a young bird of
the year's hatch.

23. A. Seiiegalenfis, A. fenegalaijts crlflata of BrifTon, la
gr'ifettc of Buffon, and Senegal larh of Latham, has the two
middle quills of the tail grey, the reft brown, the outermoft
rufous white on the outer fide, and the head fomewhat
crefted. Its length is fix and a half inches. It inhabits
Africa, and perches on the trees, which grow on the banks
of the Niger ; and is alfo feen in the ifiand of Senegal.

24. A. tejlacca, tijlaceou.! larh of Latham, has the foiu-
intermediate quills of the tail black, the reft teftaceous white,
the body above teftaceous, and below teftaceous white. It
inhabits the vicinity of Gibraltar.

25. A. lujitana, Portugal larh, has the quills of the tail
tawny lutefcent, the exterior ochrokucous, the feet flefh-
coloured, and the bill red. It is found in Portugal.

26. A. Afncana, It- firli du cap de bnnne efpsrancc QiY>\\'Sor\,
African larh of Latham, has the tail, the quills, and the
coverts of the wings brown, edged with white, the inferior
part of the body white, vririegatcd with oblong brown
ipots. Its length is eight inches. It is found at the Cape
of Good Hope.

27. A. cinerca, la cendrilh of Buffon, cinereous larh of
Latham, is of a cinereous colour; its belly and vent white ;
the quills of its wings and tail brown, the outermoft exter-
nally white near the tip. Its length is fix inches. Buflon
queries whether there be any analogy between this bird and
the cinereous lark which Dr. Shaw law in great numbers near
Bilerta, in Africa ?

28. A. ruja, lavariule of Buffon, rufuns lirl of I-atham,
bas Its tail-quills brovvu, the eight iuterniediatc ones rufty-

VOL. I. I

ALA

coloured at the edge, and the outcrmoU white at the edgf.
The bill is brown ; the body bkickifh above, variegated with
rufous tints, and below white; the feet are yclUnvilh ; the
length five and one-fourth inches. Comerfon brouglit this
beautiful bird from Buenos Ayres, near tlie river de la Plata.

29. A. Novit Zetlandiit, Nczu Zealand lark of Latham, has
white eyebrows, a black bar on each eye, its vent cinerafccnt
or afhy, and its feet reddifli cinereous. It is fcven and a half
indies long. The bill is aftiy black above ; the body black
above, white below, the feathers edged with afliy colour ;
the claws black, the hind one almoll ftraight. It is found
in New Zealand.

30. A. mongolica, mongolian larl of Latham, lias the
crown of the head ferruginous, bound with a white annular
fillet, and in the middle a white fpot. It is larger than the
calandre, which it refembles ; it fings fweetly on the ground,
and inhabits the faline marlhts that lie between the rivers
OnoH and Argon.

31. A. fibirica has the fecondaries white, the crown of
the head, ears and flioulders ferrnginoiis, and the outer tail
quill externally altogether white. It inhabits the fields of
Siberia, near the Irtis, iieftling on the ground, in its (light
and fong inferior to the fl<y-lark, in ftature larger, and fimilar
to the calandre.

32. A. Jlava, la ceinture de prcire of Buffon, has the
upper part of its body red and grey, varied with bro« 11,
the under part whitifli, the face, throat and fides of the
head yellow, the tail-quills black, edged with grey, except
the outermoft which are white at their margin. The yellow
of the face, &c. is fet off by a black fpot between the
eye and the bill, that joins to another larger one immediatelv
below the eye ; and the breaft is ornamented with a broad
black girdle. The bill and feet are leaden-grey. Its length
is five and three-fourth inches. It inhabits Siberia, but is
rarely found. Of all the birds denominated larks, this \i
the nioft confpicuous for beauty of plumage.

33. A. obfcura has the under part of the body white
without Ipots, and the pofterior claw ftiorter than the toe.
It inhabits Sardinia, and agrees with the common lark in its
fi/.e and nearly in its colour, but as the hind claw, though
longer than tiie others, is Ihorter than the toe, Gineliil
queries whether it belongs to the genus alauda.

The alauda yehonenfis, or yellow lark, is black, variegated
with rufous and white. It is found at the lake Yelton,
beyond the Volga ; is gregarious, and in the month of
Auguft is fat and delicious.

The A. ohfcura of Latham, or dufiy lark of Lewin, it
now dcfcribed under the name of the K. pctrofa, or roch larl,
by Mr. G. Montagu. Its fpecific characters are, that it \%
olive brown, yellowifh under the body, the fides of the neck
and breaft are fpotted with brown, and the half of the
outermoft tail-quill is white. Mr. M. in 1791 difeovered
this bird to be a native of the coafl of South Wales, in ail
the rocky fituations ; and it was known to the filhcnnen,
under the uame of the rock lark. Mr. Pennant is fuppofed
to have met with this bird, as in his folio edition of Brilifh
Zoology, he has given a variety of the tit-lark (A. pralenfu)
with dull<y legs, fhot on the rocks on the coall of Carnar-
vonfhire. This bird alTects only the rocky parts of thecoaft ;
and in winter it is occafionally found in the niarflies, feeking
its food, which is marine infects. It begins its fong early in
the Spring, which ver)' much refembles that of the A.^;-<7-
tenji.! ; as it mounts in the air like that bird, and returns again
to the ground, or to fome neighljouring rock, with niotion-
lefs wing. It breeds early in the Spring, a neft with five
eggs having been found on the 1 6th of April ; it wag
placed upon the fiielf of a rock, behind » tuft of coan'e
3 U grais.

ALA

grafs, under a fmall hath, and was formed of dry grafs,
marine plants, and dr)- mofs externally, and lined with finer
gnifs and a few long hairs. The ej^gs were of a diity
white, fprinkled with nninerons fpccks of brown. Tlie
lengtli of the bird was lix and three-fonith inches. Mr.
M. has lately obferved this bird on the coall of Kent and
Siiifex. Tranfaft. of Linnxan Society, vol. iv. p. 41 — 4;?.
Gmelin'sLinnxus'sSyll. Nat. torn. i. p. 71JI — 801. ijuffon's
Birds, vol. V. p. 1 — ~-j.

ALAUNA, in Aiici.'nl Geo^rapht, a town of Britain,
belonging to the Dnmn'ii, fitiiated, according to H(nncy,
near Falkirk, upon the Roman wall, at a place calltd Ca-
melon, where are lliil fome vtlliges of a Roman town ; but
Baxter maintains, that it was where Stirling now ftands.
Alanna was alfo a town of Gaul, placed by M. d'An-
ville among the UnM., north of Coflcdia, and well of
Crociatonnm.

AI.AUNl, a people placed bv Ptolemy in Noricum,
and alio in European Sarmatia ; probably the fame with
the Alan't.

ALAUNIUM, a town of Gaul, placed by M. d'An-
ville in the mountains between Sagullero to the north-eaft,
and Apta-Julia to the fouth-eaft.

ALAUNUS, a river of Britain, which Horfley fup-
pofcs to be the Tweed, but Camden and Baxter think
it is tiie river AIne, in Northumberland ; and their conjec-
ture is favoured by the affinity of the names.

Alaunus wonr, a name given by the ancient geographers
to the Valday mountains of Ruffia.

ALAUSA, or Alosa, in Ichthyology, a fpecies of clu-
piA. See Shad.

ALAUSI, or Atuasi, in Geography, a town of South
America, in the junfdiftion of Cuen^a, in Terra Firma.

AI^AUT, or Alt, a river of Turkey in Europe, which
riles in the mountains that feparate Moldavia from Tran-
iylvania, and runs into the Danube near Nicopolis, in Bul-
garia.

A LAY, denoting, in the Turkish language, " the tri-
umph," in Modern H'ljlory, a ceremony which accompanies
the aifembling of the forces of the Turks upon the break-
ing out of a war. It is defcribed by Baron Tott, in his
memoirs, as a kind of mafquerade, in which perfons of
the feveral trades and manufadrtnres prefent to the fpec-
tators the implements and exercife of their refpcftive occu-
pations. The labourer draws his plough, the weaver
handles his fiiuitle, the joiner his plane ; and thefe perfons
are feated in cars, richly ornamented, and commence the
proceffion ; then follows the flandard of Mahomet, which
is brought out of the fcraglio, and carried to the army,
in order to enfiire viftory to the Ottoman troops. An
tmir precedes this banner, proclaiming with a loud voice ;
" Let no inlidel dare to profane with his prefence the holy
flandard of the prophet ; a[id let eveiy muifidman who
perceives an unbeliever, make it known, under pain of
reprobation." From this moment, a religious fury feizes
the people, and impels them to commit afts of the moft
(hocking barbarity. No regard is paid to fex or age, and
many fall facrilices on the occafion.

ALAYA Cape, in Geography, the callern extremity of
Venezuela, or Little Venice, which extends tc and from
the entrance of the gulf of that name, 130 leagues.

ALAYMO, Marc Anthonv, m Biography, a Sicilian
by birth: in the year 1610, being then only 20 years of
age, was made dotlor in medicine. He then went to Pa-
lermo, where he was particulariy celebrated for his fuccefs
in treating the plague, which raged in that city, in the
yertr 1623. He died 16C2, aged 72 years, and was buried

ALB.

in tlie church of St. Maiy of the Agoiiifers. In what
elliir.alion he was heUl by his fellow-citi/enii may be judged
bv the following lines, part of the infcription on his mo-
luunent.

" En h.umi lleniitur,

Qui ab humo ipfc totam Sicilian! dira feviente

pelle hbcravit."

He left feveral works, part in mani'.fevipt, the following
were printed : Difcorfo intorno alia prefcrvatione del niorbo
contagiofo e mortalc, die regna al preicnte in Palermo,
&c. 1625. 4to. Confullatio pro ulceris Syriaci nunc va-
gantis curatione, I'anormi, 1632, 410. Dialeclicon live de
i'uccedaneis medicamentis, 1637. 4to.; Configli niedico-
politici, &c. della pefla. 1652. 4to.

ALAZEIA, in Ceogrnphy, a river of Siberia, which runs
into the Fro/en Ocean. N. lat. 72° 40'. E. long. 142'-" 14'.

ALAZEISKOI, a fcltknient in Siberia, on the rixer
Alazeia, 30 leagues well-north-wcll of Niiuci Kovin(lioi»
N. lat. 69'^ 40'. E. long. 144° 14'.

ALAZIA, in yhicierit Geography, a town of Afia, fitu-
ate on the river Rymus, which pulfed through Mygdonia.
Strabo. Geog. tom. ii. p. 828.

ALAZONES, a people of Afia, mentioned by Strabo,
Stephanus Byz. &c. whofe origin and hillory are unknown.
They were reckoned antung the Scythians, who dwelt ou
the borders of the Euxine lea, and Alazia was probably
their capital. Apollo was the objeA of their worlhip.

ALAZONIUS, a river of Aha, which defcended from
mount Caucafus, and ran into the Cyrus ; but Pliny fays,
that this river feparated the Iberians from the Albanians,
and was therefore more to the weft. Strabo. tom. ii. p.
764.

ALB. See Asper.

Alb, in Geography, a river of Germany, which rifes
three miles well-north-well of Wildbad, in the circle of
Suabia, and runs into the Rhine, about live miles well-
north-well of Durlach.

ALBA, a city of Italy, in the duchy of Montfeirat,
fituate on the river Tanaro ; the fee of a bifliop, who is
fuffragan to the archbifhop of Milan, and whofe diocefe is
of confiderable extent. Befides the cathedral, it has three
parochial and three other churches, with feveral convents.
It is 18 miles fuuth-eafl of Turin. N. lat. 44° 40'. E.
long. 7° 51'.

Alba, in Ancient Geography, a city of Dacia, which
fome fuppofe to have been the fite of the prefent Biel-

GOROD.

Alba, a town of Spain, in the counti-y of the Bafti-
tani, fouth-eaft of Bafti.

Alea, now Elvas, a city of Lufitania.

Alka, a river of Gaul, now Aule.

Alba Firma, or Album, in Ant'tqti'ity, was a yearly
rent, payable to the chief lord of a hundred ; fo called,
becaufe it was paid in white money, or filver, and not in
corn, which was called black mail.

Alba Fucenjls, now Albi, in jlncieat Geography, a
tov.-n of Italy, to the north-weft of the Licus Fuciiius, in
the country of the Marfi. It was denominated Fucenjis, m
order to diftinguiili it from other Italian cities of the fame
name, and particularly from A/ta htiga. The inhabitants
were denominated Albcnfes. Silius ItiJicus (Pur.ic. lib. viii.
V. 508.) refers to it :

" Interiorqiie per udos

Alba fedet campos, poniifqne reptnalt ariftas."

This tewn was fituated in the centre of Italy, amidll

mountainQua

ALB

ALB

moviiitninous paiTcs, and fccluded from all menus of cfcape ;
and it was tnertfoie cliofcn for tlic ilalt-prifon, to « liich
the Romans confijyned captive princes, after liaviiig har-
baroiidy drajjged them through the llrotts of Roiik', at
the cliariot-wheels of a triumpliant conful. Here Perfes,
king of Muced(/i, and his fon Alexander, terminated their
career, after tlie triumph of Paulus iF.miliiis. Sypliax,
the Numidian, and Bitiiinus, king of the Averiii, were
alfo condemned to this gaol, by the paiticvdar clemency
r>{ the fenate, which fometiraes indulged its favnge difpo-
fition, by putting its captives to death. Tlic natural i'ecu-
rity of this place was augmented by artificial fortifications ;
tilt' ruins of which prove, at this day, their ancient fo-
lidily. For tiie entertainment of the garrifon, wliieh was
reipiired in a place of fucli importance, an amphitheatre
was erefied, the (liattercd remains of which are llill vi-
fible, as well as the foundations of a temj)le, and other
buildings, of Roman times. Lucius Vitclliiis, brother of
the emperor of the fame name, had a villa near this place,
famous for the variety and e>:celkncc of its fruit-trees,
which he brought from Syria. His gardens were the
luirferies, wher<; feveral of the moft delicious (lone-fruits
that are now fo common in EiU'ope, were fird cultivated
■and multiplied. Againll the fcverity of this climate, in
which the adjoining lake is frequently fro/en over, it was
iicceflary to flieltcr the trees tranfplanted from Afia, and to
treat them with peculiar attention, in order tv rear them to
perfeftion. Swinburne's Travels, vol, iv. p. ^()~.

Al.BA Hih'icnim, or Albaugufta, /'. e. Alhu Aii^njla, a
town of Gaul, in the provhuia Narboiieiijts, was the ca-
pital of the Helvii, and fituated at a fmall dittance from
"the Riione. Hence the Helvii were denominated yllbetijls.
"This town was afterwards called Vivarium, and it is now
J'iviers.

ALBA yiilia, now WcUfemhirg, a town of Tranfylva-
nia, on the viver Maurufius or Marifeh, fuppofed to be
called Alia ytilla, after Julia Domna, the wife of Severus,
and mother of Caraealla. There are feveral infcriptions,
however, near this place, which bear Col. Apul. i. e.
c'jionia Apuletifis, without the Icall mention of Alb,i yulia,
though they were infcribed after the time of Caraealla.
Bcfides, ITipian, reciting the colonies of Dacia, calls this
colony Apuletifis, and neither AUia nor yu/iit. From thefe
circumllances it has been inferred, that y//ia y^lici is a cor-
ruption of Aptilum. It was alfo called Apiilum Aii'^ujlum.
Cellarius, tom. i. p. 381.

Alba Lott^n, a city of Italy in Latium, fouth-eaft of
Rome, founded by Afcanius, the fon of ^/tneas, and a co-
lony from Lavinium, at the foot of mount Albanus, ac-
cording to Blair's Chronology, in the year I 1 5 2 before
Chrift, or VJ9 years before the foundation of Rome ; and
fi leOted by liim as the place of his refidence, and the capi-
tal uf his kingdom. It was called Alhit, we are told, from
a white fow found by jEneas, which furrowed 30 pigs on
that Ipot, and which afiorded an omen, that a city would
be built there within 30 years. See Varro, R. R. (1. xi.
c. iv.) Aurelius Vitlor de orig. Rom. gentis, and Propertius,
lib. iv. eleg. i. ver. xxxv.

" Et ftetit Alba potens, albre fuis omine nata."

The epithet loiiga, was added to diftinguilli it from the
A!hn of the Marfi, or to exprefs its lengtli, as it was ex-
tended along the lake near which it was built. Its fituation
V. as at an e<jual dilhmce between the lake and the mountain ;
probably between the prcfent city of Albaiio and the lake
61 Cailcl Gandulfo, and peopled by a n.ixcd colony ol

Latins and Trojana. The inhabitants of this city were
called Alliaiii. It was 30 years after Lavinium was built,
liiat Afcanius fixed his abode at Alba ; and tlicre he died,
after a rtign of about 38 years, i2 of which he palTtd at
his new fetilcment. Upon the death of Afcanius, the Latins
refolved to unite Alba and Lavinium ii.to one lovereignty,
under Sylvius ; and Sylvius was fucceeded by 13 kings ot
the fame i-ace, who, for near 400 years, reigned at Alba.
Procas, one of them, bequeatiied the throne to iiis tided
foil Numitor; but he was difpolTjlTed of the kingdom by
his brother Amulius, who, in order tlie more efleciually to
fecure liimfelf, killed the fon of Nuinilor, and coiifecratcd
his daughter, Rhea Svlvia, to the wwrlhip of Vella. Rhea,
however, was delivered of tiic twins, Ronuilus and Remus ;
who, after having been refcucd from the Tiber, into wliich
they were tiirown by order of Amulius, were fuckleil by
Acca I.aurentia, the wife of Faulhilus, and educated by
the Oabii, under the dircttion and order of Fauftulus. Upon
a quarrel l)etweeii the herdiinen of Amulius and thole of
Kumitor, the two brothers took part with the former againit
the latter ; and, in confequence of the frav that was thus
occafioned, Remus was cairied before Numitor to receive
punilhmeiit. When he was quelHoned concerning his birth
and parentage, his reply excited, in the mind of Numitor, a
lively remembrance of his two grandfons, and his anger
was changed into tendernefs. The two brothers concurred at
leiigtli in dethroning Amulius, and relloring their grand-
father Numitor to the throne. They then, by the advice
cf Numitor, undertook to found a new colony on the lands
near the Tiber, where they had been taken up, and which
he granted them for this purpufe. Romulus and Remus
diftered concerning the prccile fpot where the new city was
to be erected ; the latter declaring for the Aventine, and
the former for the Palatine mount. Remus, as it is faid,
fell in the contell that was then occafioncd, and Romulus
prevailed, and laid the foundations of the new city, whicii
was called Rome, after his name. Rome, in a little while,
became the rival of Alba ; and foon after the acceflion of
Tullus Hollilius to the throne, a difpute arofe between the
Albani and the Romans, and preparations were made for
wat. In an interview that occurred bctwciu Tullus and
Fuffetius, or, as others call him, Suffeliu'^, the Alban gene-
ral Tullus, propofed to determine the dUputc by a fuigle
combat between himfelf and Fuffetius, which the latter
declined. It was at length agreed, t'-at three champions
fliould be felccled out of each camp to decide the difference.
Tlie champions, on the part of Ror.c, were the Horatii ;
and on that of Alba, the Curatii. Rome ultimately gained
the viftory over Alba, her mother-city. When Tullui
afterwards made war upon the Veientes, Fuffetius joined
him with the Alban troops, but afterwards proved treache-
rous and defcrtcd him. This treachery being known, Tullus
detached Horatius, who had conquered the three Albans,
with a chofen body of horfe and foot, to demolifh Alba, as
he liad prcvioufly concerted the bufinefs with the fenate.
Fuffetius was ordered to be fallened to two chariots drawn
by horfcs, and to be torn afundcr : his accomplices were put
to the fword ; but the reft of the Alban foldiers were car-
ried to Rome with the citizens, and the chief men among
them were even admitted into the Roman ieiiate. Thus
fell, A. U. C. 89, ante Chrift. 665, the city of Alba, fa-
mous for its riches, the number of its inhabitants, and,
above all, for being the mother of Rome. The temple only,
fays Strabo, was prcferved. Dion. Hal. lib. i. p. 52. lib.iii.
p. 152 — 165. tom. i. Ed. Oxon. I.ivy, lib. i. c. 3 — 7,
c. 24 — 25. tom. i. p. 22 — 3S. p. iisi — 124. Ed. Drakenb.
3U 2 Plut.

ALB

19. Ed.Xylandr. Strabo

Plut. ill Romul. Oper. torn. i. p
Geog. torn. i. p. 350 — 3J3.

Alda Maritima, a city of Dalmatin.
Alca Pompcia, a eity of Italy in Liguria, ncav the river
Ctba or Ctva, where the empiror PcrtiiiaK was born. It
was a colony either ellabliflitJ at full by Ptolemy, or re-
ilored, after having been firll fettled by Scipio. The inha-
bitants were called Alhenfes Pompcianl. It is now tailed
Alba, without any epithet.

A\.v\ liegalis. See Stuhl-WeisstmburG.
Alba Terra, in /llchnny, one of the many names that
were anciently given to the philofopher's Rone.

ALDACETE, or Albazete, in Geo'^niphy, a fmall
town of Spain, in the canton of I.a Sierra, in tlie eattern
part of New CafUle, fituate in a fertile vale not far from
the mountains that fcparate I.a Mancha from the country
called the Defeit. W.long. !=■ 46'. N. lat. 38^ 55'.

ALBACHSEN, or Albasln, a town ot Germany,
in the circle of Wcllphalia, three miles north of Corvty.

ALBACK, a town of Perha, in the province of Aider-
beitzan, 55 leagues fouth-well of Tauris.

Alback, is fitnated on the weftern coaft of Africa,
in N. lat. about 27° 15'. and about 35 leagues fouth-fouth-
well from the river Orodus. It has a bay fo called, and a
cape denominated Chabi,

ALBAN, (St.), m Biography, the firft Chriftian mar-
tvr in England, and ufually called the protomartyr of Bri-
tain, was born at Verulam, of Pagan parents, and flouriflied
in the third century. In his youth, he went to Rome, with
Amphibalus, a monk of Caerleon, and ferved fcven years
in the army of Dioclefian. On his return to England, he
was inftrutled by Amphibalus in the Chriftian faith, be-
came a convert, and lived in the profefllon of Chriftianity
till the year 303, when the Dioclefian perfecution com-
menced ; but being cited before the Roman governor, for
havir.^ afforded an afylum to his preceptor, vi'ho was a
Chrililan, and avowing his own converiion, lie was ordered
immediately to be beheaded. The traditionary tales of the
times report many miracles which happened on oceafion of
his death. Bede, and other ancient writers, relate, that in
his way to execution, a ftream was miraculoudy divided to
afford a paffage for him and a thoufand perfons who ac-
companied him ; that the executioner was converted by the
miracle ; that a fountain opened at the feet of St. Alban,
which afforded water in anfwer to his prayer for allaying
his thirft ; and that the eyes of the executioner dropped
out of his head at the inftant of his giving the fatal ftroke.
We learn from the fame authority, that many of the fpec-
tators were converted by thefe miracles. But the teftimony
of thofe who report them deferves little credit ; and they
feeni to be duly appreciated by Milton, who, in his Hiiloiy
of England, fpeaking of St. Alban, fays : " The ftory of
whofe martyrdom, foiled and worfe martyred with the fabling
zeal of fome idle fancies, more fond of miracles than appre-
henfive of truth, deferves no longer digreffion." \Vhen the
eaft end of the church of St. Alban's was repaired, in
1257, the labourers found fome leaden chells, containing
relics ; and on a plate of lead, the following infcription : —
" In hoc maufoleo, inventum eft venerabile corpus Sanfti
Albani, protomartyris Anglorum ;" i. e. " In this maufo-
leum is found the venerable body of St. Alban, the proto-
martyr of the Englilli." Part of the hymn formerly fung
on the fcllival of this faint, is as follows :
" Ave protomartyr Angloi-um,
Miles regis angelorum,
O Albane, floi martyrorunj."

ALB

" Hall, protomartyr, of the Engljfli,
Soldier of the King of Angels,
O Alban, flower yf the martyrs !" Biog. Brit,
See Amphiballus-

Alsan, John de St. in Biogrnphy, fo cidled from tlie
place of his birth, and de St. Qiiiatrie, a chureli of that
name in Picardy, where he was made a dean (duyen),
taught philofophy and medicine at Oxford, towards the end
of the twelfth ccnniry. lu this (lation he acquired fo
much celebrity that he was invited to Paris by Philip Au-
gullus, and made his phyfician. After refiding fome years
at Paris, he went to Montpclier, to hear the profeffors of
that place, then famous for its I'ehool of phyfie. Being
dillinguilhed for his great learning and abilities, he was foon
invited to fill a piofeffor's chair. In 1223, he returned to
England, Mathcw Paris fays, to attend Robert Groffette,
bifhop of Lincoln. The time of his death is not known.
He was dodor and profeflbr of theology, as well as of
medicine, a jnnftion at that time by no means uncommon,
Alban, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of Tarn, and dillricil of Alby, five leagues eaft-fouth-
caft of Alby.

ALBANA, in jliiaent Geography, a fea-port town of
Albania, on the Cafpian fea ; now called Bachu or Baka,
whence this fea is called iiier de Bachu. N. lat. 40°. E.
long. 49°.

ALBANELLA, in Geography, a town of Naples, in
the Principato Citra, 20 miles fouth-caft of Salerno.
ALBANENSES. See ALSiGENsiis.
ALBANESIUS, Guy Anthony, in 5/o^r^//'_y, taught
medicine in the univerfity of Padua, from 1632 to 165 7-, in
which year he was afTailinated by one of his pupils. He
pubUfhcd, " Aphorifmorum Hippocratis expofitio peripa-
tetica." Patavii, 1649. 4to.

ALBANI, in Middle Age ivrlters, denote ftrangers or
foreigners ; correfponding to thofe whom we call aliens.

Albani, in /liUiquity, a college of Salii, or priefts of
Mars, inilituted by Tarquin, and denominated from mount
Albanus, the place of their refidence.

Albani, or Albano, Francis, or Francesco, in
Biography, an eminent painter, was born at Bologna, in
1578, and educated with Guido, who afTifted his early
lludies, firft at the fchool of Dennis Calvart, and afterwards
under the Caracci. He completed his ftudies at Rome,
working after the beft models, and became one of the moft
agreeable painters of the Roman fchool. At Rome, where
he refided 1 8 years, he was employed in fome great works,
and where he married his firft wife, who died in child-birth.
From hence he removed to his native town, and married a
beautiful woman, by whom he had 12 children, who ferved
him for models in the pradlice of his art. Albani converted
his children, who were very beautiful, and who were placed
in different attitudes, into Cupids, and the mother into a
Venus or grace ; but, graceful as were his models, by con-
ftantly painting after them, he preferved too great a fimili-
tude in his figures, and in the airs of his heads. His man-
ner, however, may be thus eafily diftinguiflied. In the
fummer months he retired to one of his country houfes,
which was adorned with fountains and groves, and here he
was fnrniftied with landfcape fcenery, in his favourite fub-
JeCi^s of loves and graces, which he treated with an elegance
of defign, harmony of colouring, and delicacy of finifh,
that are the charafteriftics of liis pencil. All his piftures,
indeed, have not the fame force of colour, but though
fome are weaker than others, they are all delicate and plcaf.
ing. His boys and female forms were lovely and graceful ;

but

ALB

but his figures of the other fcx were iifually lean and
without mi'.fculint beauty, except in fome of his licads. In
his drawings he was fometinics hafty and incorrcft. His
piiftures of tlie four elements in the palace of the king of
Sardinia, at Turin, are of an extraordinary beauty, and well
preferved ; the defign is excellent, the drapei-ies perfectly
elegant, the colouring lovely, and the whole very corrcit.
His other principal works are at Rome and Bologna ; but
as he was cxtreiTiely indullrious, and tlie produftions of his
pencil were highly elleemed, his cabinet piftufes arc found
in all coniidtrable colledtions. As an engraver, he made one
fniall folio etching of Dido killing herfelf, in which he did
not fucceed ; and in this art he did not add to the charafter
which liis other works have eftabliihed. He was fond of
Italian poetiy, and lamented that his early education had
not enabled him to read the originals of the Latin poets.
In private life he was modell:, affable, unalfefted, attached
to his family, pleafant in converfation, condefcending to his
pupils, whole works he occafionally retouched and im-
proved. His life and faculties were continued to old age ;
and he died at Bologna, in 1660, aged 82 years. Pilkii.g-
ton and Strutc. Gen. Did.

Aldan I, Giovanvi Battista, was the brother and
difeiple of the former, and became an admirable painter in
the ilyle, manner, and colouring of his brother. He ex-
celled in landfcape, which he defigned in an exquifite tafte,
touching the trees witli great fpirit, and giving them a
peculiar fweetnefs of colour. He died in 1668. Pilkington.

Ai-BANi, John Jerom, was born at Bergamo, of a noble
family, and devoted liimfelf to the ftudy of the civil and
canon law. By the zeal with which he profecuted fome of
his own relations in the Inquifition, he recommended himfclf
to Cardinal Alexandrinus, the inquifitor, who, upon his
being advanced to the papal fee, imder the name of Pius V.
conferred upon Albani a cardinal's hat. He died in 1591.
His works were a treatife " De immunitate Ecclefiarum ;"
publifhed in 1553 : another, " De poteftate Pap'.E et Con-
cilii," printed at Venice, in 1561 ; and a third, " De Car-
dinalibus, &c." Nouv. Did. Hill.

Albani, in Hijlory, the inhabitants of Albania, in
Alia, who are faid by fome writers to have derived their
name from their fair complexion. Ptolemy mentions a peo-
ple of this denomination on the confines of Macedonia.

ALBANIA, in Ancient Geography, a country of Afia, was
bounded on the weft by Iberia, on the call by the Cafpian
fea, on the north by mount Caucafus, and on the fouth by
Armenia. The cities which it contained, and mentioned
by Strabo, Ptolemy, and Pliny, were Teleba, Thalbis,
Gelda, Thiauna, Thabilaca, Albana, Chadaca, Mifia, Bo-
ziata, and Cabahea, which laft Pliny calls the metropolis of
Albania. Its chief rivers were Cyrus, now Kur, Albanus,
Cafuis, Gerrhus, Soana, Cambyfes, and Alazon, all of
which difchargcd themfelves into the Cafpian fea. The
whole country, now known by the names of Schirwan and
Eaft Georgia, is extremely fertile and pleafant. Strabo
(torn. ii. p. 767.) defcribes the inhabitants as tall, robuft,
and graceful in their perfons, excelling thofe of other na-
tions in comehnefs as well as in llature, and as very fimple in
their manners. He adds, that they were unacquainted «ith
weights and meafures, and the ufe of money ; that they
could not coiuit above one hundred, and that they can-ied
on trade by exchange. They chiefly devoted themfelves to
pailurage, and had fome refcmblance of the wandering
tribes ; they were not altogether unacquainted with the ait
of war, nor unufed to the praftiee of it ; their common
weapons were bows and arrov.-s ; they defended themfelves
with ftiields, and bore on their heads helmets made of the

ALB

Il<ins of wild beafls. They excelled In hunting;, and were
famous for the dogs \\liich tliey reared for tlr's purpofe.
They refpefled age, both in tlieir parents and others; they
thought it wrong to take any notice of the dead ; they
buried their money with them, and lived in poverty, as
they had thus no patrimony. They worfliipped, as gods,
the fun, Jupiter, ;.nd the moon ; and tiic priell was next in
honour to the king. Pliny (H.N. torn. i. p. 371.) fays,
that they were of a white coinpUxion, and that they could
fee by night as well as by day. Tacitus (lib. v.) and Pliny
(tom. i. p. 31 I.) trace their origin to the Theffalians, who
attended Jafon in his expedition to Colchis, and fettled iit
this part of the illhmus, between the Euxine and Cafpian
feas. According to Jnftin (lib. xiii.), they were dtfccnded
from the inhabitants of Alba in Italy ; and Ammiamis
Marcellinus derives them from the Malfagetx. Albania was
anciently divided into feveral fmall kingdoms ; and Strabo
[nli Jujjra) fays, that the country had 26 dilferent languages,
and as many kings and kingdoms as languages. But the
Albani, in procels of time, overcame the other petty
princes, and made themfelves mailers of the whole country.
In the time of Pompey, as we learn from Strabo, they
could bring into the field 6c,CC0 foot and 2C,C00 horfe.
Of their kings we have no account, before the reign of
Alexander the Great, to whom the king of Albania is
faid, by Pliny (tom. i. p. 465.), to have prefented a dog
of extraordinary fize and fwiftnefs. The next king, men-
tioned in hilloiy and named Ortefes, was defeated by Pom-
pey, and obliged to retire to mount Caucafus. Another
king of Albania, named Pharafmenes, committed great
devallations in Armenia, Cappadoeia, :uid Media, in the
time of Adrian, and was fummoned by the emperor to •
Rome. Inftead of attending, he fent a number of fueh
great coats as were then worn, made of cloth of gold, in
Vi'hich the emperor, as an infult to the king, ordered 300
criminals to be clad, and in that attire to fight the v.ild
bcalls in the public theatre. Upon Adrian's death, the
Albanian king attended the fummons of Antoninus Pius,
who received him with relpecl and dlfmiired him with prc-
feuts. Two other kings are mentioned ; one the contem-
poraiy of Valerian, and the other of Conllantius the' Ion of
Conftantine the Great. The Albanians continued to be
govenied by their own princes till the reign of Jnilinian II.
who is faid by Zonaras and other writers to have fubdued
Albania by his general Leontius. Anc. Univ. Hift. vol. ix.
p. 122 — 126.

Albania, a city of Afia in Affyria, was fituated to
the eaft of the river Titana.

Albania, in Mnikrn Geography, fometimcs called y^r;;/?;//,
a province of Turkey in Europe, comprehending the ancient
Illyricum, and Epirus, fituate in the Adriatic, and bounded on
the north by Dalmatia and Servia, on the call by Macedonia
and Theftaly, on the fouth by Livadia, and on the weft by the
Adriatic. Its length is about 80 leagues, and its breadth
about 20. Its capital was formerly Albanopoli ; but it is now
Durazzo. The other principal towns are Scutari, Dul-
cigno, Antivari, Croya, Aleffo, Velona, Dataro, Dibra,
&c. The moll remarkable river is Delichi, formerly
Acheron ; amongft the lakes we may reckon Scutari, and
to the clafs of mountains we may refer the Acroceia-
unian, or mountains of Chimxra. The foil of this jiro-
vince is fertile, and produces excellent wine. Its manufac-
ture is chiefly cai-pets. Its inhabitants are robuft and
courageous, and make good foldiers, efpecially cavalr)'. In
the Turkilh army, they are diftinguifttcd by the name of
arnauts. The religion of Albania is that of the Greek
church. This province was annexed to the Ottoman cm-
7 pirfj

ALB

pirc, in 1467, by Mahomet II. by vyliom it was conquered,
after the death of Scanderberg, who had the courage to
maintain it agaii\ft tlic Turks and the Venetians. A fnisll
part of the weft ftill belongs to the Venetians, and is divide!
by them into fangiaes or governments. N. hit. 39'' to 4'j'"'
30'. E. long. iS" 32' to 21*^ 54'.

Aldan- IX Py/,e, or Portx, thu yllhamaii PurLr, ?i. place
fituate on the Cafpian Sea, noitli of Cabanaea.

ALBANO, a town of Italy, in the Canipagna of Rome,
fituatc within 15 miles fouth-calV of Rome, on a lake of
the fame name, at the dillancc of a mile from Caftello Gan-
dolfo, which was tlie favourite rcfulence of pope Clement
XI. ; and built in tlie time of Nero on the ruins of the an-
cient /llba Lon^-^i:. Tiiis place, on account of the pleafant-
nefs of its fitnation and the fahibrity of the air, ferves as
a fnmmev recefs for the nobility of Rome. It is lamous
for its excellent wine. It has the title of a principality,
and is the fee of one of the fix cardinal bidiops. At its
entrance is the ruin of a maufoleuni, faid to be the tomb
of Afcanius ; and there is anotlier maufoleum 45 feet fquare
with five pyramids 10 feel in diameter, which report al-
ledges to be the tomb of the Horatii and Curatii ; and
■which fome think to be that of Pompey the Great. Among
other venerable remains of antiquity in and near this place,
there is feen the ruin of a palace of Domitian. The lake
of Albano is about feven miles in circuit and of an oval
form, and is furrounded by high mountains. The waters
of the lake are conveyed by a canal, which is faid to have
been made 39S years before Chrill. The mountain of Al-
bano, called Monte Cavo, has, on the Uip of it, the rnins of
a temple, dedicated to Jupiter and Juno. N. lat. 41° 43'.
E. long. 12° 29'.

Albano is alio a town of Naples, in the Bafilicate ; 13
miles fouth-fonth-eaft of Acerenza.

ALBANO POLI, a town of European Turkey in Al-
bania, iituate upon the Drin, 16 leagues from AlefliQ. N.
lat. 51° 48'. E. long. 20° 18'.

AEBANOPOLIS, in yliicimt Geography, a town of
Greater Armenia.

ALBANS, (St.) in Geography, a market-town in Hert-
fordlhire, in the north well road, about 21 miles from Lon-
don. It is a borough town, fends two members to parlia-
ment, gives the title of duke to the Beaurlerc family, and
has an excellent market for wheat. Tlie market days are
Wednefday and Saturday. This town was built near the
fite of the ancient Verulam. In the year 795', Offa, king
of the iVIercians, erected a monaftery in the place where St.
Alban fufFered martyrdom, and near to which the town was
afterwards built. The abljot was reputed, by favour of
pope Adrian IV. who was born near Verulam, the firfl in
dignity of all the abbots. The church of tliis monailery is
Hill in being, and much admired for its lize, beauty, and
antiquity. When the monks were turned out, it was pur-
chafed by the townfmen for 400 pounds, and converted
into a parochial church. N. lat. 51' 44'. W. long. 012'.

Albans, St. H'lghlanJ, lies on the coaft of Dorfet, in
the Englifh channel, eail of Weymouth, and eight leagues
weft; of Dunnofe, on the back of the ifle of Wight. N.
lat. 50° 15'. W. long. 2° 5'.

Albans, St. Jerfey IJland, is in N. lat. 49" 10'. W.
long. 2° 25', towards the fouth-weft point of the idand. Its
haven is within a deep bay, before which are Halier ifland to
the eaft, and St. Alban's ifland to the wed, nearly before
the town of that name, on the well fide of the bay.

Albans, St. a townfliip of America, in Frankhn county,
Vermont, on Lake Cliamplain, oppofitc North Hero ifland.
Jt contains 256 inhabitants.

ALB

ALCANUM, ht yincient Geography, a town of Pannonia.

Albanum Pompd'i, ananie anciently given to the prel'ent
Albano.

Albanum mare, a name given by Pliny to that part of
the Cafpian fea, which bordered on Armenia.

ALBANl'S, Joannes, in Biography, was received
Doctor in Medicine at Bologna, in the year 1616, where
he taught the theory and pradice of pliyfic feveral years,
and publiflied a treatife on the regimen to be obferved by
convalefcents.

Alhanus, in jlndent Geography, a river of Albania,
thought by M. d'Anville to be Samura.

Albanus Mans, the mountain adjoining to jlILa Lovga
or Albano ; and alfo a part of the jilUus Mons of Strabo,
which the Ancients confidered as forming the extremity of
the Alps, and together with the Monies B-.tbii feparaliiig the
further Liburnia and Dalmalia from Pannonia.

ALBANY, a county of America, on Hudfon's river,
in the Hate of New York, lies between Ulller and Saratoga,
Its extent is 46 miles by 28. By the cenfus in 1796, the
number of elettors in this county was 6087, and the number
of towns 1 1.

Albany, the chief town of the above county, is fituated
on the well bank of Hudion's river, 160 miles north of the
city of New York, and 340 fouth of Quebec. N. lat. 42"
39'. W. long. 73° 30'. This city and the fuburbs, in 1797,
contained 6021 inhabitants. The fitnation of Albany i»
peculiarly favourable for relklence and for commerce. It is
atthe head of a floop navigation, on one of the nobleft rivers
in tlie world ; the air is ialubrions ; and by the improve-
ments of roads and canals, which are contemplated, it is
expetled to encreafe and flourilh. The public buildings in
this town are a low l^utch church of ancient and curious
conltrudlion, one for the Epiieopallans, two for Prelby-
teriaus, one for Germans or High Dutch, and one for Me-
thodills ; an hofpital, city hall, and wtll-built brick gaol.
The corporation conlills of a mayor, recorder, iix aldermen
and as many affillants. In the vicinity of this city there
are extenfive works, in which the machineiy is moved by-
water, for the manufafture of Scotch and Rappee fnuff,
roll and cut tobacco, cliocolate, milliard, llarch, hair-
powder, fplit peafe, and hulled barley.

Albany, a Britifli fortrels in New South Wales, in
North America, fituated on a river of the fame name. N.
lat. 52° 14'. 40". W. long. 81° 59' 58".

Albany River, a river oi North America, which, after
running in a north-caft direclion, and communicating with
feveral fmall lakes, falls into James's bay, in N. lat. 5 1 ^ 30'.
W. long. 84° 30'.

ALBARA, m Botany. See Canna.

Albara, in Ancient Geography, a town of Syria, on the
borders of Phoenicia.

ALBARAZIN, or Albaracin, in Geography, a for-
tified town of Spain, in the kingdom of Aragon, on the
river Gnadalavir, and near the frontiers of New Callile, is
the fee of a bifhop, fuffragan to the arclibilhop of Saragolfa,
and famous for its excellent wool, called by this name. It
is 30 miles fonth-well of Saragolfa, and 40 miles eall of
Madrid. N. lat. 40° 32'. E. long. 2" 10'.

ALBARDEOLA, in Ornithology, a name given by
many authors to the spoon-^/VA

ALBARII, in ylntiquity, properly denoted thofe who gave
the whitening to earthen vefTcls, &c. In which fenfe they
Hood contradlllingui(h£dfromrt£'i7/ii;/&;-«, whowhitened walls.

ALBARIUM opus, in the Ancient Building, the incruf-
tation or covering of the roofs of honfes with white plailler,
made of mere lime. The workmen were called aliini, or alharii.

This

ALB

ALB

Tlii.i is othenvife calkil opus iilbum. It difTi-rs from teHo-
rhim, which is a common name given to all rooting or cciKng,
including even that formed ot lime and fand, or even lime
and marble ; whereas Albarium was reilraincd to that mad>;
of lime alone.

ALBAS, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of Lot, three leagues vs-elt of Cahors.

ALBASANO, a town of Albania, in European Tur-
key, 132 leagues well of Conllantinople. N. lat. 41" 3c'.
1:. long. 20" 15'.

AIjBASTRA, an ancient town of Egypt, on the
Arabian coafl ; the inhabitants of which are called by Epi-
phanius Alaballnde'-.

ALB.A.TE(.jNL in B'lography, a celebrated aflronomer
of the ninth century, was a native of Bataii, in Mefnpo-
tamia, and htnce called Al Battani, or Albatani. As Batan
was one of the dependencies ot Harran, he was alfo denomi-
nated Mohammed I'.bn Jaber Ebn Senan Abu Abdallah al
Harrani and Moliammcd of AraCtus. His aftronomical
obfervations were made about the years 882 and 883, at
Antioeli, and at Araca or Aractus, a town of Chald;va ;
and Blair, in his chronology. Hates the time of his death
about tlie year 888. Dr. Hallcy highly commer.ds him
(Phil. Tranf. for 1693, n° 204.), as a man of admirable
genius, and an excellent obferver, though he detefts many
errors in the editions of his works. He oliferved the au-
tumnal equinox at AraAus on September 19th, one hour
and 15 minutes after midnigh.t, A. D. S82 ; and he alfo
obfen-ed, about 883, that the tiril liar of Aries was 18° 2'
from the equinoftial point ; he ftates the obliquity of the
ecliptic at 23*^ 35', and the motion of the fun's apogee, fince
Ptolemy's time, as well as the motion of the liars, one degree
in 70 years. He computed new allronomical tables, inltead
of thofe of Ptolemy, which were imperfeil, and adapted
them to the meridian of Aracla or Raea ; and they v.'ere
long ufed as the bell among the Arabs. He alio compofed
a work, entitled " The Science of the Stars," comprillng
all parts of aftronomy, according to his own obfervations
and thofe of Ptolemy. This work was tranllated into Latin
by Plato of Tibur, and publilhcd at Nuremberg in 1537,
with fome additions by Regiomontanus ; and reprinted at
Bologna in 1645, with the notes of this author. The Al-
phoniine tables of the moon's motions were founded on the
obfervations of Albategni. The original Arabic of this
work, which was never publifhcd, is in the library of the
Vatican. Blair's Chronol. N'' 38. D'Herbelot BibL Orient.
Hutton's Math. Di6l. vol. i. p. 59, &c.

ALBATEL, in Geography, a Cape on the coafl of
Barbaiy, about 12 leagues noith-eaft of Cape de Tenes,
within which are feveral good roads, particularly at Mar-
folach, to the well of Cercelli ifland and point.

ALBATENIUS, an Arabian phyfician, lived towards
the end of the 1 ith century, cotemporary with Scrapion. He
tranllated the works of Galen into Arabic.

ALBATI equi, in Antiqutty, was a denomination given
to thofe horfes in the games of the circus, which were dif-
tingnifhed by white cloths or furniture. In which fenfe,
they are contradiftinguil'hed from rvjiati, prafm't and vciuti.

Albatross, in OmUhoiogy. See Diomedfa.

ALBAZIN, in Geography, a town of Great Tartary,
in the road from Pekin to Mofcow, fituated on the river
Amur, and defended by a good fortrcfs againft the attacks of
the Chinefe and Tartar Monguls. N. lat. 54''. E. long.
J04'' 14'.

ALBE, in Commerce, a fmall coin, current in Germany,
,valucd at a I'reuch fyl and feven dcniers.

.'^LBF.C, in Cecgriiphy, a river of Switzerland, runs
into the Rhine, near Eurdenau.

ALBECK, a town of Germany, in thedidrifl of Ulm,
which is the capital of a prefetturate of ihe fame name, i«
fituated on the river Alb, five miles north-call of Ulm, and
eight miles wcll-north-weft of Augfburg. N. lat. 48" 29'.
E. long. 9" 58'.

ALIjECOR, in Ichthyology, the Scomber Tuvnsvs of
the I.innxan fyllcm.

ALBEGNA, in Geography, a river of Tufcany, runs
into the lea between Tclamon and Orbitclla.

ALBEKIRK, a town of Holland, i} league fouth-weil
of Medemblick.

AI.IiEL, a river which rifes in Mount Abel, in the
comitry of the Grifons, and difeharges itfelf into the Rhine
near Bergnn.

ALBELDA, a town of Spain, on the river Iregiia, in
the country of Rioxa.

ALBELEM, in Ichthyology, called alfo Albula, and
refemljling the fiirrn, caught in the German and other lakes,
is a lidi ot a fine filvery white colour, and from five or fix to
twelve pounds in weight.

ALBELLA, in (Joiichology,^ fpecies of PIi;i.ix, with an
umbilicated fmoolh lliell, the under part gibbous, and a,
femicordatcd aperture ; found on the rocks of Europe.

ALBELLLS, in Ornithology, a fpecies of Mergus.
See Smew.

ALBEMARLE, Aumarle or Aumalf, in Geogra-
phy, a town of Erance, which gives the title of Earl to the
noble family of Keppel. See Aumale.

Albemarle, a county of America, in the date of Vir-
ginia, lies between the Blue Ridge and the Tide Waters,
and contains 12,585 inhabitants, in an extent of about 35
fquare miles.

Albf.marle Port, a fpacious bay or harbour, on the
fontliern coall of Falkland illands, is fituated between
Fox bay and Port Stephens, and may be known by a fmall
idand off" the entrance.

Albemarle Sound, an inlet of the fea, on the coad of
North Carolina, 60 miles long, and from eight to i 2 broad.
It communicates with Pamplico found, and with Currituck
inlet, and receives Roanoke and Meherrin rivers. The palTage
into it from the fea is called Roanoke inlet. N. lat. 35" 50'.
W. long. 76^ 10'.

ALBEN, a town of Audria, in the Inner Carniola, is
environed on al! fides with high mountains, large forells and
dcferts, and is diftant two miles north-wed from Cirknitz.
There are mines of mercury in the vicinitv of this town.
From the mountain of the fame name on which it is fituated,
called alfo Monte del ciir/o the river Alben flows, \\hich nms
into the gulf of Venice, between Laubach and Capo
d'Idria.

Ah-B-Es-fee, a lake of Audria, 13 miles weft of Windirti-
Garten.

ALBENGA is a fmall ifland on the coad of Genoa, op-
pofite to the town of Albenga, and c:dled alfo Gallinara.

ALBENGUA, or Alm en g a, anciently y///'/um /n^au-
num, or /llbingauniim, a fea-port town of Italy, in the terri-
tory of Genoa, is tlie fee of a bifliop, fuffragan to the
archbiiliop of Genoa. It was formerly a very confiderable
and well-fortified t.iwn, but has fuffercd by the wars, and
is deferted on account of the infalubrity of the air. The
vicinitv abounds with olive trees, and produces great quan-
titles of hemp. It was burnt by the Pifans in 11 75, hut
rebuilt by the Genoefe. It is about 15 leagues fouth-wed:
of Genoa. N. lat. 44" 42'. E. long. 8" 13'.

ALBENQUE,

ALB

ALBENOUE, a fmaU town of France, in the diflriJ\
oF Cahors aiid department of Lot, dillant 6; leagues from
Montauban,

ALBEOLA, in OrmlMu^y, the Asas alieola of the
Linnxan Syftcm by Gnielin, the nueraueilula liulaviclana oi
Biiflbn, little black and white Juci of Edwards, the fblrit
of the Arftic Zoology, and tlie white and \Ai\c\i.Jhrce[le or
nun of Duffon, is fpccilically dillinguilhed by a white colour ;
black back and wing-quills, bluilh licad, and back of the
head white. Its white robe, and white band with a black cap
and mantle, have given occafion for calling it rel'tguiijc,
or nun. The back of the head is decorated With green
and purple luftre, and the wliite band encircles it behind
from the eyes. The Newfoundland filhers call it^/V;/, as
Edwaids fuggtfts, bccaufe it is a very nimble diver, appear-
ing at a great dillance, vcr)' foon after it lias plunged. It
is found m America, from Hudfon's bay to Carohna, and
forms its nell in trees near frelh water.

AL15ERCHE, in Geography, a liver of Spain, which
runs into the Tagus, near Talavera.

ALBERDORF, a town of Aullria, on the river Bulc-
kau, feven miles eall of Schrattental.

ALBERGOTTI, Francis, m Biography, an eminent
civilian, of the I4tli century, Ihidied under Baldi, and
exercifed his profelhon at Are/.^o, in the (late of Floreucc ;
but removing to Florence, he was there ennobled. His
charafter for integrity is no Icfs applauded than his fkill
in the law ; fo tliat tiie appendage annexed to his name is,
•• folidx veritatis doftor ;" or the teacher of fohd truth.
He wrote " Commentaries on the Digell," and fome other
pieces in law ; and died in 1376. Gen. Biog.

ALBERGUS, John, a native of Mazarain, in Sicily,
where he prattifed medicine with fuccefs, towards the end of
the 17th centurj-, publilhed at Palermo in 1 703, " Summa
Tractatnum Chirurgicx praxeos, izmo."

ALBERIC, or Albert, a French hiftorian, was ca-
non of the church of Aix in Provence, in the 12th cen-
tury, and wrote a hillory of the firft crufade, from the re-
ports of thofe who attended it. His nanative extends
Irom 109, to 1 1 20, and is contained in two dillinft works,
via;. " Chronicon Hierofolymitanum," printed in 416.,
at Helir.anftadt in 1584; and " Gcfta Dei per Francos,"
in foho, 161 1. Gen. Biog.

ALBERIZZT, Petlr Joseph, lludied medicine at
Pifa, and pradifed fevcral years at Milan, where he died
1722, aged only 31 years. He publifhed " Critologia
Medica de caulis luis peftiferx, ejufdcmque cUra, qua vermi-
culi, de quibus fomniarunt nonnulli, exploduntur."

ALBERNUO, in Commerce, a kind of camblct brought
from the Levant, by way of Marfeillcs.

ALBERONE,in Geography, a townof Naples,in the pro-
vince of Capitanata, eight miles fouth-fouth-eaft of Volturara.

ALBERONI, Cardinal, in Biography, a celebrated
Ilatcfman,wasborn atPlacentia in Italy, in i664,and employed
till the age of 14 in the occupation of his father, who was a
gardener. Having relieved M. Campiftron, fecretary to ihe
duke of Vendome, when he was robbed near the village
where he lived, he was recommended by him to his general,
who took him into Spain. From this menial low ilate he
rofe by fevcral gradations to the dignity of cardinal and
archbifliop of Valentia, and to the office of prime minifter,
in the court of Spain. For botli thefe honours he was in-
debted to the patronage of the princefs of Pai-ma, whofe
marriage with Philip V. he had projedled and accomplifhed.
His difpofition was intriguing and enterprifmg ; and not
content with effecting fome domcllic reforms and arrange-

A L B

ments, he formed the defign of an expedition againft Sar-
dinia and Sicily, and in order to prevent the interference of
other powers, he made an alliance with Czar Peter, Charles
XII. of Sweden, and, as fome fay, with the Ottoman Porte.
He alfo propofed exciting the Turks to make war on the
emperor, to advance the Pretender to the tlirone of England
by means of Peter and Charles, to divcil the duke of Or-
leans of the regency of France, and to annihilate the
German power in Italy. But an union between England
and France was the reiult of the difcovery- of tliis plan ;
and both thefe powers concurred in declaring war againft
Spain in 17 19, and the condition of peace was the removal
of Alberone, andhisbanifliment fromthe kingdom. Having
received an order in Dec. 1720, to quit Madrid in 24 hours,
and to leave Spain in a fortnight, he retired with great
wealth ; nor was it difcovered before he had been two days
on his journev, that he had taken with liim the teftamentof
diaries II. of Spain, which appointed Philip univerfal heir
of the Monarchy. The inftrument was wreiled from his
poffefilon by force ; and purfuing his journey to Genoa, lie
was there arrcilcd by order of the pope, on the charge oC
neo-ociating with the Turks. On his exculpation, and fub-
fequent liberation from the convent of the Jeliiits, to which-
he was confined for a year, he engaged in new intrigues,
and particulariy in an unfuccefsful cntei-prife againft the
fmall republic of St. Marino. A bon mot of Benedict XIV.
on this occafion was very generally circulated : " Albeioni
is hke a glutton, who, after having eaten a large falmon,
cannot help calling a \vi(hful eye at a minnow." His views
were more laudably direfted to the eftabh(hment and en-
dowment of a feminary of education for poor fcholars ia
his native city. Alberoni preferved his health and vivacity
to old age ; his converfation chiefly turned on the recital of
his own "exploits, and was inftruclive and amufmg ; though
in his temper he was irafcible and impatient of contradiction.
He died in 1752, at the advanced age of 87, and left behind
him the character of " a great politician, as daring as Ri-
chelieu, and as fupple as Mazarin, with as littlt? principle as
either. His life, to tlie year 1719, has been publilhed by
John RoutTet, tranflated from the Spanifh. A pretended
" Pohtical Teftament," in the name of cardinal Alberoni,
printed in 1753, is confidered as fpurious. Nouv. Diet.
Hift. Gen. Biog.

ALBERT I. duke of Auftria, and emperor, was the
fon of the emperor Rodolphus, and a competitor for the
Imperial crown with Adolphus of Naflau, whom he de-
feated and killed in battle. Before this viclon-, he had been
eledled king of the Romans ; but apprehending that his
election would be contefted, he obtained the confirmation of
it, and was folemnly crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle, in the
year 1298. He began his reign with renewing the ancient
leagues between the emperor, and with forming a treaty of
marriage between his fon Rodolphus and Blanche, the daugh-t
ter of Philip the French king. The alliance with France
was protcfted againft by the three ecclefiaftical eleflors, and
upon the emperor's appeal to pope Boniface, with a demand
that he would ratify his eleclion, the pope declared that it
was null and void, and that Albert ought to be treated as a
murderer. Boniface proceeded, upon the complaint and
remonftrance of the electors, to prohibit the fubjefts of the
empire from acknowledging the claims of Albert, and to
releafe them from the obligation of their oath of allegiance.
The emperor, incenfed at the conduct of the ecclefiaftical
eleftors, declared war againft them, and foon compelled
them to fue for peace. In 1303, the pope having quar-
relled with Philip the Fair of France, made advances to

Albert,

ALB

Albert, confirmetl his tleftion, invited liim to Rome to receive
the Iiiipeiiiil ci'own, ar.d exhorted him to declare war againfl
Philip, whom lie had cxcomimiuicatcd. Tlie conditions,
howevtr, were humiliating ; but the en'penir aecjuiefccd,
and agreed to take the oath of allegiance to the pope, after
acknoulcdgin;:^ that kings and emperors received the pou-er
of the temporal fword from tile holy fee, and confentinjr
to perform all the promlfes made by llodolpluis and his pre-
deeelTors, and to defend the right.; of the iioly fee againll
all its enemies. Before this reconciliation between the pope
and tlie emperor took place, Albert had engaged in an un-
fuccefsful war with John d'Aveiies, next heir to John count
of Holland, who had lately died, under a claim of his do-
minions, as fiefs reverfible to the empire. The war termi-
nated with a ftipulated condition that John d'Avenea
{liould enjoy the countries of Holland, Wei): Friefland,
and Zealand, in confideration of doing liomage to the em-
peror, from whom he accordingly received the inveftiturc
of thefe dominions. Albert, likewife, in 1302, invaded
Bohemia, but was obhged to retreat with lofs. But upon
the death of Wincenflaus the younger, who was affaffinated
by his fubjefts, and who died without idue, the emperor
feized Bohemia, and placed his fon Rodolpluis on the
throne ; but Rodolphus dying fuddcnly, Albert could not
fccure the crown for his next fon, Frederic. His next ob-
joft was to fupport Philip of Naffau, brother of A dolphus,
the late emperor, in an unjuft attempt to recover Milnia
and Thuringia from the rightful poflelTors ; but this exploit
terminated in a difgracefui defeat. In another mllance he
was no lefs mortiiied, but the event proved fingularlv im-
portant. The three cantons of Urv, Switz, and Undervald,
tlioiigh they do not feem to have been in any refpeft de-
pendent upon the lioufe of Auftria, h.ad voluntarily fought
the protection of Rndolphas ; and he treated them with
f;reat indulgence, and defended their rights and priviltrges,
without ever confideving them as fiefs of the honfe of
Auftria. But the conduit of his fon Albert was direftly the
reverfe : he v.ifhed to govern them as an ablohite fovercign,
and had formed a fcheme for converting Switzerland into a
principality for one of his fons. By Ills own infolence and
opprtffion, and the fimllar conduit of the governor whom
he appointed, they were fo aggrieved and ineenfed, that the
tliree cantons above-mentioned formed- a confederacy for the
purpofe of emancipating themfelves from the Anilrian yoke.
Tliev fnceeeded in their efforts, and retrieved that liberty
which they have fmce enjoyed. The other cantons foon
engaged in the confederacy, and thus was laid the founda-
tion of the Helvetian republic. Albert was uniformly in-
fluenced by a fpirit of rapacity and an unwarrantable defirc
of aggrandizing his own family ; and he at length fell a
facrihce to Ills ambition and avarice. Having refufed to put
his nephew John, duke of Suabia, in polTeffion of his pa-
ternal eilates, which, it was thought, he dcligncd for one
of his own fons, th.e nephev/ fcirr.icd a confpiracy againft
him. With this view, he engaged three confederates, who
contrived to meet Albert on his progrefsfrom Bafil to Rhin-
ielden, after he had croffed the river Rhees, near Schaff-
haufen ; and John, having ftabbcd him in the throat, his
accomplices completed the murder in the figlit of his fon
and their attendants, who were incapable of affoidlng him
any fuccour. In the place where the emperor was (lain,
A. D. 1308, a cloifier was built, and called Koningsfelt,
from whence his body, after having been depolited there for
fome time, was carried to Spire, and kept among his
predecelTors. His character has been differently appretiatcd
by different writers. Some repreftnt him as a prince of a
brutal dllpolltion and uianuers, and of the moll fordid ava-

VOL.I.

ALB

rice : whilft others deforihe him at a prince of fingular cou-
rage and addrcfs, and diftinguifhed by an excellent under-
Handing, and an inviolable attachment to tnith. All agree,
however, in chargin^j him with an infatiable degree of ava,
rice. It is faid, that he equally abhorred flattery and (lan-
der ; and that thtrc were three forts of perfoni for whom he
had a particular regard, viz. woriicn of honour, men of ecu-
rage, and pious eecletiallics. He was cplled " /ht Triiimph-
onl," on account of his gencrnfity and valour, and the
many victories he obtained over his enemies ; and the " one-
eyed," becaufc he had loft one eye by the operation of poi-
fon, which was given to him at his own palace in Vienna,
about three years before he was elefted emperor. Albert,
by his wife Ell/.abeth, daughter of the duke of Carlnthia
and (Jorecia, hail fix fons and five daughters. By his
youngelt fon Albert, furnamed the " Counterfeit," the
male iffue of the family is derived. Mod. Un. Hill. vol. xxvi.
p. 130, 142.

Alhf.rt II. duke of Auftria, and emperor, furnamed the
" Grave" and " Magnanimous," was the fon of Albert of
Auftria, called the " Wonder of the World," and married
Elizabeth, daughter of the emperor Sigifmund. By his
wife condutf he re-ellabll(hed the fecurity of his Auftrian
iubjetfs, which had been for a long time interrupted by in-
teftlne wars and rapine ; and if his life had been prolonged,
lie would probably have been the greateft prince that ever i"at
ii)ion the Imperial throne. In one year, he was honoured
with three crowns. To tlie Hungarian throne he was ail-
vanccd in confequence of the will of Slgifmimd, ivhoi'c
daughter and licirefs he had married ; and he was elected
king of Bohemia, in confequence of a convention between
the t\*o families, which ftipulated, that when the lawful
heir male of the houie of Bohemia {hould chance to fail,
the crown fliould devolve ypon a prince of the houfe of
Auftria. The throne, however, was dli'puted by Cafiniir; but
after a fuccefsful ftruggle fecured by Albert, who wai
crowned at Prague. During his conflift with Caiimir, he
was elefted emperor at Frankfort. After his election and
coronation at Aix-la-chapelle, it was his chief care to refonn
the adminiftratlon of julllce, and to abolifh the tribu-
nal, called the fecrct or Weftphalla indgment, which co:i-
demncd williout trial, or even public aceutation. Ke
alio confirmed the neutrality which liad been adopled-by the
German electors and princes, with rcfpeft to pope Eugenins
and the council of Bafil, and by the mediation of the pope
and council he concluded a peace between Hungary and
Poland. When Bulgaria was invaded by Amurath, the
Turkilh Sultan, Albert took arras in its defence, and marched
to Buda ; but being there feized with a violent dyfentcry,
he was under a neceffity of returning to Vienna ; and in
his way thither the diforder proved fatal, A. D. 1439; and
he was interred at WeilTenburg. He left a pollhuuious fon
and two daughters. In one of the diets which were held at
Nuremberg during the (hort reign of this prince, Germany
was divided into four circles, viz. Bavaria and Franconia, the
countries about the Rhine together with Almenii, Wellpha-
lia, and the I<<)w Countrit-s, and Saxony. In another diet,
it was propofed to divide the empire into fix circles, and thin
divlfion was eilablifhed by the emperor Maximilian I. Al-
bert was of tall ftature and great ftrtngth, liberal and juft
in his difpofition, and of a virtuous charafter ; he cherifhed
a warm affeftion for his people, a great zeal for religion,
and an uncommon cfteem for learned men. Mod. Un. Hift.
vol. xxvi. p. 273 — 27S.

Albert the Gnat, fo called on account of his

great erudition, in Bingrnphy, was born at Lawingen in

Suabia, about the year 1 193, or, aa fome fay, 1205. He

3 X was

ALB

wa* educated at Pavia, aiitl in 1256 lie was inKde doftor
in mtditiiie at Paris ; where haviiijj heard fatlitr Jourdain,
tJle Dominican, prtiicli, lie w;i» iiidiictd to lake the liabit ;
and on the death of Joiirdam, w.i» mailc \icar-Ktiiei-al, then
prvivincial of that order. He taujrlit philufiij>hy, i>u-d:c:ne
a.id thcolog^) , a: (.\>!ogiic, and at Parix, to nui'.ieious au-
ditories. At Coiogr.e St. Thomas Aoiiiiiat was his pupil.
In 1260, he wan made bilhop of Ratilhoii ; b.it at the cud
of three years he refijrntd that dij^iiity, ai.d retired to
Cologne. ' From hence he went to Germany and Bohemia,
to prtaeh the crufadc; and in 1^-4, he attended the council
of Lyons. Allowing for this occafioiial ablencc, lie con-
tinued to inftrucl the religious of his order in this city,
till the 15th of Novend)er liSc, t!ie time of his death.
His work*, which were very vohmiinous, were coUeded by
father Jamini, a Dominican of CJri noble, and [jiibhflitd at
l.yo.;s in 11)15, '" ^' volumes in folio; but many of them
are fuppofed to be fpurious. Tlic treat ife " l)e Iccivtis Mu-
lierum, item de \irtiitihuB herbariim, lapidnm, ct aiiima-
li'.im," publidicd under his name, was. written by Henry of
Kaxony, one of his pupils. He was undoubtedly the
author of feveral works on the mathematical fclenccs ; as
arithmetic, geometry, pcrfptCtive or optics, mnfic, allro-
logy and aSroi.-my ; under the titles, — " De Hplixra, de
Ailris, de Altro.nomia, item fpccuhira Ailronomicum."
As he was a man of genius and knowledge fupcnor to liis
contemporaries, and particularly devoted to mathematical
difquiJitions, he was charged, according to the cant of the
times, with bcmg a magician. He is faid to have con-
trived a kii'.d of androides, or machine in the human form,
which he had brought to fuch pcrfci^lion, that it could
fpeak : and of this machine many tales are related, but
they are not worth recording. It ia not at all incredi-
ble, that by his knowledge of mechanics and acouflics, he
might have conftrucled a machine, which, by-, means of
the air and certain fpri'igs, produced founds, refcmbling
thofe of the human voice ; and that he might apply his
knu>vli-dge in chcmillry to the production of artificial llowers
and fruits. Some have, without foundation, afcribcd to
Albert the invention of tire-arms. The chief objett of
kis invciligation, was probably the philofopher's ftonc, as
thW was the " i^iiis fnluus'' of the age. (jeu. Ditt. Hur-
ton's Dicl. Dupiii cent. xiii. Bruck.er"s HilV. Philof. by
Lnfield. vol. ii. p. 37I-372.

Ai.*KRT of Aix, or Albprtus Aquenfts, was a canon
tf Aix-la-Chapclle, in the 1 2lh century, who travelled
into the Holy Land, and wrote in I^atin, " A Hillory of
the Expedition to Jerufalem, under Godfrey of Boulogne,
and other Leaders." This hilloi-y comprehends a period
of 24 years, terminating in II2C, and is eilcemcd accurate.
It was printed by Relneccius, in 15S4. Cave. H. L. torn,
ii. p. 206.

Albert, Erasmus, a German divine of the i6th
century, was born at Frankfort : from a book entitled,
•' The Harmony between Jcfus Chrill and St. Fran-
cis ;" and highly valued by the Francifcans, he col-
Icftcd many abfnrditics in a book which he entitled —
" The Alcoran of the Cordeliers." To this book Luther,
cf whom Albert was a difciplc, prefixed a preface, and it has
paffed through a great number of editions. The author wrote
other works in Latin and German, and died in 155 I.

Albert, KRA>iTz, an hiftorical writer, was profcffor of
divinity at Hamburgh, in the beginning of the i6th cen-
tury. His works are — " Metropolis ;" or, A Hillory of
tti^ Churches eftablilhed or reftorcd in the reign of Char^
lfir.agne ;" — " A Hillory of Saxony ;" — " A Hiftory of
the Vaadals ;" and. " A Clu-oniclc of Uie Affairs of the

A 1- B

North, from the time of Charlemagne to the year 1 504. ■'
He died in 1517. He is f.iid to have collected facts with
diligence, and to have related them with fid lity and free-
dom. Voir, de Kill. Lat. Cave. H. L. torn. ii. p. 243.

Ai.HRRT of Sl»iie, a bencdidline monk, flourifhrd about
the middle of the 13th century. He wrote " a Chronicle,"
comprehending the whole period, from the beginning of
the world to the year \i^(\ which was publiflied with
notes, by Rciutccius, in I5y7. Cave.

Ai.Bi.RT of Stmjliirr, or Albert us ArGitinsis,
flourilhed in tiie 14th century, and publiflied in Latin,
" A Hillory or Chronicle of j\ffairs from the Ktign of
Rodulphus L in 1270 to the Death of Charles 1\'., in
1^78." This work, which is faithfully WTittcn, was
editc<l by I'lllifius, in a collcclion of authors, who wrote
on the allairs of Germany. Voflins. Cave.

Albkrt, Solomon, a juipil of Fabricius ab Aqua-
pendeute, a learned and ingenious anatomill, fludied me-
dicine at Wiliimberg, where he waif feveial years pro-
fellor. }-Ic is faid to have dilcovcred the valve of the
colon, firll in a callor, afterwards more diftinftly in the
body of a man, and to have made many other iniprove-
mtiits in anatomy. Flaller Riblioth. Anatomic, vol. i. p.
251. His works are — " Flifloria, &c. humaui corporis
partium in ufum Tyronum edita, figuris illuilrata, Wit-
tcnibcrg, 1583. 8vo." The plates, with the excep-
tion of two, are from Vtfalius. This work has pafled
through feveral editions. " Trcs orationes, quarum
tertia agit de difciplina anatomica, qao orfu caeperit, &c.
turn de Galeiii libro qui de offibus infcribitur. Annexum
ell thema de lachrymanun utilitate in levando ariimi af-
fe£lu." NorimbergiE 1585, 8vo. This Difcourfe on the
Efficacy of Tears, in alFuaging the AfFeftlons of the
Mind, is infeited in HaUer's coUcftion of diHertations.
" Onitio de furditate et mutitate ; Norimb. J591. Svo."
" Orationts quatuor, de felle reftagnante, de fudore cru-
ento, &c. ibid." 1590, &c. He died March 29th, 1600.
Hia age is not known.

Alht-RT, in Gco^rapk'y, a town of France, in the de-
partment of Somme, and dillriift of Peronne, five leagues
north-eail of Amiens, and four north-weft of Peronne.

Alberti BoRC-HEGi Asn, Cherueino, in Bingrafhv, an
eminent painter and engraver, was born at Borgko S. Sepul-
chro in 1 552, and died in 16 15. The rudiments of hifto-
rical painting he acquired from his father, Michael Alberti ;.
and in this art he made very conliderablc prog-rcfs. His
b<;ft works are in Frefco at Rome ; and _ there are alfo-
paintings in oil, which are admired for their iudiifious dif-
pofitiou, lively and beautiful colouring, and-f.ne expreilion..
His fuperior merit, as an engraver, is alfo acknowledged; and
in this refpecl his bell llile of execution feems to have
been tounded on the prints of C. Cort and Agoftino Ca-
Tacci, whilft in his friezes and other flightcr plates, he was
indebted to the works of Francefco Villemena, whofe free-
dom of handling the graver is.juftly admired. He worked,
entirely, like thefe artifts, with the graver, and feems
never to have called in the affiftance of the point. His
engravings are never highly finiftied, or powerful in effcit..
The great fault of his time was the httle attention paid to'
the chiaro-fcuro. The lights are fcattercd and left un-
tiuted, as well upon the diftances, as upon the principal
figures of the fore ground, which deftroys the harmony,
and prevents the proper gradation of the objefts. The draw-
ing of the naked parts of the figui-e, in the works of this
aitift, is rarely incorrect: the extremities are well marked;
and the characters of the heads generally very ejiprcffive ;
but his draperies are apt to be rather lliif and hard. His

prints

ALB

A T. B

prints m?.v be cotifidcred as very extraordinaiy efforts of a
great genius ; wliilll the art was at a confulL'rable diilancc
trom perfedion. The number of plates engraved by Al-
bert!, amounts to nearly i8o; of whieh 75 are from his
pu'ii compofitions, and the rell from Michael Angelo,
Buoanaroti, Raphael, Polidoro, Andrea del Sarto, ixe.
Of thefe we (hall eniimerate'the following, viz. — A large
nativity; a dead Chrill, iupported by an angel ; St. Jcrom
featcd in a landfeape, meditating upon the erofs ; the re-
funx'Aion of our Saviour; a holy familv ; crtation of
Adam and Eve, their expuUiou from paradife, their fub-
jeftion to labour ; and the miracle of St. Philip Beui//o,
where the men, who defpifed the exhortations of the faint,
are ftruo'v dead with lightning, whieh is elleemed one of
the moil excellent prints of this mailer. Pilkingtoi^ and
Strutt.

A1.BERTI, DoMKNico, a Venetian tlihttajite, gifted
with genius and an exquilite talle. He was of tlie corps
diplaniJlique, and fecretavy to the Venetian ambalfador at
Madrid. At a time when there was little melody in harp-
(iehord IclTons, he brought about a revolution in the ilyle
of playing th.at inllruinent, by giving a tinging treble to a
rapid bafe, compoled of chords broken into groups of
femiquavers, which it was fo eafy to imitate, that compofers
and players foon grew tired and afhamcd of it. Jerig at
Paris, and Vento in I>ondon, glutted the public with
whole volumes of Icfions upon Alberti's bafe, bat none
ever compoled fuch elegant treble parts for keyed inllru-
ments ; the melody of which ihll Hands its ground, through
all the vicifTitudes of 60 years : — a prodigious longevity
for a mufical produftion in point of tafte ! There is a little
hiftory, belonging to the publication of Alberti's leiTons in
England, worth recording, as a beacon to plagiarids.
The liril time thefe lefTons were heard in London, was at
Hickford's room, when they were admirably performed by
Jozzi, the fecqnd linger at the Opera, at his own benefit ;
who, not only pafTed them off for his own compofitions,
■but printed them, and had the courage to affix his name to
the title-page, and the confcience to fell riiem for a guinea
a book, equal at leaft to two guineas now. Unluckily for
the author of this fraud, but not before many copies were
fold, a gentleman, juil returned from Venice, being pof-
feifed of a MS. copy of thefe fonatas in Alberti's own
hand-writing, made Wahh, the mufic-feller, a prefent of
the book, on purpofe to expofe the tranfaftion. Wallh
having obtained the MS. upon fuch eafy terms, fold the
eight charming fdnatas for fix (hillings a book. The ilyle
being new, and fo much more within the power of gen-
tlemen and ladies to execute, than the rich and complicated
pieces of Handel, and wild and original legerdemain of
■Scarlatti, iiad a prodigious fale, and foon obliged Jozzi
to make a precipitate retreat to Holland, wliere he prac-
tifed the fame trick, but not with equal profit.

Alberti, Durante, fiourifhed in 1590, and died at
Rome in 11^13, at the age of 75. He, and liis two brothers,
Cofmio and Giorgio, who were painters and engravers, were
natives of Borgo S. Sepulrhro. The two firll engraved
upon copper and wood ; the lafl upon copper only, and
died young in 1597. They are not fuppofed to have been
artiits of any great note. The fon of this artifl, ivc.
Pietro Franccfco y\lberti, was born in 15S4, and died in
163S. He was an hiiloilcal painter, and we have a print,
called the " Academia de Pitori," and containing many
figures flightly etched, but with fpirit and in a ftyle that
indicates much of the mailer.

Alberti, Giovanni, a painter of perfpeftive and hillory,
brother of Cherubino, was born at Florcn«e in 1558, and

died m t6oi. After receiving early infliuclion from his
father, he went to Rome, when: hi iludied geoi-netry, and
the works of I'nionaroli and other great mailers. His prin-
cipal attention was devoted to ptrlpeCtive, in v.-hieh lie ar-
rived at great eminence. He was diflinguifhed by the ele-
gance of his conipofition, the firnmel";. and delicacy of his
pencil, the grandeur of his ihoiiglus, the judicious dilhi-
bution of the parts, and the fpirit viiibic through the whole.
Pilkington.

Ai.iihRTi, John, a learned German lawyer, was born at
Widmanlladt, and Houriflied in the i(A\\ century. He was
well acquainted with the oriental languages, and wrote
" An Abridgment of the Koran," with notes, publiihed at
Nuremberg m IJ4_3. In 1 J56, he publiihed in 410., at
Vienna, at the expence of the emperor Ferdinand I. u New
Teilament in the Syriac charafttr and language, for the ule
of the Jacobite iViiit, in which book aie omitted the" i'econd
epiille of Peter, the fecond and third of John, the epiftle of
Jude, and the Revelation. Alberti alio wrote a Syriac
grammar, with a preface, tracing the i)iogrefs of the oriental
languages among the Latins. Nouv Diil. Hill. Gen. Biog.

Alberti, Leander, of I'ologna, a Dominican, and an
Italian hillorian of fome celebrity, v.as born in 1479. His
works are in I^atin, " A Hillory of illuiliimis Men of his
Ordej-," fol. 1527 ; in Italian, " A Hillory of Bologna ;"
and " A Defcription of Italy," printed iji 1550, and tranf-
lated into Latin h\ Kiriander, which abouiuis with curiou*
information. Voifius. Hiil. Lat. Gen. Biog.

ALBERTi,LFONi-BAPTisTA,an eminent architcftofllalv,
was born of a noble family -At Florence in 1398, and purfued
his iludies at the Univeriity of Bologna with fuch fuccefs,
that at the age of 20 he compofed a Latin comedy, intitled
" Philodexaos," under the name of I^epidus, which Aldus
Manutius conceived to be antique. Here he took the degree
of doftor of laws, and was ordained priell. However he
chiefly devoted himfelf to the iludy of deiign, and to the
examination of ancient edilices ; and at Rome he was em-
ployed by pope Nicholas V. in feveral works of architec-
ture. He alfo planned feveral coiifiderable buildings at
Mantua, Rimini, and Florence. Alberti was a painter, and
a good mechanic ; and invented an inllrumeiit for the praot
tiee of perfpeftive ; but he is princip-ally known as a writer.
His Latin work " On the Art of ArchiteClure," in 10
books, was printed in 1481, much efteemed, and tranflated
by Bartoli, into Italian, in 1546, and afterwards into French.
He alio wrote, in Latin, a work upon ieulpture and painting,
in three books, which was tranilated by Domenichi. He
lived to an advanced age, and died at Rome in 1480, ns
fome fay, but according to I'iraboiehi, in 11472. His
funeral oration was pronounced by Angelo Poli/.iano, and
he was celebrated by the contemporai^ Italian poets.
Gen. Biog.

Alberti, Michel, profcfTor of medicine at Hall, in
Saxony, and member of the Royal Academy at Berlin, a
ilrenuous dttender of the principles of Stahl, agaiiill the
mcchauical phylieians, particularly againll Hcifter, was born
at Fribourg, November I3tli, 16^2: he publiihed ''Epiilola
qua Thermarum et Acidularum idolum inedicum dcilruit,"
Halx 1 7 14, 4to. " Introduclio in Univeriam Medici-
nam," ibid. 1718, 1719, I721, 3 vols. 4ty., containing
a multitude of thtfes on difTeient parts of medicine.
For the titles of theie, fee Haller's Bibliotheca Medicinse
PraiSlics, vol. iv. p. 386, &c. " Syllema jurifprudentiue
mediciE Schneeberg," 4to. 1725. Hallcr gives a jiarti-
cular account of this work, which he highly commends.
See as abo\e ; alfo for accounts of the remaining works
of the author, who died at Hall, May i-tli, 1757.

3X2 ' ALBERTINI,

ALB

A1.BERTINI, Francis a CJubila"., refigned a rich
abbfv in order to become a jcf.-.it. He died in 1619.
In hU " Syfttm cf Thco'.orr\-," two vols. Jol. ho :iUcir.pts
to reconcile divini'.y with philofophy ; and in 11 lri:.tife " Dc
Angdo Cuiti.df ," he er.deuvou! - to prove, ttial brutes }.ave
th. ir jjiiardi.in anj'e'.s. B.og. l>ift.

Al-BKRTINUS, Ml'ssath-'s. an hiiloimn and poet
of Italy, was born at fadua, and fioiirillicd in the ninth
century. He wrot-- concerrir.g the reign of the emperor
r-Ic;iry VII., 12 bopits on tl.e aflaiis of Italy after litsiry
VII., and a third pait of the hiftory of Li-wis of Bavaria ;
and he has been elleemcd a judicious, faithful, and f«r the
tunc in whith he lived, an ekgant hillorir.n. tie aifo wrote
a tragedy on the tyranny of Aecioliri, which, with other
poetical produdions, gained hi:n diftinguilhcd honours in the
Univerlily of Fadiia. Pctrarcii mentioi'S hi:u with rcfpcft,
35 a dihgent and accurate inquirer into fa£ts. He died in
829. Vr.fTius. Gen. Bijg.

ALBERTIST.S, a fcft of Scholaftics, wcrt thus dcuo-
minattd from their leader Albertus Magnus.

ALBERTO, B.\xf)s dv, in Grography, a (hoal of rocks
before the city of St. Salvador, in the bay of All Saints, on
the coail of Brafil. On one of them is a ftrong fort which
coir.niaiids the road, and between them and the city is a very
good liarboi'.r, where (hips may ride with fafety.

ALBERTON, or Port Albert, a fea-port town of
Africa, in the kingdom of Barca, on the conliucs of Tripoli,
5c Ica'^es from Alexandria.

AliBERTUS, ill Commerce, a gold coin, worth about
14 French livres, which was llruck during the reign of Al-
bertus, Archduke of Aullria.

ALBESIA, in jintiquity, a kind of (hield ufed by the
ancienr Albenfe?, a nation of the Marli.

ALBESTROFF, in Geography, a town cf Franc, in
the department of the Mcurte, thre'e leagues north-iiorth-eaft
of Dcute.

ALBETROSS/>o;n/, a rocky prominence on the coaft of
New Holland. S. lat. 38" 4'. W. long. 184° 42'.

ALBI, a town of Italy, in the province of Abru'zzo
Ultra. See A lis a Fucenfs.

AtBi is alfo a town of Savoy in the Genevois, nine miles
north-north-eaft of Aix.

Albi, or Alby, ^lll'iga or Civilas Alh'ienfum, a city of
France, in the department of the Tarn, and fituate on the
river Tam, was, before the revolution, the capital of a
fmall coujitry called the y//i^/ffOM, in Upper Languedoc.
It has been the rcfidence of a royal tribunal, and fince l6"7
the fee of an archbilliop. Its cathedral is dedicated to St.
Cecilia, and has one of the finell choirs in the kingdom.
The archbilhop was metropolitan of five bifhops, and they
reckon 30 cardinals, who had been bidiops of this fee. The
diocef* contained about 327 parifhes, and produced about
Oi,ooo livres. It Hands upon an eminence, and the number
of inhabitants has been eftimated at 1 0,000. In the cathedral
was a saluable fdver Ihrine, of the Molaic kind, and of ex-
r'lilitc workmanihip, which contained the reliques of St.
Clair, faid to have been the firll bifhop of this city. There
is a pleafant walk, called La Lice, a little above the city ;
and the archiepilcopal palace is vcr)' magnificent, and tlie
{mail town of Chateauvieux fen'es as a fuburb. The river
wafhes the walls of the city, and ferves both for an ornament
I'd a defence. It is 35 miles north-eall of Touloufe, and
ajo miles fo-.ith of P.iris. The territory of the Albigeois,
w about to leagues long and feven wide, is well peopled,
and produces abiind:;nce of grapes, corn, wood, faffron,
aid fheep. It has alfo coal-mines. The trade of this
dlftrift ccn£il5 of dried prur.es, grapes, wine, and a coarfc

ALB

kii.d of tluih. K. lat. 43" 55' 44". L. long. 1" S 45' ,
See AlbicE-Wsis.

Albi, \n Ecchfiajl'ical ITijlory. Sec //'7';/c liRETHRf.N-.

AI>BIA^^J, in Geography, a town on the Ivory euaft
of Africa, fix milts tall ol Iinni.

ALBIAKIA Cupc, lies on the north-wefl point of tlus
ifiiiiid of Cyprub, near the caJIern extremity of the Mediter-
ranean. N. lat. 35" 20'. E. long. 32" 18'.

ALBIAS, a fmall tov.'n of France, in the diftricl of
Qutrcy, divided into two ])aits by the river Avcyron.

ALBICILI^A, in Oniilhology, a fpeeies of Falco, ia
the Linnaean iyllem, the arjui.'ti ullieU'lu of Briffon, the py.
garg.is, albicilla hirundinaria of Bellon, Gefiier and Ray,
l\\t grand pygarguf or great erne oi Buffon, hritun Jaklcr adler
of Frifcli, iL-llte-tailcd eagle of Willughhy, and cinereous
eagle of Pennant and Latham. Its fpccific charatlers are,
" that its cere and feet arc yellow, the tail-feathers white,
and the intermediate ones black at their vertex." It is of
the fize of a peacock, being two feet nine inches long ; its
head and neck are of a pale aili colour ; the iris and bill pale
yellow, and the bill elongated at its bafe ; the front betweea
the eyes and the noftrils naked, witli imall fcattered brillle^
and of a coirulean hue. The body and wings are cinereous,
intermixed v>'ith dun ; the tail white ; the legs wooUy below
the knees, and of a bright yellow ; the claws black. It
inhabits Europe, particularly Scotland, and the adjacent
idands, and preys upon large (jili. Arirtotle (Hill. Aniir,.
lib. ix. c. 32. torn. i. P.Q37.) gives this fpeeies the epithet
ol Hiunularia, denoting that it preys upon fawn, that is,
young Hags, deer and roe-bucks ; and he reprefents it as
haunting the plains, gruves, and towns, and alio reforting
to the mountains and forelis.

Albicii.ua, in Coiiehology, is a fpeeies of the Nf.rita,
with a ftriated {hell, fubdentated lips, the interior tuber-
culated. It is found at the Cape of Good Hope and in the
Indian fea.

ALBICUS, in Biography, an archbilhop of Prague, was
railed to that dignity by Sigilmund, king of Bohemia, and
diiUnguilhed by the liberahty of his icntiments. His cha»
ratter h.-is been reproached by the papills on account of the
indulgence which he exereifed towards John Huls and the
other difciples of Wickliff. He compofed three medical
treatifes, vi-z. " Praxis Medendi," Regimen Sanitatls," and
" RegimiCn Peftilcntia: ;" printed at Leipfic, in 1484, 8vo.,
long after his death.

ALBIGAUNUM, or ylliium Ingaunum, m Anncnt
Geogriiphx- See Albencua.

ALBiGENSES, in Ecclejlajlkal H\Jlory, a fed or party
of refoi-mers, who appeared about Toidoufe and the Albi-
geois, in Languedoc, in the 12th century ; and who derived
their name, not from Albi's being the place of their birth,
or rclidence, or the feat of their principal alfembly ; but from
their having been condemned in a council held in that town,
in the year 1 176. Their origin may be traced to the Pac-
LiciANS, who, with a view of propagating their opinions,
or of efcaping opprciTion and perfeeution, retired from
Bulgaria and Thrace, and formed fettleiaents in other coun-
tries. Their firll mig-ation was into Italy, whence, in proc-efs
of time, they fent colonies into almoil all the other parts of
Europe, and gradii.diy formed a conaderable number of
religions alTemblies of perfons who adhered to their feci:,
who were feverely perlecmed by the Roman pontilTs. Alxiut
the middle of the tith century many of the Paulieians
fettled in Lornbardy, Infubria, and principally at Milan ;
and from hence they migrafd to Frauce, G:rmany, and
other countries, wiiere by their piety and zeal they cap-
tiv^tcd tae adrairaii^jn arni eileem of the multitude. In Italy

tiicy

ALB

ALB

,.tl>'rir were calitil r.ltcrir.i, and Catliari or Ca/ari ( !n France
thty obtained ihe apptllation of Albij^tnfes, (n;u\ tlie cir-
cuiiiftancc already rncutioncd ; and thty were alio dtnonil-
.Iiited Bulgariiuis, becaiifc thty originajly came from ]>ul-
f^aiia ; i'liblicana jirobaLly by conuption from I'aiilicians,
.tons-Hommcs, or Cfuod Men; Pctro-linifTians from Peter
Bniys, who is faid by feme to bave full bnuighl tbeni into
l^anjjuedoc ; Anioldiih, Abelardiits, Henriciiuis, from the
r.air.es <if Arnold dc BrtfTe, Peter Abclard, and Hciiry, who
adopted their opinions. They were alfo called PaAag-ers,
Albii, and Albr.nenfcs ; but foinc confidcr the latter as
rlillintt from the Albiger.fes, thougii they avowed fimilar
fentiments, and trace their ori^jiu to the Kth ccntnry. As
tlie Albigenies were diiHngiiiflKd by their uppofitlon to the
dik'ipline and cereironies cf the cluirch of Rome, the Popifh
writers have comprehended all the adverlarics of tlus ehiirch
tiiider the lame appellation. Accordingly they have con-
founded them with the Waldenfes, or Vaudois, who fprang
up at a later period, and differed from them in fome of their
• ■opinions. Boduet, the bifliop of Mt-anx, contends, that
they were different fefts ; and he alledj^es, that the Albi-
genfes were heretics and manichees ; and that theWaidenfes
were merely Ichiimatics, wlio vere found as to articles of
faith, and feparated from the church of Rome on accoinit
of forms and diieipline. lint they were unqneUionahly
agreed in their oppofition to the papal hierarchy, and in
alferting the ulurpation, tyranny, and idolatry of the
Romifh ch\irch, and in reprefenting the pope as Antichrilh
The learned I^imboreh has taken pains to inveiUgate and
afcertain the difltrence between tlieie two iccts ; and he
Hates, in detail, the feveral opinions and praftiees in which
they both agreed and dilTered. Thev concurred in main-
taining the unlawhilnels and fnifuhitfs of every kind c;f oath,
and the inntility ot conftffion to the prieil, and the ineificacy
of abfolution, and in reprefenting the church of Rome as
antichriftian. The opinions in which they diiagreed were
thofe of the manichees, which he inclines to think were
adopted by many of the Albigenfcs, but which are not jnilly
chargeable againll the Waldenfes. The fcn-mer are laid,
upon the authority of the book of the Sentences of the In-
qaihtion at Toulonfe, to which this writer refers, to have be-
lieved, that there are two Gods and Lords, the one good, the
other evil ; that all things vifible and corporeal were created
not by God, our HcavenlvFatlier, and the Lord Jefus Chrirt,
but by the devil, the evil god, who is the god of this world,
and the maker and prince of it. They alio maintained, that
the facramcnts of the church of Rome are vain and unpro-
fitable ; viz, the. eucharift, baptilm, confirmation, orders
and extreme unftion. In the euehariil they behevcd, that
tliere was not the body of Chriif, and nothing but mere
bread ; the baptifin of water they condemned as unavailing,
and particularly that of children ; extreme unction was, in
their judgment, of no avail ; and as to the orders of the
church of Rome, they reproached and condemned its whole
conllitution ; matrimony was fmful, and not appointed by the
rood God ; they alfo denied the incarnation of Chriit ; and
maintained, that he did not take a real human body, nor
r.le again with it, but merely with the likcnefs of it ; and
that it was impoffible for God to be incarnate ; they are alfo
ciarged with dtiiying the rcfurreotion of bodies, alledging
that though the louls of men (hall come to judgment, they
iliall not then appear in their bodies ; they obje(f\ed to the
;juoratiun of tlie crofs, the iign of which they reprefented
Si a detcftable emblem of the devil ; and they believed, that
the fouls of men were fpirits baniflied from heaven bceaufe
cf their lins. The Albigenfcs differed alio from the Wal-
aeiiiei in their rites and culloms, as well as in their dodriiies.

3

Of tlie former, it h faid, there were two fjrts, fome pro-
fed'ed their faith, and conformed to the cu.loms of their feift,
and were called perfenl or cortfolat'i, perfett or comforted.
Others only enteied into a covenant with thefe perfcA prr-
fons, which they tall I.a ConiK'iienJ'n, the agreement, that
at the end of life they would be received into their fcft ;
for this rece])tion they were prepared by certain abllinenres
or falls ; and the admiifion, culled fpiritual baptifrn, was be-
lieved to fave the foul of the perfwi admitted, and v.as de-
layed to the lalt fickncls, when there were no hopes of
recovery. Thofe who were thus received were commanded
to make ufe of the eniliira, ;'. e. falling thcmfelvcs to death,
and even to haften their death by opening a vein and bathing.
Of the manicheifm of the Albigenfcs, and other opinions and
pracliees, which have been charged upon them by inquilitors
and popilli writers, they have been exculpated by proteilart
authors ; and the ehar»;es have been afcribed to that malig-
nant /.tal, which has induced perfecntors to vindicate their
own conduft, and to fix reproach on thofe who have been
deemed heretics. The errors and crimes of individuals have
been, not imfrecjuently, charged upon whole bodies of men;
and we have reafon to think, that this has been very much
the cafe in the prednt inllance. However this be, the AI-
bigeufes became fo formidable, both by their number and
zeal, that a holy league, or crnfade, was agreed upon
among the Catholics ; and pope Innocent III. exhorted all
princes to opprefs them as much as poffible, and to expel
them from their dominions. Raymond, carl of Tonloufe,
aflorded them temporai-j- protection and favour ; upon
which the pope ordered him to be excommunicated as a fa-
vourer of heretics. He alfo fent his legate, with letters to
many of the prelates, commanding them to make inquilition
agaiidl the Albigenfes, and to deftroy them. He alfo en-
gaged Philip, king of France, to coi.cur in this work of
extirpation. The pope's legate was accompanied by 12
abbots of the Ciflerclan order, preaching the crofs againll
the Albigenies, and promiJlng, by the authority of Inno-
cent, a plenary remiflicfi of all lins to all who took upon
ihem the crufadc. To thefe Dominiek joined himfelf, and
in that expedition invented the inquisition : and he de-
puted thole who were denominated cv.oa-bcurcrs to unite
their efforts for hippreffing thefe heretics. ^Vhen thefe
deputies of Dominiek and the pope were fufpeCted of be-
ing lefs -/ealons than they wilhed them to be, a plenai^ in-
dulgence was proclaimed in order to engage a greater number
of affillants in this warfare of intoleiancc and blood; The
crofs-bearers on this oceafion wore the crofs on their breails,
as thijfe who took it up againft the Saracens bore it on their
backs or (lioulders. Raymond, who was ftill forbearing and
indulgent, was excommunicated by a bull of Innocent, his
fubjects were abfolved from their oath of allegiance, and
power was given to any catholic, not only to aft againll his-
perfon, but to take pofTedion of his country. The Eaii.
was at lail overcome, promifcd obedience, and fought recon-
ciliation with the church. After the reconciliation of the
earl, the crofs-bearers were bufilv employed in attacking the
heretics, fei/ing their cities, filling all places with Daughter
and blood, and burning many whom they had taken captives.
In tlie year lioy Eiterre was taken, the inhabitants without
diilinftion put to the Iword, and the city burnt. Carcaffone
was alfo dellroyed ; and Simon, carl of Montfort, made
governor of the whole country', tor the purpofe of extir-
pating heretics, which he faith.fully fulfilled. In the next
year a new expcditic>n ot the crols-bcarei-s was undertaken
againll the Albigc'.fes. They fei7td Albi, and other lov. ns,
and either hanged (v buritt lliofe heretics, whom they tap.
tured. The carl of Tculijiifv; was alarmed by ihe dellruc"tive

prejjrefs

ALB

progn-fs of Simon Montfort, and fearing for hiiiifolf, and
for hii couniry, raifcd a larpe army, and received fuccoui

lid
couniry, railed a larpe army, and received niccour
from the kiiijjs of England and Aragon, to whom lie w.ij
related. Haviny; been deprived of his dominions by Mont-
fort, he appealed, for redrcf:-, to the coiineil of l^ateran in
12 I J, but without aTuil. The fynod decreeing him for ever
excluded, lie went to Spain, and his fon Raymond to IVo-
vcnce, in order to toUee I auxiliary forces ; and with thefe
he recovered part of his ijoininiixis, and the city of I'ouloufe
itfelf. Montfort was killed at the fiege in his endeavour to
retake it. Theeail died in 1221, and was iuccecdtd by his
foil, who w.is unable to procure chrillian burial tor his father.
When Raymond had recovered his father's dominions, the
Inquifitlon was banifhed from the country of Touloufe ; but
pope Honorius III. uftd ever)- eftort to render him ob-
noxious, and earnellly urged king Lewis of France to take
up arm's againil the Albigenfcs. The French king under-
took the expedition againil Raymond and the heretics, and
laid liege to Avignon ; where he and many of his army died
of a dyfenteiy and other difealVs. Avignon was at length
taken by treacheiy, andToulouie was compelled to furrender.
Raymond obtained peace upon ver\- hvimiliating conditions;
being required to abjure his hcrefy, andto befor eveilubjeCt
to the fee of Rome, to expel all heretics, and in no cafe to
defend them ; to pay a line of 2000 marks, and to furrender
a. confidcrable part of his dominions to the king and the
church. He was then led to the high altar, in a linen gar-
ment and with naked feet, and abfolved from the fentence of
excommunication. Opprelfed afterwards by a feries of mif-
fortunes, he boived his neck to the papal yoke, and lignified
to the pope his defire that herefy might be wholly extirpated
from his dominions. Soon after this aft of fervile humilia-
tion, viz. in I 249, he died, and was the lall earl of Tou-
loufe of that line. In confctjuence of thefe events, the
.Albigenfes were difperfed, and thty were httle known or
heard of till the time of the Reformation, when thofe who
remained fell in with the VAunois, and contoiTned to the
doftriiie of Zuinghus, and the difcipline of Geneva. Lim-
boreh's HllL of the Inquifition by Chandler, vol. i. p. 42 —
70. Molheim's Eccl. Hill. vol. ii. p. 5H0. 8vo.

ALBIN, in Gfoirraphy, a town of Fiance, in the depart-
ment of the Aveyron, lix leagues north-well of Rhodes.

ALBINA, in Co?ichulugy, a fptcies of Helix, with a
fmooth perforated white (hell, gibbous below, and quad-
rangular aperture. It refembles the Albella.

ALBINALI,in Giogiiiph's',71 townofAfia,inArabiaFehx.

ALBINATUS ya^. See Aubaine.

ALBINE. SeeAssixF,.

ALBINELLA,in£n.''/.H«/'yv,a fpeciesof Phaljf.n aTi-
nf.a, with brown wiiigs,and a fingle golden line, arched on the
fore part, found in the groves of the northern part of Europe.

ALBINEN, or Alp EX, in Geu^raphi, a town of Swit-
zerland, in the Valais, 22 miles eall of Sion.

ALBINGAUNUM, or Albium Ingaunum, a town
of Italy on the north call fide of Liguria. See Aldknga.

ALBINI, in Antiquity. See Albarium Opus.

ALBiNOS, in Xoolnyj and Gtography, a denomination
given to the white negroes of Africa, who have light hair,
blue eyes, and a white body, refembling that of the Euro-
peans, when viewed at a dillance ; but, upon a nearer ap-
proach the whiteneis is pale and livid, like that of leprous
pcrfons, or of a dead hotly. Their eyes are fo weak that
they can hardly fee any objeft in the day, or bear the ravs
of the fun, and yet, when the moon Ihines, they fee as well,
and run through the deeped (hades of their forefts, with as
much eafe and aftivlty, as other men do in the brlghtcft day-
light. Their complexion is delicate ; they are lefs robull

ALB

and vigorous than other men ; they generally deep in the
day, and go abroad in the night. The negroes regard
them as monflers, and will not allow them to propagate
their kind. In Afiica this variety of the human fpecies
very frequently occurs. Wafer informs us, that there are
white Indians of the fame general eharafter among the yel-
low or copper-coloured Indians of the Uthmus of Darien ;
and the Chacrf.las of Java, as will as the Bedas of
Ceylon, fecm to be of the fame defcrlption. M. BufTon
obl'erves, that tliis variation of nature takes place from black
to while only, and not from white to black ; and that all
the people in the Eall Indies, in Africa, and in America,
among whom thcle white men appear, lie under the fame
latitude : the iftlimus of Darien, the Negro countr)', and
the illand of Ce)loii being under the fame parallel. It
has been a fubjcft of inquiry, whether thefe men form a
])eculiar and dlllinCt race, and a permanent variety of the
human fpecies, or are merely individuals who have acciden-
tally degenerated from their original (lock. Buffon inclines to
the latter opinion, and he alledgps in proof of it, that in the
ilUimus of America a hufband and wife, both of a copper
colour, produce one of thefe white children ; fo that the
ilngidar colour and conllilution of thefe white Indians muft
be a fpecies of difeafe which they derive from their parents ;
and the production of whites by negro parents, which fome-
tlmes haj)pen, confirms the lame theor)'. According to this
author, white appears to be the primitive colour of nature,
which maybe varied by climate, food, and manners, to yellow,
brown, and black ; and which, in certain circumllances, re-
turns, but fo much altered, that it has no refemblance ta
the original whitenefs, becaufe it has been adulterated by
the caufes that are afligned. Nature, he fays, in her moll
perfect exertions, made men white ; and the fame nature,
after fuffering every poffihle change, ilill renders them
white : but the natural or fpecific whitenefs is very differ-
ent from the individual or accidental. Of this we have
examples in vegetables, as well as in men and other animals.
A white rofe is very- different, even in the quality of white-
nefs, from a red rofe, which has been rendered white by the
autumnal frofts. He deduces a farther proof that thefe
white men are merely degenerated individuals from the com-
parative weaknefs of their conflltntlon, and from the ex-
treme feeblencfs of their eyes. This lad faft, he fays, will
appear to be lefs lingular, when it is conlidered, that, in
Europe, very fair men have generally weak eyes ; and
he has remarked, that their organs of hearing are often
dull : and it has been alledged by others, that dogs of a
perteftly white colour are deaf. This is a fubjeft which de-
mands farther inveltlgation. Buffon, Nat. Hift. by Smellie,
vol. ili. p. 179 — 182.

M. Sauffure, in his "Voyages dans les Alpes," gives an
account of two boys at Chamouni, whom he refers to the
clafs of Albinos. One of them was about 20 or 21 years
of age, and the other about two years younger. The
tldelt had a dull look, with thickifh lips, but his features
in other refpefts were not different from thofe of other
people. The youngell was of a more agreeable figure,
and more fprlghth'. Their eyes were not blue ; the iris
was rofe-coloured ; and the pupil, when viewed in the
light, appeared red ; whence he infers, that the interior
membranes were deprived of the uvea, and of the black
mucous matter bv wliich they fhould have been lined. In
their infancy, their hair, eye-brows, eye-lallies, and the
down upon their Ikin, were very tine, and of a perfect
milk-white colour ; but at the j'.ge above-mentioned, the
hair was of a reddllh call and more llrong. Their fight was
alfo flrengthened, and, even In their infancy, was not much
I e&ended

ALB

ALB

pflTendcd by the ligHt of tin." day. Tlity n-erc iinablt tc
labour with perloiis ot tlitir ag'C, and wtrc mainiaintd by
the charity of a relation. Although "thi-y had not the
thick lips and flat nofc5 of tlie white ncgrccs, this differ-
ence is owing, as M. Sauliiie tliinks, to their being Al-
binos of r.urope, and not of Africa. Tlie malady that
afieifts the eyes, the complesv'on, and the colour of the
hair, enfeebles alio their ftrength, without altering the con-
formation of their features ; and of tltis malady, he appre-
hends, there are different degrees ; fo that it produces, in
various infhinces, different efiects. He at firll.afcribed it
to an organic debility ; in confeqiiencc of wliich, a relax-
ation of the lymphatic veflels within the eye, might ad-
mit the globules of the blood in too great abmidnnce into
the iris, uvea, and even the retina, and thus oceafion the
rcdnefs of the iris and of the pupil. This debility, he
fuppofed, might account for the intolerance of the light,
and for the whitenefs of the hair. But M. Bhimenbach,
profeflbr in the univerfity at Gottingen, attributes it to a
different caufe. He has obferved the fame phenomenon
in brutes, in white dogs, :\vA in owls ; and he fays, that
it generally occurs in the warm-blooded animals, and that
he has never found it in thole with cold blood. This in-
genious phyfiologiff is of opinion, that the rednefs of the
iris, and of the other internal parts of the eye, as well as
the extreme ienfibility that accompanies it, is owing to the
total privation of that brown or blackifh nuicus, which,
about the fifth week after conception, covers all the in-
terior parts of the eye in its found ilate. He obferves,
that Simon Pontius, in his treatiiV, " De coloribus ocu-
lorum," long ago remarked, that the interior membranes
of blue eyes are lefs abundantly provided with this black
mucus, and are therefore more fenfible of the aftion of
light. He adds, that this fenfibihty of blue eyes is very
conformable to the fituation of northern people, during
their long twilight ; and that, on the contrary, the deep
black in the eyes of negroes enables them to bear the ftrong
glare of the fun's beams in the torrid zone. As to the
connexion between this red colour of the eyes, and the
whitenefs of the (kin and hair, he fays, it is owing to a
fimilar;ty of llructure. This black mucus is formed, as
he afferts, only in the delicate cellular fubilancc, which has
numerous blood-veffels contiguous to it, but contains no
|at, like the infide of the eye, the ll<in of negroes, the
fpotted palate of feveral domeilic animals, &.c. and the
colour of the hair generally correfponds with that of the
iris. Gazette I^itt. de Gotinguc. O A. 1784.

M. Buzzi, furgeon to the hofpital at Milan, publifhcd,
at the fame time, in the " Opufc. Scelti de Milan, 17S4.
torn. vii. p. 1 1." a verv intcreiting memoir, in which he
deinonllrates, by diffcciion, the hypothelis of M. Bhi-
menbach. Having an opportunity of diffefting the body
of a peafant, who died at the age of 30 years, in the hci-
pital of Milan, of a pulmonary diforder ; and who was re-
markable for the uncommon whitenefs of his fkin, hair,
beard, and all the other covered parts of the body : he
found the iris of the eyes perfeftly white, and the pupil
of a rofe-colour ; and the eyes were altogether deftitute of
tJiat black membrane, called the uvea, which was not dif-
cernible, either behind the iris or under the retina. With-
in the eye, there was only found the choroid coat, extremely
thin, and tinged of a pale red colour, by velTels filled with
difcolourcd blood. The il:in, when feparated from dif-
ferent parts of the body, appeared to be almoft wholly
diverted of the rete mucofum, nor was the lead trace of it
to be difcovered by maceration, even in the wrinkles of the
abdomen, where it is reoft abundant and molt vifible. The

whitenefs of the fkin and hair is au-ribcd by M. 'Ruzz: to
the ableiict of the nte mucofum, which, in his ju.igmint,
gives the colour to t[ie cuticle, and to the hair!i that aie
fcattcrcd over it. In proof of this opinion, h" uliedges a
well-known faft, that if the {kin of the blacked hurfe be
accidentally detlroyed in any part of the body, the hairs
that afterwards grow on that part are always v.lute, becaufe
the rete mucofum, v.-hich tinges thofe hairs, is never re-
generated with the Ikin. M. Buzzi having alligned the
probal.'Ic proximate caufe of this phenomenon, it Hill rc-
niaint. to determine, what is the remote caufe of it, or how
the rete mucofum is dellroycd in fuch fubjedls. It feenis
to be a fac\, very generally admitted, that pcrfons of this
defcription do not fomi a dilUncl fpecies, as tiiey are pro-
duced from parents with dark flans and black eyes. 'i'hi=
was the cafe with refpecf to the Albinos of Chamouiu.
M. Buzzi relates a fact, cited by M. SaulTure, which fcems
to throv,- fome light on the fubjeft. A woman of M.Ian
had leven fons, of whom the two eldeff, and the two
youngell had brotvn hair and black eyes ; the other three
had white flrins, white liair, and red eyes. During the
pregnancies that produced tliefe Albinos, the woman had
a conilanl and immoderate appetite for milk, which flic
took in great quantities, but when flie was pregnant wltii
the other four, flie had no fuch defirc. But it does not
appear, that this preternatural appetite was not the effect
of a Certain heat, or internal difcafe, which deilroved l!:e
rete mucofum in the children before they were bori:. M.
Sauffute obferves, that this faulty confonnation is more raw;
among women than among men ; and it doe? not feem to
be owing to tiie air of the mountain*; for though he tni-
verfed the greateft. part of the Alps, and the other moun-
tains of Europe, he met with no other individuals of ttiis
kind.

ALBINO VANTES, Pedo, in Blogr^iphy, a Latin
poet, to whom Ovid nddreffes his loth epiftle, " Ex
Ponto." Opcr. torn. iii. p. S76. Ed. Burmann. There are
extant of his writings, his Elegy on Drufus, and anothfr
on the death of Mec^nas, publiihed by Le Clerc in i-o^.
8vo. and in 17 15, l2mo. at Amilerdam, with a prolix cun:-
mentary.

ALBINTEMELIUM, or Albium Intemki.ium, in
Ancient Grogrnphy, now fm/imig/iu, a town of Liguria, or
the prefcnt territory of Genoa. .Sec Vintimigi.ia.

ALBINUS, Bi-RNARD, called Weiss or M^hltf, in BI-
pgraphy, was born at Dcffaw, in the province of Anh;dt,
in Saxony, January 7th, 1653, and lludied medicine at Ley-
den. In 1676, having taken his doctor's degree, he re-
ttirncd to his own country, where he foon diflinguiihed him-
felf for his fagaeity and learning. In 16H0, he was nomi-
nated profeffor of medicine at Frankfort on the Oder, and
became fo celcbiated for the perfpicuity of his leftures, ,
that pupils flocked to him from all parts of Germany. la
1694, Frederic, eleflor of Brandenburgh, appointed him
his phyfician, with a penfion of 6co florins, and foon after
gave him a canonry at Magdeburgh. In 1702, he was
chofen profeffor of medicine at Leydcn. Having tilled that
office 19 years with the higheft reputation, he died on the
7th of September I 72 1, aged 68 years.

A large collection of Thefes is publiflied under hi.s
name, the titles of which may be fetu in Hallcr's Bibl.
Med. Pract.

Aldinus, Bernard Sigefred, fon of the for-
mer, proieeuted his lludies with fo much zeal and fuc-
cefs, that on the recommendation of BoErhaavc, he was
appointed profeffor of anatomy and furgery at Leyden, in
17 18, when he v.as only 20 years of age.. This office he

continued.

A T. B

continued to fill by an uncommon felicity, Mailer fays, for
50 yean, aad acquired :i greater degree of rtpulation, a3
teacher, or dcmonlhntor in anatomy, to which he cxclu-
fivcly dedicated himfelf. than had been enjoyed by any of
his predecellors. lie died, Sept. Qlh, 1770, aged 73 years.^
His fnll work, entitled, " HiiUnia nuifeulorum homuiis,
4to. appeared in 1734. In compofing this, he took great
pains to ineafure and'defcribe all the infertions of tlie_niut-
cles in the bones, and to mark them in with aqua fortis,
which he afterwards caufed to be drawn by an excellent
artill. In 1737, '"= K»*'<^ f^'"™ coloured plates of the arte-
ries and veins of the inteftines, and fomc elegant figures of
the bones of the foetus. An analomienl explanation of the
plates of Euftachius, with a new edition of liie plutes them-
fclves, was pnbliflied by him in 17+3, and repnWillwd wjth
improvements in 1761.' His own large tables oi the ikele-
ton and mufeles appeared in 1747; and about tlie fame
time, feven tables of the gravid uterus. His great tables of
the bones was edited in 1753; and again, in an improved
ftate, in I -Ol. Eight volumes, 410, of " Anatomical
Annotations," replete with curious matter, but too much
occupied with controverfy, appeared fuccefGvcly from 1 754
to 1768.

Betides his original works, which are numerous, and
highly illufti-ative of the fcience, he publifiied in 1725, an
edition of the works of Vefalius, with an account of his
life ; in the fame year, " Index fuppelkailis Ravinn;ie ;" and
in the year 1737,' " Clnlielmi Har.cii Opera, et Hierouimi
Fabricii ab Aquapendente." Sec Haller's Bibliotheca Ana-
tomica, vol. ii.

Ai.BiNUS, Christian Bi^rnard, though eclipfed by
tfle fnperior famj; of his brother, was fo much ellecmed fur
his ll<ill and diligence, as to be raifed to the chair of profef-
for of anatomy, at Utrecht. He died April 5, 1 7 J2, aged
56 years. He publillied, in [722, " Specimen Anatomiciim,
exhibens novam tenninnihominis iiiteftinorum defcrlptionem,"
410. ; and the next year, " l)c auatome crrores detegente in
Medicina," alfo in 410.

Two other authors of the fame name are noticed by biblio-
graphers ; James, a native of Hamburgh, who publlflied in
1720, a " DiflerlLition on the Scui-vy ;" and Eleazer, who
publillied natural hillories of Birds and of Infeifts.

Albinus, Peter, or Weiss, a celebrated hiftorian and

food poet of the i6th century, was born at Siiecberg in
lifnia, and became profelTor of poet!7 and mathematics in
the academy of Wittemberg, and then fecretary to the
eleflor at Drefden, where he publillied a fecond enlarged
edition of the " Chronicles of Mifnia," which he had
printed at Wittemberg in 1580. His other works, princi-
pally hillorical, were much efteemed. Biog. Didt.

Albinus, Decimus Clooius, was born at Adrume-
tum in Africa, and called Albinus, on account ot his fair
complexion at his birth. In his yonth he was inilrnited in
the Greek and Latin languages, and he is faid to have
written a trealife on agrieiJturc, and a collet^ion of Miltllan
talcs, which was a licentious performance ; but his prevail-
ing tafte inclined to a milltai-y lite, and he was accudomed at
fchool to repeat frequently, and with jicculiar plcafure, the
following verfes from Virgil :

" Arma amens capio, nee fat rationis in armis,"

JE.tiv.1T>, ii. V. 314,
" With frenzy fcii'd, I run to meet th' alarms ;
" Refolv'd on death, rtfolv'd to die in arms !"

Drvden.
He -commenced his career under the emperor Antoninus,
%Ljfe eilceja lie actjuired j and after foinc previous giada-

A L i\

tions of advancement, he comn.anded (lii arrry in riithynij,
when Avidius Craffus revolted againit Marci:s Aurelius. On
this occalion he diiLinguiihed himfelf by his fidelity to ]:\i
prince, and by his aClive feivice, for wiiieii he was rewardej^
as it is faid, with the confullhip. Under Cor.modu.s he ac-
quired reputation in fcver:d battles on the Rhine and on the
Danube, and he was at length appointed commander of tlic
legions in Liitain. Wliilll he governed Britain, Commodu.;,
by the account of Capitolinus, which is net generally cre-
dited, indulged him with permifiion to aiiume the title of
Cxfar, with all the enfigns appropriate to that dignity.
However this be, Stverus, as we are informed by Dion
Caifins and Ilerodian, foothcd his ambition and engaged his
attachment, by giving liini this title. Albinus was deluded by
this honour, and by the expectation -vvhich the emperor led
him to entertain of (liaring with him in the Imperial govern-
ment. Severus alfo appcintcd him his colleague in the con-
fulfliip in the year 194, ordered (latues to be erefted to him,
and conferred upon him other dillln(?tioiis, which afforded ait
opportunity ultimately ot deftroyiiig him. Having defeated
and killed Niger, whom he had ainuled and deceived by the
fame kind of diirunulation which he was pradlifmg on the ere.
dulous Albinus, he determined to get rid of this rival, whofe
charadler, contrafled with his own, induced the fenate to
exchange one mailer for another. Some fay that, before
he had recourfe to open force of arms, lie tried the bafe and
perfidious means of airallination ; but Dion Caflius's account
is more probable, who f«ys, that Severus, after his viclory
over Niger, deprived Albinus of the title and prerogatives
of Csfar ; and that Albinus, on the other hand, pretended
even to the title of Auguftus. Accordingly Albinus was
proclaimed under this nppellatlon, engaged Gaul and Spain
in his intereft, and hallcned with a po.vtrful force to meet
Severus, who had proclaimed him a public enemy. The
two rivals, after- fomc previous fliirmiilies, decided the conteft
for the empire in the plain between Lyons and Trevoux.
Their t«'o armies were equal in number, each of them con-
fifting of 150,000 men, and they were led on by the two
emperors. The troops on each fid.? fought v.ith great
valour. The Britifh legions under Albinus were nut
inferior to thofe of Illyricum ; but Severus was thought
to be an abler general than his competitor. The
victory was long doubtful, but at length Severus pre-
vailed ; and Albinus was compelled to fly with the (nat-
tered relics of his army, firft to Lyons, and then to a houfe
near the Rhone, where he either dcllroycd himfelf with his
own fword, or made one of his Haves perform the fatal of-
lice for him. He was not quite dead, when a detachment
of the enemy arrived, cut off his head, and carried it to
Severus. His wife and children were at firft pardoned ;
but afterwards inhumanly maiTacred, and their bodies
thrown into the river. The whole family of Alhinns, all
his friends, and moll diilant relations, without dlilinflion oi'
age or fcx, were, by the orders of Severus, barbaroutly
flaughtered, and their cfhites confifcated. Moft of the
great men of Gaul and Spain, who had manifetled any at-
tachment to Albinus, underwent the fame fate. By means
of tliefe murders and confifcations, Severus amaffed an im-
luenfe treafure, enrielied his foldiers, and, at his death, left
incredible wealth to his children. This event liappened on
the 19th of Fcbruap,-, accordirg to Til'emont, A. D. 197,
the 4th year of Severus's reign.

Of the charadler of Albinus, different accounts have
been given. Capitolinus, on whofe report we cannot much
depend, reprefents him as item, ref.ivcd, unfoci.il, rigid to
cruelty in his difciplinc, gkirtcnou.; and brutal. But thia
account is not very credible, when jt is confidercd that his

foldiers

ALB

A L B

foldicrs were nttacJied to him, niid that lie was exceedingly
beloved by the fciiate, and applauded for his jullice and
humanity. He feems, however, to have been a brave war-
rior, who had the art of making himfclf beloved ; but who
had not cunning enough to guard againll the artifices of
bis enemy, and this was the caufc of his ruin. Crevier,
Hift. of the Emperors, vol. viii. p. 63 — 96. Anc. Un.
Hill. vol. xiii. p. 374 — 393.

Alkinus, a, Pojlhiim'au, the colleague of Lieinius I,u-
Ciillus in the eoni'ulrtiip, in the year before Chrill 151, wrote
a Hifiury of the Affairs of Rome, in the Greek language.
He is mentioned by Cicero in his Brutus (Optr. tom. i. p.
399. Ld. Ohvet.) as a man of learning and eloquence. Upon
his making an apology, and intreating pardon for t!ie impro-
prieties of expreCTion that occurred in a work written in a
language fo dilferent from that of his own countr)', Cato
facctioufly aflced, " Why did you chufe rather to folicit
pardon for a fault than not to have committed it V His
conduct however in this refpefl needed no apology, as the
Greek language was known to almoll all nations, whiHl the
latter was almoll wholly confined to the Roman territory,
and therefore his hiftory would be more extenfively read.
See Cicero per Archia, Opcr. tom. v. p. 405.

ALlUOECE,or Alebece, in Ancient Geography, called
alfo Reji ylpoUhmre.;, from their worfliip of Apollo, and
Civitas Rejeitftmn, was a Roman colony of Gallia Narbonenfis.
It is now Rie'z, or RiEt;x, in Provence.

ALBION, a name formerly given to the ifland of Britain,
comprehending England, Scotland and Wales, by way of
contradiftinftion from Hibernia, and the other Britifli iflands.
Thus Agathemerus, (lib. xi. c. 4.) fpeaking of the Britiih
iflands, fays,they are many in number ; but the moll confider-
able are Hibernia and Albion; and Ptolemy (lib.ii. c.3.) calls
Albion a Britiib ifland. Phny alfo (H. N. lib. iv. c. 16.
tom. i. p. 2 22. )obferves, that the ifland of Britain, fo much ce-
lebrated by the Greek and Latin writers, was formerly called
Albion ; the name of Britain being common to all the iflands
round it. The etymology of the name is uncertain. Some
derive it from the Greek aX^w, alphon, fignitying white, in
reference to the chalky cliffs on our coafts ; others pretend
that its name was borrowed from a giant, the fon of Nep-
tune, mentioned by feveral ancient writers. Some of our
etymologifts have recourfe to the Hebrew tongue, and fome
to the l-'hoenician ; alhin in the former fignitying ivhite, and
alp or alpin, in the latter, denoting /'(f/^ and high mountain, the
land appearing fo as yo>i approach it from the continent.
The derivation from the Greek or Hebrew word lignifying
luh'ite, feems to be countenanced by the Britiih poets, who
call Britain Inis Wen, i. e. the White Ifland. Selden's notes
on Polyalbion, p. 20.

Albion,- New, in Geography, the name given by Sir
Francis Drake to California, and part of the north-weft
coafl of America, when he took pofleflion of it in 1578.
Captain Cook difcovered the coall of New Albion, March
7, 177H, and landed in a place fituate in N. lat. 44" 33'. E.
long. 235" 20'. He deferibes the land as abounding with
mountains, the fummits of which were covered with fnow ;
but the vallies that lay between them and the fea-coalls,
high as well as low, produced a great number of trees,
■which appeared hke a large forell. The inhabitants at firtl
feemed to prefer iron to every other article of commerce ;
but they afterwards fliewcd fuch a predileftion for brafs, that
fcarcely a fragment of it was lelt in the fliips except that
which belonged to the necefiai-y inftruments. They were
alfo obferved to be much more tenacious of their property
than thofe of the other lavage nations which the voyagers
Lad met with, fo that they would not part with wood, water,

Vol. I.

grafs, or even the moll trifling article, without a compcn-
lation ; and they were fonictimes very unrtafonable in their
demands. The place in which the Refolution anchored wa9
called by Captain Cook, Si. George's SoumI ; but he after-
wards undcrllood that the natives gave it the name of
NnoTKA. Its entrance was fituated in the cad corner of
Hope bay, in N. lat. 49" 33'. E. long. 233° 12'. The cli-
mate feenu d to be much milder than that on the eaftern coall
of America, in the fame parallel of latitude ; and the ther-
mometer, even in the night, never fell lower than 42°, and
in the day-time frequently rofe to 60". The trees of this
country are chiefly the Canadian pine, white cyprefs, and
fome other kinds of pine. The birds were few, and much
harafitd by the natives, w ho ufe their feathers as ornaments
for tiieir drefs, and their flefli for food. The people are ac-
(juainted with the ufe of metals, having many iron tools ;
and two filver fpoons were procured, which were fimilar in
their conllruftion to thofe feen in fome Elemilh piftures, and
were worn by oneof the natives as an ornament romui his neck.
Thefe metals had probably been conveyed to them by the way
of Hudlon's bay and Canada, or fome of them might have
been introduced horn the nortli-weitern parts of Mexico.

On the 18th of April, 1792, Captain Vancouver, em-
ployed in an expedition for completing the fm-vey of the
wellern coall of North America, from the latitude of 30" N.
to 60" N., fell in with tlie coafl of Ne\\' Albion in N. lat.
39" 27'. E. long. 236" 25'. As he approached the land,
the fhore feemed to be perfeftly conipatl, formed, generally
fpeaking, by cliffs of a moderate height and nearly perpen-
dicular. The inland country, which arofe in a plcafing di-
vertity of hills and dales, was completely clothed with ioreft
trees of confiderable magnitude, and thofe fpots, which were
dellitute di wood, were beautifully green, with a luxuriant
herbage, interrupted by llreaks of natural earth. This part
of the coaft abounded with whales, moll of which were of
the tribe called the Greenland finners. In diredling their
courfe along the coall northward, they paflld Cape Men-
docino, in lat. 40" 19', long. 235" 53'. This Cape is the
highefl on the fea-fliore of this part of New Albion. The
mountains behind it are confiderably elevated, and foi-m a
high fleep mafs, compofed of various hills that rife abruptly,
and are divided by many deep chafms. Dwarf-trees were
thinly fcattcred in the chafms and on the ridges of the hills |
and the general furface was covered with vegetables of a dull
green colour, occafionally interfperfed with perpendicular,
llrata of red earth or clay. As they advanced further north,
the dillant interior country was compofed of mountains of
great elevation, before which were perceived hills and dales,
with woodland and clear fpots, as if they were in a ftatc of
culti\'ation ; but they could difeern neither houfes, huts,
fmoke, nor any other figns of its being inhabited. On the
coafl to which they next approached, and which was formed
by rocky precipices, the moll projefting part, fituate in lat.
41° 8'. long. 236" 5', was called Roely Point. Near this
point the colour of the fea changed to a light river-coloured
water, which gave reafon for concluding that fome confider-
able river or rivers were in the neighbourhood ; but purfuing
their courfe they anived again, in oceanic-coloured water, in
lat. 41" 36'. long. 235" 58'. The land in this part, formed
a confpicuous point, which was denominated Point St. George,
in lat. 41° 461', and long. 235° 57^', and a dangerous duller
of rocks extending from thence, the Dragon rocks. The point
forms a bay, and the north point of it was called St. Geori;e's
hay. The inland mountains were much elevated, and clotiied
with a variety of trees, chiefly of the pines, and fome
fpreading trees of confiderable magnitude were obferved.
Proceeding fuitlier along the coaft they caft anchor in lat.
3 Y 4^!

ALB

4J* j9'. Ion*. 235* +4' i a cliff which projefteil into tlie fea
iwar their ttalloii, and ti'rminatcJ in the torin of a nveJgc,
wascallid tVi^ Orforil, lat.42' 52'. l<ag. 235" :?5'. Some
canoes came from the cuaft to vilit tiic Imps, and approached
«loiij(Ude of them with ihc jjiealeft contidencc. 'I'iie people-
were dilliiiguilhcd hv a plc;ilinf; and court tons deportment ;
their countenances indicated nolliinjj lerocioiis ; their features
parto<ik of tlie Eiiropean charaAor ; their colour was a light
olive; and btlules being puiiCtuattd like ihnt of the loutli-
fea illandcis, their ikin had many other marki, which were
cither the efleitsof injury in roving throug-h the foreft'. witit
thin clothing, or purely ornamentid. Their liaturc did not
exceed five feet fix inches ; they were well-lind)ed, hut flen-
der in tl^eir pcrfons, bore little or no rtfcniblaiicc to the
people of Noutka ; nor did thev feem to have the leall
Knowledge of their language. I'hey preferred cleanlintis
to tlie painting of their bodies ; in their ears and noles they
had fmall ornaments of bone ; their hair, wliich was long
and black, was clean and neally ctimbed, and generally tied
in a clwb behind, and fonic of tiicm had it tliiis tied in front.
They were drclied in garments, nearly covering them, made
principally of the fi<ins of deer, bear, fox, and river otter.
Their canoes, capable of carrying about eipht people, were
rudely wrought out of a linglc tree, relembling in fliape a
butcher's tray, and appearing to be unfit for cither a fca
Toyage or any dillant expedition. They brougiit but a few
articles to barter, and tlicy anxioufly folicitcd in exchange iron
and beads. In their traffic they wae fcrupuloufly honell in
fixing their bargain with the tirtt bidder, and in refulingany
prcfeuts without an equivalent in return.

In their progrefs from their lall ilr.tion near Cape Orford,
they dilcovered a point of land which they confidered to be
the Ciipe Blano of Martin d'Aguilar, in lat. 43° 23'. long.
^^$' 50'., and the Cape Gregory of Captain Cook ; and
fhcy fought for the river or llraits, which are faid to have
been dilcovered by this navigator. They next arrived at a
promontor)', which Captain Cook calls Cape Perpdua, in
latitude 44"^ 12'. longitude 236° 51'.; and purfuing their
route, they pafled Ciipe Foiiliueather, which is a confpicuous
promontory, in latitude 44° 49'. longitude 236° 4'. They
next proceeded to Cape Lookout, in latitude 45° 32'. lon-
gitude 236° It', which is a fmall projeifting point, that
had been feen by Mr. Mears, and oft which are four rocks,
one of ihcm being perforated as he has defcribed it. They
afterwards pafTed Cape Difappointment of Mr. Mears, in
latitude' 46'^ 19'. and longitude 236° 6'., and the opening
to the fouth of it called Deception Bay. The country be-
fore them prefcnted a luxuriant landfcape ; the interior
parts were elevated and diveriificd with hills, and the whole
liad the appearance of a continued forelt, as far as the eye
could reach. They wifhed to find a bay in the vicinity of
a country that prcfented fo delightful a profpeft of fer-
tility ; but they were under a neccflity of purfuing their
courfe ; and having pafTed the Low point of Mr. Mears,
and his Sboal-iuater bay, they arrived at Point Grenville,
in Lititude 47° 22'. longitude 235° 58}'. The coaft from
feence northward rofe regularly in height, and the inland
country acquired a confiderable degree of elevation ; and
here they law that land, called by Mr. Barclay, Dejlruaion
IJland, in latitude 47-^ 37'. longitude 235= 49'. ; which is
the largell detached land that they had obferved on the
coaft, and prefented a very barren afpeft. A canoe or two
were feen paddling near the illand. " It is a faft," fays
Mr. V. " not lefs fingular than worthy of obfer'vation,
that on the whole extenfivc coait of New Albion, and more
paniculariy in the vicinity of thofe fertile and delightful
ttiores we had lately pafftd, we had not, excepting to the

7

ALB

ftAithward of Cape Orford, and at this place, feen any in.
habitants, or met with any circumftauces, that in the molt
dillant manner indicated a probability of the country being
inhabited." Since they had paffed Cape Orfird, they had
a conllant current, fetting in the line of the coaft north-
ward, at an uniform rate of near half a league per hour.
In this part of the coalt the moft remarkable mountain
which they had feen, prefcnted itfelf: its fuminit, covered
with perpetual (now, was divided into a very elegant double
lork, and rofe confpicuoully from a bafe of lofty moun-
tains clothed in the fame manner, which defcended to hills
of a moderate height, and terminated in low cliffs, falling
peipendicularly on a fandy beach. This was confidered
to be the mount Olympus of Mr. Mears, in latitude 47" 10'.
though the latitude of the obfcrvers was 47° 38'., and the
mountain was north of them. Purfuing tlieir courfe fur-
ther northward, they diftinguilhed the fouth point of en-
trance into De Fuca's ftraits, and on the oppofite fide of
the ftraits an opening of confiderable extent. They per-
ceived that this coaft, like that which had been explored
from Cape Mendocino, was finn and compaft, without any
opening into the Mediterranean fea, as ftated in latitude
47" 45'., or the leaft appearance of a fecure harbour, either
ill that latitude, or from it fouthward to Cape Mendocino ;
although, in that fpace, geographers have thought it ex-
pedient to furnilh many. They now fnw feveral villages
fcattered along the fhore, whofe inhabitants came off, as
it was fuppoied, for the purpofe of trading. Having
paffed between Tatooche's IJland, and a rock, called Rack
Duncan, along the fouthern Ihore of the fuppofed ftraits
of De Fuca, they anxioufly looked for the point which
Captain Cook had denominated Cape Flattery ; and at laft;
concluded, that Claret, a projefting and confpicuous pro-
montory, at the fouth entrance of the inlet, is the point,
with an illand lying off it, which Captain Cook called
Cape Flattery. The village of Claffet is fituated about
two miles within the cape, and appeared to be cxtenfive
and populous. The few natives, who came off" to the Ihip,
refembled in moft refpefts the people of Nootka : their
perfons, garments and behaviour, were very fimilar ; but
inftead of the ornamental crefcent at the nofe, ufed by
the inhabitants of Nootkn, they wore f'>iight pieces of
bone ; their canoes, arms and implements were the fame,
and they fpoke the fame language. They anchored about
eight miles within the entrance, on the fouthern (hore of
the fuppofed ftraits of De Fuca. The fliorcs on each fide
of the ftraits are of a moderate height ; thofe on the fouth
fide are compofed of low fandy clifts, and from the top of
thefe the land appeared to afcend gently, and to be co-
vered with trees, chiefly of the pine tribe, until the forefl:
reached a range of high craggy mountains, the fummits
of which were covered with fiiow. The northern fliore
did not appear quite fo high, nor were the mountains,
which formed a compaft range, fo much covered with
fnow. Steering to the eaft, along the fouthern (hore, their
latitude was 48° 19'., and longitude 236° 19'.; and the
variation of the compafs 18^ eaft. The north promontory
of Claffet was fituated in latitude 48" 23 J', longitude
235° 38'- Proceeding forward, they came to anchor in
14 fathoius water, about three miles from a low fandy
pomt of land, refembhng Dungenefs in the Britifh Chan-
nel, and called Neip Dungenefs : whence they difcovered a
lofty mountain, which they called Mount Baker, ap-
parently at a veiy remote diftance. " We had now," fays
Mr. V. " advanced further up this inlet than any other
perfon from the civilized world ; ahhough it ftiould here-
after be provol to be the fame wliich is faid to have been en-
tered

ALB

ALB

tered by De Fuca ; in fupport of whicli, oral tcfllmony
is thf only authority pn;duccJ, a tradition rendered IHII more
doiiblfiil, by its entrance dilFering at leall 40'. in latitude.
This difference of latitude, however, is not hifficient alto-
gether to dilcredit the traditionary accounts to wliieh Mr.
V. refers ; and as a llrait, with a coniiderahle extent of fea,
has been aftually found, and to the north of the llrait many
iflands, or an archipelago of iilarids, it is much more rcafon-
able to fuppofe that fome error has been introduced into the
old accounts, or that the fituations may have originally been
erroneoudy deleribed, than that an affertion of the exigence
of a ih'ait and of an archipelago of iilands Ihould have been
the mere relult of random conjeclure.

It muft be confidered as a very fnigular circiimftance,
that in fo great an extent of fea coall, as 215 leagues, to
which the inquiries of thcfe ^3^igators had been direclcd,
they lliould not till now have Iccn the appearance ot any
gpening on its fliores, which afforded any certain profpert
of affording flicker ; the whole coaft forming one compatt,
folid, and nearly llrait barrier againft. the fea. The huts
oblerved to the eafl:vvard of Claffet, were built exaftly like
the houfes at Nootka ; and were compofed of a few mats
thrown over crofs flicks, and plainly indicated the refidence
of the natives to be merely temporary. The inhabitants
viewed their European viiitors with the utmoit inditference ;
they traded with them in a civil and friendly manner ; but
did not appear to underfland the Nootka language. Theii"
next remove was to a harbour called Port D'lfcovery, where
they moored about a quarter of a mile from the fliore under
a kind of promontory, which afforded them fhelter ; and
which they called ProtcHlon ijland. I'he entrance of port
Difcovery is iituated in lat. 48" 7'. long. 237" 2o|-'. The
country in its neigkbourhood is bounded 0.1 the well fide by
mountains covered with fnow ; the foil is generally a light
fandy loam, which being mixed with decayed vegetables,
forms a rich fertile mould. Iron ore was generally found
here, and appeared tolerably rich. Ouartz, agate, the com-
mon flint, and a great intermixture ot other hliceous matter,
with fome variety of calcareous, magnefian, and argillaceous
earths, were the mineral productions commonly found. The
vegetables that gr-e\v'' moll luxuriantly were the Canadian and
Norwegian hemlock, filvcr pines, the Turamahac and Ca-
nadian poplar, arbor-vita, common yew, black and common
dwarf oak, American afli, common hazel, fycamore, fugar,
mountain, and Penlylvanian maple, orienf.d arbutus, Ame-
rican alder, and common willow. Thefe, with the Cana-
dian elder, fmall fruited crab, and Penfylvanian cherry-trees,
conftituted the forefts. Of efculcnt vegetables few were
found ; the white or dead-nettle, and famphire, the wild
orache and the vetch were the mofl common. Two or three
forts of wild peas, and the common hedge muftard were met
with occaConally ; they were excellent of their kind, and
proved extremely agreeable and ufeful. The only living
quadrupeds that were feen were a black bear, two or three
wild dogs, as many rabbits, feveral fmall brown fquirrels,
rats, mice, and the flcunk of a pecuharlv offcnfive fmell.
The aquatic birds were few, and fo timid tliat they could
not be killed. About the fhores and on the rocks were found
fome fpecies of the tern, the common giiU, fea pigeon of
Newfoundland, curlews, fand-la'"ks, fliags, and the black
fea-pye, like thofe in New Holland and New Zealand ; but
not in great abundance. In the woods they faw two or
three fprure-partridges ; few fmall birds were dilcovered, and
of thefe liie humming birds were the moll numerous. At
rhe outlkirts of the woods, and about the water fide, they
iaw a great number of the white-headed and brown eagle,
n»v ens, cairion craws, Amciican king-hdicr, and a vei^y

handfome wood-pcckcr, and alfo a bird unkown to them,
which they coniidered as a f])ecic-s of crane or heron, the
eggs of which were of a bluifli cafl, larger than thofe oi a
turkey, and well tailed, with long legs and necks, of the
ii'/.e of the largell turkey, and with a light brown plumage.
Some blue, and fome nearly white herons of the common
fi/.e were alio feen. The fupply of llfli was fcanty, and
confilled in general of the common forts of fmall flat-fi(h,
elephant fifli, fea bream, fea perch, a large fnt of Iculpiii,
weighing lix or eight pounds, with a grcenifli colour about
their throat, belly and gills, and affording coaife, Init not
unwholefome food, a few trout, and a fmall eel of a yellowidi
green colour and well tailed. Of the reptile tribe they found
a fmall common black fnake, a few lizards and frogs, toge-
ther with a great variety of common inleifts.

The country, in an agricultural view, feemed capable of
improvement, though the foil was light and fandy. The
fpontantous productions are nearly the fame, and grow in
equal luxuriance with thofe under the fame parallel in Eu-
rope. The climate is mild, and evei-y fpecies of plants for-
ward in its growth. Frelh water is very icarct ; but fuf-
ficicnt for common domeftic pui-pofes. As for the inhabi-
tants, they are thinly fcattered along the fliorcs. I'Vom
New Dungenefs to Port Difcovery, our voyagers traverfed
near 150 miles of thefe fhores without feeing as many in-
habitants. Thofe whom they obferved, nearly rcfembled
the people of Nootka ; but were not fo flout in ftature, nor
fo filthy in their habits. Their weapons, implements, ca- ^
noes, and drefs nearly tlie fame. Their native woollen gai- -*
ment was mofl fafliionable, and next to this the flcins of
deer, bear, &c. ; and fome few wore dreffes manufactured
from bark, which, like their woollen ones, were very neatly
wrought. Their fpcars, arrows, lifligigs, and other wea-
pons, were fliaped like thofe of Nootka ; but none of them
were pointed with copper or mufcle-flicll. The three for-
mer were generally barbed, and thofe of their own nianu-
fadure were pointed with common flint, agate, and bone.
Their arrows were pointed with thin flat iron ; and their
bows were of a fuperior conilruction, and made of yew,
and the bow-firing of the finew of fome marine animal.
From the form and flruAurc of their habitations, they
feemed frequently to change them ; and their defeited vil-
lages indicated their being migratory in their difpofition
and habits. Mr. V. fuppofes, however, that though the
country feems to be thinly inhabited, it was once much more
populous. In different excurfions, they found the flculb,
limbs, ribs, and back-bones, or other veftiges of the human
body, fcattered about in great abundance ; and hence it is
inferred that there has been occafionally, and not at any
very remote period, a great walle of human life. Several
fl<eletons were found depofited in o«ive3, and fufpended on
the branches of trees about 1 2 feet from the ground ; thefe
were probably the remains of the chiefs, priefls, and leaders
of particular tribes, to whom they paid particular rcfpeft.
Balkets, containing the flvelctons of y-oung children, were
alio found in the lame lituatlon ; and in other places, dead
bodies were difrovered in holes, which were fligfitlv covered
over, and in different flates of decay. But the flceletons
found in canocs and bafliets bore a very fmall proportion to
the ikuU and other human bones indifcriminately fcattered
aboJT the fliores. Whether thefe were the refult of epide-
mic difeafe, or of recent wars, our navigattjr does not deter-
mine. From the character of the people, he think-! the
latter caufe not to be probable ; for he repietent'? them as
uniformly civil and friendly, without manifrHing the lead
fign of fear or fulpicion at the approach of !l rangers, or
any ijitln -t'.on of th< ir having been inured to h^llility. The
■? V 2 fnaall*

ALB

fmall-pox ftrcmed to liave been very fatal amongft t!iem.
The prcfeiil dtpopvilatioii, it is npprclu-nded, may have
arifen, iii fomc meafurc, " from the iiilt>bit»iitj of this in-
terior part having been induced to ipiit'^Bieir former abode,
»nd to liavc movtd nearer the exterior coall, for the conve-
nience of obtaining in the immediate mart, with more cafe
and at a cheaper rate, thofe vahiable articles of commerce
that within thcfe hite yeai-s have been brought to tlie fea-
coails of tliii continent by Europeans and the citizens of
America, and wiiich are in great ellimation among thefe
pmple, and polfencd by all in a greater or lefs degree."

I'rom Port Uifcovery, our navigators purfued their route
up the inlet, viewing in their progrcfs a very pic\urefque
and fertile oi^ntry, and fcemiiig to require only inhabitants
and cuhivatiuii ; having found a convenient road-llead, they
anchored near a village in which the inhabitants were em-
ployed, in their temporal^ huts, in curing, by the fmoke of
the fire, dams, mulclcs, and a few other kinds of filh,
which fcemcd to be intended for their winter's lubfiltcnce.
Several of th.m were bnfjly engaged, like fwine, in rooting
up a beautiful \erdant meadow, in quell of a fpccies ot wild
onion and other roots, for tiie fake of which tiiey appeared
to be attached to this fpot. One of thefe roots rcfcmblcd
the Saranne, and was gathered with great induitry and avi-
dity, for tlie purpofe of making a palle with which they filled
fmall boxes, placed in the balkcts containing the flicletons
of their children. In their manner, thefe people were
friendly and hofpitable, and very thankfully received the
prefents that were given them. They alio bartered for any
articles that were offered them ; but they chiefly preferred
copper. Bows and arrows, woollen and fl<in garments, and
a few indifferent otter fkins, compoled the whole of their
afTortment for trading ; and thefe they exchanged, in a very
fair and honell manner, for copper, hawk's bells, and but-
tons, articles that greatly attracSted their attention.

The dogs belonging to this tribe of Indians were nume-
rous, and refembled thofe of Ponierania, but were larger
in fizc. They were all fliorn clofe to the fkin, like our
Ihccp ; their fleeces were compact, and compofed of a mix-
ture of a coarfe kind of wool, with very fine long hair,
capable of being fpun into yarn. It was conjeftured, that
their woollen clothing might be formed partly of this mate-
rial, mixed with a finer kind of wool from fome other ani-
mal, wiiich, though it mull have been veiy common, was
BOt difcovered.

Here was difcovered a narrow paifage, which feemed to
communicate with an opening of fome extent, and to this
harbour was given the name of Port Orchard. In their
preient fituation, they were prcfented by fome of their
Indian friends with a whole deer, in the chace of which
and another they and their dogs had been bufily engaged
for alnioll a whole day. It was found that thefe people
had a great averlion for human flcfli ; for conceiving that
fome pieces of the deer that were offered them vi-ere of this
kind, they threw them away with gellures of great difplea-
fure. Hence it was inferred, that the character given of
North-weft America does not attach to every tribe : but
though thefe people were not in this refpetl favages, they
were not wholly exempt from the general failing attendant
on a favage life ; for one of them fecreted a knife and fork
under his garment, and when detedled gave them up with
the utmoll good humour and imconcern.

Our navigators, having advanced into an opening, fituate
in lat. 47° 19I'. and long. 237° 42'. halted on an ifland
about a mile from the eallern fhore, which was one of the
icofl cxtenfive iflands difcovered in the examination of this
coall, and which they c;dled Fajhon's JJland. In one inlet

ALB

which they examined, they found a tribe of Indians, who
manifelled hollile difpolitions, and prepared their bows and
arrows for an attack. Upon the firing of a gun, though
they expreffcd no allonilhment or concern, they unilrung
their bows, and commenced a friendly traffic. Tlie village
point near their prcfent flation, fituate in lat. 47° 30'.
long. 2^7° 46'. was called Rijlurntioii Point. Their next
anchorage was in an excellent harbour, ftultcred fVom all
winds, ill lat. 48° 24'. long. 237" 57". The inlet, which
they had fpent a fortnight in examining, they denominated
ADMiR.ti-TV Inlet. On the 5th of June, they quitted this
inlet, faihng down Pojfrjfion Sound, and proceeded north-
ward ; the north point of this inlet, lat. 4S" 16'. long. 237"
31'. they called Point Partridge; and the well point, lat.
48° 10'. long. 237^ 31'. they denominated Port WUfim.
On the well lide of Strazi'ierry Buy, where they anchored,
there was an ifland, which producing abundance of upright
cypreis, they called Cyprefs /Jlaiid,\M. 48"" 364'. long. 237",
34'. It was alio found, that the eallern fhore of the
gidplis, from the paffage into Port Gardner, called Dccep-
lion Pafage, in lat. 48'^ 27'. lonj;. 237° 27'. to the north
point of the entrance into Pr>feJfion Sound, in lat. 47° 53'.
long. 237^47'. was an ifland aboiit 10 miles wide in its
broadelt part ; and it was diftinguiflied by the name of
JVhidliay' s Ifland. In purfuing their invefligation, they
denominated a point, In lat. 48^ 57'. long. 237^ 20'. Point
RoUtIs ; another, in lat. 49° 19'. long. 237° 6'. Point Grey;
a third, about a league diflant. Point Atkinjon ; an ifland
which they paffed, Pq/fage JJland ; and a canal near it, Bur-
rard's Canal; and another ifland, in lat. 49° 30'. long.
237° 3'. jlmvil Ifland, from the fliape of the mountain that
compofes it ; a found to the fouthward, H aloe's Sound; and
a point in lat. 49^23'. long. 236^' 51'. Paint Go-iver, near
which is an exteniive group of iflands of various fizes. In
their return to their fliips, they reached the north point of
the inlet, which producing the firfl Scotch firs that had been
feen, was called Scotch-fir Point, in lat. 49° 42'. long. 236"
1 7'. ; and to the arm of the fea they gave the name of Ser-
ins's Canal. Thefouth point of the land which they paffed
in lat. 49° 28-''. long. 236^ 24'. was called Point Up-wood ;
and a fhoal, near which they purchafed of the natives fome
excellent llurgeon, weighing from 14 to 2Colb. each, they
called Sturgeon Banh. Near a clufler of iflands, in lat. 48°
36. to 48° 48'. and long. 237° 50'. at its eaftern extremity,
they found an extenfive bay, which was diftinguifhed as Bel-
linghaitis Bay. In their progrcfs northward, the fortfls were
compofed of a much lefs variety of trees, and their growth was
lefs luxuriant. Thofe moft common were pines of different
forts, the arbor vitje, the oriental arbutus, and fome fpecies
of cyprefs. On the iflands were feen fome few fmall oaks,
with the Virginian juniper ; and at the place where their
Ihips were lafl flationed, the Weymouth pine, Canadian
elder, and - black birch, which gave it the name of Birch
Bay, fituate in lat. 48° 53!'. long. 237*^ 33'. From thia
bay they failed northward, June 24th, dirediing their courfe
through the canal del Neuflra Signora del Rofario, in ex-
tent about ten leagues from Point tJpivood to Point Marjlally
the north-well point of the ifland of Feveda, in lat. 49 "^ 48'.
long. 235" 47V. ; near which is another ifland, called Har-
WOOD IJland, and not far off, in lat 49° 575'. long. 235°
54i'. Savary's IJland. In lat. 50° 4^'. long. 235-" 254'.
was a point which they called Paint Sarah ; and the oppo-
fite point, about half a league diflant, they called Poini
Mary. In a canal, denominated Bute's Canal, they found
an Indian village on the face of a fleep rock, lat. 50" 24'.
long. 235° 8'. containing about 150 of the natives, who
plentifully fupplied them with frefh herrings and other fifh

in

ALB

in barter for nails. Before the entrance into this canal was
B round iiland, throe or iour miles in circuit, which obtained
the name of S/uart's IJlaml. Quitting Difohlioii Soiitul, iu
lat. 50° 11'. long. 235" 21'. they palTcd through an alllm-
blage of ifland!! and rocks, and in the midil of \vh;ile'i and
feals, to more plcafant (liores, from wliich the friendly In-
dians came to vifit them, with youn^- birds, molHy fca-fowl,
fifh, and fome berries, which they bartered for t inkets ;
and they anchored about half a mile to the northward of
Pouil Mud-e, in lat. 50°. long. 2j55'^ 9', where was a kn-ge
village of the natives, who co'iidutted thcinfelves with great
civility and refpetl, and who were not fewer in number than

fno pcrfons. Near Johnllone's Straits was a point, called
'oint Cbalham, in lat. 50^ 19''. long. 234=' 45'. About ten
miles from this puint they anchored under a narrow ifland,
diilinguirned by the name ot TI.>urio'w'' s Iflaiui. To a fnug
and commodious port, to which, they afterwards arrived,
t'ley gave the name of Port Neville ; near which was a large
tillage, the inhabitants of which underftood the language
of Nootka, and who bartered with the Ikins of the fea-
otter of excellent quality, lor (heet-copper and blue cloth.
Here they found the fabrication ot mats for various pur-
pofes, and a kind of balket, wrought fo clofcly as to con-
tain water without the leall leakage ; and in this manufac-
ture the women were chieiiy employed. They next pro-
ceeded by Call's Canal, in lat. 50° 42^'. long. 234° 3^'.
Knight's Canal, in lat. 51" l'. long. 234" 13'. and Dcep-J'ea
Blujf, a point of land in lat. 50" 52' long. 232°, through an
extenlive clufter of iflands, rocky inlets and rocks, called
Brougl.'ton's ylrchlpclago, to a llatlon in lat. 50° 35'. long.
233° 19'. Afterwards they entered a channel called Fife's
Palf.-.ge, and found its eallern point, named P'Ant Duff, to be
in l;it. 50° 4S'. long. 233° 10'. PalFnig Po'tnt Philip, at
the diftance of eiglit miles from Deep Sea Bluff, they
reached the bafe of a remarkable mountain, in lat. 51° i'.
long. 233° 20', called Mount Stephens, which is thus marked
in the author's chart, and may feem as an excellent guide
to the entrance of the various channels with which this
countiy abounds. The next place of their meeting was
named Point Beyks, in lat. 50° 51'. long. 232° 52'. near
the weft point of a channel called U'ells's Paffiige. Having
purfued their courfe through a channel not more than half a
mile wide, bounded on one lide by ifiands, rock?, and
breakers, which appeared almoft to meet the continental
fhore on the other, they anchored in lat. 51° 2'. long. 232°
25'. They afterwards proceeded through a channel about
two miles wide, between rocks and rocky ides, which feemed
to be connefted with the fouthern broken (hore, and reached
that part of the coall that had been vifited and named by
feveral of the traders from Europe and India. The inlet
through which they had lately paffed was ^leeti Charlotte's
Sound, fo called by Mr. S. Wedgborough, in Auguft 1786 ;
an opening on the continental (hore had in the fame year
been named Smith's Inlet, by Mr. J. H^nna ; a high dlftant
mountain that appeared to be leparated from the main l;nd,
formed part of a clufter denominated by Mr. Duncan, Cal-
•Bert's IJIands ; and the channel between them and the main
land had been called by Mr. Hanna, Fitzhugh's Sound.
Their eilimated latitude in this fituation was 51° 4'. and
long. 232° 8'. They next Hood acrofs Charlotte's Sound
for the entrance of Smith's inlet ; afterwards (leering along
the eaflern fide of Calvert's iiland, they fought for Port
Safety, laid down in Mr. Duncan's chart, or fome other
convenient anchorage. A cove within the fouth entrance
of Fitzhugh's Sound, afforded them a fecure and comfort-
able retreat from the dangers to vvliich they had been ex-
yofed, and they called it Safely Cove. Determining to

ALB

abandon the nonhern furvey of the continental fhore fof
this feafon, they made the bell of tiielr way toward*
Nootka Sound, at which port they anchored on the aRth
of Augull 1792. In this furvey,' they had traced the
wcllern continental Ihore of America, with all its various
turnings, windings, luimeious arms, inlets, creeks, bays,
&c. from the lat. of 39^ 5'. long. 236° 36'. to point Men-
zies, in lat. 52'' 18'. long. 232-' 55'. ; and they found that
none of the channels which they explored extended more
than 100 miles to the eallward of the entrance into the
ftrait of Juan de I'uca : they alfo found tliat the land form-
ing the north iide of that ilrait is part of an iiland, or ra-
tl-.er of an Archipelago, extending nearly 100 leagues in
length from fouth-eall to north-well ; and on the lide of
this land moft dillant from the continent is Nootka Sound.
In Oiflober 1792, our navigators left Nootka Sound, and
proceeded to re-examine the coafl of New Albion to the
louthward, and particularly a river and a iiaibour difcovered
by Mr. Clray, commander of the Columbia, between the
46th and 47th degrees of north latitude. Tliey direded
their courfe towards Cape Clalfct, to which they reftored
Captain Cook's original appellation of Cape Flattciy. One
ot the moll confpicuous promontories fouthward from tliia
cape was Point de los Keys, as it is called by the Spaniards,
in lat. 38° o'. long. 237"^ 24'. Southward of this point, the
fhore forms the north point of a bay, in which, according to
the Spaniards, Sir Francis Drake anchored, in the vicinity of
which is a port called by the Spaniards Bodega. They next
proceeded to port St. Francisco, a Spanilh fettlement.iii
I'^t- .37° 4*^' 30". and long. 237° 52' 30". The mean varia-
tion of the compal's was 12° 48'. eart. I^eaving this port,
they failed to Monterrey, another Spanifli fcttlemcnt.
From hence they fteered towards the Saiulwich idands.

In April 1793 our navigators again vilited the coaft of
New Albion ; they firll faw the coaft at Cape Mendocino,
and anchored, on the 2d of May, in Porto de la Trinidad,
fo called by the Sjjaniards, who difcovered it in 1775 ! 1^"^
they found it a lei's convenient harbour than they had been
led to expeft from the defeription given of it in the journal
of Don Francifco Maurelli, tranilated by the Honourable
Daines Barrington. The inhabitants of an Indian village
in this neighbourhood, who vilited the lliips in their canoes,
finging like the other Indians as they drew near, and traf-
ficked in bows and arrows, inferior fea-otter ft<ins, fmall
herrings, and flat iilh. They were lloutly made, but of a
lower llature than any other Indians on this coaft. Their
perfons were mutilated or disfigured, citlier for ornament or
from a regard to fome religious inftitution, or for fome
other unknown purpofe. AH the teeth of both fexcs were,
by fome proccfs, ground uniformly down, horizontally, to
the gums ; the women efpecially, carrying the falhlon to an
extreme, had tlieir teeth reduced even below this level ; and
ornamented their lower lip with three perpendicular columns
of pundtuation, one from each sorner of the mouth, and
one in tlie middle, occupying three-fifths of the lip, and
chin. The latitude of the ihip's ilation was 41° 3'. and
that of Rochy Point, five miles to the north, 41° 8'. and
the longitude of Trinidad bay 236" 6'. From Trinidad,
pinfuing their courfe to latitude 47" 53'. longitude 233° 17'^
they faw the coaft of the iiland of ^ladra and Fancowver,
and were within a league of Ponta de Perron ; and paffing
along the Ihore of tlie ille de Ferron, they proceeded to
Nootka, and anchored in Friendly Cove, From hence they
failed to Fitzhugh's Sound, and recommenced their exa-
mination at the part where it had been difcontinued in the
preceding year. The fui-vey now made, in moll of its tir-
cumllanccs, referabkd the former. They found the fame

kind

ALB

VinJ of brokfn coaft, with inlets anil cliannt-l; almod innii-
narablc, aiiJ the lamt cxtrdurdiiiar)- depth of water cU)fe to
the Ihoie, and in place* inclofcd within tiie land. In the
fpacc of four months, devoted to this nortiiern fiirvey, they
advanced litllo more than four degrees northward, leaving
off between the 561)1 and 57lh degees of north latitude.
In a place near Fi/her'j Caiij!, in lat. 52° 20!'. long. 231'^
5^1'. the natives offered for fale the ikins of the anin\als
w hole w ool i< nianufadurtd into the garments worn by the
inhabitants of north-well America. They were too large
to belong to any of the canine, race, as our navigators had
formerly fuppoled. Exchilivcly of the head or tail, tluy
were 50 inclies long, and 36 inches broad, cxchifivcly ot the
legs. The (kill afforded but little wool in proportion to its
fize ; and it is chiefly produced on the back and towards
the flioulders, where a kind of creil is formed by long
bnllly hairs, pnitn»ding thcmfclves through the wool, and
the fame fort of hair forms an outer covering to the whole
animal, and intircly hides the wool, which is fhort and of a
verv- fine quality. The (kins were cream-coloured, the pelt
was thick, and appeared to he of a Itrong texture ; but they
wcie too much mutilated for afccrtaining the animal to
which they belonged. The females of this part adopted a
fingular ornament. An horizontal incilion^vas made about
three-tenths of an inch below the upper part of the under
lip, extending from one corner of the mouth to the other,
iatirely through the flelh : this orifice was then ftretched
fufficicTitly fur admitting an ornament of wood, of an oval
form, hud hollow on both fides ; which was confined clofely
to the gums of the lower jaws, and whofe external furface
projected horizontally. The clothing of the natives was
formed either of V'f flcins or of the pme bark, and orna-
mented with woollen yarn, very fine, well fpiin, and dyed
with a very lively and beautiful, yellow. As to their dif-
pof'itions and manners, they fccitied to be civil, good-hu-
moured and friendly ; and they manlfeftcd a conl'iderable
degree of vivacity and humour. They approached and
left the fhips with fongs ; they appeared to be happy and
clieerful, and to live in the ilri^tcll harmony and good
fellowdiip with one another. They were well verfed
in commerce. In examining fome of the openings, which
prefented themfelves in the continental fhore, and which
Rlr. V. traverfed in boats for 23 days, through a dillance
of 700 geographical miles, he was attacked by a party of
Indians, under the direction of an old woniiin, who feemed
to be their leader. In this furvcy they difcovered a river,
in 55^ N. lat. on a bay, in the caflcrn fide of the entrance
«f an ann of the fea, named by Captain V., Obfer-valory
Jnlet. This fmall river, and another in Port Eflington,
were the only two ftrtams that had yet been difcovered to
the north of the river Columbia. In September our navi-
gators rctm-ned from between 56° and 57°, the highefl
latitude to which they advanced in this voyage, towards
the louth, keeping at a dillance from the continent, and
to the wellward of Queen Charlotte's iflands. Having
fmifhed their iurvey of the coall of north-wefl America,
from the 30th to the 56th degree of north latitude, they
concluded that no navigable communication exifts between
the north Pacific, and north Atlantic oceans ; nor between
the waters of the Pacific, nor any of the lakes or rivers in
the interior part of the continent of North America.

In a third voyage, in 1794, Capt. Vancouver and his
affociates furveycd the higher latitudes of the north-weftem
coail of America. Their firll objeft was Cook's Iriht ;
hence they proceeded to eKamine Prince William's
Sound; paffiog fome points and capes of lefs note, they
fteercd louthward fr-jin CiiJ>e Fairweather, in N. lat. 58°

ALB

51'., to Copt Spencer, m N. lat. 58" 13'.; but they do
not mention Port dcs Franr^ats of M. dc la Pe-roufe, which
he places in 58" 37'. N. latitude. In examining the upper
part of an arm 01 the fea witiiin Crnfs Sound-, they found
that it approached nearer to thofe interior waters of the
continent, which arc faid to be known to the traders and
travellers from the oppolite fide of America, than any of
the waters of the north Pacific in any other inilance. It
was called Lynn Canal. On the 19th of Auguft, the
voyagers had completed their furvcy from Cook's inlet to
the part of the coall at which they broke off in the pre-
ceding year. To the harbour in which the fliips lay, they
gave the name of Port Conclujion, in latitude 56" 14' 55"«
longitude 225° 37' 30".

Although we have given a brief abftraft of the principal
obfervations that occurred in the three voyages of Vancouver,
on the American coall ; yet it is neceffary to obferve, that
the appellation of New Albion, though, generally fpeaking,
applied to the north-well coall of America, is in reality of
a much more limited extent. In Vancouver's chart, its
fonthern limit is the 30th degree of north latitude, and
its northern termination is about 45°. The more northerly
parts of this coatt are New Georgia, New Hanover, Ne-ut
Comma//, and Avw Norfo/i.

The miffion of St. Domingo is the fouthemmoft of the
Spanifh fcttlements, in New Albion; or of thofe new efla-
blifhments that were fonned after the year 1769, when fea
and land expeditions were undertaken to fettle Monterrey
and St. Diego. At this period, their north-well ernmoil
poffeflion on this coaft was Vehcata, and Santa Maria on
the coall of the peninfula, in the gulf of California.
Thefe two miffions had, till that time, formed a kind of
ntuth-wellern barrier, or frontier to the Spanifli Mexican
colonies. But Ruflia, by its rapid llrides, roufed the ap-
prchenfions and jealoufy of the Spanilh court, and gave
occafion to thefe expeditions. Since that time, all the
new eilablifliments have been formed ; and the mifhon of
Velicata is removed fome leagues to the noith-welhvard,
nearer the exterior coall of CaUfornia. The new fcttle-
ments are committed to four jurifditlions, the principal of
which is Monten-ey ; as it is alfo the refidence of the go-
vernor, who is captain-general of the province, and of the
father prefulent of the Fmncifcan order of miffionaries.
In each of the divifions is fixed one military poll, called
the Prefidio, governed by a lieutenant, who has under hira
an enfign, with ferjeants, corporals, &c. The moll nor-
thern Prefidio is that of St. Francilco, which has under
its protedlion the miflions of St. Francifco and Santa
Clara, the pueblo of St. Jofeph,. about three or four
miles from Santa Clara, and an eftablifhment in the fouthern
opening of port Bodega, to v.'hich they have given the
name of Port Juan Francifco. The next in fuccefiion
fouthward, is that of Monterrey, the capital of the pro-
vince, under which are the million of Santa Cruz, near
Point Anno Nuevo, cftablifhed in the year 17S9 01' 1790,
and fome others of lefs note. South and eaft from Mon-
terrey are the miffions of St. Carlos, St. Antonio, St.
Luis, and Santa Rofa la Puriffima, near the entrance of
the canal of Santa Barbara. The next and Imalleft di.
vifion is that of Santa Barbara, eftablifhed in 1786, to
which belong that of Buena Ventura, founded in 1784,
and the pueblo de los Angelos, formed in 1781 ; which
latter is faid to be fubjeft to the controul of the prefidio
at St. Diego, which is the fourth or fouthernmofl of thefe
new fettlements. The climate of the country between
the bay and port of St. Francifco, or from the 38th to
the 30th degree of north latitude, is fubjeft to much

drought.

ALB

dro'.iffTit. Tlie rainy fcafon is from the month of Decern.
bcT to March ; the autumn in general being very dry.
However tlie ablencc of rain is conipcnlatetl by dews,
which ferve to fupply, in fome meafure, the want of
jnoifture from running ftreams, wliich are few. Tlie cli-
mate at the fL-ttlemcnts is, upon the whole, healthy ; the
foil is of a light and fandy nature, generally fertile, and
capable of improvement ; but in fome places it is I'o barren
and unproductive, that good mould has been brought from
a dillance, to places wliere they wiflied to ellablifli miflions.
Tiie Spaniards have not turned to any iolld advantage
even the niofl fertile part. They have excellent fheep and
poultry in the vicinity of Santa Barbara, which is tlie mofl
barren part ; and the fta affords an ample fupply of good
fith. The neighbourhood of Buena Ventura furnifhes
fruit in great abundance, and of excellent quality. The
fruit conliUs chiefly of apples, pears, plums, figs, oranges,
grapes, peaches and pomegranates, together with the
plantain, banana, cocoa-nut, fugar-canc, indigo, and a
great variety of the molt: ufefnl kitchen herbs, plants, and
roots. The pueblos differ from the miflions and pvefidios,
and may be better expreffed by the term villages. They
are compofed of about 30 or 40 old Spanifli foldlers, or
Creoles, who, having fervid in the mifTions or prefidios, are
exempted from any farther military duty ; and they plant
colonies in fome of the mod fertile fputs of the country.
The number of the natives, at this period, who have em-
braced the Roman Catholic religion, under the Francifean
and Dominican mifTionaries in New Albion, and through
the peninfula of California, amounts to about 20,000, and
they are cftimated at about an eighth or tenth of the whole
native population ; and their progrefs towards civilization
is very flow. The number of the military does not
exceed 400 men. Mr. Vancouver fays, that the natives
neilher are, nor can be tributary ; becaufe they pofTefs no
tribute to offer. But this declaration feems to undervalue
a country, which has, in many parts of it, a peculiarly
fertile foil, and the coafl of which abounds with fea-ott;rs.
The labour of the natives is fubjedl to the direftion and
controtil of the Spanifh mifTionaries, who are abfolutely
under the authority of the Spanifli government ; and we
learn from the unfortunate navigator M. de la Pcroufe,
that it was the plan of the viceroy of Mexico, to referve
for government the exclufive trade of fca-otter fliins ; and
that the Spanifh fettlements furnilh 10,000 annually, and
are capable, if duly collefted, of fupplying 50,000 an-
nually. Vancouver's Voyage of Difcovery to the north
Pacific Ocean, &c. — three vols. 4to. 1798.

ALBIREO, in jff/ronomy, a flar of the third or fourth
magnitude, in the conllellation of Cygnus.

ALBIS, in Ancient Geography, now the Elbe, ran
through the middle of Germany, and marked the limit
of the knowledge of the Romans, with regard to this
country. The only Roman, who paffed tliis river with
his army was L. Domitius Ahenobarbus, A. II. C. 744 ;
and though he made no further progrefs, the pnffage of the
Albis was deemed worthy of a triumph. See Tacitus,
Annal. iv. c. 44. Drufus and Tiberius were the only
Romans who had advanced to this river. In the latter
period of the Roman ilate, the Albis became the boundary
of Germany to the north ; the Sarmatae having poffelfed
themfelves of that part which lay beyond it, called Tran-
falbin Germany. See Elbe.

Albis, in Geography, a town of Switzerland, in the
canton of Zurich, three miles fouth-wcfl of Zurich. It
is alfo the name of a mountain in the fame canton.

ALB

ALBISOLA, a town of Italy, in the Rate of Genoa*
having in its vicinity the country houfes of the Gcnocfe no-
bility, and alfo a mamifaftiire of porcelain. This town was
bombarded by the Englilh in 1745. N. hit. 44° 15' E.
long. %^ 20'.

ALBI6TRUM, or Abistrum, in ytnclcnt Geography,
a town placed by Ptolemy, in Magna Grccia.

ALBIUM Ingaunvm and Intemelium. Sec Al-
BiNGAUNUM and Albintemelivm.

ALBIUS MoNS, was the name given to one of the
mountains of the Alps, on the fide of Rh«tiu and Cariiia.

ALBIZI, or Barthelimi of Pifa, in Biography, a
Francifean of the 14th centur)', who, in a book intitled,
" The Conformities of St. Francis with Jcfus Chrill," at-
tempts to exalt his favourite faint not only above all the other
faints, but to an equality with Jefus Clirifl. It has been
often printed, and much fought after as a curlofity. It was
printed at Cologne, in 1 632, with alterations, under tin;
title of " Antiquitates Francifcanse." Another calligated
edition was printed by Marof-us, at Liege, in 1658.

ALBO, in Geogriiphy, a river on the eallern boundary o£
the Gold Coafl of Africa.

ALBOCELLA, in ylvcienl Grogmfihy, a town of Spain,
which, according to Ptolemy, belonged to the Vaccxi.

ALIjOCENSIS, a town of l>acia, the inhabitants of
which were denominated Albocenfii.

ALBOGALERUS, in Roman Antiquity, a facerdotul
cap, or ornament worn by the flamen dialis ; otherwife called
galerus. ■ .

ALBOIN, in Biography and Hlflory, king of the Lom-
bards, was the fon of Audoiu, under whofe conduiS they
obtained leave of the emperor Juilinian to fettle in Pannonia,
and i'ucceedcd his father in the kingdom. Whilil he waj
fighting under his father's flandard, he encountered and (lew
the fon of Turifund, king of the Gepidie ; and in confe-
quence of this aft of youthful heroifm, the Lombards una-
iiimoufly folicited that his father would admit him to take
his feat at the royal feaft which was kept in celebration of
the viftory. But according to the cuftom of the country,
no prince was permitted to fit at table with his father, till
he had been invelled with arms by a foreign fovereign. For
this purpofe Alboin, with 40 feleft companions, villted the
court of Turifund, who, according to the ufual laws of
hofpitality, entertained even the murderer of his fon. At
the banquet, when Alboin occupied the feat of the youtli
whom he had flain, Turifund, the father, could not dif-
femble his agitation ; Cunimund, his furviving fon, and tlie
Gepidae who were prefent perceived it ; and determined to
be revenged. They prepared for the aflault by contemptuous
and reproachful language : " the Lombards," faid they,.
" refenible, in figure and in fmell, the mares of our Sar-
matian plains ;" referring by tliis coarfe alhifion, to the
white bands which envelopes their legs. As foon as thefe
infulting words were pronounced, the Gepidie darted from
their feats, and Alboin, with his 40 companions, laid their
hands on their fwords. Turifund, however, appealed the
tumult, faved the life of Alboin, and difmiffed him with
the bloody arms of his murdered fon. On his fuccefTlon to
the crown, Alboin, though previoufly contrafted %o the
grand-daughter of Cloris, aff<ed in marriage the beautiful
Rofamond, the daughter of Curimiind, who, upon his fa-
ther's deaths afeended the throne of the Gepida-. His
requefl was refufed, and he prepared to obtain by force of
arms the objetl of his wifhes. With this view he' engaged
the fupport of the Avars on very lucrative conditions, and
with their ;ifiiilan«e he utterly dellroyed the kingdom of the

Gep:die

ALB

Gepid*. A. n. ?'66. The fkiiU of CuiiJmund, wlio Ml
in tattle, was faniioncd into a drinking cup, cithiT to laf late
the hatred of the conqueror, or to comply with the favage
cuKoro of tht counirj- ; a cnftom which was common, as
we are informed by Strabo, Pliny, and Ammianus Mar-
CclKnns, among the Scythian tribes. In confequencc of
tins event, the nation of tlie Gcpid;c was diflblved, the
Avars took pofll-flion of their country, comprchjndir.g
Walachia, Moldavia, and Tranfylvania, and the parts of
Huiigar>- beyond the Danube ; and Alboin, bciides his
moiety of the fpoil, pcrfuided or compelled the fair Rofa-
niond' to acknowledjcc the rights of iier victorious lover.
The fame of Alboin being thus eftabliflitd, he extended his
views to the conquell of Italy, and he contrived by various
artifices to gain an acceflion of llrength from the adventurous
youth of Gemiany and Scythia. The Lombards retained
only that portion of their wealth, which was portable, and
which would fcrve the occafions of their expedition ; but
they relinquilhed tl-.eir lands to the Avars, who promifed Co
reftore them if they failed in the conqued of Italy. Narfes,
who had been offended by the liy/antine court, which had
recalled him from Italy, contributed to excite and encourage
the Lombards in their prefent undertaking ; but he did not
live to witnefs its termination. In 56S Alboin eroded the
Alps, and without a battle or a fiege, the inland regions of
Italy, from the hills of Trent to the gates of Ravenna and
Rome, became the lafting patrimony of the Romans. Be-
fore Pavia, however, t'-.e royal camp was ftationed for three
ycai-s ; famine at length compelled the befieged to furrender ;
and the conqueror, more influenced by fuperilition than by
humanity and honour, was prt vented from fulfilling his vow
of maflfacring the inhabitants without diftinftion of age,
fex or dignity, by a regard to the omen of his horfe's fall
as he entered the gates. This circumftance induced Alboin
to paufe and relent ; and to proclaim to the trembling mul-
titude, that they fhould live and obey. In this city he fixed
his feat of empire, and Pavia, during fome ages, was re-
fpefted as the capital of the kingdom of Italy. " The
reign of the founder," fays an elegant hiftorian, " was
fplendidandtranfient ; and before he could regulate his new
conquefts, Alboin fell a facrifice to domeftic treafon and
female revenge. " In a fcail prepared at Verona for his
companions in arms, the cup formed of the ikull of Cuni-
mund was introduced, and it was fent by the brutal favage to
Rofaraond. She touched it \vith her lips, and at the iame
time fonncd the folemn purpofe, that the infult (liould be
waflied away in the blood of Alboin. With a view to the
accomplilhnient of her purpole (he engaged Helmichris, the
king's armour-bearer, with whom (he had a criminal corref-
pondence, to be the minitler of her vengeance. But Hel-
michris trembled in the profpedl of perpetrating fuch a deed ;
and Rofamond was under the neceffity of procuring the
alfiftance of a lefs timid and more daring accomplice. Pere-
deus, one of the braved champions of the Lombards, was
fclefted ; but he had fcruples, which it required fome art to
remove. The licentious and revengeful queen fecured Pere-
deus by a (Iratagem. Supplying the place of one of her
female attendants to whom he was attached, and contriving
fome excufe for darkncfs and filence till her intention was
accompliflied, (he then told her deluded companion, that,
as he had indulged in criminal intercourfe with the queen of
the Lombards, his own death, or the death of Alboin,
mud be the confequcnce of fuch treafonable adultery. In
this alternative he chofe rather to be the accomplice than
the victim of Rofamond, who, avaihng herfelf of Alboin's
afternoon flumbers, when he retired from tlie table for

ALB

repofe, introduced the confpirators, and urged th^rn to the
execution of the deed. Upon the firft alarm Alb' in darted
from his couch and attempted to draw his (word, but Roi'a-
mond had taken care previoufiy to faften it to the icabbard.
He for fome time defended hirr.felf with a dool, the only
inilrument of hodility or of defence to which he had accefs ;
he was fooii, however, overpowered and dilpatched by the
fpeavs of the afTaflins. " The daughter of Cuniniund fmiled
in his fall ; his body was buried under the dair-cafe of the
palace ; and the grateful pollerity of the Lombards revered
the tomb and the memory of their viftorious leader." The
ambitious Rofamond, having procured th.e death of the king,
A. D. 57s, afpired to fucceed him ; but neither file nor her
daughter occupied the throne, which was filled by Clepho,
one of the nobled chiefs, in confequence of the free fufFrage
of the nation. Having poifoned Helmichris by a cup of
liquor which die prefented to him, (lie was compelled to
drink of the fame cup by her dilcarded lover, as foon as he
perceived its fatal operation on himfelf ; and the death of
the one was in a few minutes fucceLded by that of the other.
In the charafter and exploits of Alboin \> e fee favage valour
combined with militai-y talents, and a coniiderable degree of
proficiency in the art of government. He is faid to have
been the inventor of feveral inltruments of war, that were
in ufe long after his time. Un. Hid. vol. xvii. p. 337—
342. Gibbon's Hid. vol. viii. p. 117 — 132.

ALBOLODUY, m Geography, a fnuill town of Murcia,
in Spain, iituate at the confluence of two rivers, which flow
from the mountains called Los Alpuxarras, between Al-
meria and Guadix. N. lat. 35° 5 s'. W. long. 2° 16'.

ALBON, James D', in Biography, Marquis of Fronfac,
was one of the greated generals of the i6th centuiy,' and
rofe to high mifitary eminence, in the reigns of Henry II.
and Charles IX. of France. By the fomier he wasinade
Marflval of France in 1547, and he was chofen to carry
the collar of his order to Henry VIII. of England, who
decorated him with that of the garter. He acquired great
repntation in the wars of 1552 and 1554, and in 1557 he
was made prifoner at the battle of St. Quintin. After
the death of Heniy II. he was one of the tnumvirate who
governed the kingdom four or five years in fpitc of Catha-
rine of Medicis. He was killed in 1562, at the battle of
Dreux, by a perfon whofe confifcated edate he pofTelTed.
The Huguenots, who did not love him, ufed to call him
" the Harquebufeer of the wed." He had the qualities of
a foldier and a courtiei ; was addifted to eveiy kind of plea-
fure and luxury, excelled in politenefs and the amiable ac-
complifhments, and on the day of battle was didniguiihed
by his prudence and his courage. His daughter and heirefa
is faid to have been poifoned by her own mother for her pro-
perty. Gen. Biog.

ALBONA, in Geegraphy, a town of Iftria, belonging
to Venice, fituate at the foot of a mountain, near the gulph
of Caruero ; 16 miles eaft of Rovigno.

Albona is alfo a river of Italy, which runs into the Po,
nine miles taft-fouth-ead of Lumello.

ALBONNAL, a town of Spain, in the province of
Grenada, fix leagues ead-north-ead of Motril.

ALBOR, or.AbvoR, a mountain of Portugal, in the
province of Algarva, one league well of Lagos. In a
cadle on this mountain, John II., king of Portugal, died
in 1495.

ALBORAK, in the Mahometan Theology, the bead on
which the prophet is faid to have rode in his extraordinary
aerial journies. It is reprefented as of an intermediate
fhape and fize between an afs and a mule ; and many

fabulous

ALB

ALB

tiViulous acco-unts are given of it by the Arabian commen-
tators.

ALBORAN, an iflantl in the Mediterranean, near the
coail of Fez. N. lat. 36''. W. long. 2^ 32'.

ALBORNOS, GiLKs Ai.varuz Carillo, in Bio-
graphv, cardinal and archbifliop of Toledo, and one of the
moil celebrated ftatefmen of the 14th centnry. He was
born of noble parentage at Cuenija, in New Caliile ; having
ftudied canon law at Touloufe, he took orders and became
almoner to Alfoiiio XL, king of Cattile, and gradually rofe
to the primacy of Spain. As loon as lie was created car-
dinal by pope Clement VI., who rclided at Avignon, he
reiigned his archbilhopric. Having been lent to Italy as
legate by pope Innocent VI., he brought all the revolted
Hates to fubniiffion to the holy fee. Upon his return to the
fucceeding pope, Urban V., and upon being quelliuntd with
regard to the difpolal of the large funis ot money with
which he had been entrufted, he caufed a carriage, laden
with locks and keys, to be brought imder the windows.
" There," faid he to the pope, " is my account of the
money. I have made you mailer of all the towns, the keys
and locks of which you fee in that carriage." The pope
embraced him, and warmly exprelfed his obligations. Albor-
nos retired to Viterbo, and Ipent his remaining days in
aiSs of piety. He died in 1367, and was buried at To-
ledo. He founded a magnificent college at Bologna. Gen.
Biog.

ALBORO, in L-hthyolc^y, a name by whieli the Erv-
THRINUS, a fmall red fi(h, cauglit in the Mediterranean, is
commonly known in tlie markets of Rome and Venice.
ALBOURG, m Geogrnphy. See Aalburg.
ALBOURS, a volcanic mountain, near mount Taurus,
eight leagues from Herat.

ALBOUZEME, in Gecgrciphy, a town of Africa, on
the coall of Barbaiy. Before it is a bay formed by Cape
Mourou, or Befancouron the well, and Cape Quilate on the
eaft. It is otherwife called Buzemar, or the bay of Bu-
rema.

ALBRECT, John William, in Blograpihy, born at
Erfurt, in Upper Saxony, the I ith of Augull, 1 703, was
feveral years protefTor of anatomy, furger)', and botany, at
Gottingen. The late Baron Haller, who fucceeded him in
thofe offices, in January 1736, fpeaks very favourably of his
talents, and gives the following lift of his works : " Obferva-
tiones anatomicas circa duo cadavera mafculina," Erford,
1730, 4to. " De effei-libus mufices in corpus animatum,"
ibid. 1735, 8vo. " Parxnefis ad artis medics cultores,"
Gottig. 1735, 4to. " De vitandis erroribus in medicina
mechanlca." Vide Bib. Anatom. vol. ii. p. 238. Haller.

ALBRECHTSPERG, in Gcogmph, a town of Ger-
many, in the archduchy of Auilria, nine miles well from
S. P'olten.

ALBREDA, a town of Africa, in the country of
Senegal.

ALBRET, or Larrit, a fmall town of France, in the
late province or Gafcogne, and dueliy of Aibret. It is
fituate in tlie department of I^andes, in a fandy temtory,
15 leagues fouth from Bourdeaux. N. lat. 44° lo'. W^
long. iG'.

ALBRICIUS, in Biography, an Engliih philofopher and
phylician of the i ilh century, lludied in the Univerfities
of Oxford and Cambridge, and travelled for further improve-
ment. He excelled in polite literature, and was eminently
diftinguiihed by his natural genius and acquired knowledge.
Bale mentions the folloviing works, viz. " Ue origine
Ueorum ;" " De ratione Vencni ;" " Virtutes Antiqno-
rum ;" and " Canones Spcculativi," He wrote other books
Vol. I.

of I'hilofophy and phyfic, wliich are difperfed in fevtial li-
braries of Ei\gland. Gen. Diet.

ALBUCA, formed from aHu', white, in Batany, a
genus of the hexandiia monogynta clafs and order, of the
natural order of Itli.i or liliaci, the coronaiis of Linnaeus,
and the afphotld'i of Juflicu ; the charafters of which arc,
that it has no calyx ; the corolla has fix oblong-oval per-
manent petals, the three outer fpreading, and the three
inner converging ; the ilamina have filaments fliorter than
the corolla ; three oppolite to the inner petals, linear-fu-
bulate, complicate a little above the bale, then flat, three
opjioiite to the outer petals, thicker ; anthers on the former
oblong, fixed to the inflcx tip of the filament below the
middle, uprightly on the latter, fimilar but effete, or none ;
the i)illillum has an oblong, triangular germ, llylc three-
lided, lligma a triangular pyramid ; the pericarpmm an ob-
long, obtufe, triangular, three-celled, three -valved caplulc ;
the feeds numerous, flat, lying over each other, and widen-
ing outwards. There are eight fpecies, of which the firft
five have only three Ilamens fertile, and the others have all the
llamens fertile. I. A, alujfuna or tall, with interior petals
glandulole and bent m at the tip, leaves fubulate, chan-
nelled, convolute : flowers in April and May, and was in-
troduced about 1780, by Meflrs. Kennedy and I^ce. 2.
A. major, with interior petals, glandulofe and bent in at
the tip, leaves hnear-lanceolate, flattilh, flowers in May,
and was introduced about 1767, by Mr. W. Malcolm. 3.
A. minor, with interior petals, glandulofe and bent in at
the tip, leaves linear- lubuiate, channelled, flowers in May
and June, and was cult iyated by Mr. Miller in 1768. 4.
A. ccardatit, or channel -leaved, with interior petals vaulted
at the tip ; leaves Imooth, linear-fubulate, channelled, pe-
duncles the length of the bracles ; flowers in May, and
was introduced in 1774. 5. A. fpinjii.!, or fpiral-leaved,
with interior petals vaulted at the tip, and leaves fpiral. 6.
A. fnjligiata, or upright-flowered, with interior petals-
vaulted at the tip, leaves fmooth, peduncles veiy long,
flowers in May, and was introduced in 1774. 7. A.
vijl-ofa, with interior petals vaulted at the tip» leaves
hairy-glandulofe, flowers in May and June, and was in-
troduced about 1779, by Dr. J. Fothergill. 8. A. abyji-
nica, A. alba of Lamarck, with leaves linear, cliannelled,
and fmooth. To the above fpecies Wildenovv has added
A. Jiaccida, with interior petals glandulofe, and bent in at
the tip ; peduncles fpreading at right angles, leaves lan-
ceolate-hnear, and obliquely bent. A. "viridiflora, with
interior petals like the former, fcape ereft flcxuous, flowers
hanging downwards, leaves linear-fubulate canaliculate, and
externally hairy. A. caudata, with petals like the laft,
leaves linear-lanceolate, convolute at the margin, {horter
than double the fcape, peduncles very long and fpreading
at right angles, and llraight flowers. A. fctcfa, with
petals as before, leaves linear-lanceolate and fmooth,
peduncles reclangularly patent and ereft flowers. A.
am-ett, with petals and leaves like the lall, peduncles
very long, erett and fpreading, and creel flowers. A. fm-
gniii.r, with interior petal; vaulted at the apex, leaves If.'-
near-lanceolated, ciianuclled, panicles fpreading of the
length of the nodding flower, and very (Itort brac'le;D.'
All the fpecies are brought from the Cape of Good Hope.
They may be cultivated by keeping the roots in pots, filled
with light earth, and flickered under a hot-bed frame in
winter, in which cafe lliey will thrive and produce flowers ;
but the bell method is to have a border in the front of a
greeri-houfe or Hove, where the roots of mofl: of the bul-
bous flowers may be planted in the full ground, and fcn:en-
ed in winter from froll ; in fuch fituations they thrive much'
3 Z better.

ALB

tfttrr, ind flcwer ftrongcr, than when kept in pots. Mar-
tyn's MiUcr.

ALBUCASIS, in Biography, an Arabian phyfician ar.d
furgeOD.i'fririirular merit. At whiil timcliclncd is not pre-
CilcSy known; but as lie Ucfcnbcs tiitf art of furgcry,as greatly
dt^ncratid in his time, and gives proofs ol the ignorance
Ot" many of his eoiitemp;)rjries, it is thought he could not
be earlier than the middle of the I2th century; that is,
about an hundred years after Aviceiina, when furgei7
was fucctfsfullv cultivated, it appears by a Mi>. in the
EfcurjJ library, (Bib. Ar. Hifp. torn. li. p. 136.) that
he djcd in i io6. Much of what he has left on the
fubjift of his ait, is copied from Rhafcs, from Paulas
J\Lg\i\£la, and other preceding writers ; but there are a!fo
many original obfenrations ; and although in tlie prtfi iit
improved ftate of furgery, htile can be learned fiuni him,
yet by thofe who love to fee the liili daivnings of impiove-
nient in fcicnce, his works will be llill turned over with
phaUirc. He infilled on the ncceffity of a furgeon's being
/killed in anatomy, to enable him to operate witli fuccels ;
he alio held it to be equally nccelTaiy that he Ihould
be accjuainttd with the Materia Medica, or the properties
of the medicines employed in curing difeafes ; and inveighs
agaiiill thofe wlio undertake for gain the cure of difeafes, of
the nature and caufcs of which they are unacquainted. It
appears from his writings, that he extraifled polypi from
the nollriis, performed the operation of broncliotoiny, and
iifed a prepanition fimilar to the lapis infcrnalis, as a cauftic.
He made great ufc of the actual cauteiy, and is extrava-
piiit in his elogia on its properties. He is the firft writer
who left dii\incl dcfcriptious and delineations of the inltrii-
mer.ts ufedin furgery, and of the manner ot employing them.
His works, which have been tranJlated into Latin, at fatis
barbarc, Haller fays, have paHed through fevcral editions ;
the raoft eileemed is tliat publilhed 1 541, under the following
title : — " Medendi Methodus certa, clara, et brevis, ple-
raque qui ad Medicinae partes omnes, pnvcipi'^ qurc ad
Chirurgiam requiruntur, hbris tribus exponens." Bafile^,
IJ41, folio, " Cum Chirurgia Guidonis de Chauliaco."

Haller has given a detailed, and pretty extended ac-
count of the fubjecls treated of in the volume. Vid. Bib-
Lotheca Chirurgica, vol. i. p. 137.

Mr. Chanaing has publilhed an edition of Albucafis, in
Arabic and Latin, from the Clarendon prefs : " Albucafis de
Chirurgia.Arab.andLat. cura. J.Channing." Oxon. 177S.
ALBUGINEA Tunica Uculi, in yhiatomv, has been
faid to be the exuanfion of the tendons of the four ftraight
mufcles of tlx; eye, on the front of the felcrotica. Modern
anatomifts, however, do not fpeak of a tunica albuginea ; the
tihitenefs of part of the eye-ball being owing to the colour
f)f the tunica conjuniftiva, where it covers the front of the
fclerotica. Sec Conjunctiva.

Albugisea Tunica Tejlis, one of the coats of the
teftis, which is white and ftrong, and clofely invells its
glaiidular ftruClure.

ALBUGINEUS is applied by fome, to denote the
aqueous humour of the eye.

ALBUGO, or Album oculi, the fame with albuginea,
or the ivhitt of the eye.

.'\.t.BUGO, in Surgery, otherwife called Leucoma, is a
whitifh opaque fpeck, on the tranfparent part of the eye.
It is denominated by popular writers, a fear, film, h.izu,
pearl, dragcn. Sec. The tranfmiflion of the rays of light
through the cornea being obftruftcd by this denfity of its
roats, is f:illowed by a partial or total blindnefs, according
to the extent ef the dieafe. There are different ftagcs and
Ctiufes of the albugo, accompanied with more or lefi. inllam.

ALB

mation. The cure will be difficult in proportion to th«
degree of opacity, and the concomitant circumllanccs.
Sometimes it entirely baflRcs the fliill of the lurgeon ; and
at other times, it difappears without any altenlion.

When the difeafe is accompanied villi much aftive inflam-
mation, leeches (hould be ajiplitd on the temples or under
the eye. If a fuperiicial turgid blood-veffel be obferved
going into the affedled part, and kee])ing up the diforder, it;
may be fafcly divided by the point of a lancet. But when
tliere is no inflammation, and tipecially, if there be a fluid
inteqiofid between the anterior membranes of the cornea,
lightly llimulating applications fliould be employed ; fuch as
a ilream of elettric effluvia, drawn from a wooden point ;
or the vapour of warm camphorated fpirits, or oil of tur-
pentine ; or a compofitioii of pulverifed fugar, aloes, and
linely levigated glais, blown through a quill. Great caution,
however, ihould be obferved in tiie ufe of thefe remedies ;
for, by injudicious management, the cafe may be much
aggravated, and even rendered incurable.

Some perfons advife us to excite the abforbents of the eye
by collyria of alum, nitrated lilver, vitriolated zinc, vitrio-
lated copper, or a vciy weak folntion of muriated mercury ;
accompanied with repeated fmall dofes of calomel and cin-
chona ; but it too frequently happens that more harm thari
good is done by ftrong irritating applications to fo tender an
organ. The cutting of an iflue in the arms, or a fcton in
the neck of the patient, has been alfo recommended in al-
bugo; although we think their efficacy is very problematical.

It has been fuppofed that Tobit's blindnefs, mentioned
in the fecond chapter of that apocryphal book, was the
difeafe of which we have here treated. Vide Tobix I^eu-
comata Diffcrt. med. dilucid. Prof. Mauchardt, S:c. Tu-
bing. I 74.8 ; in Haller, Difp. Chirurg. vol. i. p. 366, 4to.

ALBUHAZAN-IBUN-HAIDOR, plulofopher, phy-
fician, and altrologer, at Fez, in Barbaiy, phyficiau to
feveral of their kings, died of the plague in 1415, and left 3
treatife on the cure of that dileale. Eloy.Dict. Hift. vol. i.

P- 7.^

ALBULA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Mauri-
tania, in Africa.

Alevla, in the Linnxan fyftem of Ichthyology, a
fpecies of Salmo. It is alio the name of a fpecies of
MuGiL, w'ith the anterior dorfal-fin quadriradiated, the
alhula Bahamenjis of Catelby, and the lefler filvery mugil of
Brown (Jam.), with the anterior dorfal-fin compofed of
four rays. It is found in America.

Albula Indica, the name of a fmall fifii, refembling a
herring, caught about the fhores of the Eaft-Indies, and
called by the Dutch, the V\\T-fiJh. Ray.

Albula nohilis, of Willughby and Ray, the Lavarrtus
Salmo of the Linnxan fyftem, and the Gwiniad of the
Britiib Zoology.

Albula, is alfo the name given by fome writers to the
Z.«/r//2«j- CvpfeiNus of the Linnxan fyftem, and the Dack
of Englifli writers.

Albula is alfo the name of a fpecies of Nerita, called
mammilla, in the Linnsan fyftem of Zoology.

Albula, is alto a name given by fome natu'-ahfts, to
mineral waters of the luminous kind, endued with an ai-
tringcnt quality, and of ufe in wounds.

ALBULTJS, in the Linnsan fyl^cm of Zoology, a fpe-
cies of Turbo, with an imperforate iV.-.ooth (hell, and ipres
rotundated and ftriated ; found, rarely, in the deep feas of
Greenl.ind.

ALBLTM, in Antiquity, denotes a white table, or regif-
ter, in which the names of magillratef, public tranfaftions,
&c. v.ere to b- ir.lcnbed or entered.

J HcKce

ALB

A L15

Hence we meet viilh album pitloiis, album dectinontim,
allium juJitum, &c.

Album Dicunomim was tlie regiftcr of tlic Decuriones,
called alio tnalncuhil'io Dccm'tonum.

Album Iiuinum, coniitinid the names of lliofc perfons of
the dccuiia: who at certain times perfurmtd the olTice of
judges.

Album Pi-^:orh, was a rcfjiller of the formula of all ac-
' lions, and the names of fuch judges as were appointed by
the proetor for certain canfes.

Album Senalorum contained a lift of the name-; of fonators,
firll intruduced by Augndus, and renewed yearly.

The high-priell entered the chief tranladions of each
year into an album, or table, which was hung up in his
houfe for the public ufe.

Aliium, among Chau'ijls, is ufed fur white lead, popu-
larly called ccrufs.

Album is alio ufed, among Akhem'tjis, for a tinifture pre-
tended to tranfmute metals.

Album, in Ancient Geography, a promontory' of Palef-
tine, to the north-well of Upper Galilee, fouth of Tyre,
and near Alexandria.

Album was alio the epithet of a promontoiy of Africa,
fituate in the ilraits of Hercules or Gibraltar, eaft of Am-
pelufia, well of mount Abyla, and oppolite to Mellaria, on
the coad of Spain.

Album, in Literary H'iftori, is ufed to denote a kind of
table, or pocket-book, wherein the men of letters with
whom a perfon has converfed, infcribe their names, with
fome fenteiice or motto.

This is called by divers names and titles, as album amlco-
Tum, repvfitorwm amiccrum., S:c.

The famous Algernon Sydney, being in Denmark, was by
the univerilty of Copenhagen prefeuted with their album,
whereupon he wrote thefe words;

Manus hsec inimica tyrannis

Enfe petit placidam fub libertate quietem."

Album is alfo applied, in Pharmacy, as a title, or epi-
thet, of divers compound medicines. Thus we meet with
ungucntum album cum camphara, &c.

Album Gmcum, dogs white dung, a medicinal drug,
formerly ufed with honey, to cleanfe and deterge, chiefly in
inflammations of the throat ; and for the moll part out-
wardly, as a plaller ; but, as Dr. Qiiincy obferves, feldom
to any great purpofe. See Neumann's Works, p. 5H5.

Some fpcak of its ufe Internally, in the angina, and other
jnfiaramations ; as alio in the dyfentery, cohc, &c. and to
prevent burns from rifmg into blillers.

Medicines of this kind have long fmce funk into difufe.

Album gripcum is in much requeil among the leather-
drelTers, for loftening down the leather after the apphcation
«f lime.

Album nigrum is ufed, among Medical Writers, for mice-
«lung, by fome alfo called mufctrJa.

Album ocul'i, among Anatom'ijls, denotes the tunica adnata ;
foraetimes alfo called albugo; popularly the white of the

luYF.

ALBUMAZAR, or Albuassar, A1 Abu Mafhar,
the father of Maalhar, in Biography, a celebrated Arabian
philofopher and ailrologer, who lived, according to fome
writers, in the 9th or loth century ; but, according to
others, at a much earlier period. The time of his death
is not mentioned in the Efcurial catalogue, but he is faid
to have lived to the age of 100 years; and if he died, as
it is fuppofed, in the year 8S5, his birth mutl have been
1 5; years prior to the date afligned by Herbelot. Some have
rtprefented him as one of the mofl learned allronOmers of

his age. He wrote an ailrological work, intitled, " De
niagnis conjnndlionibus annoruiii revolutionibus, ac eorum
pcrfectionibus," printed at Venice in 1515 ; and " Intro-
dutlio in Ailronomiani," printed in 1489. It is faid, that
he obferved a comet above the orb of Venus. Hutton's
Math. Dift. RulTell's AUppo, vol. ii. p. loo.

ALBUMEN, in the l^mna-an fyftcm of Zoology, a fpc
cics of Nf.kita, with a convex Ihell, fubcordated \mibi-
ticus, and a dilliniJl lobe. It is found veiy rarely at the
Cape of Good Hope, and on the fliores of the illands of
Nicobar and the Moluccas.

Ax.tiVVtv.H, Albuminous maltrr. Albumlne. Fr. — This word,
which ill the Latin language whence it is borrowed, ligiiifiei
the white of an egg, is at prefent introduced into the mo-
dern chemical nomenclature, as the name of a peculiar fub-
ilaiicc, which, though exifling in the grcatcil purity and
abundance in the white of eggs, is to be found in various
natural compounds, both of animal and vegetable origin.

Pure albumen is a fluid of a fomewhat vifcous confidence,
perfectly foluble in pure water at the common temperature ;
but when expofe-d to a heat above 134'^ Fahr. it coagulates,
and is then no longer lolublc in water.

iVnimal albumen, in its pureil natural Hate, conflitiites the
white of all birds' eggs, and the ferum of blood : the vi-
treous and ciydallinc humours of the eye, the liquor that
fills the abdominal cavity in cafes of dropfy, and the fluid
contents of the lymphatic veflels alfo contain a confulerablc
portion of tliis fubdance. In the vegetable kingdom, it is
found principally in the tetradynamious or cruciform plants,
in the farinaceous feeds, and in the young fucculent (hoots
of trees and llirubs.

Albumen, animal, has a flight fubfaline tafte, and
never fails to turn the blue colour of Ivrup of violets green,
tiius indicating the preience of difengaged or carbonated
alkali. When heated to about 133'' Fahr. a number of
V liite fibres begin to make their appearance, and thefe ra-
pidly iucreafing, the whole mafs is in a fliort time converted
into a white opaque concrete folid, confidtrably elaflic, and
of a fmooth compaft frafture. By expofure to a dry heat,
not exceeding that of boiling water, the coagulated albu-
men lolcs the grcated p^irt of its moillure, flirinks in confe-
quence in its volume, becomes hard, tianfparent, and very
fimilar to horn ; and when broken, exhibits a bright poliflicd
furiace, and vitreous fraihire. The application of a itrongcr
heat dcftroys the equilibrium of its elementary parts, and
produces tlie difeiigagement of ammoniacal gas, of carbon-
ated ammonia, of a fetid empyreumatic oil, and fulphurated
hydrogen ; there remains behind in the retort a fpungy
coal, from which may be obtained by lixiviation, muriat,
phofphat, and carbonat of foda.

Liquid albumen is compleatly foluble in frefli didilled
water, but if this lad is charged with atniofpheric air, the
itiais upon mixture becomes in fome meafure turbid, and a
flocculcnt precipitate is by degrees dcpolited. Tlic aftion
of acids, more efpecially of the three mineral «nes, caufcs an
ininudiate coagulation, and the fame cfl'ecl is produced by
all the metallic falls. Caudic alkalies, on the contrary,
hold albumen, whether liquid or coagulated, in permanent
folution. The addition of lime water occadons a precipita-
tion, but the fubdance thus depodted, being phofphat of
lime, flievvs that this is not fo much a chemical adliou on the
albumen ilfelf, as a decompolition of the phofphatcd foda
which it contains.

There has been a confiderable divcrdty of opinion among
chemifts reipe£ling the caufe of the coagulation which is
obferved to take place in liquid albumen. Schcele, in his
admirable effay on milk, attributes it to a combination with
caloric ; this is etlcClcd in the (implell way by the diiv.'l
3 Z z additi#a

ALB

•dditlon of hfat ; imj duriiig the proccfs, there Joes not
■ppc;ir to l>c any iiicrcafe or diminiition of weight. In hir-
tlicr coiiilniiuuoii of this mcilioj of aecour.tliig foi ti.e fad,
tht following ingcniiuis cxpcrinunts were invented by tlic
Swcdilh clicfliill. Having mix.ed one part of white of
cg^ with four parts of water, lie divided the iniifs into two
equal parts, and added to one a folution of Lauilic alkali,
and to the other the fame quantity of tarhoiiated alkali ;
the luiuor, in boiii cafes, remained perfectly clear ; then,
upon dropping into tlie firll a little mmiaiic acid, an im-
mediate coagulation took place, while a like quantity of
acid produced no efTeit on the latter folution. 'I'his is ac-
counted for hy bcheele in tlit following manner. By the
combination of acid with caullic alkali, the heat given out
li abforbed l.y the albumen \\lueh thus coagulates, but when
the acid is added to the carbonated alkali, tl\e whole of tiie
caloric is taken up by the dilcngagcd carbonic acid, and in
confcquence no coagidalion ii the refult.

According to Tourcroy, the coagulation of albumen is
owing to an abfoqitiou of oxygen, and the facts wljich
appear to Fiim to prove this are the following : If the red
oxyd of mercuiy is triturated with albumen, it is reduced
to the ftate of black oxyd, at the fam.e time that the albu-
men becomes opake, thick, and in fome degree coagulated.
The white of a frelh laid egg is incapable of being reduced
by boiling to fo firm a conliitence as that of an egg w Inch
lias been kept feveral days.

On the other hand, Can-adori has (licwn that albumen is
coagulablc by heat without the accefs of air, and even that
when this efl'cA takes place in oxygen gas, there is not the
fnialleil portion of air abforbed.

It was the opinion of Bucquet, that albumen is a kind of
natural foap, and that its coagulation by acids was merely
owing to their combination with the foda which it contains.

Thefc differences between chemills of acknowledged abi-
lity, founded alfo upon undifputed fafts, appear to arife
from a iniAaken neceflity of confidering coagulation as the
conttant effeft of fome one uniform caufc, when a little
confideration cannot fail of convincing us of the very equi-
vocal nature of this phenomenon. Albumen certainly con-
cretes by the mere aftion of heat unafliHed by any other
fubftance j and this is probablv owing in part to the fixation
of caloric, and in part to the difengagement of fulphurated
hydrogen, as is manifell from the tarnilliing of filver, and
the +ilackening of acetatcd lead, by the white of a newly-
boiled egg ; that the extrication of fulphurated hydrogen
is a nccefiary concomitant in moil catcs of the coagulation
of albumen, is obvious alfo from certain other facts ; thus
coagulated albumen is foluble in a very dilute acid, and
upon the addition of a few drops of a more concentrated
one, is immediately precipitated, at the fame time that a
Itrong fmell of fulpliurated hydrogen is m.anifefted. Again,
nitrated filver inttantly coagiriates albumen, and black
ftreaks at the fame time begin to appear, owing to the for-
mation of hydrofulphuret of filver. The coagulation pro-
duced by the red oxyd of mercury may be occafioned by
the abforption of oxygen, if indeed the blacknefs of the
mercury is not rather produced by combination with fulphu-
rated hydrogen ; and this is the more probable, as even
metallic mercury undergoes a iyi^.ilar change. The thicken-
ing produced by mctaUic falts, is neither caufcd by the
mere communication of heat nor of oxygen, fince the coagu-
lum is an imputrtfcible combination of the albumen with
the metallic oxyd. In like manner a coagulation is formed
by the combination of albumen with tan'KIN. which has
alfo a fpecific chemical action. Laftly, pure alcohol will
coagulate albumen, probably by the mere abllraftion of
the wate» nccefiary to its liquidity, fince the curd thus

ALB

obtained is rcfoKibk in water, without any ivmarkable
change of properties.

Betides the general effect of acids on albumen, fome
of them produce peculiar changes which require notice.
Bv concentrated iiilphuric acid it is blackened and charred,
exhaling at the fame time a naufeous odour ; while, by the
fame acid diluted, it is merely coagulated and prefcrved
from further change. Strong muriatic acid gives a violet
tinge to the coagukim, and by long coutaft cffeCls a par-
tial decomjjolition, fo far as to become faturated with am-
monia. Nitrous acid, at the temperature of about 70°
Fahr., caufes a plentiful difengagement of azotic gas ; if
further heated, a quantity of pruffic acid is formed ; and
this change is immediately rendered fenfible, by the pe-
culiar odour of this acid, (imilar to that of bitter almonds ;
this is fuccceded by the feparation of carbonic acid and
carbonated hydrogen ; and as foon as this change comes
on, the refidue in the retort is found to confifl of httle
elfe than water, covered with a lemon-coloured fat oil,
and holding in folution oxaUc acid, which may be after,
wards feparatod by cryllallization. If dry cauftic patafh
or foda be triturated with albumen, either liquid or
folid, ammoniacal gas is fet at hbeity ; and the calcination
of the refidue yields a pruiliatcd alkali, capable of pro-
ducing a blue precipitate with the falts of iron.

The neutral falts appear to have little or no aftlon, ex*.
cept that of preferving the albumen from putrefaftion.

By fpontaneous decompofition in the open air, albumen
palTes rapidly, and probably without firll becoming acidi
into the putrid fermentation ; in this ftate it exhales a fetid
odour, aifumes a brown colour, gives out ammonia, and
remains a confiderable time before the decompofition is
completed.

Animal albumen, as contained in milk, blood, and eggs>
formiS a confiderable part of the food of man. Advantage
is taken of its property, of coagulating by heat, to clarify
liquors of various kinds : it is largely ufed in the arts of
leather dreffing and fugar refining, and the more tranfparent
kinds are employed for varnifhes. Didl. Mettiod. Art. Al-
bumine. Fourcroy Syil. des Connaif. Chimiq. vol. ix.
Scheele's Eflays. Annales de Chimie, vol, xxix.

Albumen, Vegetable, The difcovery of albumen
in vegetables is due to Fourcroy. This chemift having ob-
ferved that the clarification of the expreffed juices of the
antifcorbutic plants was effected by the fpontaneous coagu-
lation of their colouring matter, at the temperature of boil-
ing water, was induced to examine whether this property did
not depend on the prefence of albumen. For this pur-
pole, having obtained the juice of two pounds of young
crefles, he hltcred it while cold, through blotting paper,
and by this means feparated the grolTer parts of the co-
louring fccuia : the liquor was, however, ftill of a bright
green, but upon being expofed in a broad {hallow veffel to
the air, at a temperature of about 80° Fahr,, in two hours
it became turbid and depofited a greenifh matter, becoming
itfelf almoft colourlefs ; in this ftate it was expofed to the
hxat of boiling water, and in a few minutes there feparated
a large quantity of whitilh ilocculent matter. Another por-
tion of the fame clarified liquor being expofed to the air,
depofited at the end of two days a fimilar coagulum ;
and the fame efieft was produced on a third portion by the
addition of fulph-uiic acid. The fubftance thus obtained
being nrft repeattdly wafhed in cold water, exhibited all
the properties of animal albumen. It was eafily and
quickly difToIved hy any of the alkalies ; it experieMiced
no change in boihng water, except that of becoming more
fohd ; it converted the purple juice of mallows to green, ■
and by diftillation, yielded a notable quantity of ammonia :

when

ALB

ALB

wHen cxpofcd with a little water to a warm air, it Avcllcd conceived would be beneficial in a variety of-refpeft--., and

conlidtrably, exhaled a fttij auimoiiiacal odour, and gave chiefly ii\ rcfcuinir the trade of the tail out of the hands

all the ul'ual figns of aftive putrefaftioii ; hence explaining ot the Turks and other Mahometan natims. Uut death-

the reafon of the rank difagreeable fmcU that eharaderiles prevented tiie accomplillinu-nt of his varioui purpoTes ; fur

the fpontaneous dccompoiition of all the cruciform plants, atter his return to Goa, he was feizcd with a diflemncr

When dried, by prcffure between two pieces of paper, it which in a few days proved fatal ; fo that h^. died, Dec. l6,

exhibited a coniiderable degree of dudility and tranl'parence, '5 15. at t.hc age of 63. He was called by the Mahome-

like glue. tans, Albuberciue Malandy, becaufe he was born at Mc-

Albumen was afterwards found in the roots of various linda in Atrica ; but, by the Portuguefe, he was julUy

vegetables, efpecially of the rnmex-patientia ; alfo in wheat denominated Albuberque the Great. He was the ablelt

and the farinaceous feeds ; and in general in all the green ftatefman, and the moll confnmmatc general they ever had

and lucculent parts of plants. The acid pulps of fruits in India, and left their affairs in the bell fituation ; and vet

are totally dcllitute of this fubllauce, but abound with he performed his numerous exploits with a very inconfider-

jelly ; and it is the opinion of Fourcroy, that in all thefe
cafes there is a converfion. of albumen into jelly, by tlie
gradual evolution of the acid, and conlequent fixation of
oxygen* Did. Method. A rt. Albumine Vegetal. Foureroy
Syll. des Conn. Cliimiq. vol. viii.

ALBUNEA FoNS, or yiil/iiLe aqius, in Ancient Gcogra-
ph)', a fountain and fmall river in the country of tlie Sabmes,
well of the Tiber. It was famous for its fulphureous wa-
ters, whicli occalioned baths to be ereAed near them, men-
tioned by Suetonius, and Hygcia the goddels of health to
be worthipped ther

able force. With 30 (liijis he took Calicut;' with 21 he
became mailer of Goa ; wilii 23 he furpri/.ed Malacca;
and he had no more than 22 in his expedition againll Ormuz.
His funeral was performed with great foleinnity, and his
body inteiTcd in a chapel built by him at Goa, and dedi-
cated to the blelled Vn-gin, which chapel was much enlarged
by his fon, Alphonlo Albubenjue, wiio lived to the age of
So, and wrote a large book of Memoirs, in which he re-
corded his father's adlions.

He lludied the difpoiition of the people among whom he
lived, and conformed in outward pomp and magnificence ou

ALBUNUELAS, m Geography, a town of Spain, in public days to the habits of the Indians; thougii in his pri-
the province of Grenada, four leagues eaft of Alhama. vate mode of living, he was ilriit and abllemious. lii ex-

ALBUOLA, a town of the kingdom of Naples, iu acting the dues of the crown, he was ftvere ; but as to his
the province of EafiHcata, eight miles louth of Potcn/.a. perfonal lortune, he had fcarcely any thin<r which he could

ALBUQUERQUE, a town of Spain, in the province call liis own.. His officers were his children, to whofe iii-
of Eftremadura, on die frontiers of Portugal, fituate on an llruftion he was as attentive as the moll atfcctionate parent

eminence, and defended by a llrong cafUe. It has a con- is to the education of his fons. WhiUl he overlooked tri-

fiderabk trade of wool and woollen manufaftures. N. lat. vial faults, he punilhed treachery or negleft of duty with

38° y2'. W. long.. 6° 6'. inexorable feverity. He was liberal in bellowing recom-

Albucvl'ErqjjEjAlphonso DE,in_S/35-/-(7/'/'j',aPortuguefe pence and applaufe on thole officers who dilliii"-uirtied

governor of the Indies, contributed more than any other to themfelves by any great anions ; at the fame time he was

extend the territories and to ellablilh the power of the court not only filent as to his own, but would not permit others

of Portugal in that country. The firll exploit which he to commend them. It was a maxim which he often re-

perfarmed, after being appointed governor, was the reduc- peated, "that he was afraid of nothing but flattery ;" and it

tion of Calicut ; which he attacked at once by laud and w'as oblerved, that he never preferred any who attempted to

fea, with fueh fury, that he foon became mailer of the gain his favour in that way. Some of the Poi tugiiefe hif-

town, which he burnt ; and of the fortrefs, which he de- torians have obfcrved, that the vanity of his predecciTor Al-

mohfiied. As foon as he recovered from an. accidental in- meyda, made hint afFecl the llate of a priiiee when the Por-

jury which he received on this occafion, lie proceeded againll tuguefe power was veiy imperfedlly ellablilhed ; whereas

Goa, and took it. This city, in 1^59, became the refi- the modefty of Albuberque was moll confpicuous when his

dence of the governor, and the fee of an archbiihop and victories left him notliing to fear, and when tlie "-reatell

primate of the Indies. His next objedl was, Malacca, princes of the call fent ambaffadors to folicit his friendfliip.

which he attacked by fea and land, took by ftorm, and Albuberque, however, was actuated by boundlefs ambition ;

delivered to the pillage of the Portuguefe foldiers. The and his extravagant defire of extending the doHiinions of

clear fifth refervcd for the king, amounted in value to Portugal, made him regardlefs of the meafures which he

200,000 pieces of gold. The lall enterprife of any mo- adopted for this purpofe. In private life, he was a man of

ment in which he was engaged, was the liege and capture the Ihiiteil honour; bnt in his public charatler, liable to

of Ormuz. He had formed other great projects, which, jull reproach and cenfure. After fcrving his prince and

however, he did not live to execute., Oneof thefe regarded country with fmgular zeal and fiiccefs, he liad the misfor-

the revival of the Indian trade by way of Ale.xandria, tune to die in difgrace. His ambition, aullcrity, and (Irict

in which he knew the Venetians would have affilled the regard to juflice, had raifed enemies, who were aluduous

Turks, or any other perfons, for their own emolument
He propofed, therelore, to the emperor of Ethiopia, that
for his ')wn fecurily, he Ihould divert the channel of the
Nile, by cutting a palfage tor it into the Arabian fea be-
fore it reached Egypt ; and by fo doing, 'he would have

in their endeavours to prejudice the king againll him ; and
as he had foiieited with a view to the prefcrvation of Goa,
the grant of it, together with the title of a duehv, as a
reward for his fei-vices, this was made a pretence for ex-
citing and increaling the jealoufy of the king : and thus.

rendered the greatelt part of Egypt uninhabitable ; and at before his death, he was difplaeed from the ofhce of gover-

the fame time made it impracticable to renew the old mode nor, and another perfon appointed in his room. When

of tranfporting Eall-India commodities from the Red Sea Albuberque heard of this appointment, he is faid to have

to Alexandria, which was the object he had principally in exclaimed : " I incurred the hatred of men by my love for

viev,'. Another projeft was to tranfport 300 horfe from the king, and am difgraced by him through his prepolfcf-

the illand ot Ormuz to the oppolite coafl of Arabia, and fion for other men. To the grave, unhappy old man ; it is

thus to plunder the tomb of Mahomet at Mecca, which he time thou wert there ; to the grave 1" His letter to tb«

king,

ALB

Vinjj, treommending hi? natural fon to li!s favour, clofcs
witii thefc words : " 1 fay nothing of the Indies ; tluy will
fpeak for themfelves, and for n.c." Mod. Un. Hill. vol.
\iii. p. 43 — 50.

ALBVQj.'ER(ii'E CoELHO, EowARn, inafqiiis of Baftn,
count of Fcrnambuco in Brazil, and gentleman of the
chamber to Philip IV. king of Portugal, was dillinguilhtd
by his valour in the Portuguefe army, agair.il the Dutch at
li'ahia. He wrote a " Joumal of the War," Irom the
vear I'ijO, \vhicl\ was printed at Madrid, in 410. in 1654.
He died at Madrid, in 1658. Gen. Biog.

ALBURN, or AuBURN-colour, a whitilh hrown, or a
mixt colour, partaking of red and white. Skinner derives
the word, in that fcnfe, from the Latin, alius, white ; and
the Italian, burno, from hruno, brown.

ALBURNUM, in Phytolo^\, denotes the white, foft
fubilance that lies between the inner bark and the wood of
trees, compofed of lavcrs of the former, which have not
attained the folidity of the latter. In this Hate, dealers in
timber call it the fap. i'

Albursi'm, in the Linnsean fyftem of Zoology, a fpe-
cies of Alcvosium, white, ver)' raniofe, attenuated, and
fubdivided, with terminal tubulous pores. It is found in
the Indian fea.

ALBURXUS, in Tduhyology, a fpecies of the Cvpri-
Nus of Linnaeus, and the Bleak of Ray and Pennant.

Alburnus is alfo a fpecies of the Pi rca.

Alburn us Port us cl Mons, in jincient Geo^rapby, lay
to the north of Poclhim, in that part of Magna Grxcia,
called Luc;mia.

ALBUS Pagtts, or /-^/c;//, a village of Arabia, mentioned
by Strabo, and called, according to the Greek idiom,

Albvs pi/ris, in Ichthyology, the white fifh, a name by
■which Sylvian lias diftinguiflied the fifii, more ufually called
the capilo-laciijlris, and feeming to be the fame with the
bluechub ; or, as it is more generally called, the Jentling.
It is the Cvprinus Jtfes oi the Linnxan fyftem.

ALBUSEIRA, in Geography, a fmall town of Algan-e
in Portugal, conlifting of two parifhts, and containing
about 1000 inhabitants. It is fituated on the fca-coaft,
between Lagos on the north. Faro to tlie eaft, and Sylves
to the north. N. lat. 37°. W. long. 3° 2 H.

Albuseira is alfo a lake in the ifland of Majorca, in
the Mediterranean.

ALBUTIUS, SiLUs {Ca'ius),'m Biography, znorztorof
fome celebrity at Rome, in the time of Augulhis, was born
at Novara, and advanced to the office of ./Edile ; but re-
ceiving a public infult, by being dragged from the tribunal,
in confcqucnce of a judgment he pronounced, he left his na-
tive place and fettled at Rome. Here he foi-mtd a friendlhip
with the orator Munatius Plancus, and afterwards became
his rival. In his public pleadings he was too free in the ufe
•of rhetorical figures, and funk into difrepute, fo that he
renounced the bar. In advanced hfe he returned to Novara,
where he laboured under an afthma, and having delivered a
difcourfe in juftification of fuicide, he ftarved himfelf to
death. The elder Seneca commends him as a man of eminent
f robity, for not knowing how to offer or to bear an injury.
From a paffage in Quinftilian it appears that he was the
author of a treatife on rhetoric. Suetonius de Clar. Orat.
c. vi. Qiiiii<a. Inrt. lib. ii. c. v. Gen. Dift.

Alsutii's, Titus, a Roman philofopher of the Epi-
eiircan fcft, flourilhcd about 120 years before Chrill. Hav-
ing been educated at Athens, he became fo attached to
Grecian manners, that he preferred being regarded as a
Greek rather than a Roman. According to Cicero, (Ue

A L C

Finibus, lib. i. c. J. and De Oratore, lib. iii. c.43.), Scrvola
often rallied him on account of this affeftation. Thus, he
compares his ftyle to a kind of inlaid or inolaic work.
" Qiiam Icpide lexeis compoftae, ut tcfTorulae omnes
Arte pavimento, atque emblematc vermiculato."
" How neatly arc his polifli'd words inlaid !
Not nicer (kill the artill lias difplay'd,
W'hofe ])atient hand, on fmooth mofaic ground.
Figures tliat live and fpeak, has ftrew'd around."

Whilll he was propraetor of Sardinia, he celebrated a
kind of triumph in his province ; and this arrogance induced
the fenate to refufe him a " fupplication" or pubhc tliankf.
giving to the gods in honour ot his exploits. On his return
from Sardinia he was accuied of peculation in his office, and
feiitenccd to exile. He withdrev/ to Athens, and devoted his
remaining days to the ftudy of philofophy. Although he
poffefled fome talents for oratory, they were of the inferior
kind ; and he had no claim on the character of a ftatefman
or a philofopher. From the farcattic appellation of " Grse-
cus Homo," bcftowed upon him by Cicero (in Brut.) he
appears to have been an affefted trifier. Gen. Dift.

Albutius, Aruntius, Calpetanus and Rabrius,
four phyficians, all lived in the time of Auguftus, and ac-
quired confiderable wealth bv pradtiling medicine at Rome.
Haller, Bibl. Med. vol. i. p. '166.

Albutius, John Peter, a celebrated philofopher and
phyfician of the 1 6th century, taught medicine at the Uni-
verilty of Padua, for forty years, where he alio praftiltd, we
are told, with great reputation and luccefs, particularly in tlie
plague which raged in that city, in the year 1577. Fie died
Februai-y 14th, 1583, aged 75 years. His fon John Francis,
who fuccecdcd him in his practice, procured him to be buried
at the church of St. Cuftorga, at Milan, where a handfome
monument was railed to his m.emory, with an infcription, at
once celebrating his talents, and virtues, the piety of liis
fon, and the gratitude of his fellow citizens.

ALBUZINSKA, a fortrefs which the Czarina poiTeffed
on the river Aniura, in Mongalian Tartary, about 1200
leagues from Mofcow.

ALBY. SeeALBi.

ALCA, in Geography, a fmall and very fertile ifland in
the Cafpian fea, on the coafl of Tabriflan.

Alca, yiui, in Ornithology, a genus of the order of
Anferes, in the Linna:au fyftem, and of the Palmipedes, in
the diilribution of Latham ; the characters of wiiich arc,
that the bill is without teeth, Ihort, comprefied, convex,
frequently furrowed tranfverfely ; the inferior mandible is
gibbous before the bafe ; the noftrils are behind the bill ;
and the feet have generally three toes. This genus compre-
hends 12 fpecies, t/'s. 1. A. tonhi, with four furrows on
the bill, and a white hne on each fide running from the bill
to the eyes. This is the alca of Chilius, Wormius, and
Briffon ; the plautus tonfor of KJeiu ; the pingouin of
Buffon ; and the razor-bill, auk, or murre of Pennant, Rav,
Willughby, Albinus, Edwards, and Latham ; the falk of
Martin, and the marrot of Sibbald. This fpecies weighs about
22| ounces, its length is about 18 inches, and alar breadth
27 ; the bill is two inches long and black ; the grooves of
the upper mandible are four, and of the lower three, and the
wideft of them is white ; the infide of the mouth is of a fine
pale yellow ; the head, throat, and whole upper fide of the bodv
are black ; the wings are of the fame colour, except the tips of
the leflTer quill-feathers which are white ; the tail conlifts of 1 2
black feathers, and is fliarp pointed ; the whole under fide
of the body is white, the legs are black. The female, favs
Buffon, wants the white ftrcak between the bill and die eye,

bat

A L C

b>>t lis lluoat is white. Tliefe birds, in company wiili the
giiilltmol, appt:ir in our fcas in tlit bcginrir.jr of Fcbn a' y ;
hut do not fettle in their brteding-phKes till they begin to
lay, about the beginrting of May. When they take puf-
feiiion of the ledges of the higheft rocks that hang over the
fea, they lit clofe together and in rows one above another,
and form a very groteu|ue appearance. 1'hcy lay only one
egg at a time, which is of a large fv/.a, in proportion to tliat
of the bird, being three inches long, either white or of a
pale fea-grcen, irregularly ipotted with black ; it this egg
be deftroyed, both the auk and the guillemot will lay an-
other, and if this be taken, a third; as they make no nell, they
depofit the egg on the bare rock, poifmg it in fuch a manner
as no human art can effecil, and fixing it by means of the
vifcous moiftin-e that bedews its iurface on its exclufion ;
and though fuch multitudes of eggs are contiguous to each
other, each bird dlllinguiflies its own. Thefe eggs ferve
as food to the inhabitants of the coafts which the birds fre-
quent, and are procured with great hazard by perfojis let
down with ropes, held by their companions, and who for
want of liable footing, are precipitated down the rocks and
perifli together. Thefe birds are found in the northern
^arts of America, Europe, and Afia. They come to breed
on the Ferroe illands, along the weft of England, and on
the ifle of Wight, where they add to the multitude of fea-
fowl that inhabit the great rocks, called the Needles. Their
winter retidence is not pofitively afcertained. As they cannot
remain on the fta in that fealon, and never appear on fliore,
nor retire to foutliern climates, Edwards fuppoles that they
pafs the winter iu the caverns of rocks, which open under
water, but rife internally as much above the level of the
flood as to admit a rccefs, and here, as he apprehends, they
remain torpid, and live upon their abundant fat. The pace of
this bird is heavy and iluggifh ; and its ordinary potture is
that of fvvimming or floating on the water, or lying itretched
on the rocks or on the ice.

z. A. f>ic:!, A. minor of BriiT. mergus of Bellon. Aldrov.
Johnft. Will, and Ray, alca unifulcata of Brunii. and Muller,
and black-billed auk of Pennant and Latham, has its bill
fraooth and comprefTtd, the whole under fide of the body,
and the tips of the pollerior wing-quills, wliite, and its legs
red. This fpecies weighs l8 ounces, its length is 15J
inches and breadth 2J inches; the bill is of the fame form
with that of the preceding, but is entirely black. Tlie
cheeks, chin and throat, are white ; in all other rel'pefts it
agrees with the former fpecies. It has been found on our
coalls in winter, when the other fort has left them. It is
very common in Greenland, where it breeds on the cliffs,
feeds on marine infefts and grows very fat. In winter thefe
birds pafs the day in the liays, and in the evening retire to
the fea. The Greenlandcrs eat their flcfli half putrid, fuck
their raw fat, and clothe thcnifelves with their fl<ins. When
this bird is dreflfed with its entrails, it is cfteemed by thofe
people a great delicacy. Some have doubted whether thefe
birds migrate fo far fouthward as the Mediterranean, whilft
others affirm that they have been found on the coaft of
Candia ; and Mr. Latham fays, that they are common in the
bay of Gibraltar, where they have been particularly noticed
on account of the adroitnefs and ailivity with which tliey
plunge into tlie water, and move through it in purfuit of their
prey.

The A. lah'ica of Brunnick, with black tail and wings, is
a variety of this fpecies.

3. A. irnpeimis, A. major of BrliTon, mergus americanus
of Clufius, choenalopex of Moehring, golrfngtl of Clufius,
Kieremb. and Jonft. Penguin of Worm. Will. P..ay, Martin,
Edvvards, &c. gare of Sibb. grand pingouin cf Bu.Ton,

A L C

and grc.ti auk of Pennant and I>atham, has its bill 00m-
preflid and furrowed on both luks, and has an oval fpot on
each tide before the eyes. Its length to the end of its toes
is three Icel ; the bill to the corner of the mouth is 4}
inches ; part of the upper mandible is covered with (hort,
black, velvety feathers ; the head, neck, back, tail and
wings are of a glofTy black, the tips of the icIFcr quill-
feathcrs white, the wj^jle under fide of the body white, and
the legs black. The wings are fo fmall as to be ufekfs for
flight, their length, from tlie tip of the longeil quill-feat hers
to the firll joint, being only 44 inches ; and thefe birds are
therefore obierved by feameii never to wander beyond
foundings, and by the fight of them they are able to afcer-
tain the nearncfs of the land. They can fcarccly even walk,
and of courfe continue on the water, except in the time of
breeding. According to Mr. Martin, they breed on the i(lc
of St. Kilda, appearing tliere in the beginning of May and
retiring in the middle of June. They lay one egg, fix inches
long, of a white colour ; and if the egg be taken away, no
other is laid in the fame feafon. Some eggs are irregularly
marked with purplifh lines crofiing each other, and others
are blotched black and ferruginous about the thicker end.
Mr. Macaulay, in his hillory of St. Kilda, p. 156, obl'erves,
that this bird does not vilit that ifiand annually, but fome-
times keeps away for fevend years together ; and that it lays
its eggs clofe to the fea-mark, as it is incapable, by the
fliortneis of its wings, of mounting higher. Birds of this
fpecies are faid not to be numerous ; they feldom appear on
the coafts of Noi-way. They are met with near Newfound-
land and Iceland. They do not refort annually to the Eerroc
iflands, and they rarely defcend more to the fouth in the
European feas. They feed on the cyclopterus, and fucli
fllli, and on the rofe-root and other plants. The fl<in3
are ufed by the Efquimailx for garments. The akpa of the
Greenlandcrs, which is about the fize of a duck, with the
back black and the belly white, and which can neither run
nor fly, is fuppofed by M. BufFon to be this bird. Thefe
birds live in flocks at fea, and never approach the land except
in very fevere cold ; and in this cafe they are fo numerous
that they cover the water like a thick dark fog. The Green-
landers drive them on the coaft and catch them with the
hand, as they can neither run nor fly. At the mouth of the
Ball river they afford fubfiftence to the inhabitants in the
months of February and March, and their down fcrves to
line winter garments.

4. A. arilkn, anas arftica of Cluf. Ray, Worm. Will.
Olear. Alb. and Sibb. lunda of Nieremb. and lonft. frater-
cula of Briflon, bowger of Martin, puffinus anglicus of
Gefner, macareux of BnflFon, and puffin of Peunant and
Latham ; has its bill comprefled, channelled on cjieh fide
with four furrows, the orbits and temples white, and its
upper eye-lid pointed. For a further account of this fpe-
cies, fee Puffin.

5. A. aha, uria minor of Briflon, mergulus nielanoleucus,
with a fliort fliarp bill of Ray, fmall black and white diver
of Will, and Edwards, Greenland dove or fea-turtle of Albiii,
rotges of Martin's Spitzb. and little auk of Pennant and
Latham, has a fmooth conical bill, the whole under part of
the abdomen and the tips of the pofterior wing-quills white,
and the legs black. The bill is fhort, ftrong and black ; the
cheeks, throat, and under fide of the body white, the crown
of the head, hind part of the neck, back, tail, and wings
black, the inner coverts of the wings grey, the fcapiilar
feathers black and white ; the legs and tect covered with dirty
grecnifli white fcales; the webs black. The fize of the bird,
from which this defcription was taken by Pennant, was not
fuperior to that of a blackbird. Mr, Edwards dcfcribca

another

A L C

n- '.'ur varyinjT very littk- from this, whic'i lie ir.'n.Mncs
il.:;.:a only in fcx ; the hi-aJ and neck are wholly bl.iik and
tho inner coverts of the wings h?rrcd wilh a dirty white,
(imeliii mentions two varieties, viz.. A. a-.tiilid^u or white
of Rrnnniek, and the A. witli a red breaft. This fpecics
inhabit!) America and Europe, cfpecially in the arctic fea,
ii fonnd fomelimes among (ragtrenls of ice, abont nine
inches long, as to the difpofition of its legs, neft, food, and
manners refimbhng the other fpeci.->, but more capable ot
walking, laying two bhiifli white eggs, flying fwiftly, and
heooniing fat in ftormy weather, in confequence of the fniall
filh that arc brought within its reach ; whiitl at reft on the
water or fwiinming, it is perpetually dipping its bill in the
water. In Greenland it is called the ice-bird.

6. A. Idbradorira, or kibrador auk of Pennant and I-a-
thani, has a kecl-fliaped bill, its lowcrinandiblc angulated, the
linear noftrils covered with an obfcure membrane. The bill
is narrow, the upper mandible of a dark red colour, the
lower whiti(h,fpotted with black, the temples dull white, the
throat, wings, and (liort tail of a dark colour : and tho legs
red. It is about 12 inches long, and found in the countiy
of Labrador.

7. A. crijlattlln, or crefted auk of Pennant and Latham,
has its bill (omewhat afceiiding, conoidal, crimfon-coloured,
white at the tip, with a furrow nmning on each fide of the
lower mandible from the throat, and a crefted front. It is
about the fize of the thrufli, 12 inches long, and found in
the illands adjacent to Japan, and in Bird ifland, fituate be-
tween America and the northern part of Afia, in the day
fwimming on the fea, and at night in the rabbit holes of the
fliorc and the clefts of rocks.

8. A. tetiacuh, or duflcy auk of Pennant and Latham,
has an afcending bill conoid, of a dingy brown colour, the
Jowcr mandible triangular, and the front fomcwhat crefted.
It is II inches long, and found in the fea of Kamtfchatka,
on the fea by day, and in the night concealed in the rabliit
holes, caves and fiftures of rocks, where it forms its neft ;
it walks and flies very indiff"erently, ftands ereft, fwims
fwiftly on the water, and dives well.

9. A. pfillacula, or peiToquet auk of Pennant and La-
tham, has its bill fubovated, compreffed and crimfon-co-
loured, with a fnigle fnnow in each mandible, with a white
Ipot in the middle of the upper eye-hd and below the eye.
The head and upper part of the body are duflcy, the lower
whitifti, varied with black edges ; from the remote corner of
each eye a tuft of white feathers hangs down the neck ; the
tail is veiy ftiort, the legs of a dirty yellow, and the mem-
brane connecling the toes brown. This fpecies is about
the fize of the httle auk, is found in the fea that lies between
the nortliern parts of Afia and America, fometimes by day
in flocks fwimming on the water, though not very far from
land, unlcfs driven out by ftorms, and in the night harbouring
in the crevices of rocks. About the middle of June they lav
upon the rock or fand a (ingle egg, about the fize of that
of a hen, of a dirty white oryellowllh colour, fpotted with
brown, which is efteemed good. Thefe birds, like others
of the fame clafs, are ftupid, and are moftly taken by the
natives, who place thcmfelves in the evening amono- the
rocks, dreffed in garments of fur with large open fleeves,
into which the birds fly for flicker as the night comes on,
and thus they become an eafy prey. They fometimes at fea
niiftake a fliip for a roofting-place, and thus warn navigators
of their being near the land at the accefs of night, or on the
approach of ftorms.

10. A. Cirrhata, macareux of Kamtfchatka of BufFon, or
tufted auk of Pennant and Latham, is entirely black, has
four furrows in its bill, the fides of the head, the fpace

A L C

about the eyes, and tho corner of the throat white, anil
a yellowifti hmgitudinal tuft from the eye-brows to the nape.
This tuft is white near the head, and afterwards of a buff-
yellow ; the bill and legs are crimfon. It refembles the
pulfin in its appearance and manners, but is fomewhat larger,
being about 18 inches long; fwimming about for whole
days in the fea, where it dives well, and ocj.ifionally flies
fwiftly, but never departing far from the rocks and iflands ;
and feeding on flirimps, crabs, and flicll-fifli, which it forces
from the rocks with its ftrong bill ; in the night it comes to
fliore, burrows about a yard deep under ground, and makes
a nell with feathers and fea-weed, in which it lodges with
its mate, being monogam.ous. It lays one egg in May or
June,' which is fit to be eaten and ufed for food, but the
•flefli of the bird is hard and infipid. This fpecies inhabits
the fiiores of Kamtfchatka, the Kurile iflands, and thofe
-that lie between Kamtfchatka and America. The young
women of Kamtfchatka form an ornament of the glutton's
flvin, in die fluipe of a crefcent, which they fufpend behind
each ear, refcmbling the tufts of this bird ; and a prefent
of this kind from a lover to his miftrefs is in high eftima-
tion. The bills mixed with thofe of the common puffia,
and the hairs of the leal, wctc formerly regarded by theiJc
people as a powerful amulet : they are now ufed as an
appendage to their drefs, and the flcins of the birds are fewed
together as garments. This bird is called by the natives,
monichagatha, or mitchagatchi, and igilma.

X I. A. o.nliqua, or ancient auk of Pennant and Latham,
has a black bill white at the bafe, covered with down, a
frnall whitifli creft on each fide of the head, and another
long white one on the neck. The crown of the head and
throat are black ; the back, wings, and tail are fuliginous.
This fpecies is fomewhat larger than the little auk, being
almoft 1 1 inches long, and is found near Kamtfchatka, and
the Kurile iflands.

12. A. pygmea, or pygmy auk of Pennant and Latham,
has a black bill, the crown of the head, neck, back, wings,
tail, and feet of a duflcy colour, the throat and breaft grey,
the abdomen dirty white. The bill is furrowed on the back
and (lightly bent at the ends. This fpecies is lefs than the
little auk, or feven inches long, is found in large flocks about
Bird iflands, between the northern parts of Afia and America.
See Linnsns by Gmelin, BufFon, Pennant, and Latham.

ALCABENDAS, in Geography, a fmall, but beauti-
ful town of Spain, in New Cartile, fituate about three or
four leagues north of Madrid. N. lat. 40° 35'. W. long.
3° 26'.

ALCACAZON, in Botany, the name of a plant, vhich
is produced in the neighbourhood of Colima in Mexico,
and which the inhabitants reckon a catholicon in all decayed,
enervated, and emaciated conftitutions. The natives apply
the leaves to the parts chiefly affefted, and judge of their
efficacy by their flicking or falhng off.

ALCACENAS, in Geography, -a. fmall town of Portugal,
fouth-eaft of Evora, upon a branch of the river Zadeon,
N. lat. 38" 25'. W. long. 6" 21'.

ALCADETE, a fmall town of Spain in New Caftile,
on a fmall river which runs near it into the Tagus. N. lat.
39° 30'. W. long. 3" 56'.

ALCADIN of Syi-acufe, in Biography, a learned phi-
lofepher and pliyfician, taught medicine at Salernum, towards
the end of the 1 2th centur}'. He was phyfician to the emperor,
Henry the Sixth, and wrote an account of the virtues of
the baths of Puzzoli, in verfe, which is inferted in a col-
leftion of treatifes on baths, printed at Venice, 1553, fol.
and again in a work, " De Balneis Puteolorum Bajorum,
&c. Naples, 1591. 8vo.

ALC.ff;US,

A L C

ALC^US, in Claf^cc! Bsogmphy, a famous Greek lyiic
pott, v;is l)oni at Mitylcne in the ifiiiid of LtlboE, and
flu;n-iflicd in the 44th olympiad, about 604 years before
Ciirift, and was cor.tar.poraiy with Sappho, to wlioni it is
faid he was afieClio-.^ately attached. A verfe, inlinuating
his pairion to Sappho, with her anfwer, is prcfervcd by Ari-
i\otIe, ( Rh.et. lib. i. c. 9.), thius trar.ilatcd :

Alcxus. — " I fain to Sappho would a wiHi impart.

But fear locks up the lecret in my iieart."

iiappho. — " Thy down-call looks, refpefl , and timid air,
Too ])lain tlie nature of thy widi declare ;
If lawlels, wild, inordinate deiire,
Did not with thoughts impure thy bofom fire.
Thy tongue and eyes, by innocence made bold.
Ere now the ieeret ot thy foul had to'd."

The invention of lyric poetry is by fome attri1)uted to
Ali?eus, and it feems to be implied by Horace (Od. xxxii.
lib. i.), unlefs he only intimates that he invented liie barbi-
ton, or harp. I'Vom hijn, however, the lyric mcafure,
called " the Alcaic vcrle," derived its name. He was no
l<-fs a votaiy of Mars than of love and the mufes. He
fiveiiuouliy alTtrted the liberty of his countiy againll the
tyrants who ufurped di)niinion, and particularly againll Pit-
tacus ; and took up arms in its defence. But his courage
failed hivn in the day of battle, and he attempted to fave
hin.feif by flight, when liis party was defeated, but wa'S
taken priloner by Pittacus, who gcneroully granted him
both his life and liberty. He was afterwards fentenced to
exile ; but what was the iffiie of his conflifts, and liow and
where his life terminated, hitlory does not inform us. Ho-
race feems to intimate, that he became a eorfair. His
poetical talents have never been difputed. His p.oems, of
which only a few fragments now 'remain, collected by Ne-
andrus, H. Stephens, and Urfinus, were written in the
^^'2a!ian dialeft, and in the meafurc of his own invention.
The fubjecils of them were very various, fonietimes ama-
tory and bacchanalian, but more generally grave and poli-
tical. They are defcribcd by Horace in the following verfes:

" F.t te fonantem plenius aurco,

Akxe, pletfro dina navis.

Dura fug-.c iruda, dura belli !

Utrum.que facro digna fdentio

Mirantur umbrie diccre : fed magi.

Pugnas, et exactos tvrannos

Dcnfum humeriibibit aure vulgus."

Od. xiii. 1. li.

" Alcaeus ftrikes the golden ftrings.

And feas, and war, and exile fmgs :

Tluis while they llrike the various lyre.

The ghofts tlie facred founds admire ;

But when .Alcieiis lifts the ftrain.

To deeds ot war and tyrants flain.

In thicker crowds the fljadowy throng.

Drink deeper down tlie martial fong."

Francis.
Q^iinckilian (Lift. Orat. lib. x. c. I. toni. ii. p. 896. Ed.
Barman.) lays, th.at his ilyle was concife, lublinie, and accu-
rate, and mueli refembling that of Homer; but that his
pieces of the ligliter kind were inferior to his other poems.
Fabr. Bib. Gr;rc. lib. ii. c. 15. torn. i. p. 565. Rollin's
Anc. Hill. vol. ii. p. 349. Barney's Hill. Muf. vol. i.
p. 388. Gen. Dift.

There were ether ancient poets of this name (fee
Fabr. Bib. Grace, ubt fupra.) ; fuch as an Atheni;^^
tragic poet, who is laid by iome to have been the
Vot, I.

A I. C

full eompofer of tragedies; and who, according to fJui-
das, \i diiierenl troin Ale.eas, the fon of Miccim, a comic
poet, the lifth author of the ancient conudy. One of his
pieces, intitled Pafiphx-, was produced in jiis difpnte witli
Arlllophaiies in the fovnth year of the 97th olympiad.
I'hitarch (in Flamin. Oper. torn. i. p. 373.) mentions ano-
ther Alciru'i, who lived in the 149th olyn-piad, A. V.Q.
^•^^. B.C. 199, and>vho ridiculed Philip, king of Macedon,
on account of the battle which Titua Flaminiu'; gained
over him in 'I'lielfaly. An A!ca_-us of Meflenia alfo lived in
the time of Vefpafian and Titus, of whofe epigrams fome
are prefervod in the Anthology. One of thcfe is fvippofcd to
lia', e fullered a fingular kind of death for his lewdnef; ;
which was the punifliment faid to have beci ii.Jlifted by
means of a radifl', or the fifli ealled a mullet, on adulterers,
and referred to by Juvenal, Sat. x. "•- $i'. p. 295. Ed.
Cafaub.

" qnofdam moechos et mugilis intrat :"

and aha in the menace of Catullus, epig. 5:, ad Aurc-
lium : —

" Ah turn te n;ifenim, malique fati
Qiieni attraAi,", pedibus, patentc porta,
Percuncnt raphaniquc, mugilcfque."

" Ah wretched thou, and bom to lucklefs fate.
Who art difeover'd by the unfliut gate J
If once, alas! the jealous hufcand come.
The radifii or the fea-fidi is thy doom."

Alc;kus, in Mytlology, the fon of Perfeus and Andro-
meda, the father of Aniphitr\-on, the fuppofed father of
Hercules ; hence called Alcidcs.

ALCAI, in Geography, a high and fertile mountain of
Aliica, in the kingdom of Fc/., about 12 leagues from the
capital. It is inhabited by many rich and powerful peafants.

ALCAICS, in Anacnt Poetry, a name common to fe-
veral kinds of verfes ; fo called from the poet Alcxus, the
inventor of them.

The lirll fpecies of aJcaics confills of five fret, of which
the firll may be either fpondce, or iambic ; the fecond, is
an iambic ; the third, a long fyllable ; the fourth a dactyl ;
and the fifth, a daclyl, oraniphimacer : as thtfe of Horace.
" Omnes eodem cogimur, omnium
Verfatur urna, lerius, ocius,
Sors exitura."

The fecond fpecies of alcaics confills of two daclyls, and
two trochees ; as,

" Exiilium impofitura cymbas."

Btfides thefe two kinds of verfes, which are properly called

dady'i'ic alcaics, there is a third fort, called fimply alcaic ;

whereof the firfl is an cphrlte, the fecond and third are chori-

amliijis, and the fourth a bncchius ; as,

" Cur timet fla | vum Tiberim | tangere .' cur | olivum ?''
Alcaic Ode, conlills of four ftrophes, each of which

contains four verfes: the two lirll art aKaie verfes of the

firll kind : the third an iambic diameter hypercatal<jctic, f". r.

of four feet and a long fyllable : as,

" Sors exitura, et nos in a:tcrnum."

The fourth is an -alcaic of the fecond kind — Tlie entire
alcaic flrophe is as follows ;

" Omnes eodem cogimur : omnium
Verfatur urna, ferius, ocius

Sors exitura, et nos in a;ternum
Exfilium impofitura cymbse."

HoR. lib. ii. od. iii.
4 A The

A L C ^ ^ ^

, , r V r • II TT,,-,/./. r-ille iffcravatton, that the number of manufcrlpts was very con-

Th. fol'owng is alfo cf th.s fpcc.cs wh.ch Horace calls ^SS'^^^^'"' However, as rockets are not made of vellum, a

Hiina.ej Alcti ccman* : - „ . . .

" Non pi.Edenfcm multa vocaverit

Rcdte beatum ; reftius occupat

Nomen beati, qui dcorum

Muncribus fapientcr uti," occ— Od. ix. lib. iv.

AI.CAID, in mattei-s of Polly, an officer of juftiee
an-iing the Moors, Spaniards, and Portugutle.

Tiie word is alfo written alcade, alcalde, and ulcayd : lomc-
tinies alfo alvacide. '

It is originally Arabic, compounded of the particle al,
and the verb Jtad, or atad, to rule, govern, adimniJUr.

The emperor of Morocco's court confifts chiefly ot feven
or ei"-ht alcaids, his devoted llaves.

The alcaid, or governor of a city or callle in Barbai7,
hath fovereic,n juril'diclion in civil and criminnl concerns ;
and all fines and punillments are inflicled at his pha-
fure.

In fome places the alcaids arc much the fume with tlie em-
peror's tax-gatherers. .

Alcaid, among the Spaniards, &c. is a kind of inferior
judge, or minilierof julHce, who takes cognizance of caiiles
in the firft inllance, and anfwers in good mtafure to the
French prev:^fl, and an Englifh jullice of peace.

They had alfo their alcaid of the whores, who took cog-
nizance of cafes of whoredom and adultery. Tliis ofiieer
was otherwife called alcaid of honour. Du-Cangc.

AI.CALA delos Gatnks, in Geogrnphy, a very ancient
town of Spain in Seville, fituated on a mountain, and fur-
rounded by a fertile plain, lo miles eaft-nortli-eail from
Medina Sidonia.

Alcala de Guadaira, a fmall town of Spain in Seville, on
the river Guadaira, two leagues fouth-eall from Seville.
N. lat. 37° 22'. W. long, i" 6'.

Alcala de Haiares, anciently Complutiim, a town of
Spain, in New Caftile, fituated on the river Henares, in a
beautiful plain, and confifting of well-built houfes, which
form handfome (Ireets, and which are difpofed in a kind of
oval figure. N. lat. 40° 35'. W. long. 4'^ 20'. It is fur-
rounded by piazzas, where the tradefnien keep their fliops,
which are well fupplied with a variety of goods. The ad-
joining land, watered by the Henares, is fertile and well

Ic.wied writer confules himfelf with the refleftion, that the
manufcripts were written on' paper, and therefore of no
great antiquity. Michaehs's Introd. to the New Teft. by
Marfh, vol. ii.'p. 441. vol. iii. p. 844.

ALCALA real, a town of Spain in Cordova, lies in a
hilly couiiti7, but produces fine fruits and good wine. It
is \i leagues foufli-eaft from Cordova. N. lat. 37° t8'.
W. long. 4". 15'.

AucALA del R'io, a town of Spain in Seville, on the
Guadalquiver, two kagues above Seville.

ALCALI and ALCALIZATUM. See Alkali and

AlK ALIZATION.

ALCAMENES, in Biography, a ftatuar)-, the fcholar
of Phidias. Pliny, xxxvi. 5. Cicero de Nat. D. i. 30.

ALCAMOjinGcofra/Zy^aconfiderabletown of Sicily in the
valley of Mazara, about 20 miles fouth-well from Palermo.
It is fituated on high ground, in a line open cultivated coinitry-,
and well dickered by large woods of olive trees. The num-
ber of inhabitants is about 8,500. It derives its^iame from
Adalcam, the caliph's lieutenant, who, in 827, conquered
Sicily, and who erected a fortrefs in Monte Bonifati ; but
Frederick of Swabia, having difpofTcfTed the Saracens, de-
llroyed the fort, and erefted the burgh of Alcamo at the
foot of the mountain. Having pafTed through feveral Spa-
nilk families, it now belongs to the duke of Ferrandma,
heir to the poffetlions of Toledo duke of Alba. The
church is adorned with foinegood pitturesby Pietro Novello,
commonly called the Raphael of Sicily ; and with alto-
relievos of great merit by Gagini. The flreets of the town
command a fuperb view : the bed land in the vicinity is
fown with corn, the next fort is planted with vines, and the
worfl; foil is cultivated with myrtle-leaved fumach, the leaves
and flowers of which are dried and pulverized, and exported
in bags, for the puipofe of tanning fine leather. N. lat. 38" 2',
E. long. 12° ^&. Swinb. Trav. vol. iii. p. 346.

ALCANDRO, a town of Spain in Old Caftile, fituate
on the Ebro ; four leagues from Calahorra.

ALCANI, or Alkan, a town of Africa in Egypt, on
the weftern branch of the Nile, 30 miles N. N. W. of Cairo.

ALCANITZ, or Alcanis, atown of Spain in Aragon,
on the river Guadaloupe, and the frontiers of Catalonia,
15 leagues fouth-eaft from SaragofTa. It was formerly the

-•ultivated, and yields plenty of grain, good mufcat wine, capital of the Moors, but now belongs to the order of Ca-
and excellent melons. Near the town is a fpring, the wa-
ter of which is preferved, on account of its peculiar purity,
for the king's ufe, and conveyed to Madrid. This town
belongs to the archbifliop of Toledo. It has a collegiate
church, and a celebrated univerfity, which was reftored in
1494, by Cardinal Ximenes ; and in the church belonging to
it this Cardinal was buried. This univerfity pofTelfed a very
confiderable library, and many curious manufcripts. Go-
mez fays, that they coll 4000 aurei, and that among them
were feven of the Hebrew Bible. Here, it is probable,
were depofited, the Greek manufcripto ufed for the Complu-
tenfian edition of the Greek teftament. ProfefTor Molden-

hawer went to Alcala, in 1784, with a view of difcovering as Malabar and Ceylon, in Egypt, and alfo in Cyprus, and
thefe manufcripts ; bu^, to his extreme aftoniftinient, he found in all parts of Syria. The colours drawn from thefe leaves
that about 35 years before that time, a very illiterate libra- is either red or yellow, according to the mode of preparing
rian, who v/anled room far fome new books, fold the ancient it ; yellow, when fteeped in common water; and red, when
vellum manufcripts to one Toryo, who dealt in fire-works, infnfed in vinegar or alum water. The people of Cairo
as materials for making rockets. Martinez, a Greek fcho- make a confiderable traffic of thefe leaves, which they re-
lar, as foon as he heard of this favage aft, haftened to fave duce to a powder, called archenda, much ufed by the women
thefe treafures from deflruftion ; but they were aftually de- to dye their nails, hands, hair, and other parts of the body
ftroyed, except a few fcattered leaves, which are now pre- 01 a golden yellow hue. They apply it affo for the fame
fcrved in the Lbrary. It is added, as a circumllance of purpofe to the manes and tails of their horfes. This

7 cuftum

latrava. It has a collegiate church and a fortrefs, and is
fuiroundcd with gardens and fruit-trees. A fountain in
this town throws up'water through 42 pipes. N. lat. 41*^
10'. W. long. 0° lo'.

ALCANIZOS, a town of Spain in Leon, on the fn.n-
tiers of Portugal, four leagues well from Zamora.

ALCANNA, or Alkanna, in Commerce, by the Turks
called knah, a dying drug, brought from Egypt and the
Levant, being the leaves of a plant called Ugujirlum JEgyp-
tium, the Egyptian privet, or the Lawsonia ir.crmis of the
LinHocan fyllem. The tree is alfo called clhanna, tamar-
hendi, poutaletfie of Rhud, and grows in the Eafl Indies,

A L C

A L C

cuftom amongfl the oriental nations is veiy ancient, and has
gLMieral'.y prevailed. This powder has been alfo iilVd as an
;i|l;rinjreiit, for the purpofe of dryirio^ ulcers of the gums,
and for removing tlie fa'tid finell of the feet ; and nvmy
other virtues are afcribed to it by Rumj)liius. It is feldom
met with in the fhops, but may be iifed without injury.
The root of tlic Anchusa tlnfiona is fubdituted for it,
principally for giving a red colour to tincflures, decoflions,
and ointments. Murray. Mat. Med. vol. ii. p. 112. 1:9.

From the berries of Alcanna an oil is extrafted of a veiy
agreeable fmell, and which has been of fome ufc in phyftc,
as a calmer, called oil of Cyprus, a name which is fometimes
alfo given to the plant. Phil.Tranf. abr. vol. x. pt. ii. p. 741.

ALCANTARA, in Gcogmphy, a fmall but ftrongly
fortified town of Spain in Ellremadura, fituated in a fertile
courtry on the banks of the river Tagus. It takes its name,
wliich fignifies a ftone-bndge, from an old bridge, erefted
in the time of the emperor Trajan over the Tagus, at the
expence of feveral Lufitanian nations. This bridge was
200 feet high, 670 in length and 28 broad ; and on account
of the bridge the Moors built the city. A chapel hewn out
of a rock at the entrance of the bridge, was dedicated by
the ancient Pagans to Tnijan, and by the Chriftians to St.
Julian. It was taken from the Moors in 1 2 14, by Al-
phonfo IX. king of Caitile, and given to the knights of
Calatrava, who aftenvards alhnned the name of Alcantara.
In April 1706, it was taken by the Portuguefe and the
earl of Galloway, and retaken by the French in the Novem-
ber following. It is 43' leagues weft-fouth-weft from Ma-
drid, and 38 weft from Toledo. N. lat. 39° 32'. \V. long.
7" 12'.

Ar.cANTAKA, or Alcamtarili-A, a town of Spain in
Andalufia, near the Guadalquiver, five leagues from Seville.

Alcantara, adillriclof Portugal, about a league from
I-,i[bon. On a hill in this dillridl there is a remarkable mine
of faltpetre.

Alcamtara, one of the m.ift confiderable rivers of
Sicily, rifes on the north fide of mcimt ^tna, and marks
out the boujidary of the mountain for about 60 miles. In
many places its courfe has been interrupted by the eruptions
of the volcano ; and in, others, its current, which \i veiy
rapid, has worn down the fohd lava to the depth of 50 or
60 feet. Its rife is attributed to the melting of the fnows
on the mountain ; as its waters refemble by their whitifh
colour thofe that ran from the Glaciers amongll the Alps.
Erydone's Tour, vol. i.' p. 119.

Alcantara, O/v/fr 0/", an ancient mihtary order of Spain,
which took its name from the city above-mentioned. The
prccife year of its inftitution is not fettled among antiquaries.

The knights of Alcantara make the fame vows as thofe
of Calatrava, and are only diilinguifhcd from them by this,
that the crofs fleur de lis, which tliey bear over a large
white cloak, is of a green colour : they polTefs 37 com-
manderies.

By the terms of the furrender of Alcantara to this order,
it was ftipulated, that there ftiould be a confraternity be-
tween the two orders, with the fame praftice and obfervances
in both ; and that the order of Alcantara (hould be fubjeft
to be vifited by the granj-mafter of Calatrava. But the
former foon rtlcafed themfclves from this engagement, on
pretence that their grand-mafter had not been called to the
cleftlon of that of Calatrava, as had been likewife ftipu-
lated in the articles.

After the expulfion of the Moors, and the taking of
Granada, the fovereign of the order of Alcantara, and that
of Calatrava, was fettled in tUe town of Caftile, by Ferdi-
nand and Ifabclla.

. In r540, the knights of Alcantara fucd for leave to
marry ; whicli was granted them.

Tl'.e hiftory of this order was chiefly taken up in expe-
ditions againil the Moors, and broils wiili their neighbours.
See Calatrava.

ALCAR^KZ, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the
canton of la Mancha in New Cafliic, fituated on' an emi-
nence near the river Guardamena, in a very fertile country,
defended by a ftrong caftle, and rrmaikablc for an ancient
aquedudl. It is famous for a breed of fmall horfes tliat arc
very fleet and ftror.g. It is ten leagues north of the coniinci
of AndiJufia, 43 fouth of Ciien/.a, and 55 fouth-eail of Ma-
drid. N.lat. 38- 28'. \V. long, z^ 3'.

ALCARIZ, a town of Spain, in the province of Galli-
cia, on the river Arnoya, eight miles fouth of Orenfc.

ALCARRAZAS, in I'ollc-y, aie a kin.l of vefliels ufej
in Spain for cooling water. What diftinguifiics them ef-
ftutially from other kinds of earthen ware is their porofity :
this is fo confiderable as to allow the liquor to ooze flowly
through, and iland in fmall drops on the outfide ; hence
there is a conftant evaporation from their furface wjicn im-
merfed in a current of warm air, by «hich means the wa-
ter remaining in the jar continues at a temperature much
lower than that of the atmofpherc.

Thefe veftels appear to have b?en firft introduced into
Spain by the Saracens ; and their ufe has fiiice been ex-
tended into all the Spanish colonies in America and India.
They have alfo been known from time immemorial in
China, Hindoilan, Perfia, Arabia, Egypt, and Syria.

The moft celebrated manufactory of this kind in Spain,
is at Anduxar in Andalufia, the beft earth for the purpof,;
being found in the neighbourhood, on the bank of the
little river Tamuforo. This is a kind of white marl, con-
fifting principally of carbonated lime, with about 30 per
cent, of filex, and a little alumine, and oxyd of iron.

The procefs of the manufafture is very fiinple, and is
as follows. The fredi dug eurtli is firft dried in t!ie fun
till it becomes pulveri/.able ; and when beaten to powder
it is paffed through a fine fieve, in order to fcparatc with
accuracy all the ttones and coarfe fand that may be mixed
with it : being then put into a wooden or copper vcffel
with water, it is tjcmpered by hand to the confiftencc of
a foft uniform paJle. In this ftate it continues twelve
hours, and is then fpread upon bricks, previoully covered
with wood adics, till the appearance of cracks upon its
furface, owing to the draining off of part of the moifture.

This firft preparation being completed, the tempered
earth is v/eighed and put into a broad (liallov.- ve/Tel, where
it is trodden with the naked feet, and at the fame time
mixed with fait, in the proportion of feven pounds for
every 150 of eaith, to be made into large jars, and of
half the above quantity of fait for the manufafture of
jugs and other fmall articles. The reafim of this difference
is obvious : the greater the vefTcl is, the thicker mufl its
fides be, to give it the necefiary A length ; but as its po-
rofity would be diminirtied in the fame proportion, a greater
quantity of fohible matter mufl be mixed with the earth.
After this a lufficicnt mafs of the material being put on a
potter's wheel, it is fiiaped in the ufual maimer into a jar
or other veCTel ; being then gradually dried, it is baked in
a common pottery oven for 10 or 12 hours, according to
the heat, care being taken that the fiilt be not i'o far de-
compofed as to become infoluble in water.

There is fcarcely a houfe in Spain where Alcarrazas are

not in conflant ufe. Being filled ft-ith water, and cxpofed

for a few hours to a current of air, a very fmall poitioii

of the fluid is loft by evaporation, and the remainder will

4 A 2 ha«e

A L C

have acquired a degree of coolncfs very gralcful in ihat
wann cliinate.

Ertremaduni pofTcfTes a mnnufa^^ure of largo red jars
called Bucaroi, which are applied to the fame piirpofcs as
the true Alcarrazas.biit are much inferior, in being lefs porous,
a:.d commuiiicatiiig to tlic water an iinpteafant earthy taftc.

Another ufc to which thcfe vetfels are apphed in Portu-
gal, is that of moiftehi;ig fnuff or tob-icco. Tor this pur-
pofe, the jar being filled with fnuff is placed in water,
which filtering through its fides very flowly, gives in a few-
hours, to t!ie incloled powder, the rcquifite humidity.
Journal des Mines, vol. vi. p. 791.

The editor of the Journal de Phyfique is of opinion that
the mixture of foftil meal with con'.mon potter's earth
might afford an uleful fubftitute both for the Alcarra-
las and the filtering i^onis. The />^/ m«;/ is that earth of
whieh the floating bricks of Tuicany arc made; and
which, according to the teftimony of Pliny and Strabo,
was anciently found in great plenty, both in Afia and
Spain. To the propofed ufe, however, of this fubilitute,
the earthy fiivour which it would communicate to the water
is a radical objection.

ALCAPAR, Louis dp, in Bio^?jnphy, a Spnnifli jcfuit,
was born alSeville in 1554, and was at firil a teacher of philo-
f.iphy, and afterwards of divinity at Cordova and at Seville
for above 20 ycirs. He dircfted for fo many years his chief
attention to the fludy of the book of Revelation, and his
work oii this fubjtft, intitled, " Vefligatio arcani fenfus in
Apocalypfi," is much efteemed among the Catholics, and
has been printed feveral tirtcs. Grotius is faid to have bor-
rowed many of his ideas from this book. Hii v/orks, com-
prehending a commentary on fuch parts of tlieOldTeft.as had
in his judgment any relation to the Apocalypfe, and includ-
ing a treatife " On Sarred Weii;hts a.id Meafures," and
another " On bad Phvficians," form two folio volumes.
Heydcgger in his " PiTyfterium Bibylonis magns," pub-
lifhed at Leyden in 1687, has examined fome of his apo-
calyptic hypothefes. Alcafar died at Seville, June 16,
1613, at the age of 60 years. Gen. Dift.

ALCASSAR, or Alcazar, in Gc-igmphy, formerly
Cifar al Cabiris, a city of Africa, on the coaft of Barbar)',
in the kingdom of Fez. It is faid to have been built by
Jacob Almanzor, about the year ilSo, during his war
witli Spain, and intended as a depot for the immenfe flores
that were coUeftcd for this purpofe. It was formerly the
reCdence of a governor, and a town of good trade, till
the Portuguefc m:icle thcmftlves mafters of it in 1458 ; but,
though it was not long in their poifLflion, it gradually funk
into decay, and lies now in a ruinous condition. Its fitua-
tion is fo low, that it is overflowed with water in the win-
ter, and molefted with heat in fummer. The ftorks
of this place are fo numerous and fo familiar, that they
occupy ihe tops of tlie houfes and mofques without mo-
Icftatioa ; the inhabitants elteeming them fjcred birds, and
thinking it finful to difturb them. The bafhaw of Tetuan
now appoints a governor for this town, vs'hich is the laft of
his dominions towards Mequinez. In the vicinity of this
town, there is a ridge of mountains running towards Te-
tuan, whofe inhabitants are a band of robbers, whom it
has not been polTible to reftrain or extirpate, as they find
an inacceffible fhelter in their mountainous forefts. It was
near this town, on the river Elma-haffan, that a famous
battle was fought in 1578, when three kings were flain,
vii. Abdemeleeh king of Morocco, Mahomet the ufurper,
and Scbaftian king of Portugal. The Portuguefe indulge
a fanciful notion, that Scbaftian was tranfported to an en-
chanted iUapd, and they expeft his return to eflablilh their

A L C

power, and to render their kingdom the firft on the globe.
Thiscity, N. lat. 35' 15'. W. long. 12° 35'., is called Jl-
cajfiir qu'ibir, or the great caftle, to dilliiiguiHi it from the
alcaffar of the next article.

AlCassar 7^iqu\r, or Ccguer, q. d. the link palace-, a
town or fortrefs of Africa, in the kingdom of Fez, be-
tween Tangicrs and Ceuta. It was taken by Alphonfo
kin" of Portugal, in 1458, but foon after abandoned to
the Moors. It lies on the fouth-fide of the ilraits of Gi-
braltar, and a (hallow bay between two points of land, af-
fords anchorage for {hips, and on the well of this are two
long nanow islands, parallel to the coaft. N. lat. 35^ 4.8'.
W. long. 5° 36'.

Alcassar de Gittte, a town of Spain, in New Caftile, al-
moin between Cuenza and Guete, with which it forms nearly
a triangle. N. lat. 40° 10'. W. long. 2° 16'.

Alcassar do Sal, a town of Portugal, in Eftremadura,
fix leagues from the fea, on the confines of Alentejo,
guarded by a caftle, wliich is faid to be impregnable. The
I'alt-work in this town yields very fine white fait, and gives
it its name. Of the ruflies that are gathered in the ad-
joining fields, mats are made for exportation. N. Lt. 3S*
J 8'. W. loug. 9° 10.

ALCATILE, a town of India in the Carnatic, weft
of Madras.

AECATRASES, an iiland in the Pacific Ocean, about
21 leagues from Acapiilco ; and half a league from tliC
continent. N. lat. 15" 50'. V/. long. 102^ 30'.

ALCATRAZ, in Omithalogy, a aame given by the
Spaniards, alfo by Fernandez, Hernandez, and Nieremberg,
to the PELICAN of Mexico; and erroneoufiy by Clufiu*
and others after him, to the Indian horn-bill, or buceros-
Ilydro-oiax.

A LC AVAL A, in Politics, a tax upon transferrable
property impofcd by the Spanifli government. It was
at firft 10, afterwards 14, and at prefent it is only 6 per
cent, upon the falc of every fort of property, whether
moveable or immoveable ; and it is repeated every time the
property is fold. The levying of this tax requires a mul-
titude of revenue -officers, fufficient to guard the tranf-
portation of goods, not only from one province to another,
but from one (hop to another. It fubjects not only the
deiders in fomc forts of goods, but thoie in all forts ; every
farmer, every manufaAurer, every mercluint and (hop-
keeper ; to the continual vifits and examinations of the
tax-gatherers. Through the greater part of a country,
in which a tax of this kind is ellablilhed, nothing can be
produced for diilant fale. The produce of every part of
the country mud be proportioned to the confumption of
the neighbourhood. It is to the Alcavala accordingly,
that Uilaritz imputes the ruin of the manufadlures of
Spain. He might have imputed to it likewife, fays a very
competent judge, the declenfion of agriculture ; as it is
impofed not only upon manufactures, but upon the rude
produce of the land.

In the kingdom of Naples, there is a fmiilar tax of
three per cent, upon the value ot all contracts, and confe-
quently upon that of all contrails for fale. This is both
lighter than tlic Spanifh tax, and the greater part of towns
and pariihes is allowed to pay a compofition in htu of it ;
which compofition is levied in any mode they pleafe, and -
generally fo as to give no inteiTuption to the interior com-i
merce of the place. The Neapolitan tax is therefore not
nearly fo ruinous as the Spanilh one. Smith's Wealth of
Nations, vol. iii. p. 381.

ALCAUDETE, in Geography, a beautiful town of
Spain, in the province of Andalufia and diftrlcl of Cordova,

between

A L C

A L C

between Cordova and Jaen. N. lit. 37° 35'. W. long. 3°
26'.

ALCAZAR, or Alca9.\r, Andrew, of Guadalaxara,
in New Callilc, in Biogi\iphy, a cflchratcd pliyfu-iaii of the
l6th century, publidicd in 1575, at Salamanca, " Cliiiiirgix
libros fex, in qinljus niulta aiitiquDnnn ct i-eccntioiinn
tububfcura loca haoftcnus nun declaiata inti-rpiotantin-," fol.
In the fifth book, iic treats, " De pudendagra vcl inentagra
vcl lichenis, vidgo, morbo Gallico." He contend;! this dif-
eafe was known to the antients, and cites Pliny, and various
other writers in proof of this poiition ; b\it admits, that in
certain ilagcs of the difeafe, it is only to be cured by mer-
curial innndion. See a full account of this work, and a
refutation of his opinion of the antiquity of the lues, in
Allruc's trc-itife, IJe Morbis Venereis, vol. ii. p. 792.

ALCl'l, in Ancient Gcogr.ipbi, a town of I'eloponnelus,
mentioned by Plutarch, in his life of Cleomenes. Alee is
alio, according to l^ivy, a town of Spain, belonging to the
Celtlberiaus. It is likevvife a name given by Pliny to a river
of Dithynia.

Ai.cE, in Orni'halogy, a fpecies of auk or alca.

Alck, in Z'jo!o;iy, a fpecies of Ctrvus. See Elk.

ALCEA, Hollyhock, ATuhui of Tonrnefort, \n Bo-
tany, a genus of the monaJc-Ipljin polyandria clafs and oi'der,
01 the natural order of colunnuferte, and the malvatftc of
Juffieu. Its charafters are, that the calyx is double, each
^one-leafed ; the outer cut half way into fix parts, permanent
and very fprcading ; the inner cut half-way into five parts,
larger and permanent ; the corolla confifts of five, obcordate
emarginate, fi)reading petals, coalefeing at their bafes ; th.e
llamina are filaments uniting into a fort of five-angled cy-
linder at bottom, loofe at top, and inferted into the corolla ;
tfie anthers almoit kidney-lhaped ; the pillillum has a germ
crbiculate, ftyle cylindric, (hort, lligmas about 20, fetaccous,
of the length of the ftyle ; the pericarpium is compoled of
many jointed arils, in a ring round a columnar flatted re-
ceptacle, parting and opening on the infide ; the feed is one,
flat, icidney (haped in each aril. Schreber and JufTicii join
this genus to Althnsa.

ProfefTor Martyn enumerates three, and Gmelin five
fpecies ; lu's. 1. A. rofe^i, common hollyhock, with leaves
{innate-angular. 2. A. fmcnfis, with cordated, rough, cre-
nated, angular leaves, and ftem below ramofe. 3. A. acaul'u,
with numerous cordated rotundo-lobatcd leaves, fpicate
flowers, and a ftcm thick and very fmall. 4. A. c'jroman-
ddiana, witli fubtriangular crenated obtufe quinquenerved
fubtriiobe leaves, and folitarv flowers. The A. AjYicana or
African PL of Martyn, is delcribed as having leaves three-
lobed crenate, flowers folitary axillary, both calyxes fix-
parted. 5. -4.. jfc//b/;(3, fig-leaved H. with inferior palmat-ed
fevcn-lobcd crenated leaves, the fuperior haftated. Linnxus
doubts, whether the firft and fifth fpecies, above enumeratcd,-
are diilinft, and feems to think that the laft is a variety of
the tird. But Prof. Martyn obferves, that the difference in the
form of their leaves always continues. Ixith thefe forts were
cultivated by Gerard in 1597. AUione fays, that the holly-
hock grows wild in the county of Nice. The colour of the
flowers is accidental, and the double flowers are only varieties
proceeding from culture. The various colours that have
been noticed are white, pale, red, deep-red, blaekifh-red,
purple, yellow, asd flefh colour. Prof. Martyn intorms us,
that he has feen fome plants with variegated flowers, laifed
from feeds which were brought from China. Although
thefe varieties of double hollyhocks are not conftant, yet the
greateil number of plants, prod.;ccd by feeds carefully faved
from the molk double flowers, will arife nearly the fame with

the plants from which they were taken, provided they are
kept feparale from lingle or bad coloured flowers.

The hrll ipecies grows naturally in China, the fifth in
Itlrui, and has alfo been brought ftoin Madras. Lin-
nj-us refers it to Siberia. A dwarf fort, with beautiful
double variegated flowers, has been for fome years in great
elleem, under the name of Chinefe hollyhock. Thefe plants,
though natives of warm countries, are fuiliciently hardy to
thrive in the open air in England, and iiavc contributed much
to the ornament of gardens towards the clofe of fummer.
In large gardens, they make a fine appearance ; a fucceflioii
ot fj)ikes arifing on the lame Hem for two nicniths. The
flowers on the lower part of the fplke appear in July, and
new flowers will be produced till tlie end of September. In
good ground tlie llalks will often rife to the height of eight
or nine feet, and near lix feet of each will be g irninud with
flowers. The African hollylmck is a native of tlie eallcrn
fliorc of Africa ; and the alcea indica of iiurin. ind. p. 141;,
agrees with this in having three-lobed crenate leaves ; Init
difters trom it in having the flowers terminating and yellow ;
with the inner calyx five-cleft. The hollyhocks are propa-
gated by iceds, whicii ihould be faved from jdants of the beil
colours and of the moit double flowers, and they fliould be
fown in a bed of light eartli, about the middle of April,
and covered about half an inch deep. Wlicii the plants
have put out fix or eight leaves, they iluiuld be tranlplaiited
into nurfery-beds, at a foot diilance from each other, water-
ing them till they have taken root, and afterwards keeping
them clean from weeds till Oiitober, when t'ley fliould bo
removed to the fituation where they are to remain.

Alcea. See Hibiscus and Malva.

Alcea FloruLiyia. See Gokdonia.

ALCEjE, in Entymulrj;^f, a Ipeci'es of Papilio Plehjus,
with divaricated wings, of brown and cinereous colour, the
primores marked with points, and the pollerior cinereoun
underneath; found in the fouthern parts of Ruflia.

ALCEDO, L}r.r-JtJhcT, in 0:-nilholo^y, a geiuis of the
order of Picx. The characters are, that the bill is thrte-
fided, thick, llraight, long and pointed ; the tongue is flelhy,
very {liort, flat and fiiarp, and the feet are fm- the moll pan
grellory. The fpecies enumerated by Gmelin, befides fe-
vcral varieties, ainount to 41. Thefe birds are diiperfed
over the whole globe ; inhabiting chiefly the water and living
upon fi(h, which they catch with furprifing alcrtnefs and
Iwidlow whole, rejetting afterwards the undigelted parts ;
though their wings are fhort, they fly fwiltly ; their pre-
vailing colour is iky-blue ; their nollrils arc fmall, and ge-
nerally covered. I. A. criftiUa, A. amboinenfis criilata of
Seha, Ifpida philippenfn, criilata of Brifl'on, vintfi of JMilTon,
and crelted king-filher of Latham, is (hort tailed, ll'.y-bluc
above, rufous beneath, and has its creft undulated with
black. The bill is black, crcft grcenilh, on eadi fide of
the neck is a bluifh Itreak beginning from tlie eye ; the
fhoulders, the upper coverts of the wings, and the margins
of the wing-teathers and tail-fcat'hers, and the whole
of the intermediate tail-feathers are violet, the chin
rufous, tlie throat rufous, and white, the wing-feathers,
brown, and the legs with the claws reddifli. It is about
five inelies long, and found in Amboyiia and the Philippine
ifles. The ifpida indica criilata, or A. criilata elegantiliima
pifta of Scba is a variety. 2. A. hhhi, fpotted king-fi'her
of Edwards and Latham, is (hort tailed, grccnifh, yiUov/
beneath, with a nebulous p.cdtoraI fafeia. 'i'he bill is black,
the line above and behiw the eyes yellow, the wings punc-
tated with wiute, and the feet red. It is feven inches long,
and found in Guiana. 3. A. ifpida:, ifpida of Gcfncr, Ray,

' Otn,

A L C

Olin. Aldr. >nd BrlfT., alcyon of Cefn. and Aldr., martin-
potheuror nlcvon of Buffon, king-fin>cr of Alhin. and Will.
Jiuropcan kiiijj-fiflier of PeniKint, and common kmg-fillici- of
Latham, is (hort-tailcd, )l<y-Wiie above, fuKous below, and
its ftrapn are rufous. This bird is fcvcn iiu-lics long and 1 1
broad, of a clumfy fiiapo, the head and bill being very large,
and the leg? dilpioportionatcly fmall ; the bill is two inches
long, the iippfr mandible black, and the lower yellow ; and
the iridtfs are red; but the colours of its plumage amply
lompcnfate for the inelegance of its form. The crown of
the head, and the coverts of the wings are of a deep blaekilh
l^reen, fpottcd with bright azure ; the fca]>ular feathers and
coverts of the fail are alio of a rcfplendcnt azure ; the whole
undcrlide of the body is orange-coloured, and a broad mark
of the fame palfcs from the bill beyond the eyes ; beyond
that is a large white fpot ; the tail is Ihort, and conlilts of
12 feathers of a rich deep blue ; the feet are of a reddifh
vcllow ; the three lower joints of the outmoll toe adhere to
the middle toe, and the inner toe adheres to it by one joint.

The king-iilher freijuents the banks of rivers, and feeds
on fith. It takes its prey fomewhat in the manner of the
.ifprey, balancing itftlf at a certain diltancc over the v.ater
for fome time, and then ihirting below the furface brings
ihe prey up in its feet. When it remains fufpendcd in the
air, in a bright day, the plumage exhibits a moll beautiful
variety of the moil dazzling and brilliant colours. To tliis
attitude the ancients refer ; for Ihycus, quoted by Athcnxus
(Deipnof. lib. ix. p. 3R8.) rails thcfe birds ^'avj-.v.; Tc.tvn-l-^'i,
the halcyons with expanded wings. It mal-.es its ncll in
holes in the fides of the cliffs, which it fcoops to the depth
of three feet, and lays from five to nine eggs, ot a mod
beautiful femi-tranfparent white. The nell is very fcrtid, on
account of the rcfufe of fifli w ith which the young are fed.
It begins to hatch its young early in the feafon ; and ex-
cludes the firft brood in the beginning of April. Whilft
the female is thus cmphiyed, the male is unintermitting in
his attention, fupplyinghis male with iifli in inch abundance
thr4 (he is found at this feafon plump and fat. He ccafes
to twitter at this time, and enters the neil as quietly and
privately as poflible. The young are hatched in about 20
days, but differ both in fizc and beauty. The ancients be-
lieved that the halcyons were fo amorous, that the male died
in the embrace, and Arillotfe afferts (lib. ix. c. 14. ) that
they ber;'n to breed when only four months old. The Ipecies
now dcforibed is the aXxvk'M^vx:, or mute halcyon of Ariil.
(Hid. An. 892.105.) which he defcribcs with a precifion,
to which he is not accullomcd. His defcriptlon of the bird
!«; followed by thr.l of the neft ; whicli, he fays, refembled
thofe concretions that are formed by the fea-water ; that it
■was like the long-necked gourd, hollow within and having
a narrow entrance, fo that if it ovcrict the water could not
enter ; that it relilted any violence from iron, but might
be broken with a blow of the hand ; and that it was coni-
pofed of the bones of the Bf^om, or fea-needle. The neil
was called halcyoneum, and inedical virtues were aferibed to
it. Mr. Pennant inclines to credit part at leall of Arillotle's
account, as to the form of the neil, which agrees with the
defcription given of it by Count Zinanni; and as to the ma-
terials of which it iscompofed, and the fragments of bones
ind fcales of fifh that were found in it, he adds, that thofe
who v.-ill not allow this to be a bird that frequents the fea
fljould recoUeft that Ariftotle made his oblervatlons in a
milder climate than our's, and yet from Zinanni we learn,
that even in Italy the king-fiiher breeds in May on banks of
llreams that are near the fea, and the ancient Stagirite
allows, (Hill. An. 1050.) that the halcyon fomctimes af-
ccnded rivers polTibly to breed. M. Buffun is of opinion,

A L C

tliat the lialcyonia, of which Pliny, (lib. xxxii. 8.),
itckons four kinds, and which fome have fnppofed to be the
ncfts of king-!ilhers, are only clufter.s ot Ica-wceds ; and
with regard to the neils of Touquin and China, whicl; a:c
elleemed fiich delicacies, a. id have alfo been aicnbed to the
halcyon, they are the indifputabic prodi'ftions of the efeulcnt
fwaliow. On the precaiious foundaliou laid by Ariftotle,
vciy abfurd and incredible tales have been tornied by lub-
fequcnt writers ; and the poets, indulging the powen; ot
imagination have added many ticlions to the account of the
philofopber. Accordingly the neil has been reprefented as
a floating one :

" Incubat halcyone pendentibus a-qiiore nidio."

Ovio. Met. lib. xi.

It was therefore neccffary to place it in a tranquil fea, and
to fupply tlie bird with charms to allay the fury of a tur-
bulent element, during the feafon of incubation. At
that time it had, therefore, controul over the feas and the
winds :

" X' a\xuo»:? ;of<iT£i/»1i t» y.u/iola tuvte SaXarir*!'
Tot Te voloy, to» r'ti/^ov, If to-^ola ^uxia >uvsi.
A>.Kiovi^f yXxiK^i; N»^t)((7» -rut n ^aXirai
Ofn9av s?)iXa9£»." — Thf.ocrit. Idyll, vii. I. 57.

" May halcyons fmooth the waves, and calm the feas,
And the rough fuuth-eall iink into a breeze ;
Hakyons of all the birds that haunt the main,
Moil lov'd and honour'd by the Nereid train."

Fawkes.

Thcfe birds were equally favourites with Thetis, as well as
the Nereids :

" Dilefta; Thetidi Halcyones."

ViRG. Georg. i. 399.

As if to their influence thefe deities owed a repofe in the
midfl of the ftorms of winter, and by their means were fe-
cured from thole winds that didurb their fubmarine retreats,
and agitated even the plants at the bottom of the ocean.
Such are the accounts given by the Roman and Sicilian poets.
Arillotle and Pliny tell us, that this bird is mod common in
the leas of Sicily ; that it fat only a few days, and thofe in
the depth of winter ; and during that period the mariner
might fail in full fecurity ; for which reafon they were diled
Halcvon-c/7)'j-. By the poets the king-fiflier was alfo made
a bird of fon>r. Vir<ril ranks it with the linnet :

" Litoraq.uc Alcyouen refonant, Acalanthida dumi."

Gcorg. iii. 33S.

And Silius Italicus celebrates its mufic, and its floating nell :

" Cum fonat halcyones cantu, nidofque natantes
Inimota gedat, fopitis fluclibus, iinda."

lib. xiv. 275.

But thefe poets have probably transferred to this fpecies the
powers of long that belonged to the alctdo of the philo-
fopber (HilL An. 892."), which was vocal and perched upon
reeds ; and which', according to his account, v.as the Italt
of the two, but that both of them have a cyanean back.
Bclon fuppofes the vocal aleedo to be the greater reed fpar-
row, lurdiis ani/idiriaccus of Linn-.rus, a bird of a fine note
and converfant among reeds ; but Mr. Pennant dillents from
his opinion, becaufc the colours of 'the latter are vei-y plain,
and conceives that the aleedo vocahs of Arillotle is one of
the lod birds of the ancients. Some have even doubted,
whether the king-fillier of the moderns and the alcyon of
the ancients are the fame bird. But the defcription of Arif-
totle fufiiciently identifies them. The alcyon, fays that

phllofophcr.

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pKiIofop?ier, (lib. ix. 14) is not inuch larger than a fp;ir-
row ; itsp!i;mage is paiiittd with bhu' and green, and lightly
tinged with purple ; thefc colours art not diftincl, but
melted together, and (hining varioufly over the whole body,
the wings Und the neck ; its bill is yellowifh, loiig and
fletidcr. The habits of thefe birds alfo rcfemble one another.
The alcyon was folitary and penfivc ; and the king-fi(her is
almofl always feen alone, and the pairing feafon is of (liort
duration. The former was not only an inhabitant of the
fea-fhore, but haunted the banks of rivers, and the latter
lias alio been found to feek fliell-fifli and large worms, that
abound on the (hore of the fea, and iu rivulets that flow
into it. Alcyon was fcldom feen and rapid in its flight ; it
wheeled Iwittly round fliips.nnd inftantly retired into its little
grot on the fliore. The !ame charaifler belongs alfo to the
Jcing-tifher. The alcyon and the king-fiflier have the lame
itiode of taking their prey, by diving vertically upon it. The
king-tiflier is the moll beautiful bird in our climates, as to the
richncls and luxuriance of the colours of its plumage. It
has, fays Buffon, all the fliades of the rainbow, the bril-
liancy of enamel, and the glofiy foftnefs of lilk ; and Gef-
ner compares the glowing yellow rerl, which colours the
breafl, to the red glare of a burning coal ; and yet the king-
filhcr has ftraycd from thofe climates where its ref])lendent
and glowing colours would appear to the greateft advantage.
There is a fpecies that is common in all the iflands of the
South Sea; and Forfter, in his obfer\-ations in Capt. Cook's
fecond voyage, has remarked, that its plumage is much
more brilliant between the tropics than in tlK' regions fituated
beyond the temperate zone, in New Zealand. In the lan-
guage of the Society iflands, the king-tiflier is called Erooro,
and at Otaheite it is accounted facrcd, and not allowed to
be taken or killed. King-fifliers were found not only at
Otaheite, but in Huaheine and Ulietea, and in the iflands
that are fcattered over the vSouth Sea, though they are more
than 1500 leagues diilant from any continent. Thefe king-
fifliers are of a dull green, with a collar of tlie fame about
their neck.- The iflandefs entertain a fu])erftitious veneration
for them. The chief at Ulietea intreatcd Capt. Cook's
com.panions, in a very ferious tone, to fpare the king-filliers
and herons of his iiland, giving penuiffion to kill all the
other birds. There are 20 fpecies in Africa and Aiia, and
eight m.ore that are known in the warm parts of America.
The European king-fidier is fcattered through Afia and
Africa ; m.any of tliofc fent from China and Egypt are
found to be the' fame with ours, and Belon has met with
them in Greece and in Thrace. This bird, though it derives
its origin from the hotted climates, bears the rigour of our
fealons. It is feen in the winter along the brooks, diving
under the ice, and .emerging with its prey. The Germans
have called it eiflvogel, or ice-bird ; and it has been found
even among the Tartars and Siberians. The Tartars and
Oftiaes ufe the feathers of thefe birds for many fuperllitious
purpofes. The former ufe them as love-amulets ; pretend-
ing that thofe which float on water will induce a woman who
is touched with them to fall in love with the perlon who thus
applies it. The Oftiacs take the fl<in, the bill arid the claws
of this bird, and enclofe them in a purfe ; and whilft they
preferve this amulet, they think they have no ill to fear.
Credulity has admitted and reported many other fmillar tales
concerning the extraordinary powers and virtues of this
bird ; but it is needlefs to recite them. Its flefh has
the odcur of baftard muf!<, and is unpalatable food.
Although thefe birds are found in cold as well as warm
climates, they are often found dead under the ice. M.
Daubenton has preferved fome of them alive for fevcral
months, by feeding them every day with young fry, which
is their only proper uouriflmient ; for they rejeft every other

A L C

kind of food ; and they may be kept in rooms for fome time,
provided that they are placed near bafons of wafer full of
fmall fifli. Olina defcribes the method of taking them, at day-
break, or in the dufl< of the evening, by letting a trap at tlic
edge of the water ; he adds, that tliey live four or five years.
4. A. n'ithaca, ifpida bengalenfis torquata of Biiflon, mar-
tin-pccheur a front jaime oV BulFon, Bengal K. of Albin.
and red-headed K! of Latham, is fliort-tailed ; its back is
blue, its abdomen yellow, its head and rump purple, its
throat and nape whit -. The bill and the feet arc red. This
bud is about the fize of the lall; fpecies, fomewhat more
than llx inches long, and is found in Bengal. There is a
variety called A. minor, or red-headed K. with the head
and neck of an orange-red colour. 5. A. madag.ifcnntnjis,
martin-pecheur dc Madagafcar of Buffon, rvfous K. of
Eatham ; has a fliortilh tail, rufous body, white throat,
blackifh tail feathers ; the bill and feet are red. It is five
inches and a half long, and inhabits Madagafcar. 6. A.
Jiiperdl'wj'a, ifpida Americana viridis of Brilfon, martin-
pecheur vert and orange of Uu.Ton, little green and orange K.
of Edwards, and fupercilious K.^of Latham ; is green
above, white below, with a green band, and ye-Uow eye-
brows. It is about lix inches long, and found m America.
Buffon had it from Cayenne. 7. A. alcymi, ifpida criftata
carohnenfis of Brifl'on, alcyon of Ray, king-liflier of
Catefhy, and belted K. of Pennant andLatham ; is lon^
tailed, creded and blulfh, with a white abdomen, ferrugi-
nous breail, and a white fpot before and behind the eyes.
There are three varieties, viz.. ifpida lud(;viciana, martin-
pecheur of Louifiana of Buffon, or crab-catcher of Sloanc ;
ifpida Dominiceniis crillata of BrilTon, martin-pecheut
hupe de St. Domingue, and jaquacati of Buffon, or
American K. of Edwards ; and ifpida Brafilicnfis criilata
of Briflbn, and jaquacati-guacu of Marcgrave, Ray and
\Villughby. This fpecies inhabits America, and feems to
migrate from Hudfon's Bay to Mexico, where it is eaten,
though it has a rank filthy tafte. It is about 13 inches
long, feeds on ti(h, ncilles in high banks, into which it
penetrates in a horizontal diretlion, lays four white eggs,
and hatches in June. 8. A. torquata. See AcH ALALACr i.i.

9. A. capenjis, ifpida capitis bona; fpei of Briffon, martin-
pecheur a gros bee of Buffon ; is Ihort-tailed, afli blue,
below fulvous, its breafl. brick-colour, and bill red. It is
14 inches long, and found at the Cape of Good Hope.

10. A. Siiu^ahnfis, ifpida Sencgalenfis major of Briffon, A.
fcmiccErulea of Forik, martin-pecheur a tete grife of
Buffon ; is long-tailed, flcy-blue, below white, with a hoary
head, and coverts of the wings black. There are thretf
other varieties, v'fz,. A. bluifli green, and below yellowifh,
the crab-eating K. of Latham ; the A., with the heail
and neck obfcurely white ; and A. above flcy-blue, below
rufous-yellow, and white throat. This fpecies inhabits
Arabia and Africa, and particularly the banks of the
Senegal, where they are numerous ; and the name of the
K. is, in the language of the counti-y, Baboucard. The
fecond variety is found in St. Jago and AbyfTinia. 11. A.
Smyrneiifis, Smyrna K. of Alhinns and Latham ; is long-
tailed, ferruginous, with green wings, tail and back. It
is found near Smyrna. There are two other varieties, W-s.
the great Gambia K. of Edwards, found in Gambia and
Madagafcar, to inches long ; and the great Bengal K. of
Albim.s, found in Bengid, and on the coaft of Malabar ;
9 and lo-J inches long. 12. A. rudh, ifpida ex albo et atro
varia of BrilTon, martin-pecheur pie of Buffon, black and
white K. of Edwards and Latham ; is fliort-tailed, black
variegated with whitifh, and below white. It is 11 inches
long, and found in Afia and Africa. This bird is about
the fize of the Royilon crow, and its cry is not unlike

that

A i; c

that of the common ciow. ij. A. dfa, ifpiila tcinatana
of lifilfon, iiiailin pcilicur ".i lonjjs brlns of Ikifion, Tcr-
ni'.e K. of Lalhain ; has the i«o tail-iimll'. VC17 long, at-

• ,.,-d in the middltf, ils body dark bluifli, and it:i wings

•\\. .S(.ba culls rbii bud, on aci-ount of its beaut}',
I. I .1 iTiph of Terr.ate ; and In: fays, tliat the feathers on
t'.ietail are onc-lliird lon;jcr in (lie male than in the female.
It u 13 inches lonp;, and inhabits the illaud of Teniate.
14. A. parai/'ff.i, fralbula lonjricauda of Brifl'on, jacaniar a
lor'jue qMC'je' of Butlon, Iwallow-lailed K. of Edwards,
and patadifc jacamav of Latham, has the two inttimediate
tail-fcalhcrs v'eiy Ion;;, the body grccnilh gold, and the feet
fc»n)o'y. The bill of this fpecies is quadrangular, acumi-
intcd and Mack, the legs are black, and pluniofe as tar as
the tovs, the hrad is violet brown, the throat, neck, and
]-^el coMTtN of the wings are wliite ; the two middle tail-
( .'.'trs art longer than the others by an inch ; the plumage
\ , generally of a dull deep green, in which are dillinguillied
foine oi.ii'go and violet relleC^ions. Tlie female is diRin-
puiflred noiii the male by tlie two middle quill:; of the tad,
^rhieh are much (hortcr, and by its plumage being deltitule
of the oraiige and violet refledion?. Tliefe birds inliabit
f'lrinatn, live on infeCls, fly to great dlftances, and perch on
tl'c tops of trees, go in pairs, not being lo lolitary and lo
fedentary as the other jacamars ; nor have tliey the lame
warble, but a cry or foft wluftle, which is heard only at a
fmall dillance, and fcldom repeated. 15. A. i;ii!//i;/ii, gal-
b'.ila of Briilbn, jacamaeiri of Mr.rcgrave, Ray, WiUiiohby,
and Edwards, jaeamar of BufTon, green jacamar of Ea-
tliani; has a wedge-ihaped tail, body gold and green, rufous
below, and its feet fcar.lory. Tiic bill is quadrangular,
two inches long, acuminated, black, with nolhils ovatcd at
the bafe, deep blue irides, white chin, fometimes yellowilli,
(liort weak plumofe legs, of a grtenidi yellow colour, and
black claws ; the plumage is of a very brilliant gold-green,
with red copper reflections. The iize is about that ot a
lark, and its length fcarccly nine inches ; it inhabits the
thick foreds and damp fituations of Guiana and Bralil ; it
is folitary, and prefers the moft fequellereJ and obfcure
coverts ; it perches on the middle boughs, and remains there
alone and"at reft for the greatell part of the day and night ;
its flight is quick, hut flioit , it lives on infcCls; it has a
feebly broken warble, which is tolerably pleafant ; and Pilo
fays, that its Heih, t'lo'.igh hard, is eaten in Bralil. Tlie
lavages of Cayenne call this bird venetou ; and the Creoles
denominate it colibri des grands bois. 16. A. orienial'u,
iipida Indica of Brifloii, eallern K. of Latham, is green,
below rufous, head, throat, band of the eye, and tail-fea-
thers n<y-blue. The bill is red ; the feet and claws black.
It is four and an half inches long, and iiihabits India. 17.
A. Suniuinunfis, Surinam K. of Latham, is fliort-tailed and
blue, whitifh below, with a rufous lire.i.il, grcenifh black head,
and tranfvrrfe green I'pols. Its l)i!l is black, ai:d tlic back
marked with black fpots. It inhabits Guiana, ncltling in
- h.'les near the waters, laying five or fix eggs, and living on
fiftl. 18. A. purpurea, purple K. of Latham, is below of
a rcddiih guld colour ; the head, rump, and tail, are rufous-
gold ; the back and coverts of the wings bluilli-blaek, the
tail-feathers bkck, and the throat white ; the tail and
feet are red ; a pnrple lir.e p^fles from behind the cye3 to-
wards the hack, terminated by blue. It is about tlie fi/.e
oi the fourth fpecies, and inhai)its India. Of all the king-
filhtrs, M. Buffon fays, this is the han<lfomell and the richell
ill colours. 19. A. c^ruhu-cephala, blue-headed K. of La-
tham, is of a blue-colour, rufous below, with a wliite throat
and blackilh tail-feathers. Tlie bill and feet are red ; and
the crown of the head of a bright blue, ilained with waves
0; a lighter blue. It is four iiielies long and inhabits

A L 0

Madngafcar. 20. A. lin-.gnir-fis, little Indian K. of I^d-
wards, and Indian K. of Latham, is bluiih-green, rufous
below, with brown tail and tail-feathers, and the head marked
tranfverfely with blue ilrtaks ; the bill is black. It is four
and an half inches long, and inhabits Bengal. The little Ir.dian
Iv. of Edw ards is a variety, which inllead of tlie nifoua ocular
band of the former, has two rufous fpots. 2 1. A. hucorhyn-
chn, ifpida Americana cjcrulea of BrifTon ; A. Ar.uncar.a or
apialhu of Seba, niaitin-pecheur a bee blanc of Buffon,
and white -billed K.of Latham, is of a bluifh-gieen colour,
yellowifli below, with the head and neck bay-coloured, the
tail-feathers cinereous, the tail above blue, and below ciiic-
reous. The bill is whitifh. It is fcarccly five inches long,
and inhabits America. 22. A. Brafilkiijir, gip-gip of Buf-
fon, and Brafdian K. of Latham, is rutous varied with bay,
brow 11 and white ; below white, with the greater tail-fea-
thers and tail rufous, marked tranfverfely with white fpots.
The bill and eyes are black, the ocular band, feet, and
claws are brown. It is about the lize of the lark, and in-
habits Brafil. Its cry, gip-gip, refen.bles the puling of
young turkeys. 23. A. Aiuerkr.r.ci, white and green K. of
Latham, is blackifii green, v.hite below, fpottcd with green,
and the fpace of tlie bread and throat rufous. The bill is
black, a white line pnfFcs from its bafebelov^- the eyes to the
oeeiput ; the feet are red ; the female has no rufous fpace
at the brcail ar.d throat, but tlie throat is white. It is f;s
inches long, and inhabits Cayenne. 24. A. b'rolor, rufous
and green K. of l^alham, is green, rufous-golden below,
with a zone waved with white ar.d bl.ick on the breafi;, dif-
tinguifhing the male, and wings and tail fjjotted with white.
It is eight inches h)ng, and mhabits Cayenne. 2^. A. ma-
ciila'a, ifpida Bral'ilieniis ii.f\ia of Brifibn, matuiti of Ray,
Vv'illughby, and BufFon, Brafilian fpottcd K. of Latham ;
is brown fpottcd with yellowilh, below white fpottcd with
brown, with yellow throat. 'I'he bill is red ; the feet and
claws cinereous. It is of the lize of tlie Ilarc, and inha-
bits Braiil. 26. A. Coir- ■-■'^■f, taparara of BufFon, Cayenne
K.of Latham, is blue, below white, with a tranfverfe black
band below the back of the head. The upper mandible is
black, the lower red, the rump azure, the tail, and tail-
feathers with a blue margin, the feet red. This fpecies is
numerous, folitary, lays its eggs in holes on the river-banks,
is nine and an half inclies long, and inliabits Cayenne and
Guiana. Tlie time of its incubation is September, and its
cry is, carac, carac. 27. A. atricapiUa, black capped K.
of Latham, is violet-blue, below white, with the head,
neck, (hoidders, and tips of the wings black, and reddilh
abdomen. The bill and feet are red. It is ten inches long,
and inhabits China. This bird is one of the moll beautiful
ot the king-lllhers. There is a variety, t/'s. A. I.nioiiicn,
found in the iikmd of Luzon, black above, white below,
with a ferruginous abdomen. 2l!. A. tiiln, relpecT:ed K.
ot Latham, is long-tailed, olive above, white below, with
white eye-brows and greenilh-black collar. The bill is
black, witli the inferior mandible white, and the feet are
black. It is eight and an half inclies long, and inhabits
Otaheite, where it is held facred by the inhabitants. 29.
A. vemrata, venerated K. of I^atham, is brown, pale be-
low, with a roundifh tail ; and the margin of the tail-fea-
thers, wing-coverts, and wing-feathers green. The bill is
black, and the feet dutlcy. It is nine inches long, inhabits
the Friendly illands, particularly Apye, and is deemed fa-
ded. 30. A. J'licra, lacred K. of I^atham, is dilute blue-
green, below white, with pale ferrngiuous eve-brows, and
the tail and tail-feathers blaekilh. There are four other va-
rieties, viz. A. with white eye-brows, A. with head greenifti
black, pule ferruginous below, and on the nape; A. with black
head, blue crown, dirty yellow eye-brow,, head and abdomen,
2 and

A L C

A L C

and blue wings and tail ; and A. with a wliite collar.
This fpeeics inhabits the Society Iflands ; the third va-
riety is found in New Zealand ; and the fourth, in the
Philippine Iflands. It is nine and an half incheu long, and
reckoned facred by tlie inliabitants. 31. A. chlororephala,
grcen-headed K. of Latham, is green, with a white neck
and black collar, the wings and tail of a fea-green. The
bill, under part of the tail, and feet, arc blackifli. It is
nine inches long, and found in Bouro, one of the Molucca
iflands. 32. A.cienilca, white-collared K. of Latham, is
blue, rufous below, with white eye-brows and collar. It is
alnioft fcven inches long, and inhabits India.- 33. A. fufca,
great brown K. of Latliam, is crelled, olive-coloured, below
whitifh oblcurely (Iriated, with the temples and back of the
head dingy wliite ; the tail roundifli, of a rutty fulvous, croflcd
with black waves, and white at the end. Tlie upper mandible
is black ; the lower white, and black at the bafe ; tb.e female
has no creft. The crown of the female and the fides of the
chin and neck of both fexes blackifli brown; the collar of the
female white, and the back olive; that of the male, at its lower
part with the rump, pale fea-colour, withafpot of the fame
in the middle of the coverts of the wings; the tail-feathers of
the female greeniib-brown ; the exterior margin of thofe of
the male blue, but black within, and at their tip, fometimcs
white at the bafe, yellow feet, and black claws. This bird
is the largeft of the kind, its length being 18 inches, and in-
habits New Guinea. 34. A. ninxJma, great African K. of
Latham, is fub-crefted, lead-black colour, pointed with
white, with white throat, black neck, and fanguineous brcaft
and abdomen. The bill is black, with linear nollrils, and
the feet are very black. It is about the fize of a crow, and
inhabits Africa. 3). A. leiicocephala, white-headed K. of
Latham, is blue-green, with its head, neck, and under fur-
face white, and wing-quills brown. It is 12 inches long,
and inliabits Java. 36. A. Jla-vicaiis, is yellowilli below,
with the head and back green ; the bill red, and the tail
blue. It inhabits the ifland of Ceylon, where it is called
by tlie natives, ten-rou-joulon. This bird is peculiarly dex-
trous in catching its prey : when it fees the fifli in the river
it darts upon it and feizes it with its bill, tranfports it to its
iielt, fublifls a day or two upon the fpoil, and fpends the
whole time in finging. 37. A. Novte Guinea, New Guinea
K. of I^athani, is black fpotted with white. 38. K.JEgyp-
i'ta, .Egyptian K. of Latham, is brown, with ferruginous
fpots, and whitifli below with cinereous fpots. The bill is
blackifli ; the throat fen'uginous-white ; the upper coverts
of the tail wholly white ; the tail afliv, the feet greenifh,
and the claws blackifli. It is about the fize of a crow,
nefts in the fycamore and palm-trees, feeds on frogs, fifh,
and infetts, and is found in Egypt. HafTelqnill has parti-
cularly defcribed tliis bird. 39. A. grandh, great jaca-
mar of Latham, is copper-gold coloured, btlovv ferruginous,
with the head and limbs green-gold, and the feet fcanfor)'.
40. A. tfidadyla., three-toed K. of Latham, is rich and
brilliant in its phmiage ; the upper fide of the head and
back is of a deep lilac, the feathers of the wings are of a
dull indigo, heightened by a border of vivid and fliining
blue that furrounds each feather ; the under fide of the body
is white ; the bill and legs are reddifli. It is about four
inches long, and inhabits Surinam and India, and the iflands
of the Indian ocean : Sonnerat found it in the ifland of
Lu9on. 41. A. fcmicii7-uha, is (hort-tailed, with the hind
part of the back, the tail, and the middle of the wings
blue, the fhoulders black, the head and breaft cinereous,
and the belly ferruginous. The bill and feet are vermilion.
This bird is foiuid near Yemen in Arabia, and is about 3
fpanlong. Linnsus by Gmelin. Latham, Buffon,
Vol. L

ALCEDO vocalis, a name by which Bellonius, Aldro-
vandus, and foine others have called the recd-fpanow.. Sec
the preceding article.

ALCES, in Enlomolot^y, a fpeeics of Lucanus, with
exferted mandibles quadridentaled at the apex. It inhabits
Afia.

Ai.CES, in Zoology, a fpeeics of Cervus. See Elk.

ALCESTER, or Alncfstkr, in Geography^ an ancient
fmall town of England, in the county of Warwick, fituatcJ
at the union of the rivers Aln and Arrow ; tlic chief ma-
nufafture is needles, and the market-day Tuefday. It is
103 miles north-well of London, and near it is Ragley, a
noble feat of the Maiquis of Hertford.

ALCHABITUS, in Biography, an Arabian aftrologer,
wrote an introduftion to the knowledge of the ccleflial in-
fluences, entitled, " Ifagogcad Magillerium Judiciorum Af-
trorum," " a Treatife on the Coiijunttion of the Planets,"
and another " On Optics." His aflrological works were
tranflated by J. Hifpalenfis, and printed at Venice in 149 1»
with explanations by Joannes de Saxonia, and in IJ21 with
the corrediou of Antony De Fantis, pliylieian of Trcvife,
in Italy. It is not known at what time Alchabitus lived.
Gen. Dia.

ALCHABUR, in Geograj^hy, a town of Afia, in Diar-
bekir, upon the Euphrates, in a very agreeable fituation,
louth-eatt of Aleppo and fouth-well of ^Iozul. It ferve*
as a relling-place for the caravans from BuiTora. N. lat. 34-'.
E. long. St 54'-

Alch ABUR is alfo a river of Afia, in the fame province.

ALCHAiVIARUM, a town of Arabia, fituated on a
high mountain, near the river Ormannus. The aceefs to it
is fo narrow and difficult, that two men can guard it. The
fumniit of the mountain is very fertile, aiid affords all ne-
cefiary fupplies to the inhabitants. This is the refidence of
an Arabian king.

ALCHARISI, JuDAH, in Biography, a celebrated Jew
of the 1 2th century, vras reckoned at tiie period in wliiclx
he lived a great poet, and undertook to tranflate tlie com-
ments of Maimonides on the Mifhna, and his Moreh Ne-
vochim, at the requeft of the Marlilian doftoi-s, who did
not underftand Arabic.

ALCHATA, in Ornithology, a fpecies of TetrAO.

ALCHEMILLA, Ladiks' Mantle, in Botany, a
genus of the lelrandria monogynia clafs and order, of tha
natural oxAcr oi fenticofx, and rofacej' ai Juflieu. Its ciia»
rafters are, that the calyx is a one-leafed, tubulous, per«
manent perianthium, witii edge flat, divided into eight feg-
ments ; no corolla; theilamina have eredt, awl-fhaped, very
fmall filaments on the edge of the calyx, the anthsrs round-
ifli ; the piftillum has an ovate germ, flylc filiform, of the
length of the (lamina, inferted at the bafe of the germ,
lligma globular ; no pericarpium, the neck of the calys
clofing and never opening ; the feeds are folitary, elliptic and
comprefTed. There are four fpecies, fiz. I. A. vulgaris,
common ladies' mantle orbearsfoot, with leaves lobcd. This
fpecies is frequent in meadows and pallures in England. It
is peveHnial, and flowers in June and July. Horfes, flieep,
and goats eat it. Cows are faid not to be fond of it ; and
yet Haller, in his Iter Hclveticum, informs us, that the
aftonifliing lichnefs of the milk in the famous dairies of the
Alps, defcribed by Scheuchzer, is attributed altogether ta
the plenty of this plant, and that of the ribwort plantain. The
whole plant is allringent. In the province of Smolundia,
in Gothland, they make a tinfture of the leaves, and give
it in fpafmodic or convulfive difeafes. In an epidemic com-
plaint of this kind, which occurred in 1754, 'twas found
of great ufe. Before this period the infulion, tinfture, and
4 Ji cstraS

A L C

fxtraiJ\ of it had bscB found cfTcftnal in milder cafes of a
finjilar kind. The root is more aullere than the herb, and
the virtues are communicated alike to water and fpirit of
wine. It does not rank among the more powerful aftringents,
nor does it defervc that high commendation which has been
bedowed upon it in himorhaje-, diarrhoeas, the fluor albus,
and the healing of wounds. "Murray Mat. Med. vol. iii. p.
1 50. There isa variety of this fpeciis, which is tlie A. minor
of Hudfon, and the A. tilpinn />iii,frens minor of Plukenct,
in which the leaves are more lilky, fmaller and whiter ; and
the Hems lefs branching, and the flowers in Icfs clullers. 2.
A. a//iina, cinqucfoil or ;Jpine ladies' mantle, with digitate
fcrnite leaves, under filky, grows naturally on the mountains
in Yorkdiire, Cumberland, Weftmorland, North Wales, and
the Highlands of Scotland. It is alfo a native of Sweden,
Denmark, the Alps, and other cold parts of Europe ; and
is admitted into gardens on account of its elegance. It is
perennial, and flowers in July, v A. aphanoides, w\t\i many
parted leaves and Hem ercA, is found in New Granada, by
Mutis. 4. A. petitaphylUa, with leaves quinate, multifid,
fmooth, grows naturally on the high Alps, as Gothard,
Furca, &c. and is only found in fome few curious botanic
gardens in this country. It was cultivated by Mr. Miller in
1748. Tliefe fpecies may be propagated by parting their
roots, for which the bell time is Autumn. They Ihould
have a muill foil and a (hady fituation. When they are
propagated by feeds, they rtiould be fown in Autumn, on a
ihady moill border, and when the plants come up, they will
only need to be kept from weeds — Marty n's Miller. Dr.
iimith (Flor. Brit. vol. i. p. 190.) has added to this genus
the ATHANF-S arvttijis of Linnsus.

ALCHEMIST, a perfon who profeiTes Alchemy.

ALCHEMY, Alchimie, Fr. Tlie fubjeft of alchemy
occupies fo large a fpace in the humiliating hiftoiy of the
mifapplication of brilliant talents, and tlie wanderings of the
human underllanding, as to juility and indeed demand a
particular enquiry into tlie caules of its origin, the grounds
of its continuance, and the reafon of its gradual decline,
and at length total retirement from public notice. Inilead,
therefore, of merely quoting the concife and farcaftic de-
finition given of it by Harris, " Ars fine arte, cujus prin-
cipium ell mentiri, medium laborare, finis mendicare," (an
art without art, originating in falfehood, and proceeding
through labour to beggar)), we fhall treat of it at fome
length, confidering firlt, the origin of the appellation ; fe-
coudly, its hiilory ; thirdly, the theory and arguments that
are nlledged in its fupport ; and fourthly, the facts upon
which it profe.Tes to be eitablifhed.

I. The word alchemy occurs for the firft time in the
writings of Julius Firmicus Maternus, who lived in the
fourth centur)-, under the reign of Conftantine. This,
however, is rather the date of the feparation between che-
miilrj- and alchemy than of the origin of either. The facl
feems to be, that a confiderable quantity of real chemical
knowledge but abundantly mixed, as the cuilom was, with
fiible and hypothefis, was poffeired by the priefts of Egypt ;
and by thefe it v.as communicated, motlly under a promife
of fecrecy, to the Alexandrian Greeks. It is probable alfo
tliat as there were feveral orders of initiation into their facrcd
rites to be pafTed through in fuccefGon by the afpiiant before
he was entrufted with their highell mylleries, fo there niight
be a fimilar rule obferved with regard to the communication
of the different fuijjeits of the Hermetic philofophy ; thus
the lovveft fecrets might be the preparation of the commoner
chemical menftrua ; the next in order might be the compo-
fition of glafs and the art of dying, both of which appear,
even in tiic time of Pliny, to hav« been chiefly praclifed in

A L C

Egypt, and contain at the prefent day more fecrets than any-
other of our chemical arts ; the knowledge of the moil
efficacious medicines would be efteemed as a proof of ftlll
higher confidence ; and from the love of myfteiy inherent in
the human mind, the moft valuable communications of all
would be that mixture of aflrology with medical and che-
mical theories, which, appearing to unfold the fecret con-
nection between the great powers of nature, flattered the
imagination with the hope of performing things wholly im-
polfible to other mortals. The aftual poliefTion and exertion
of much lucrative knowledge, and the reputation of itill
more valuable fecrets, would naturally attratl the notice of
the credulous, the interefted, and, if any fuch exifted at
that period, of the philofophers, die real difinterefted en-
quirers after fcienee. In procefs of time, as the influence
of the Egj-ptian prieithood declined by the confequences o£
the Roman conqueft and from other caufes, when too the per-
fons entrufted with the fecrets of cheraiftiy were confidcrably
increafed in number, and were diffeminated through all the
o-reat cities of the Empire, it would neceffarily happen that
many from choice or neceffity would advance no further in
the lludy than was immediately conducive to their profit, by
the refining of metals and the preparation of chemical com-
pounds of general demand and utility, while tlie more theo-
retical and myilerious parts of the fcienee would remain ia
poffeiTion of a few. The complicated economy of the
Egyptian hierarchy being broken up, and there exifting no
longer any acknowledged heads of the fcienee, the diftiniition
between cliemiilry and alchemy would immediately com-
mence. The chemifls, or artifts in cbemiftr)-, having no other
objeA in view than pecuniaiy emolument from the fale of
chemical articles, would confine their attention to the im-
provement of the particular manufatlories in which they
were engaged. The theoretical chemifts or alchemijls., on the
other hand, having in view a certain myfterious unattained
and probably unattainable objeft, would look with contempt
on the occupations of the chemift, and would confider them-
felves as in pofleffion of the only liberal part of the fcienee ;
their language partly from policy and partly from the want
of clear ideas on the fubjeft, would become more and more
obfcure, and knaves and impofl;ors would creep in among
them who would endeavour to indemnify themlelves for the
ill fuccels of their experiments by frauds and impofitions on
the unwaiy. Tlie original difference therefore between che-
millrj' and alchemy feems to have been that the former was a
mere art confilling in the preparation of fubftances by known
procefies, while the latter proceeding from general principles,
either ailumed gratuitouflv or taken up on very inadequate
proof, was always aiming through the medium of new and
uncertain experiments at the difcovery of tliofe powers which
were fuppofed to be charadleriftic of the fublimer parts of
the Hermetic philofophy.

II. It appears certain from the uniformly concurrent tef-
timony of ancient hiftor}', that Europe was originally in-
debted to Egypt for its knowledge of chemical fcienee.
This knowledge, however, was but fparingly dealt out to a
few of the Greek philofophers, at the expence of much
felicitation, and many years of ftudy by the Egyptian priefts,
as long as that country retained its independence. After-
wards, when by the viftorious expedition of Alexander, a
race of Greek monarchs was placed on the throne of the
Pharaohs, and the foundation of the univeifity of Alex-
andria had efFefted a coalition between the arts of Greece
and the fcienee of Egypt, chemiftrv being rendered more
acceflible, was fludied more generally and with increafed
ardour. The fame fpiiit, however, which pervaded their
rcfearches into mctaphyfics and theology, appears to have

auimatcd

A L C

A L C

animated their enquiries into the various branches of expe-
rimental philolophy ; a certain inyllcrious f) nipathy was
imagined between the metallic liibllauces then known, and
the heavenly bodies of our lolar fyllem ; they wore delijj-
nated by the fame names and rcpreiented by the fame cha-
raclers. Tlie great intrinfic value alio of metals and thiir
ftill greater conventional importance, efpecially of gold,
fdver, and copper, by being adopted as the general repre-
fentatives of pn)perty, naturally engaged a great portion of
the attention of chemills ; they were fiibmitted to liie adlion
of all the known menllrua, they were combined with each
other in all proportions, and as lead and copper often con-
tain fdver, and fdver is found naturally alloyed with gold,
but in fuch proportions as not to be rendered fenfible without
the aid of chemical analyfis, there would often happen in
the refults of procefTcs an unexpefted remainder of one or
other of the precious metals. Such an occun-ence, flattering
at the fame time to the two dominant paflions of the mind,
the love of fcieiitific diieovery and the defire of gain, would
be eagerly received as a proof of the mutual convertibility
of the metals, and would at once caufe all thofe entrufted
with the fecret to conline their attention to this fingle obiedf.
The fame circumftance would alfo induce a ilill greater
obfcurity of language and affeftation of myfticifm in ordtr
to conceal their procelfes from the knowledge of thofe who
were engaged in fimilar purfuits ; and all confidence in each
other being thus interdifted, the fcience would become re-
trograde,and much valuable knowledge would entirely periih.
The iirll ages of alchemy produced few writers of reputa-
tion ; their works are for the moll: part unpubhihed, and
tonfill of treatifes in Greek by Chrillian ecclefiallics, of
which the following are the principal. " Synefius, on the
philofopher's ftone." " Zofnnus of Panapolis, on the fa-
cred and divine art of making gold and filver," in 24 books.
" John, the high priell in the holy city, concerning the
holy art." " Thcophraltus, on the divine art." " Ar-
chelaus, on the lame." " Hierotheus, the philofopher, on
the philofopher's ftone." And " Ifaac, the monk, on the
diieovery of the method of making filver."

The golden age of alchemy moll ominoufly commences
with the conquells of Arabian fanaticilm in Afia and Africa,
the deltruftion of the Alexandrian library, and the fubjeftion
of Europe to the baieil fuperftition and the moft profound
ignorance. The Saracens lively, fubtle, credulous, and
nurtured in fables of talifmans and the celeftial influences,
admitted with eager faith the wonders of alchemy, and
condefcended to receive inilruftion from the Haves whom
they had conquered ; the rage of making gold fpread
through the whole Mahometan world, and in the fplendid
courts of Almanzor, Haroun al Rafchid, and Abdalla Al-
mamon, the profeffors of the Hermetic art found patro-
nage, difciples and emolument. Geljcr, Rliazes, Alfarabius
and Avicenna, the moll celebrated phyficians and chemills
of the Arabian fchool, were deeply tinged with the prevailing
infanity. From the 10th to the 13th century little is known
concerning the ftate of alchemical iludies ; the defcendants
of the Arabian wan-iors had begun to acquire a taile for
fcience when their thrones were (haken by the Crul'ades, aiid
finally overthrown by the defolating deluge of the Turkilh
barbarians. The arts again retiring from Egypt and Syri^,
relied for a moment in Conilantinople, and then withdrew to
the wellcrn provinces of Europe. In the 13th centtiry
Albertus Magnus, Roger Bacon, and Raymond Lully,
appeared as the great revivers of alchemy and chciniftry ;
for from this time, although alchemical purfuits were ef.
teemed the noblcft and moll ijuportant, yet they ceafed to
occupy entirely the atteutign of experimental philofophers.

The writings of thefe vthle men raifed the ftudy of alchemy
to a degree of credit which it little merited, efpecially among
the ecclefiallics, who poflelfed at that time almort all the
learning of the age ; and even a pope John XXII. was
weak enough to affert in his treatife on ftie art of trmf-
mutation, that he had himfelf made two hundred ingots of
gold, of the weight of an hundred pounds each. The i ;fh
century exhibits the fame combination <;f chemiftry with
a'chemy, but in which it is pleafing to difcover a great di-
minution of referve with regard to the procelfes of common
chemiftry, which are for the moft part told in fufficiently
plain language by the very men who, when treating of al-
chemy, are utterly unintelligible. The great authors during
this period are Ifaae and Jolin Ifaac Hollandus, George
Ripley, and Bafd Valentine.

Hitherto alchemy had been confined to the (ingle objeA
of ^hanging the bafer metals into filver and gold, and, the
materia medica confilling wholly of vegetable and animal
preparations, there exiftcd little or no connexion between
the chemills and phyficians. The prevalence, however, of
the leprofy and the rife and rapid progrefs of the venereal
dileafe, rendered it neceifar)- to have recourfe to more potent
remedies. The Afiatic praftice of phyfic with regard to
the ufe of mercury was introduced with the happieil uifcfts
by Carpus ; antimony found an able advocate in Baiil Va-
lentine, whole " Currus Triumphalis Antimonii," is a cu-
rious mixture of enthufiafm and knowledge. — The credit of
the Galenills began to be fhaken, and chemiftry, by thus
alTociating to itfelt the moil philofophical of the three learned
profeffions, acquired an immcnfe acceifion of abihties.

The unexptcled fuecefs which attended the firft medical
ufe of chemical preparations, awakened a new hope in
the minds of the alchemills ; and this was no Icfs than
the difcovery of an univerfal medicine, which (hould heal
all diforders, and prolong the duration of human exifttnce
to an indefinite period. The great authors of this fed
were Paracelfus and Van Helmont, who, by their vigorous
ufe of opium and mercuiy, effefted a number of important
cures, impolfible to the common Galenical practice of the
age. About the fame time flouriilied Hcmy Cornelius
Agrippa, and George Agricola, the firft of whom, half
knave and half enthufiaft, belongs decidedly to the alche-
mical party ; but the latter, though bewildered in youth,
by the fallc philofophy of his time, made ample am.cnds
to the caufe of true fcience in his maturer years, by his
admirable treatifes on metallurgy and mineralogy.

From this time we meet with few autliors of reputation
who wrote profeflcdly on alchemy, though a kind of half
belief in the thing ftill clung about even the moft eminent
ehemifts, and may be clearly traced in their writings. A
bold attempt to fuppoit the falling caule was made in the
beginning uf the 17th century by the Roficrucians, a
fecret fociety which originated in Germany, and attracted
the attcnti(ni of the reft of Europe for zj years. By
pretending however to too much, even to more than the
ancient chemills, when in tlie plenitude of their power
and inl'uencc, ever arrogated to themfelves, the fratemity
made few converts, and fpeedily funk into total difcredit.
The firft philofophical fociety, for the exprels pui-pofe of
improving natural and mathematical knowledge, was fonncd
at Naples, by Baptilla Porta in 1560; and the noble ex-
ample was followed by moft of the other Italian ftates.
The hberal fpirit of free inquiry then palling the Alp?,
eftablifhed fimilar focieties in England, France, and Ger-
many : the experimental method of philofaphizing ivas
introduced by Bacon ; public lectures in chemiftry began
to be inilituted ; and the prin.ciplts and facts of alchemy
■y a i underwent

A L C

underwent s fevere erair.iintion, from the jcfuit Athanafius
Kiiclicr, which it rtvcr afterwards recovered. The ir.ull
en-'iiient chemills now abjured aliogethcr the refcarches of
alchemy ; and it loll ground daily, as well by its own want
of evidence, as by the frauds and ij;norance of the cheats
into whofc hands it had fallen. Thus, rapidly declininfj,
it was at ItiicjtU wholly loll to the view of the fcicntific world,
and at prelent is rarely dttefted, even by the officers of
public jufticc, to whofe cart itfclf, with its ancient afi'o-
cialc allrolopy, has been commended in all the civilized
nations of Europe.

III. According to the prcfent theory, each metal is
coiifidered as a peculiar chemical element, perfeftly tmde-
eompofable by any known method, a neceflai-y confequence
of which is the utter improbability and hopelelFntfs of all
alchemical purfuits ; fince their objeft is the compofition
and decompofition of bodies which are either ablolutely
fimple, or at lead as yet incapable of furtlier analyfis.
This formidable difiicuky at the very outfet, may well
diifuadc from all modern attempts at metallic tranfmutation ;
but the great fathers of chemical philofophy ought not, in
common candour, to be lligmatized as fools or impoftors,
for ilrenuoufiy maintaining doctrines which are only, in the
prefent advanced ilatc of the fcicnce, felf-evidently ab-
furd. In tlie following fummary of the leading theories
relative to alchemy, the reader will fcarccly expeft to find
a perfect uniformity and confiftency of the feveral parts
w ith each other, efpecially when it is confidercd that they
are neccfiaiily collected from a variety of authors differ-
ing in abilities, in communicativenefs, and in the periods at
which they hvcd.

Ic appears to have been admitted on all hands, that the
metals were compounds of metallic earth and fulphur, (by
fulphur was merely underftood any pure inflammable fub-
ftance). This earth being fuppofed to exift in a larger
proportion and lefs mixed with fulphur in mercury than
in any other metal, it came in time to be commonly known
by the name of mercurial earth. Gold, as being the moft
fixed and unchangeable of the metals, was confidered as an
intimate combination of pure fiJphur and mercurial earth,
while the other metallic bodies were thought to contain,
befides thefe two eflential parts, various impurities. Of
this opinion, Geber, Roger Bacon, Ripley, Homberg, &c.
were ilrenuous advocates ; and it is efpecially to the latter
of tliefe chemifts that we owe th.e developement of this
theory, together with a memorable experimental argument
in its fupport. Having expofed regulus of antimony to
the aftion of the great buming-glafs of the Duke of Or-
leans, he found that it increafed -j^th in weight, and at the
fame time became more fixed : a fimilar effeft was pro-
duced by expofing merciiiy to a digefting heat for fome
days ; it wps converted into a red powder of greater fixity
than the original mercv.iTi had gained in weight, and
upon expofure to a red heat was almoft wholly volatilized
and reconverted into mercm-v, except a fmall portion of
white hard ponderous metal wLich remained behind. From
this experiment, Komberg deduces the following conclu-
fions : that the pure fulphur of metals is folar light ; that
it unites with, and incrcafes the weight of all m.etals that
are expofed to its aftion, except gold ; that it gives them
a greater fcity ; and that, although when loofely com-
bined v;ith mercury it only changes it into a red powder,
yet by the further aftion of heat a part of the mercury
becomes faturated with this fulphur, and is converted into
a hard fixed metal while the reft: is volatihzed. To thefe
experiments, important as they were fuppofed lo be at the
time of their invention, the fuperior accuracy of modern

A L C

chemiAry would objeft, that the gafeoiis produfts were
wholly overiooked, and that the fixed metallic refidue from
the decompofition of the mercurial oxyd, is oi;ly a proof
of the original impurity of the mercury employed, fince
no attempt was made by a repetition of the procefs to
cfieit the fixation of the whole of the mercury. Fn)m
thefe aud fimilar experiments, however, the old chemifts
drew t}\e inferences already mentioned ; and by beaiing tliis
in miiid, it is eafy to difcover the objefts which they had
in view, in fuch of their proceffcs as they condefcend to
publifh in intelligible language. There were fuppofed to-
be two metliods of making gold, by fynthefis and tranf-
mutation. The former of thefe was effefted by the direifl
combination of the pure fulphur of metals and mercurial
earth ; hence we fee the reafon of the numberltls dilHlk-
tions and digeftions, and procefles of all kinds for depriving
fulphur of its impurities, and bringing it to the lall ilatc
of reftificalion or exaltation : hence alfo the multiplied ex-
periments on quickfilver, in order to give it fixity in the
fire : this method however was genendly acknowledged to
be fo difficult, that few alchemills have even pretended to
be able to do more than fix the mercury. The art of tranf-
mutation was carried much further : it was taken for
y-ranted that the objeft of Nature, in producing metals,
was the formation of gold, as being the moft perfeft of
thefe fubttances ; and that tlie failure, in all cafes, was
owing folely to the interpofition of certain impurities : it
was known alfo, that the common methods of refining de-
pend:;d on the feparation of tlie precious metals from the
bafcr ones, with which they were mixed and contaminated ;
the conclufion, theretcre, did not feem a priori, very ex-
travagant ; tliat, by an improvement in the art of refining,
fuch of the cheaper metals as appeared the moft to refemble
gold, might be freed from thofe impurities in which the
whole difference between them and gold confifled. Lead,
from its fpecific gravity, and copper, from its colour, were
the principal fubjefts of experiment ; and when it is con-
fidered that arfenic was not yet difcovered to be a metal',
and the amazing effefts of this fubftance in difguifing the
properties of gold, inftead of being furpiifed at the ac-
counts of tranfmutations, the principal wonder is, that they
are not ftill more numerous and fupported by more unex-
ceptionable evidence. The fubftance capable of effefting
this extraordinaiy change was called the elixir, or medicine
of metals, the tinfture, the powder of projeftion or phi-
lofopher's ftone, a very fmall portion of wliich was adequate
to the tranfmutation of a very large proportion of lead
or copper ; and by ufing a greater quantity than neceflary
of this powder, the gold refulting from the operation ac-
quired the property of afting itlelf as an -elixir. Such is
the fimpleft and moft confiftent theory of the great '-.lorl;
as delivered in tiie writings of the beft and moft philofophi-
cal of the alchemills, nor when its real importance is con-
fidered in regard to chemical fcienco and many of the
arts, when too it is remembered wliat numerous and un-
fufpefted fources of error exifled at that early period of
chemical inveftigation in which it flourifhed, and the im-
pofing theory whereby it was fupported, fhnl! we lightly
ftigmatife thofe who honeftly devoted mp.ch of their time
to tlie purfuit, with the opprobrious appellation of perti-
nacious folly.

IV. If we were to enter upon a m.inute examination of
the evidence, by which the principal inftances of tranfmu-.
tation are fupported, it wou'.d extend this article beyond its
due hir.its ; the documents befides are fo equivocal, and the
witnefTes fo fufpicious or incompetent, that the enquiiy
would but ill repay the trouble : in the room of this, therc.^

fore.

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fore, we fliall lay down fome general confidcrations, which
by their agreement or dilagTeemtnt with any particular
cafe, will enable us to fonn a prohable judgment of its
truth or falichood. Nor is this, althougli a iummai-y way
of treating the queftion, unfair or unallowed. In any
fyftem that is offered to our belief, if we can' point cut
a fundamental eiTor or contradiction, we may well exeufe
ourlelves from dileiiftmg the proofs adduced in favour of
detached parts. With what ftreiigth of evidence are many
Itories of apparitions and witchcraft fupportal, how ge-
nerally were t'ley believtu at the time of their occurrence,
aiid how univerlally are they flighted and ridiculed at pre-
fent, not from any new flaw dilcoverable in the evidence,
but from their variance with general principles and ex-
perience J

That the philofopher's ftone never exifted, that no metal
has ever yet, by human art, been produced or decompofed,
is highly probable, from the convincing proofs which have
been afforded by the progrefs of chemical philofoph) , of
the fundamental errors, both in faft and theory, to wliieh
even the ableit of the alchcmiils were fubjett. All che-
mical knowledge was anciently made a fecrct of ; but by
the invention of printing, and the rile of a more liberal
fpirit of communication, it may be added alfo, by the fu-
periority of modern over ancient Icience, all noihu.ns and
myftcries have in a great meafurc difappeared, and what-
ever was of fufScient importance to attraft general attention,
has been added to the flock of genera! information. In
the mean time, alchemy has ceafed to be an ohjeft of cu-
riofity, not becaufe its end was mean and trivial, but be-
caufe all its fup))ofed great fafts have been refolved into
niiftakes. The value of the precious metals, inftead of di-
minilhing has rather been increafing, the direct contrary
to which would have been the cafe, had they been capable
of being produced from any of the bafer ones. The pro-
feffors of alchemy have been chiefly poor, and have in many
cafes even offered to divulge their fecret for a funi of money ;
that is, being in pofkflion of the art of producing gold
ad infinitum, they liavc offered to communicate tliis won-
<lerful knowledge for a few ounces of the very fubftance
which they could manufacture by the hundred weight.
Some of the alchemifts in the dark ages, efpecially in Ger-
many, wh^) had the unfortunate reputation of pofii.'ffing
the philofopher's Itonc, were imprifoned by the princes of
the country and furnifiied with chemical appaiatus, till
they fhould have pnrchafed their liberty, by producing a
certain weight of gold, but not an ounce was ever pro-
cured bv this method. It is remarkable too, that the
moft fl;ih'ul and reputable of the alchemills, although they
maintain the pofTibility of tranfmiitaticn, and profefs to
know the method by which it is to be effefted, are very
far from afhnning, that they have thercfelves aftually fuc-
ceedcd in the attempt. Again, if from the bell atteftcd
inftances of gold-making, we exclude thofe which depend
on the fulpicious teflimony of the alchemifts themfelves,
or the incompetent evidence of men entirely ignorant of
chemical fcitnce, we fliall find the remainder reduced almofl
to notiiiiig. The royal academy of fcienccs at Paris, dur-
ing the firil years of its inftitution, was almofl overwhelm-
ed with applications from men who profeftcd to be able to
make or deteriorate gold at pleafure ; either in this refpcft
deceiving themfelves, or in the hope of facilitating their
attempts on the public credulity, by the fanftion of that
learn id body : many experiments were in confequence ma'le
in their prefence, all of which tot;dly failed of fuccels,
Thefe repeated deteftions, like thole on the fubjctc of
witchcraft, appear to have decided the opinions of phi-

A L C

lofophers rcfpcfling the falfehood of alchemy, and though
the wonder of the ignorant is (till occallonr.lly callid forth
- on both thefe fiibjeiil?, t!icy are no longer coniidered as
WO' thy of a ferious refutation.

Boerhaave F.Iemcnta Chcmioe. Bergman's EfTays. En-
cycloped. Method. Art. Alchimic. Macqucr's Chemical
Didtionary.

ALCI-IIMELECH, in Bohwy, the Egyptian melilot.
Ray.

ALCHINDUS, Jamfs, in Biography, an Arabian phy—
ficiim, is fuppofed to have lived about the middle of the
twelfth century. His work, " De Medleinarum compofi-
taium gradibus invclligandis," was piibliflied with the works
of Mefue, at Venice, in folio, in lj6i, and 1603.

ALCHOLLEA, a kind of food in ufe among the
weftern Moors, being flefliy meat, piclded, dried, boiled,
and potted.

ALCHORNEA, in Botany, a genus of the diocc'ia mona-
ddphia clafs and order of profefTor Martyn, and monadel-
phia odanclria of Swartz and Gmelin, the charafters of
which are, that the calyx of the male is a three or five-leaved
perianthium ; leafiets ovate, concave, equal, coloured, and
deciduous : no corolla ; the llamina have eight filaments,
equal, fcarcely longer than the calyx, flightly connate at the
bale, anthers ovate and upnght ; the piftillum is a rudi-
ment : the calyx of the female is a one-leafed, four or five-
toothed perianthium, the teeth equal and fmall ; no corolla;
the piflilhim has a germ twin, fnperior, flyles two, very
long and filiiorm, ftigmas fimple and acute ; the pericar-
pium is a capfnle berried, two-feeded, two-celled, two-
valved ; the feeds are folitaiy, large and oblong ; there is
one fpecies, r;z. A. latifolia.

ALCIATI, Andrew, in Bhgral^hy, an eminent civi-
lian, was born at Milan in 1492. Having fludicd the law
in the nniverfity of Pavla, and in that of Bologna, he com-
menced the cxercife of his profcflion at Milan in 151 7, and
became profefTor of civil law, in the univerfity of Avignon,
in 15 1 8. Although his falai-y amounted to 600 crowns,
and the number of his auditors was 800, he left this lu-
crative and honourable fituation in difguft, becaufe the city
of Avignon was unable to make a regular payment of his
flipend, in 1522, and refumed his fiift profeflion at Milan.
In 1529, he was invited by Francis 1. the king of France,
to promote the tludy of the civil law at Bourgcs ; but im-
pelled by avarice, he fucceffively changed his fituation to
Pavia, Bologna, and Ferrara, in each of which places he
had many fcholars and clients, and received ample rex:om-
pence for his labours. When he v. as cenfured by his friends
for his frequent changes, he vainly interrogated them, whe-
ther they blamed the fun for revolving to enhghtcn all na-
tions ; or, whether, v.htn they admired the fixed flars,
they found fault with the phinets. But his predominant
principle was avarice : and tl'.is principle induced him to
decline accepting the offer of Paul III. to quit Ferrara
and fettle at Rome. " Why," faid he, " fliould I, for the
uncertain and empty hope of the purple, relinquifh the
honours of my profcfTion, accompanied with the poflTefllon of
a rich flipend :" Frjm Ferrara, Alciati returned to Pavia,
and in 1550, died of a furfeit, occafiontd by excefs of eat-
ing. He pofTclTed, without doubt, diflinguilhed talents,
blended with a confiderable degree of feltlflmers and mean-
nefs ; and he veiy materially contributed to the improvement
of his profeflion, intrcducir.g a lailc for polite literature,
and banidiing thai barbarous h tinity, which had before his
time prevailed in tlie lech'res and v.'ritings of the .iviiians.
Erafmus bellows upon him this high encomium : " The
praifc which Cicero divides between Scievola and Craffus,

whca

A L C

wlien he calU the latter the orator tied T. lUed in law, and
thj forimr the lawyer who was the mod eloquent, is, bv
the confoiit of the loarncd, uniied in AlL-iati.'' His full
work was, " An Explauatioii and ..'onodion of tlic Greek
tennj whioli arc met with in the Digefts," firll pubiifhed in
Italy and afterward? at Stralburj, in 151 J. This was fol-
Km-cd bv " Paradoxes of the Civil L:iw," " Difpunaiones
et PnEtenuiffa," publillied about the year 1517. "His
trcatile " De Verboriun Sij^nilicatione," was printed at
IWrgea in 1529. Tliefe and many other works on junf-
pnidcnec, were piiblilhed in 1571, in fix folio volumes. He
alio wrote notes on 'Vacitus, of whofe (lyle he favs, that
energy of language contends with elegance. He alfo
wrote " Emblems" in verfe ; of whieli the elder Scaliger
fays, that " they arc cntertainiiig, chalte, and elegant, and
not without ftrength ;" and that " the fcntiments are fuch
as may be ufeful, even in civil life." Thefe were publillied
at Anglburg, in 8vo, in 153! ; and in 4to, at Padua, with
notes, in t66i : and they have been tranflated into various
lancruages. Other works of Alciati, not included in the
{tlfa edition, are " Rei'ponfa," Lugd. 1561 ; " Hilloria
Med'olanenfis," 8vo. r625 ; " De forma Roman! Imperii,"
Svo. 1559; " Epigrammata," 8vo. 1629. A volume of
hi.-; letters was publiihed at Utrecht in 1697 ; and in 1695,
appeared a letter, which he wrote to a friend who had bc-
conu- a friar, reprefenting the imprudence of his condutl,
and expofing, with great fpirit, the abufes of monadic hfe.
Gen. Did. Gen. Biog.

Alciati, John Paul, a native of Milan, diftinguifhed
himfelf in the i6th century, among thofe protedants who
receded to the greatcd didance from the Catholic faith, by
denying the doiitrine of the Trinity, and alTerting that Jefus
Chrid did not exid before he was born of the Virgin Mary.
AVith a view of indulging his fpeculations and profecuting
his inquiries without moledation, he removed to Geneva.
Here lie found protedants no lefs intolerant than papids.
From hence the zeal of Calvin in the perfecution of Scrvc-
tus, and the demand of fubfeription to the formulaiy of the
Italian church at Geneva, obliged him, and others denomi-
nated Socinians, to feek refuge in fome other country. Ac-
cordingly they iled to Poland, where Alciati and Clandrata
were very fuccefsful in diffeminating their opinions. To-
wards the clofe of his life, Alciati was reproached with
having renounced Chridianity, and becoming a Mahome-
tan ; but this is probably a calumny, iimilar to that which
has been allcdged againd others, becaufe they have concur-
red with the Mahometans in maintaining the fimple unity
of the divine nature. Calvin and Beza have been very fevere
in their charges againd Alciati, reprefenting him not only
as ignorant, but frantic ; this, however, is one of thofe in-
dances in which allowance fliould be made for that vehe-
mence and inveclive which are often the refult of diff^-rence
of opinion. Alciati clofcd his life at Dantzic. In 1564,
he publidied " Letters to Gregorio PauU" againd the pre-
exiilence of Chrid. Gen. Dift.

ALCIBIADES, an Athenian general, was the fon of
Clinias, the nephew of Pericles, and hneally defcended
from Ajax ; and as much didinguidied by the comelinefs of
his perfon and the natural endowments of his underllanding,
as by his rank and fortune. In early life he manifeded thofe
talents and propenfities, which duly cultivated and direfted
would have rendered him eminent and illuftrious. Bat his
accompli(hments and connexions betrayed him into many
fnares and dangers, which he wanted refolution to avoid.
Nature, in him, fays Cornelius Nepos, had exerted her ut-
mod force ; dnce, whether we confider his virtues or his
vices, he was didinguidied from his fellow-citizens. He was

A L C

ftudioue and learned, eloquent, afpiring and indefatigable
in his purfuits; whatever were the objetts to which his views
were direiiled, liberal, magniticent niid affable ; and he knew
when to affunie thele virtues when tiicy luited his purpofe,
and to accommodate himfelf to tlic times ; but when he gave
a loofe to his pafiions, he was indolent, luxurious, diffolute,
addided to illicit amours, intemperate and profane. As
he entered into hfe with many advantages, that are adapted
to command attention and eilcem, he became a very general
objeft of that love, which among the Greeks was lometimes
a pure, fometimcs an ambiguous, and lometimes a fcandalous
attachment. It was his felicity to engage the honourable
regard and fricndfliip of Socrates ; and to his indruftion and
influence, he was much indebted; and though his preceptor
was lefs fuccefsful than he wiflicd, in redraining his vicious in-
clinations, implanting in his mind good principles, and guiding
him to laudable purfuits, his pupil iccms never to have to-
tally lod the benefit of his good counfel. Of his vivacity
and refolution, vvhun he was very young, the writers of his
life have recorded feveral indances, which indicate his cha-
rafteridic temper. When he wilhed to dop a waggon which
was paffing along the road, and interrupting a play in which
he was engaged, and his perfuafion had proved ineifcctual,
he threw himfelf direftly before it and challenged the driver
to proceed ; and this fudden difplay of refolution frightened
him and made him dop his horfes. On another occafion he
went into a grammar fchool, and allied for a volume of
Homer, which the mader was unable to produce ; he gave
him a box on the ear and departed; intimating by this aftion,
that a perfon who was not convcrfant with Homer was not
fit to be a teacher of youth. As an atl of frolic, and for
the gratification of his companions, he committed the fame
aft of infolence on Hipponicus, a refpectable man of rank
and fortune ; but early on the next morning he went to his
houfe, and being admitted into his prefence, dripped himfelf,
and offered his naked body to any ehadifement which Hip-
ponicus might think due to him. By this humiliation he
not only appeafed Hipponicus, but concihated his edeem,
and afterwards obtained hisdatighter Hipparete in marriage.
Alcibiades, as he advanced in years, addifted himfelf to the
chariot-races, and he is faid to have been the fird perfon
who fent feven chariots at one time to the Olympic games.
The magnificence which he difplay ed on thefe occafions,
rendered him popular in the Grecian dates ; and at Athens
in particular hisconduft in various refpefts became the topic
of vei"y general converfation. In order to divert their at-
tention from the more frivolous and faulty parts of his cha-
rafter, he is faid to have cut off the tail of a very beautifij
dog, which he much valued. The afpiring and aftive dif-
pofition of Alcibiades led him at an early period to mihtary
fcrvice. His fird campaign was in the war which Athens
carried on againd Potidasa ; Socrates attended him, and
preferved his life, when, after fighting vaHantly, he fell
wounded in the field. In the battle of Delium, fome years
afterwards, he returned the obligation, by guarding Socrates
in the retreat, and bringing him off fecurely. A treaty of
peace having been edabliihed between the Athenians and
Spartans, by the indrumentality of Nicias, who by this event
had acquired popularity and influence, the jealoufy of Al-
cibiades was excited, and his ambition led him to overturn
the pacific fydem which Nicias was anxious to preferve.
With this view he encouraged the people of Argos to break
with the Spartans, and promifed them the fuccour of the
Athenians ; and he exerted himfelf in widening the differ-
ence that dill fubfided between the Lacedemonians and the
latter. He alfo repreiented Nicias as more attached to
Sparta than Athens, and by his eloquence contributed to
I fubvert

A L C

fubvert his popularity, and to make him odious to the people.
When ambaftadors arrived from l^acedicmoiiia, with full
powers to terminate all difTcrcnces, he contrived, by an ar-
tifice, to prepodefs them in his favour ; and to induce them
to declare, that though they were deputed to propofc lui
accommodation they were not. empowered to bring matters
to a conclufion. He then charged them with prevarication,
and defeated tlie objed of their embalFy. Having fo far
lucceeded, lie immediately recommended the caufc of the
Argives, Mantineans and Eleans, who fought the friendfliip
oi Athens ; but before any refolution could be adopted, an
earthquake happened, which of courfe dilfolved the alfembly.
When Nicias returne'd from Sparta, without having fuc-
ceedcd in his negociations, the Athenians concluded a
league with the Argives and the other Hates above men-
tioned, for 100 years. Aleibiades was now become fo po-
pular, that he was appointed to the command of a Heet
■which was deltincd to aflill; the Argives, and to put an end
to the difpntes which prevailed in their capital. The dif-
pofition of the people with regard to Aleibiades is juitly re-
prefented by Arillophanes, in his comedy of " The Frogs,"
(Acl. V. fc. 4.) " They hate Aleibiades, fays he, and
yet cannot do without him." The Mifanthropc Timon
furmed a much better judgment of this condud: of Alei-
biades. When he met him as he was coming from the af-
fenibly, and obfeived the refpeft with which he was treated,
he took him by the hand and addrefled him ; " Go on and
profpcr, my fon ; thou doft right in puihing thy fortune,
tor thy advancement will be the ruin of all thefe people."
The war of Sicily, which foon followed, proved that Tinxin
was not miftaken. The Atlienians had long been defirous
of eftabliihing themfeives in this ifland. Tlieir ardour was
inflamed by Aleibiades, who encouraged the delulive hope,
that Sicily would be only their place of arms and arfenal ;
and that they (liould proceed from hence to the conquefl: of
Carthage, and make themfeives mailers of all Africa and
the fea, as far as the pillars of Hercides. Nicias and Alei-
biades liad harangued the people on this fnbjcft ; but the
latter prevailed. A powerful armament was prepared for
the expedition ; and Aleibiades, Nicias and Lamachus were
appointed joint commanders. When every thing was pre-
pared, and the fleet was ready for failing, feveral unfavour-
able omens occurred, which excited in the minds of the
people very diftreffing apprehenfions. One of thefe omens
was peculiarly momentous to the fortune of Aleibiades.
The Herms, or half ftatues of Mercuiy, which flood at
the entrances of private houfes and temples at Athens, were
in one night mutilated and deftroyed. Aleibiades was fvif-
pefted of being concerned in this aft of impiety, and he was
atlually charged with having defaced other ftatues and with
having ridiculed fome of the facred mylleries. The fleet,
however, failed ; but foon after their arrival in Sicily, Alei-
biades was recalled : but having accompanied the melfengers
as far as Thurium, he abfconded and withdrew to Pelopon-
nefus. Being aflced, on this occafion, whether he would not
rely on his country, with regard to the judgment it might
pafs on him, he replied, " I would not rely on my mother,
left flie ftiould miilake a black bean for a white one," re-
ferring to the ufe of beans in giving fuffrages, in which a
black bean denoted condemnation. On his non-appearance
he was condemned, his property confifcated, and the pricils
and prieftefles were commanded to cvu'fe him. Among the
latter was Theano, who oppofed this decree, alledging,
«' that flie had been appointed pricftefs, not to curfe but to
blefs." When news was fome time after brought to Alei-
biades, that the Athenians had condemned him to die, he
is faid to have declared ; " I will make them fcnfiblc, that

A L C

I am ft ill alive." Aleibiades, in confequence of this event,
.ibandoned the intcreft of his tounti^, and induced the
Spartans to fnccour the Syracufans, and to declare war
againft Athens. At Sparta he aflumcd the Laced:i'moni.ui
difcipline, and by his verfalility of difpofition and manners,
gained univerfal eileem. He cut his hair fliort, bathed in
cold water, fui upon coarfe bread and black broth, and
affciited fimplicity arid gravity of demeanour. He was at
the fame time active in his exertions, induced leveral of (lie
cities of Ionia to revolt from the Athenians, and engaged
Tidapherues, the king of Perfia's lieutenant, to concur in
a league witli the Spaitans. Whilll he was thus employed
he engaged in an intrigue with the wife of the Spartan king,
Agis, with the vain ambition, as he pretended, of giving a
line of kings to the I.,aced.vmonians ; and Agis became his
implacable enemy. He faved his life by taking refuge with
TiflTapherncs, and in this new fitnation, he conformed to the
luxurious manners of the Perfians, and praclifed adulation
to fuch a degree, as completely to ingratiate himfelf with
the Satrap. By his counfel, Tiflaphernes maintained an
even balance between the Athenians and Laeed^m<niians ;
and Aleibiades at length contrived to make the friendthi]) of
the Perfians the means of his own return to Athens. The
conflitution of the government having been changed, partly
by his counfel and agency, from a democracy to an oligarcliy,
he was recalled by unanimous confent. But before his return,
he determined to merit the honour to whith he was afpiring
by fome illuftrious exploit. Accordingly, in conjunflion with
the other Athenian commanders, Theramenes and Thra-
fybulus, he took feveral places and gained feveral viftories
over the Spartans and their allies, and then fet fail tor
Athens, with a fleet of 200 fliips laden with rich fpoils,
together with the fliips and flags captured from the enemy.
A. M. 3597, B. C. 407. His reception was in a very high
degree flattering and honourable ; and in an aflTembly of the
people, he deplored his misfortunes, which he afcribed to
his own evil genius more than to the fll-will of his countrv'-
men ; and by his eloquent and pathetic ipecch fo pleafed his
audience, that crowns of gold were decreed him ; he was
appointed general by fea and land, with unlimited power ;
his fortunes were reftored to him ; and he was abfolved
by the Eumolpides and Ceryces from ail the execrations
that had been denounced againil him. " As for me," fays
Theodorus, one of the perfons employed in revoking the
imprecations, " I have not curfed him, if he has done no
evil to his country."

When this pageantry was concluded, he fet fail with
ICO fliips for the ifland of Andros, which had revolted ;
and having gained a viftory, he departed for Caria in order
to raife money, and left the fleet in the charge of An-
tiochus. Before his return, Lyfander, the Spartan com-
mander, brought on a battle, defeated the Athenian fleet,
and flew Antiochus. The confequence of this dilafter
was difcontcnt at Athens, and the lols of his command.
Inftead of returning home, he coUedted a band of foldiers
of fortune, and enriched himfelf by the booty which he
took among the Thracian tribes ; avoided the fate of the
10 new commanders appointed by the Atlienians, nioft of
whom loll their lives, on account of their ill fuccefs ;
and warned the Athenian commanders of the danger to
which their fleet was expofed at ^gos-potamos. When
Athens was taken by Lyfander, Aleibiades retired to
Eithynia, where he was plundered of part of his property,
and from hence he went to Phrygia, and obtained the pro-
tection of Pharnabazus the Perfiau governor. The Athe-
nians, fufi"ering under the oppreflion of the 30 tyrant",
dircdied their views to Aleibiades ; and as foon as the

tvrants

A L C

-tyrants themfelves were apprifcd of it, tlicy determined
upon his dcith. Critias, one of the number, and for-
merly an intimate friend of Alcibiades, was aftive on the
occaiion ; and enjraged Lyfander to apply to Pharnabazus
for concurring in their purpofe. Alcibiades rcfided at this
time in a village of Phn,gia, with his mitlrcfs Timandra.
The aflAfrins furroiuided liis houfc and fct it on fue : having
in vain attempted to extinguilh it he rulhed for;li, and
fafely paffed through it; but the darts of his murderers
were poured upon hun from a dillance and difpatched h'.m.
Timandra wrapped up the body in her own garments, and
buried it in a town called MclilTa, where the emperor
Adrian long afterwards caufed a marble ftatue to be creftcd
to his memor)-, and a bull to be annually facrificcd on
his tomb. His death hapj)encd about the 40th year of his
age. Ante Chiift. 403. Some of his writings were ex-
tant in the time of Cicero, Orat. ii. 22.

" It is not eafy to fay," fays RoUin, in defcribing the
charaderof Alcibiades, "whether his good or bad qua-
lities were moft pernicious to his country ; for with the
one he deceived, and with the other he opprefTed it. In
him d'.ftinguifhed valour was united with nobility of blood.
His perfon was beautiful and finely made ; he was eloquent,
of great ability in affairs, infmuating, and fermed for charm-
ing all mankind. He loved gloiy, but without prejudice
to his inclination for pleafure ; nor was he fo fond of plea-
fure as to negleft his gloiy for it. He knew how to give
into or abftracl himfelf from it, according to the fituation
of his affairs. Never was there duftillty of genius equal
to his. He metamoi-phofcd himfelf with incredible facihty,
like a Proteus, into the moll contrary forms, and fup-
ported them all with as mucli cafe and grace, as if each
had been natural to him. This convertibility of charafter,
according to occafions, the cuftoms of countries, and his
own intercfts, difcovers a heart void of principles, without
either ti-uth or jullice. He did not confme himfelf either
to religion, virtue, laws, duties, or his country. His fole
rule of aftion was his private ambition, to which he reduced
every thing. His aim was to pleafe, to dazzle, and to be
beloved ; but at the fame time to fubjeft thofe he foothed.
He favoured them only as they ferved his pui-pofes ; and
made his correfpondence and fociety a means of engroffing
eveiy thing to himfelf. His life was a pei"petual mixture
of good and evil. His failles for virtue were ill fuftained,
and quickly degenerated into vices and crimes, very little
to the honour of the inflruftions of that great phllofopher,
who took no fmall pains to cultivate him into a man of
worth. His aiflions were glorious, but without rule or
principle. His charafter was elevated and grand, but
without connection and confiftence. He was fucceffively
the fupport and the terror of the Lacedemonians and
Perfians. He was either the misfortune or refuge of his
own country, according to his declaring for or againft it.
In fme, he was the author of an univerfal deftruftive war
in Greece, from the fole motive of commanding, by in-
ducing the Athenians to befiege Syracufe ; much lefs from
the hope of conquering Sicily, and afterwards Africa,
than with the defign of keeping Athens in dependesce
upon himfelf; convinced, that having to deal with an in-
conftant, fufpicious, ungrateful, jealous people, averfe to
thofe that governed, it was neceffary to engage them con-
tinually in fomc great affair, in order to make his fervices
always necelfary to them, and that they might not be at
leifure to examine, cenfure, and condemn his conduft.

He had the fate generally experienced by perfons of his
x:haracler, and of which they cannot reafonably complain.
He never loved any one, himfelf being his fole motive j

A L C

nor ever found a friend. He made it his merit and glory
to amufe all men, and nobody confided in, or adhered to
him. His fole view was to live with fplendour, and to
lord it univerfally ; and he pcri(hed miferably, abandoned
by the whole world, and obliged at his death to the feeble
fervices and impotent zeal of one only woman, for the
laft honours rendered to his remains." Plutarch in Aleib.
Opcr. torn. i. p. 191. Corn. Nepos. in Alcib. Thucydides,
p. 316, Sec. Ed. Dukeri. Diod. Sicul. torn. i. p. 502-647.
Ed. Weflehng. Xeuophon, Hellcn.hb. ii. RoUin's Anc. Hift.
vol. iii. p. 164-303. Anc. Un. Hill. vol. v. p. 293, &c.

ALCIBIADES, was the name of one of the martyrs
at Lyons, A. D. 177. He came originally from Phiygia,
and led a ver)' auftere life, living upon bread and water :
but was aftenvards perfuaded, in order to avoid giving
offence, to partake of all forts of food promifcuouHy, and
to give God thanks. Lardner's works, vol. vii. p. 430.

Alcibiades, in Ento/vology, a fpecies of PAPiLioiiyj/irj-,
with white wings, the anterior bounded by a black margin,
the poilerior marked below and at their tip with ferruginous
black fpots, found at Tranquebar.

ALCIBIUiVr, in Botany, a word ufcd fometimes by the
ancients as an epithet for a kind of echium, or viper's bug-
lofs, and fometimes as the name of a peculiar plant.

ALCIDAMAS, in Biography, a native of Elsa, ia
iEolla, was the difciple of Gorgias Leontinus, and contem-
porary with Ifocrates, and lived about 400 years before
Chritt. Two orations are extant under his name, ^'/z.
" Ulyfiis contra Palamedein," publifhed by Aldus, in his
edition of the Oi-ations of jEfchines, Lyfias, &c. in fol. at
Venice in 15 13, and by H. Stephens in 1575 ; and another
" Contra Sophiltas," annexed to Aldus's edition of Ifocrates
at Venice in 151 8. Cicero (Tufcul. lib. p. i. 48, Op. tom. ii.
p. 346, ed. Ohvet.) mentions Alcidamas as the author of a
difcourfe on the praife of death. Fabric. Bib. Gncc. lib. ii.
c. 26. tom. i. p. 900.

Alcidamas, in EniomoJogy, a name given by Cramer to
the Papilio Tiirnus of Linnsus.

ALCIDES, in Entomology, a ipecies of patiljo pliiejui,
with caudated black wings dotted with blue, ferruginous
below, and marked with a yellowifti ftreak ; found in Sierra
Leona in Africa.

Alcides, is alfo a fpecies of scarab-cus, with the
horn of the thorax bent, bearded below, and unidentated»
and the head recurved and naked, found in India.

Alcides, in Mythology, the furname of Hercules. See
Alc;eus.

ALCIDON, in Ardent Geography, a river of Triphy-
lia, which rofe on the frontiers of Arcadia, and difchargcd
itfelf into the Jardanus.

ALCIMEDON, a plain of Arcadia, north of Man-
tinea.

ALCINOUS, in Biography and Hljlory, is reprtfented
by Homer as king of the Phxacians, in the ifland now
called Corfu. His fubjefts were exceOent mariners, and
much addiSed to the dance and fong, and every kind of
focial pleafure ; they were employed in condufting the ikip-
wrecked Ulyfles, who was hofpitably received by Alcinous,
to Ithaca. The tafte of Alcinous for horticulture is much
celebrated ; and his garden, or orchard, is defcribed by Ho-
mer as affording an abundance of fruit in quick fucceflion,
and alfo copious Itreams and pleafant fliade. Homer Odyf,
lib. vii. V. 108.

Hence we read in ancient geography, of the port, and
alfo of the gardens of Alcinous, which pertained to this
ifland.

Alcinous, a Platonic philofophcr, probably lived about
6 tlie

A L C

tnc beginning of the fccond century of the Clitiftian ccra,
nnd wrote a pcilpicuous aiul tlfgant " Iiitrodiiftion to the
I'hildlopl'-y of I'lato," containing a fiimmaiy of his doc-
trine. It was pubhihed in Greek by Aldus, at Venice, in
1 J2I and 1)32, 8vo. ; and with Fieinns's Latin tranllation,
tit Balil, in 1532 ; and at Paris, in 1562, 410.; by Char-
pentier, with a Commentary, at Paris, in I573 ; by Hein-
lins, Gr. and I^at. 8vo., at Leydcn, in 1607, and re-
printed at Oxford in 1667, 8vo ; and in Englilh, by Stan-
ley, London, in 1655, 1687, &c. Fabr. Bib. Grsee. lib. iv.
c. 23. vol. iv. p. 40, &c.

ALCIONIO, Peter, a learned Italian, contributed to
the revival of letters in the 1 6th century. He tludicd the
Latin and Greek languages with great diligence, and was
for many years corrector of the pre-ls to Aldus Maiiulius at
Venice. His learning advanced him to a profeliorlliip at
Florence, under the pontificate of Adrian VI. He tranl-
lated many Greek works into Latin, and his tranllations
have been highly commended. He v.-as alio the author of
many original produftions, which prove him to be a man of
talents. In his difpolition and manners, however, he was
chargeable with monil'enefs and ingratitude, and with in-
temperance and gluttony. Whilll he unduly valued him-
felf on account ot his own performances, he detratttd from
the merit of others. In the troubles excited at Rome by the
Colonnas, he loll his ellate ; and in the year 1J27, when
the Emperor's forces took the citv, he received a wound as
he was going to join the Pope in tiie calUe of St. Angelo ;
but upon the raifmg of the liege, he delerted his patron,
and united with Cardinal Pompey Colonna, at whofc houfe
he fickened and died. His piece on exile, in the compofi-
tion of which he was reported to have purloined a treat ile
of Cicero, "de Gloria," which he had found in the library
of a monallcry, and afterwards deltroycd, his " Orations on
the taking of Rome by Charles V. and on the knights who
died at the fiege of Rhodes," are all the original works which
he left. The former was printed at Venice, in 1522, in 410.
and again at Leipfic, in 1702, under the title of " AnaleCla
de CalamitLite Literatorum." Gen. Piiog.

ALCIPHRON, a philofopher of Magnefia, mentioned
by A. Antoninus and Suidas, flourilhed in the time of
Alexander the Great. He is different from Alciphron, the
fophill, whole age is unknown, who wrote epillles on va-
rious topics, of which an edition was pnblilhed at Leiplic,
in 8vo. in 17 15. Fabr. Bib. Grxc. lib. ii. c. 10. vol. i.
p. 425.

Alciphron, in Enfomologv, a name given to the
PnALy'ENA twiiuu ciiric<e, with cinereous wings, wliite ftreaks
and point in the middle, yellow at the bafe, and live black
points, found in the Indian iig.

ALCIPPUS, a fpecies of Papilio Ditnaur, with yel-
low entire wings, a black margin, and wliite ])oints, the
pofterior having a white difc, and black points, found in
a^meriea.

ALClJi, in Alylhology, the name of a deity worfiiipped
bv the Naharvaii, a nation of Germans : and a name given
to Minerva by the Macedonians. Tacit. Germ. 43. Liv.

ALCKHAUSEN, in Geography, a tt'Wn of Suabia,
belonging to the grand-mailer of the Teutonic order, in
the county of V\'ehringen.

ALCM^ON, in Biography, a phyncian and philofopher,
was born at Crotona, and probably flourilhed about ijoo years
before Chrill, as he was a dilciple of Pythagoras, and attended
his lectures. He is faid to have been tlie firll perfon who
attempted the diffcftion of a dead body, and of various
a.iinials, in order to examine the llructure of the part% and

Vol. I.

A L C

to have difcovcred the cochlea, one of the bones formin;:
the organ of hearing. Le Clerc. Hifl. de la Medicine, p. 94.
He is faid by Ciialcidius, Haller obferves, (liib. Anat.
vol. i. p. 10.) to have attempted a treatife on ana-
tomy, which, however, is lofl. The fnm of his tenets,
as far as they can be coUefted from fcatlcred frag-
ments, is this : " Natural objefts, which appear multiform
to men, are in reality two-fold ; intelligible natures, which
are immutable, and material forms, which are inlhiitely
variable. The fun, moon, and flars are etemal, and arc
inhabited by portions of that divine fire, which i3 the firfl
principle in natuiv. The moon is in the form of a boat,
and when the bottom of the boat is turned towards the
eajth, it is invlfible. The brain is the chief feat of the
foul, which is in perpetual action and immortal. Health
confifls in preferving a due mean between the extremes of
heat and cold, eirynefs and moilhire." Diogen. Laert.lib. viii.
1 83. Clem. Alex. Strom, lib. i. p. 305. Arill. Met. lib. i.
c. 5. lib. V. c. I. Jamblic. Vit. Pyth. c. 23. n° 104.
Cicer. de Nat. Deor. lib. i. c. 11. Stob. Eel. Fhyf. p. 54,
60, 93. Pint. Plac. Phil. hi), ii. c. 16, 27. lib. iv. c. 17.
Fabr. Bib. Grrec. lib. vi. c. 9. torn. xii. p. 49. Brucker's
Phil, by Enfield, vol. i. p. 401.

ALCMAER, or Alkmaar, in Geography, ?i town of the
United Provinces in North Holland, about four miles from
the fea,and j 8 miles from Amilerdam. The ilreets are regular,
the houfes well built, and it is kept clean and neat by means
of its canals. The land about the town was formerly full
of morafles, but fmce it has been drained it is become ex-
ceeding good meadow-land, and the town is furrounded by
produelive orchards and gardens. The town, both within
and without, has feveral be-autiful walks. The noble canal
that reaches from Alcmaer to Hoorn, was cut towards the
beginning of the 17th century. This place was once very
ftrong, and in 1573, obliged the Spaniards to raiic the
fiege, after being encamped before it feven weeks. In the
regiller of this town it is recorded, that in 1637, t20 tulips,
witii the offsets, fe>ld for 90,000 florins. The butter and
cheefe that are made in the neighbourhood are reckoned the
belt in Holland, and furnifli confiderable articles of trade.
N. lat. 52° 28'. E. long. 4° 26'.

ALCMAN, in Bwgraphy, a Lyric poet, was born at
Sardis, or at Spaita, and flouriflied in the 27th olympiad,
about 670 years B. C. Heraclides of Pontus aflares us,
that he was in his youth a flave at Sparta, and that by his
gey.ius and good qualities he obtained his freedom and a high
degree of reputation in I^yric poetry. He was a performer
on the cithara, and probably fung verfes to the flute. Cle-
mens Alexandrinus (Strom, lib. i. c. 16. tom. i. p. 3G4 —
36^, cd. Potteri.) makes him the author of mufic for choral
dances, and according to Archytas Hermoniacns, cited by
Athenxus, (Dcipn. lib. xiii. c. 8. p. 600.) Alcman wfis
one of the firll and moft eminent compofers of fongs upon
love and gallantry. Suidas fays, that he was the firfl who
excluded hexameters from the verfes that v.-ere to be fung to
the lyre, which afterwards obtained the title of Lyric potma,
and A^lian tells us, that he was one of the great muficians
that was called to I^acedsemon by the exigences of thcUate,
and that he fung his airs to the found of the fiute ; by
which Dr. Burney undcrllands that he taught the Spart.in
army to perform their evolutions to the found of this inllnj-
ment. Aleman, according to j\thcnaeus, was not more rc-
mark:il)lc for a mufical geniu.. than for a voracious appetite,
and ^Elian clafl'es him among the greatefl gluttons of An-
tiquity ; and his intemperance was probably the caule of
the particular difenfe of which he died. The .Sjiailan?
eifcted a monunient to him, whidi fubliiled in the Xxrr't: of
4 C I'aufanias,

A L C

Paufanias. Of the many poems attrilnited to liim by an-
tiquity, nothing remains belidcs a few I'l-agments furnilhcd
by citations in Athena-iis and other ancient writers, and
prefcrved by Ncandrus, H. Stephens, and Urfinus. The
name of his miftrefs was Megalollrata, a poetefs. Alcman
ufcd the Doric dialed. I'abr. Bib. Gitcc. hb. ii. c. 15.
tom. i. p. 366. Bnrney's Hill. Muiic. vol. i. p. 385, &c.
Some have confounded Alcman with Alcmxon, the fon ot
PerithiH, of Croton.. who, as Clem. Alex, {ubi fuprn) in-
foriui us, was the liril who wrote a book concerning nature.
Sec alfo ^IenL■.^'ius ad Laertium. viii. 83.

ALCMANIAN, in the ^Indent Poetry, a kind of lyric
vert'e, or metre, conlilling of two daclyls, and two trochees.
Such c. gr. is

" Virginibus puerifque cano."

The word is formed from Alcman, the name of an ancient
Greek poet, in great elleem for his Erotics, or amorous
compofitions.

Some authors afiign other Alcmanian vorfes, compofed of
three dadyls and a long fyllablc.

E.gr. " Munere hctitiamque Dei."

Others give an Alcmanian, compofed of a daftyl, fpondee,
and another dactyl, and a long fyllable.

E. gr. " Ne dubita, nam vera fides."

ALCMENA, \a Mythology, tlie daughter of Eleftryon,
king of Mycena: or Argos, wife of Amphitryon, and mo-
ther of Hercules by Jupiter.

ALCMEON, in Biography. See Alcm/FON.

ALCMEONE, in Entomology, a fpecies of the Papii-IO
Hanaus, with rounded wiujrs of the fame colour, yellow at
the bafe and white at the tip, found in Malabar.

ALCO, in Zoology, the name given to the Canis Ante-
ricarius of Linnxus, about the fize of a fquirrel, with a
fmall head, pendulous ears, curved body, and (hort tail.
There are two varieties, -viz. the fat alco, ytzcuinte-por-
zotli, canis Mexicanus of Hernandez, or michuacanens of
Fernandes, which is extremely fat, head very fmall, ears
pendulous, with the fore part of the head white, and yellowifh
ears, ftiort neck, arched back, yellow hair, white, (hort
pendulous tail, large belly, fpotted with black, white legs
and feet, and the female with fix confpicuous paps ; and the
techichi of Fernandes, which is like the fmall dogs of Europe,
except that it has a wild and melancholy air. The firft of
thcfe approaches the Iceland dog, and the fecond is perhaps
the fame animal with the koupara, or crab-dog of Guiana,
which in figure refembles the fox, and in its hair the jackal ;
and has been called the crab-dog, becaufe it lives chiefly upon
crabs and other teftaceous animals.

ALCOBACA, in Geography, a town of Portugal, in
Eftremadura, ficuated upon a fmall river near the fea, and
furrounded by mountains, in a beautiful fituation. It has
a celebrated Ciflercian abbey, built by Alphonfo I. in 1148,
which has been the general fepulchrc of the kings of that
kingdom. It is fouth-eaft of Liria, and 6\ leagues north-
eaft of Peniche. This town carries on various manufac-
tures, the oldell of which is in the monallery, eftabhfhed by
Pombal. Cambrics and fine linens are made here, but the
woollen manufaAory, and that for fpinning of wool, which
is performed by machinery, are more important. Link's
Travels in Portugal, p. 278.

ALCOCK, John-, in Biography, an Englirti Divine,
v/as born at Beverley, in Yorkfliire, and educated in
the univerfity of Cambridge, wliere he took the degree of
doflor of laws. His ccclefiaiUcal preferment was rapid, and

A L C

he was fuccefTively bilhop of Rochefter, Worceder, and
Elv. In 1462 he was appointed mailer of the rolls ; in
1470 a privy-counfellor, and one of the ambafladors to the
king of CalUle; in 1 47 1 a commiflioner to treat with the
commilTioncrs of the king of Scotland; and in 1472 lord-
high-chanccllor of England. He is reprefented as a prelate
of dillinguiflied learning and piety, and alfo of fingular ab-
lUnence and purity. He was not only a coniiderable writer,
but an excellent architeft, fo that he was made comptroller
of the royal works and buildings under Henry VII. He
improved the palaces of his feveral fees ; founded a fchooJ,
according to Fuller, at Beverley ; and he was alio the
founder of Jcfus college in Cambridge, appropriating to
this purpofc a nunnery, which was fo notorious for incon-
tinence, that the fociety was called a community of fpirituil
harlots. This college was firft deligned for a nialter, fix
fellows, and as many fcholars ; but under the patronage of
the bilhops of Ely, it has much increafed in buildings and
revenues, and now confifts of a mafter, 16 fellows, and 30
fcholars. Alccck was famous for preaching long fermons ;
one of his fermons before the univerfity lailed upwards of
two hours. He wrote feveral pieces, i)/z. " Mons perfcc-
tionis ad Carthufianos ;" " Abbatia Spiritus Sanfti in pura
Confcientia fundata ;" " Penitential Pfalms," in Enghfli
verfe ; " Homilis vulgares ;" " Meditationes pis j" and
" Spoufage of a Virgin to Chrift." Befides thefe he wrote
a treatife with the whimfical and punning title of " Galli
Cantus ad confratres fuos," or the crowing of the cock to
his brethren ; at the beginning of which is a print of the
bilhop preaching to the clergy, with a cock on each fide,
and having alfo a cock in the firft page. This prelate died
Oct. I, 1500, at Wiftjeach, and was buried at a fumptuous
chapel, which he iiad built for hlmfelf, and which, though
now neglefted, is a noble fpecimen of his ilviU in archi-
tefture. Biog. Brit.

AECOER, in Geography, a fmall town of Spain, in
New Gaftjle, fituated in a fine country, between the Tagus
and the river Cuyar. N. lat. 38° 55'. W. long. 4° 26'.

ALCOHOL, ardent fpirit,fpirit of wine. Alcool, Efprit
de vin, Fr. IVeingeift, Germ. Spirito ardcnte, fpirito de
■vino. Acquarzente, Italian. The terra alcohol is applied
exclufively by modern chemifts, to the purely fpirituous
part of all liquors that have undergone the vinous fermenta-
tion. As this fubftance bears a very high importance, both
as a chemical agent and in its various combinations, we fhall
beftow upon it confiderable attention.

Alcohol is in all cafes the produft of the faccharine prin-
ciple, and is formed by the fucceffive proccftes of vinous
fermentation and diftillation. AH fermented liquors, there-
fore, agree in thefc two points ; the one, that a faccharine
juice has been neceflar)' to their produftion ; and the other,
that they are all capable of furniflring an ardent fpirit by
diftillation.

Various kinds of ardent fpirits are known in commerce,
fuch as brandy, rum, aiTack, malt-fpirits, and the like ;
thefe differ from each other in colour, fmell, tafte, and
ftrength ; but the fpirituous part, to which they owe their
inflammabihty, their hot fiery tafte, and their intoxicating
quality, is the fame in each, and may be procured in its
purell ftate by a fecond diftillation, which is termed in tech-
nical language, redification.

We (hall refer the reader to the articles of Fermenta-
tion (vinous), Distillation, and the feveral fpecies of
dillilled fpirits, for an account of the progreffive ftages in
the formation of alcohol ; and we (hall here take up the fub-
jeift with the procefs of rectification or the fecond diftilla-
tion, whereby alcohol is brought to that ftate of purity
7 in

A L C

A L C

in which its chemical properties are the moft confpicu-

OUS.

Alcohol, as wlU as anient fpirits of difTcrent kinds, is
procured mo'l largely in this countr)- from a fermented grain-
liqiior, prepared tor the exprefs purpofe of diliillation, from
praiu, inela(res, &c. ; but in the wine coinilries, the I'pirit
i% obtained troni the dilHUation of wine ; wlicnce tlie fyno-
nimons term, Jpirit of luinc. We flnvll only take the exam-
ple of brandy, wliich i;^ the prod\id of tin fnll dillillation
of wine, and mention the method by which alcohol is pro-
cured from it by reftification.

Brandy is a compound of alcohol, water, a colom'ing
extraflive matter, and a fmall quantity of oil. It is to the
two lall that it owes its peculiar flavour, fmell, and appearance,
whereby it is dilHnguifhed from other diltiiled fpirits. The
objeft of the procefs of reftification is to feparate the fn-(l
from the other ingredients, and this feparation is cffefted upon
the principle that alcohol is the mod eafily volatilized when
agentle heat is applied, and therefore appears in tiie firft pro-
duifl of dillillation, whilll the extraftive matter and much
of the water remain behind. It is more difficult, however,
to get rid of the fmall portion of oil which brandy con-
tains, as tliis is foluble in alcohol, and will nfe with it in
dillillation, unlefs prevented by the means which will be pre-
fenth mentioned.

Tiie obfenations of M. Baume, and hisdireftions for the
preparation of alcohol, are fo judicious and accurate that we
fhall here mention them.

Tin- following is the procefs given by this able chemift :
" To procure reirlificd alcohol, put a quantity of brandy in
the water bath of an alembic, and proceed to dillillation.
Set apart the firll product of the dillillation wlien it amoimts
to about a fourth part of the liquor put into the alembic.
Then continue the procefs till about as much more is ob-
tained, or till the liquor comes over white ajid milky. Then
re-diilil the latter produft, and mix the firfl half which
comes over with the firft part of the former dillillation, and
continue to dillil as long as any fpirit comes over. This
latter portion may be again diltiiled, and the firft produft
mixed with the former firll: produfts, as before. After each
dillillation, there remains in the alembic a watery liquor
which retains the fmell of brandy, but is entirely deprived
of inflammable fpirit, and is thrown away as ufelefs.

" Having thus procured all the fpirit from the brandy,
return all the referved firll produdls to the alembic, and dif-
till with a gentle fire. When about half the liquor has come
over, it fhould be kept apart as pure rectified alcohol ; the
remainder is to be diililled as long as it is inflammable, and
may either be again reftified, or refen'ed for thofe puipofes
where a fpirit of inferior ftrength is required."

The reafon given by this judicious chemift for the above
procefs is this : the fpirit which firll paflcs over in diftilla-
tion is the pureft, and contains the leail portion of grofs
elTential oil ; the latter portion, on the other hand, is almoft
faturated with this oil, and the difference between the two is
eafily diilinguifhable when rubbed on the hands; the firll
produft leaves no fmell of brandy, but the lafl gives an
odour like the breath of drunkards, who digell their food
imperfcclly. The quantity of oil, however, varies accord-
ing to the nature of the brandy ; that which is made from
wine alone containing the leafl oil, but that which is pro-
cured from wine lees being fo full of it as to leave a flratum
of the oil fwimming on the watery extraftive liquor left in
the alembic, after all the fpirit has been diftilled off.

M. Dubuiffon remarks concerning this oil, that the
J-ajiguedoc brandies contain much more of it than the
Cogniac ; and that after diftilling a large quantity of the for-

mer, the head of the alembic was covered widi expanded
drops of the oil, which adhered to the velTel. When col-
ledled together, and quite cold, they became as ftiff as fuct,
had a chefnut colour, a llrong djfagreeablc talle, and a fmell
like turj>entlnc.

Various additions have llkewife been made to the impure
fpirit, in order to ainft m the feparation of this oil. The
fimplell, and one of the moll efficacious is water. Tl>i«,
when added to the oily fpirit, turn:; it milky (a- is the cafe
with any other folution of elTential oil in alcohol), and by
weakening tlie adhcfion between (lie oil and the fpirit, it
enables the latter to rife in dillillation, unmixed with thr
fomier. The chief inconvenience of this addition is, that
it weakens the llrength of the fpirit fo much as to require
fucceflive redlifications before it can be fufficicntly deprived
of its watery part.

Chalk, crumb of bread, bran, and other fubflancee, are
alfo added before dillillation to the fpirit, when oily and ill
flavoured ; and they all have a good eflecl in keeping down
the matters which contaminate the alcohol, and render the
dillillation more cfTeftual in purifying it.

Q^uicklime is Hill more efficacious, but it much lefTcns the
produft of alcojiol, alters its nature in fome ccgrtc, and
makes it more penetrating. It would appear, liowever,
that there are fome kinds of wine in wliich the odorant par-
ticles are fo intimately mixed with the lpirituo\i3 part, that
it is fcarcely poflible to feparate thtm bv fimple dillillation,
however cautioufly and fliilfully conducted.

The common Hill with the worm-tube and refrigeratory,
is very well calculated for the rectification of fpirits, only
allowance mnfl be made for the readintls with, which ardent
fpirit, when heated, affumes the Hate of vaponr, ur.d the
very great expanfion which it then undergoes.

Alcohol, freed from all foreign ingredients but water,
and already of confiderable llrength, may be brought to the
fpecific gravity of 0.825, "' '^'-' temperature of 60'^, by a
fingle dillillation, where tlie heat is moderate and applied
very gradually, and the condenfation flow. When about a
third or half of the fpirit is difliUed over, the llrength
of the fucceeding portion is dimiiiiflied, the fpecific gravity in-
creafes, and it becomes more watery, and therefore the firft
produft fhould be kept apart. This cannot be rendeird
ftronger by any repetition of fimple dillillation, but it may
be Hill further dephlegmatcd by means which will be men-
tioned hereafter.

We fhall now proceed to the properties of alcohol.

Alcohol is a colourlefs tranlparent liquor, appearing to
the eye like pure water. It poflcU'es a peculiar penetrating
fmell, diftinft from tlie proper od(nir of the diililled fpirit
from which it has been procured. To tlie talle it is cxcef-
fively hot and burning, but without any peculiar flavour.
From its great liglitnefs and mobility, the bubbles v.hieh
are foitned on fliaking it fubfide almoil inftaotaneoufly, and
this is one metliod of judging of its purity. Alcohol is
very eafily volatilized by the heat of the hand, it even begins
to be converted into a very cxpanlible vapour at the tempe-
rature of 55° Fahr; and the quicknefs of evaporation always
produces a confiderable cold. It boll« at about 165°, and
the vapours when condenfed return unaltered to their fonner
Hate. It has never been frozen by any cold, natural or arti-
ficial, and hence its ufc in ihernionieters to meafwe vei^ low
temperatures.

Alcohol takes fire vcrj- readily on the application of any
lighted body, the fpeedicr in proportion to its purity. It
bums with a pale flame, white in the centre and blue at the
edges ; this gives but a fmall degree of heat, and is fo faint
as to be kurcrly vijible in bright day-light. It bums with-

4 C 2 «\lt

A L C

out any fmokf or vapour, and if lliong, kaves no refiJuiim ;
but il' rt'cak, it is t^tingailhcJlpoiitaiitoully, iiail the waiuy
pail reiiiuini IkIiIikI.

Alcoliol mixes with water in i-very proportion. Heat 'u
txtric.itcd Juring- tin; mixture, whicli is Icnlibk to the liaiid,
even ill linall quantities. At tlie fame timt there is a mu-
tual pciietnitiou of pails, fo that the Inilk of the two hquors,
when mixed, is Itfs than when ftparate. Coiifequently the
fpecific gravity of the mixture is greater than the mean
flH-cilic gnivity of the two hquors taken apart. Tlie aleo-
hol may be again for the moll part feparattd from the water
by dilli'Uatioii with a gentle heat. See Gravity (fp''ctjic.)

Owin" to tile great affinity whieh fubfills between water
and ak-ohol, this latter has the power of precipitating from
their folution various falts dillblved in water. Thus, if fonie
flroirg alcohol be added to a faturatcd I'oUition of Glauber's
flit in water, a coagulum is iininediatcly produced, coii-
liding of the fait feparutcd from the water in a very divided
form, whilil the alcohol and water form a chemical union.
Tins precipitation, however, only takes place in folutions of
tliofe falts which are ii.ibliible in alcohol. This circumftancc
has been very ingenioully applied to the analyfis of various
feline folutions, and efpecially to the examination of mineral
■waters. The power of precipitating fonie of thefe falts ex-
tends to very dilate folutions. Mr. Kirwan, in his valuable
.work on mineral waters, has found by experiment tliat fele-
nitc may be completely precipitated from water which con-
tains only one-thoufaiidth of its weight of this earthy fait,
by any alcohol whole fpecific gravity is below 0.850. For
further particulars on this fubjed, we niuil refer the reader
to the article ; Waters [Mineral, analyfis of).

Alcohol is capable of uniting with a great number of
fubftances, a circumflance which renders its ufe very exten-
five in a variety of chemical procefTes and in aualyfis. Thele
we fnall enumerate.

Some of tiie weaker acids, fuch as the boracic and tar-
lareous, are foluble in alcohol without any apparent decom-
poiilii)n, and may be again recovered by evaporating the
fpirit. The ft ronger acids, however, exercife a veiy power-
ful action on alcohol, and produce fcveral very curious and
important coir.pounds, parlieukrly thi.t fingukr liquor called
Ether. See tiie articles Ethkr, Oil of Wihe, and
Oin lAKT Gas.

All the alkahes, when pure, may be difTolvcd in alcohol,
but tht iixcd alkalies, when combined with carbonic acid,

A I. C

arc not fohible in this menllruuni. This afForda a vcrycor>-
venieiit method of procuring the cauiUc fixed alkalies in a
ilate of purity, and by proper management they may be
made to crvllalli/.e from their fpirituous folution. The
colour of a iolution of alkali in aleohiil is always fomcwhat
red, however pure the alkali be, which is owing to a partial
deconipolition of the fj>irit. Seethe articles Potash and
Tincture of Salt of Tartar.

Several of the neutral, earthy, and metallic falts, are folu-
ble in alcoh.ol. It is of fome importance in chemical ana-
lylis to afctrlain the degree of fulubility of thefe falts, and
many experiments have been made tor this purpofe.

The lirR of any importance are thole of M. Macquer.
He employed a fpirit rcftifitd fo far, that a phial holding 3
Paris ounce of diltilled water, at the temperature of 45"
Fahr. would contain fix gros and fi'ty-fuur grains of the
fpirit. The falts which he employed were prcvioufly dried
with care, fo as to expel their water of cryllallization. He
poured into a inatrafs upon each of the lalts half an ounce
of the fpirit, and fet the vefi'el in a hot fand-bath. When
the fpirit began to boil, he filtrated it while hot, and then
left it to cool. He then evaporated the fpirit, and weighed
the faline refiduums ; and from thefe he inferred the quantity
of fait which the fpirit had diffulved.

This method, however, cannot be confidered as accurate,
as fome of the fph-it muft have evaporated during boiling,
and fome of the ialt muft have been depofited in the pores
of the filter. Neither would the en-ors produced in this
way be iinifonn, fince it appears that fome f;dts are, in a
greater ]>roportion than others, more foluble in hot than
in cold ipirit.

Wen/.el alfo piiblidied a feries of experiments, in 1777,
on this lubjctt. He varied the heat which he einploved,
according to the lolubilitv of the fait.

He has, however, been guilty of a great omifiion in not
mentioning the fpecific gravity of the alcohol which he uftd,
but it may be fuppofed to be nearly the fame as that of
Macquer.

Lailly, Mr. Kirwan, with that accuracy for which he is
fo juflly diilinguifhed, has given in his treatife on mimral
waters, a table of the folubility of certain falts, in which
alcohol ot different denfitiesis employed,and the temperature
properly noticed.

Our readers will find the icfults of all the above-mentioned
experiments in the following Tabk\

TABLE

A L C

A L C

TABLE of the Solubility of Salts in Alcohol.

Salts employed, all
deprived of their
>vater of cryllal-
lization.

Macivuer.

Soluble ill 288 grs.
of Alcoliol, of
about o.84fp.gr.

Wen z EL.

Soluble ill 240 grs.
of Alcoliol, of
abouto.S4fp.gr.

KiRWAN.

Soluble in 100 grs. of Alcoliol, of

dilFerent fpccific gravity Heat,

from 50° to 70".

Boiling heat ufed.

Heat various, Sp. Gr.!.Sp. Gr. Sp. Gr.'Sp. Gr. Sp. Gr.

as fpecified. to.9

Nitrated Potalli
Soda

Ammonia

Inline

Alumine

Magiiefia

Silver

Iron

Copper

Zinc

Cobalt

Bifmuth

Muriated Potaib
Soda

Ammonia

I>ime

Alumine

Magnefia

(dried at 120° by
Kir wan.)
Barytes

Ditto, ditto, cryftallized
Muriated Iron-

Copper

Zinc

Corrofive Sublimate.
Acetited Soda

Lime

Lead

Copper

Arfeniated Potafli
Soda

Oxalic AcidiJum

Grai

'5

108
288

84

4

48

5

o

24
283

36
48

204

Grains.

Grains.

0.872 0.848 0.834. '0'8i7

Grains.lGrains. Grains. ;Grains,

5 boiling heat
23 ditto
214 ditto

240 at 54"
694 boiling
1 00 ditto
partly decompofed.
240 at 54°

decompofed.
240 at 54"
partly decompofed.
5 boiling
o
1 7 boiling
240 ditto
240 at 54°
13 13 boihng

240 boiling
240 ditto
240 at 54°
212 boiling
112 ditto

240 at 1 13°

18 boiling

9 ditto

4 ditto

7 ditto

2.76 ji
10.5 6

4.62

5.8

6.5

21.25

I.
..56

2.4

1.66

3-67
4-75

0

0

0.38

0.38
0.5

■"~

••5

23-75

36.25

0.29

0.43

0.185
0.32

4.12

4-75

50.

0.09
0.06

4.88

On examining the comparative refiilts given in the above
Table, we cannot confider them as very fatisfaftoiy, and in
fome inftances we perceive fo linking a difference in the
refults, that it niuft depend on fome more extenlive caufe
than mere cafnal error. Probably the degree and con-
tinuance of heat emplovcd, in drying the fait and expelling
its water of ei-yllallization, mull have differed coniiderably
in the rcfpeftive experiments. It would beufelefri to attempt
to explain the caufe of difference in all the refults, but this
(hews the great neceflity of attending minutely to every
particular in fuch experiments.

The mod important of the falts infolublc in highly recti-
fied alcohol are the following — all the fulphats, both of the
alkalies, earths and raetals ; fome of ilic jiitraied metals ;

fome of the muriated metals ; and the carbonated fixed al-
kalies.

A peculiar colour is perceived in the flame of fome of
thefe folutions in alcohol when fet on fire. The folutianof
nitre gives a pale yellow flame, that of boracic acid is a
faint green, all the folutions of copper burn with a beautiful
bright green, and tliofe of nitrated or muriated llrontian
fliiiie with a deep blood red.

Ammonia, both pure and carbonated, difTolves readily in
alcohol. They are generally united by in< aiis of diftillalipn,
n moderate heat being fuflicient to volatilize each. Tlitfe
combinations are principally employed in pharmacy.

Alcohol will readily unite with the carbonic acid gps,
and v/iU take up fidl its own bulk of it at a medium tem-

peruiure.

A L C

periture.— The gas, however, appoars to have little or no
action on the fpirit, fiiice it is expelled from it by heat un-
altered. ....

Neither metal*, nor metallic oxyds, nor metaUic acids,
appear to be in anv degree foluble in alcohol.

Sulphur will not contract any union with alcohol by fiinplc
i. rcllion either cold or hot; biit when they arc both reduced
to°the form of vapour, and then mixed, a true folution is
cffeCUd, and the refnlt is a very pungent fpirit with a ftrong
odour of liver of fulphur, and which becomes milky and
depofits the fulphur on dilution with water.

Ardent fpirit acis in a (light degree on Phosphorus, and
ditfolvcs fo much of this intlammable fubllance as to become
(lightly luminous in the dark when the folution is dropped
into water.

None of the pure earths are foluble in alcohol, and this
latter has the power of precipitating lime, barytes, and
ilrontian, from their watery folutioiis.

It is on the chemical fubibnces belonging to the vegetable
kingdom that aleoiiol exerts its moil powerful aclion as a
folvent, and herein eonlills its very extenlive ufe in phar-
macy, in preparing liquors for the table, in fome of the arts,
and in a very important part of chemical analyfis.

Moll of the acids belonging to the vegetable kingdom are
highly foluble in ardent fpirit, fueh as the tartareous, the
citric,' the oxalic, and the gallic. In procuring the latter
from the gall-nut, alcohol fiiruidies us with a very elegant
and commodious method of feparating the acid from the
mucilaginous extraftivc matter with which it is naturally
mixed.

The acetous acid, when of the ufual ftrength, fimply
mixes with alcohol, without producing any decompoiition,
but chemills have fucceedcd in forming an acetic Ether,
by employing the acid in its moft concentrated ilate.

Alcohol will readily difTolvc Sugar. Wenzel tllimates
the quantity at about one-fifth of the fpirit. In all the
fweet native vegetable juices, fuch as the fap of the fugar
cane and the maple, or the exprelTed Hquor from the parlnip
and beet root, the fugar is mixed with a large quantity of
a mucilage very little foluble in alcohol. This furnilhts a
ready method for feparating the purely faccharine part,
a method which is much employed in the analylis of various
vegetables, for the purpofe of afcertaining the comparative
quantity of fugar which they may be expefted to yield to
the manufacturer. This folution, when left to fpontaneous
evaporation, yields minute cnilals of fugar, which are at
Rrtt brown, and require a further purification.

Ardent fpirit is an excellent folvent for elFcntial oils, and
in general, for the moft: odorous and inflammable of the
vegetable productions. In the elTential oil of a plant refides
the Spiritus Reftor, or the AROMA, that which gives
the cxquillte perfume to the rofe or ieffamine. When thefe
odoriferous plants are diftilled with alcohol, it rifes llrongly
impregnated with their fcent and flavour, and as it takes up
no colouring matter it remains perfeftly clear as before.
Tlius, the common lavender water is alcohol dillilled off
the lavender plant, and holding in folution the effential
oil in which the fcent refides. The Z)/^;7/«/ Spirits in
pharmacy, are Gmilar preparations of alcohol, containing
the flavour of fpices, aromatics or other fubftanccs with
which it has been diftilled. (See Oils Essential).

All the Resins are highly foluble in alcohol, but fcarcely,
if at all, in water. Thefe folutions have the peculiar colour,
and acrid tafte of the refin which they contain. An addition
of water render.; them all turbid, and from the pure refinous
fohitions it precipitates ahnoft the whole of the diffolvcd

A L G

The fulution of

contei t3 in the foiTO of thick flakes.
guaiacum affords an example of this.

The Gum Resins, which are natural mixtures of gum
and relin, yield their refinous part to pure alcohol and but
little of their gum ; water on the contrary dilfolves the gum
and leaves the rcfin ; but a mixture of alcohol and water
will hold both the ingredients in iolution. Thefe prepara-
tions are called Tinctures in pharmacy, and they are of
confiderable ufe in containing within a fmall bulk, the me-
dicinal virtues of larger quantities of the ingredients em-
ployed.

Artificial refin,=i, or Refinous Extracts, are alfo made
by evaporating to drynefs folutions of the refinous parts of
feveral vegetables in alcohol.

Camphor i; readily and largely foluble in ardent fpirit.
This folution, when faturated,\vill let fall alinolt the whole of
the camphor on the addition of water. Camphor alfo re-
markably aflifts the folution of the refins.

Solutions of refinous fubftances in alcohol form the bafis
of the fpirit Varnishes, which when applied in thin layers
over any fubftance, foon dry from the evaporation of the
fpirit, whillt the refin remains behind furuiihing a fniooth
thin coating to the lurtace which they are intended to
protect.

The fixed oils, when in their fimple ftate, are entirely
infi)luble in alcohol, but they may be rendered foluble in
this menftruum, either when they have been converted into
di-ylng oils by the action of metaUic oxyds, or when they
are united with alkalies in the form of Soap. A folution
of fine foap in alcoliol is pcrtect:ly colourlefs and tran-
fparent, and will bear dilution with water without be-
coming turbid. It is employed in medicine as an external
application, and 1.; alfo a good reagent in the analyfis of mi-
neral waters to difcover the prefencc of earthy falts. Thefe
decompofe the foap by double affinity, and produce curd-
ling.

The eff"eft of alcohol on animal fubftances bear a con-
fiderable refcmblance to its operation on the vegetable king-
dom.

Mufcular fibre and the coagulum of blood are not foluble
in this menftruum, but are rendered by it hard, contracted,
and incapable of putrefaction.

Albumen is equally infoluble in alcohol and is coagulated
by it, probably owing to abftraftion of the water which held
it in folution. Milk is fpeedily curdled by ardent fpirit of
every kind.

Alcohol will difiblve Wax, Spermaceti, Biliary
CALCULI, and the ftrong fcented animal refins or refinous
extracts, fuch as Musk and Ambergris. Tills menftruum,
however, does not appear to be fo cxtenfivcly applicable to
the analyfis of animal fubftances as ot thofe from the veget-
able kingdom.

We have already mentioned that alcohol well rectified
maybe brought to the fpeclfic gravity of 0.825 (at 60" tem-
perature) by a fimple diftlllation, where the procefs is flowly
and carefully condufted, and when only the firft third, or
half of the fpirit which comes over is taken. Chemifts have,
however, been able to bring it to a higher ftate of dephleg-
mation, and confequently a lefs fpeclfic gravity. This is
done by adding to the fpirit in the alembic or ftill a quantity
of a fait which is itfelf infoluble in alcohol, and which has
fuch a greedy attrattion for water as to be able to feparate
it from the fpirit. Boerhaave recommends for this purpofe
common fait, hot, dry, and decrepitated. He allows the
fait and the fpirit to ftand together for twelve hours, and
then to be heated in a water-bath f© as to diftill off the fpirit

by

A L C

A L C

by a very (rontle waimth. The fait is left moid in the ftill,
and comaiiis inucli of the water of the fpirit cinploycd.
Some recommend burnt alum in the room of ialt, but the
beft addition is very diy, hot, carbonated alkali. A highly
dcphlegmated alcohol may be prepared in this method with-
out the intermediate proctfs of dilliUation, only then the
fpirit will be of r rcddifh colour, and will contain that fmall
portion of cauftlc alkali which is always mixed with eom-
r.ion carbonated potafli, and which is foluble in ardent fpirit.
Tjie following is Boerhaavc's procefs : " Take a clean glafs
" body containing common fpirit of wine, and add thereto
•' one-third of its weight of pure and dry potafh, (carbo-
*' nated potafli), which immediately falls to the bottom.
" Shake the glafsj, and the fait direftly grows moi!l and
" begins to diffolve at the bottom, whilll a red thin liquor
" floats above it ; the moa' the velTcl i'A fhaken, the more
♦' liquid is the lower part of the fait, and the more dillinClly
" feparated from the upper liquor, nor is it ever pofTible to
" mix them together, but upon relling they will immediately
•' feparate into two liquors."

This procefs may be continued, he adds, by decanting
carefully the upper of the two liquors, (which is the al-
cohol reddened by a little cauftic alkali that it holds dif-
folved) and adding to it more carbonated alkali, till the
portion lad added will no longer become wet on fliaking,
a fign that the alcohol is as fully deprived of water as it
is capable of being made by means of alkali. As a proof of
the high dephlegraation of the fpirit by this method, it
may be obfer\-cd, that if a drop or two of water be added
to alcohol in which fait of tartar has long remained dry,
the alkali immediately becomes moift, and appears to run
unftuous from the fides of the veffcl.

If the alcohol be (hjlilkd off the alkaline Mt with a
gentle heat, the firll part which comes over will be about the
ipecific gravity of 0.813 to 0.815, at the temperature of
60°, and this is as high a degree of purity as it has
been brought to in the accurate experiments made in this
country, by Dr. Blagden and others, for the purpofe of
afcertainlng its fpeeific gravity. (See GRAViTvy/'rt/yfc.)

M. I^owitz, however, allerts, that he has brought al-
cohol to the fpeeific gravity of 0.791, chiefly by adding,
before dillillation, a ver/ large quantity of alkali fo as al-
mofl entirely to abforb the fpirit.

After difiillation, the wet alkaline fait which is left may
be dried, and again ufed for the fame purpofe ; but Boer-
haave afferts, that after repeating the ufe of the fame
alkali for a number of times, it becomes changed in its
nature, and unfit for the purpofe. This would imply a
decompolitlon of the alcohol, which deferves to be further
examined.

Various tefts have been devifed for afcertaining the
purity of alcohol, and the proportion of water which it
contains. A fpirit, which is very free from water will,
when fet fire to, burn away without leaving any refidue ;
if it is of moderate ftrength it will burn for a certain time,
and then become extinguilhed, and leave a portion of wa-
ter more or lefs confiderable, according to the degree of
dephlegmation ; if, on the contrary, it is very weak and
watery, it will not kindle at all. This tell, however, is
by no means accurate, fince the heat of the burning fpirit
will drive off part of the water which lliould be left in the
refiduum. Another tell is, to drop a fmall quantity of
fpirit on a fmall heap of gunpowder and kindle it. The
fpirit burns quietly on the furface of the powder till it
is all confumed, and the lafl portion fires the powder if
the fpirit was pure, but if watery, the powder becomes
too damp and will not explode. This tell. alfo. is very

inaccuratf ; for if the powder be drenched with even
a llrong Ipirit, it rer.uiins too damp to be fired ; and if
it be only barely moitktn.'d, any fpirit that will burn will
inflame it. A better tilk is, as we have mentioned, to
fliake the fpirit in a phial with fomc dry carbonated alkali ;
but the mod accurate of all is to afeertain its fpceilic ^r^-
vity, and compare it with the denfity of known qiumtitics
of alcohol and water, jireviotifly mixed for the purpofe
of giving a ilandard of eomparifon. The very exteiifivc
and accurate labours on this fubiedi, conduelcd by Bcaumc,
Blagden, Oouvenain, and other eminent fcientilic men, be-
long with more projiritty to the fubjcCt lA fpicifu Gravity,

It remains for us to mention the chemical nature of al-
cohol, and the appearances which attend its deconipofition.
The remarkable circumftance of a vegetable producfl burn-
ing away, without the finalleft trace of fmokc or fuliginous
vapour of any kind, had long engaged the attriitiim of
chemills. Junker and Boerhaave threw much light on
the fubjedl by remarking, that the produft of the corn-
bullion of alcohol was always a quantity of pure water ;
and this faft was more fully illullrated by the experiments
of the illudrious Lavoilier. l"hc ready evaporation of
alcohol, and the eafe with which its vapour will fill a large
veficl, renders it a dangerous experiment to fubmit a con-
fiderable quantity at once to combullion, in oxygen gas
confined in any veflel, but this difficulty was furmountcd
in an ingenious manner. His firll experiment was fimply
to afcertain the quantity of water yielded by the coin-
bullion of a given weight of alcohol. This was performed
in the follov.ing apparatus, contrived by M. Mcufmier.
See Plates of Chi; MI sTRY, fig. 10.

E F is a worm, contained in the cooler A BCD. To
th.e upper part of the worm E, the chimney G H is
fixed, which is compofed of two tubes, one within the
other, the inner of which is a contin.iation of the worm,
and the outer one is a cafe of tin-plate, which fuirounds
it at about an inch diftance, and the interval is filled witli-
fand. At the inferior extremity K of the inner tube, a
glafs tube is fixed, to which is adopted the argand lamp
I^ M, for burning alcohol.

Things being thus difpofed, and the lamp being filled
with a determinate quantity of alcohol, it is fet on fire ;
the water which is formed during conihuftion, rifes in
the chimney K E, and being condenfed in the worm^
runs out at its extremity F, into the bottle P. The ufe of
the outer tube G H, and of the fand between it and the
inner tube, is to prevent the latter which pr(;cetds from
the worm, from being cooled during combullion, whielr
would occafion the water, formed by the burning, to fall
back on the lamp inftead of paffing on into the worm.

This apparatus though not perfect, has the advantage
of enabling the chemift to operate with larger quantities
than can be admitted in the more accurate experiments on
combullion, and by it, the above-mentioned chemifts were
able to eftabhlh the important faft, that the quantity of
water collected by the combuilion of alcohol very fciijibly
exceeils the quantity of the alcohol -which is confumed. The
produft of water mull vary according to the ilrcngth of
the alcohol, and the care of conducting the experiment ;.
but it is fo confiderable, that from fixtecn ounces of ar-
dent fpirit, Lavoifier obtained eighteen ounces and a half
of pure water. There is befides, however, a large quan-
tity of carbonic acid produced in this experiment whicli,
efcapes, and cannot be ellimated by this apparatus. Some
of this gas unites with the water which is collefted, and
cnufes it to precipitate lime-water.

Having thus afcertaiiied in a general way the produdla

A L C

of (lie co;iibufl.ion of alooliol, Lavoificr proeecdid la re-
jM-at tlie experiment, in veiltls which niiglit cktcrmine the
rrfiilt wit'.i accuracy. He employed, for this purpole, a
brge bell glafs, holdnij; from 700 to 800 cubic inches, and
inverted over a mercurial trouijh. A fmall hurp filled
witli a known weight of alcohol, was introduced under
the glafs fwimming on the furlace of the mercuiy, and
the wick was armed with a vciy minute portion ol pliof-
phonis. The atmofpherical air within the glafs was
lucked out by a fyphon, till the mercury rofe to a certain
height which was nottd ; and tlie pliofphorus on the wick
being then kindled by a hot iron, the fpivit fooj) took
iire. As the air withiii the glafs would be foon cohUniK-d,
and the inflammation of the fpirit Hopped, a conllant
fupply of oxygen gas was fent into the glafs through a
fyphon tube, connected with a refervoir of this gas, and
which palled under the mercury into the glafs where the
combuiiion was going on. Great precaution was required
not to let in more oxygen than was barely necefTary to
keep up the combuiiion ; otherwiie the heat, volatiliz-
ing pait of the fpirit, would have filled the glafs with
v.ipour of alcohol, and this mixing with the oxygen,
would have fuddenly exploded by the combuflion. In
this, as in other refpecls, the combuftion of alcohol
ilrikingly refcmbles that of pure hydrogen gas. The ex-
perinient was at laft flopped by the quantity of carbonic
acid generated ; and on examining tlie rekilts, (proper cor-
reclions lieir.g made for prelTure and temperature) it was
found, that 93.5 grains of alcohol and 110.32 grains of
oxygen had been confumed. The produiEls of thefe were
93. S grains of carbonic acid and lo6.2 grains of water,
which iail therefore exceeded by 12.7 graias the quantity
of alcohol employed. From thofe data^ and from previous
experiments (wherein Lavoifier eftimatcd, that 100 grains
of oxygen take up 38.88 grains of carbon, for the pro-
duction of carbonic acid gas ; and that the fame quantity
of oxygen takes up 17.64 grains of hydrogen for the pro-
■dudion of water), he concluded the compofition of alcohol
to be the following,

Carbon - - . . -28. 53

Hydrogen - - . . -7. 87

^Vater already exiiling in the alcohol 6 3. 6

We may obferve, however, that the refult of this experiment
can only be confidered as an approximation towards the
truth, fmce the ellunation of the component parts of alcohol
here given, does not agree with that w'hich is deduced by
the fame chemill, from the refult of vinous fermentation.
Neither is there any light thrown on the mode of union
between the compoient parts, and their degree of oxygen-
ation as they exill in the fpirit before combuIl;i<ni.

Alcohol has likcwife been more dircclly decompofed
witliout the accelFion of oxygen gas. Dr. PrielUey pro-
cured iuriammable air by paffmg the cleitric fpark through
fpirit of wine. But the moll ilriking experiments on this
fubjeft, performed by this excellent philofopher, were the
dccompofition of fpirit by paffing it through red-hot
tubes, both of earth and raetal. He lirft tranfmitted two
ounce meafures of alcohol, reduced to vapour by boiling,
through an ignited porcelain tube, and procured 1900
ounce meafures of air, " which was all inflammable without
" any mixture of fixed air in it, and which burned with
" a blue lambent ilame." (\Ve here quote the veiy words
of the author, which the writer of the article Alcooi., in
the Encyclopedic Methodique, has made to correfpond with
the experiments of Lavoificr, by adopting the following

A I. C

fingular tranflatlon — M. Priejiley, en faifant pajfer de P ako»I
dans un lube d'argile rotigi au feu, en a retire du gas hydro-
gene mile de ga% acide carloiiique.) Dr. Prieflley's next
experiments are ftill more curious, as they determine the
cxiflence of carbonaceous matter in fpirit of wine. Hav-
ing found iiUereiling refults from the tranlmifTion of the
vapour of water through a heated copper tube, he repeated
the experiments, only fubflituting the vapour of fpirit of
wine for that of water. " In this cafe," he obferves,
" the vapour of the fpirit had no fooner entered the hot
" copper tube, than I was pcrfedly allonifhed at the rapid
" production af air. It refembled the blowing of btl,-
" lo\.s. But I had not ufed four ounces of the fpirit of
" wine before I veiy unexpedledly found that the tube
" was perforated in feveral places, and prefently afterwards
" it was fo far deilroyed, that in attempting to remove
" it from the fire, it adlually fell in pieces. The infide
" was full of a black footy matter, refemhling lamp-hlack?*
He then varied the experiment by ufing earthen tubes,
placing within them copper filings, and tranfmitting the
vapour of alcohol. The copper was as before, converted
into a black friable fubflance, obvioufly produced by the ■
addition of carbonaceous matter furnifhed by one part of
the fpirit, whilll the other part appeared in the form of a
copious llream of inflammable air. It is however by no
means the whole of the charcoal of the alcohol which i»
detained by the copper, for much of it efcapes mixed with
the inflammable air in the form of fine foot, giving the
gas the appearance of a denfe black cloud ; and when
the tube is llrongly heated, this volatilized charcoal will
give an uniform black coating to any balloon or large veflel
in which the gas is received. Dr. Pricltley found fomc
other metals to undergo a fmiilar change by the vapour of
alcohol, but none in fo Ilriking a manner as copper. On
heating fome of this charcoal of copper, as he calls it, in
oxygen gas, he found it to burn very readily to a certain
point, after which the remainder could not be again
kindled. The gas produced by the combuflion, was pure
fixed air or carbonic acid.

The excellent Dutch chemifts, of the Teylcrian inflitu-
tion, Van Maritm and colleagues, repeated Dr. Prieftley's
experiments with great accuracy, and found the fame refults
in every effential particular. They employed, as well as
Dr. Prieflley, Wedgwood's porcelain tubes, which they in-
clofed in iron tubes to prevent the fudden aftion of the fire
which is apt to crack them. One extremity of the earthen
tube received a fmall retort in which was put the alcohol,
and the other entered a metallic Icrpentine tube, immerfed
in a refrigeratory, and provided at the further end with a
bottle to receive the gafeous produfts. In the firfl experi-
ment which was performed, an ounce and a half of alcohol
in vapour had been tranfmitted through the heated copper,
and had produced about fix cubic feet of inflammable
air.

In the fecond experiment the heat was greater, and the
produftion of the gas more rapid. In all, the copper was
reduced to a black and very friable fubflance, which fell to
pieces between the fingers. The proportion of charcoal
added to the copper by the experiments, varied at diftcrent
times apparently owing to the greater or lefs rapidity with
which the proeefs was conducled. Dr. Prieflley had united
446 grains of charcoal to 28 of copper, in one inflance ;
and J08 to 19, in another: but the Dutch chemifls found
a much lefs proportion of charcoal, being only an addition
cf 292 graiiiii to 748 of Copper in one cafe, and in another,
iSo oi charcoal to 612 of the metal. Tlie great difTerence
in the refults is, however, of little confequeace in attempl-
1 ing

A L C

\nfr to afceitain by tliofe experiments tlic exncfl proportion
ot I'.ie coir.ponent parts of alcohol, Inice a large part of the
car'ooiiaceous ingredient efcapes the cupper, and palFcs over
into the vcflels which receive the inflammuble air, where it
either appears in tlie form ot a fine black foot, or remains
permr.uently vniited with the hydrogen gas. M. Van Ma-
rum likewife collected in the bottle conneftcd with the ftr-
pentinc a quantity of nearly pure water, about equal to half
the weight of the alcohol evaporated by boiling, and of the
fpecific gravity of .996. He does not inform us of the
ftrength of the fpirit which he ufed. He confirmed the
other part of Dr. Prieftley's experiment by burning the
charcoal of copp:-r in oxygen gas, and procuring pure car-
bonic acid, •whilll the remaining copper ilill retained a fmall
portion of carbon which could not be confumed. It is
worthy of remark, that the inflammable air produced in tlie
experiments of both thefe eminent chemills was found to be
not much more than twice as light as common air, and it
probably bears a confiderable relemblancc to that fpecies of
gas, termed, with great propriety by Mr. Cruiklhank,
Cii/'fous Oxyd oi Carp, on.

The vapour of alcohol tranfmitted through earthen tubes
forms, in particular cncumllanccs, that lingular air which
has been named Olefiant Gas.

The ules to which alcohol is applied are numerous and
important. In the arts, it is employed largely as a folvent
fo!- thofe refmous gums which form the baiis of numerous
varnifhes and fimilar applications.

It polFefTes in the highell degree the cordial, (limulating,
and intoxicating qualities of all diitilled fpirits, and altliough
the lefs powerful and more grateful ot the fpiriluous liquors,
fuch as rum, brandy, &c. are more peculiarly devoted to
the ufe of the table, the purer ardent fpirit, again fufficiently
diluted with water, is employed as the bafis of many of the
artificial cordial fpirits and liquors, to which a flavour and
additional tafte are given by particular admixtures. Similar
to this is the ufe of alcohol in medicine, where it ferves as
a folvent for the more active parts of vegetables, under
the form of tinttures, and it is alfo employed as an exteniiJ
application, often with confiderable luccefs.

The highly antifeptic power ot alcohol renders it par-
ticularly valuable in prefcrving particular parts of the body
as anatomical prepai-ations.

The gentle, lieady, and imiform heat which it gives during
combultion, and the abfcnce of fmoke or fuligir.ous vapour
of any kind, make it often a moll eligible material for burning
in lamps.

As a fluid for thermometers, it has the advantage over
mercury in not freezing in any known degree of cold, but
frt)m its ready volatility in a moderate heat it cannot
be depended on with any accuracy, above 90 or 100 de-
grees.

The expanfibility of alcohol is much greater than water ;
the former being, in a range of temperature frooi 3010 too,
-j-Uth of its bulk, and the latter only tt''-''-

The ufe of alcohol in chemical auatyfis has been already
mentioned. As a folvent for fome of the earthy and meiallic
lilts, and a precipitant of others, it is peculiarly fitted to affill
ill the aualyfis of mineral waters, and ialine lubflances in
general ; and in the chemical examination of vegetable and
animal matter, it furniflies a folvent of very exteufive power,
pofTefled of the valuable advantage to the chcmiil of pro-
ducing but little decoinpofition in the lubltances which it
holds in fohilion, and therefore enabling him to prefcnt them
almoll exai'ily wiih their native properties and dillinctive
characters.

Vol. I.

A L C

Bi.cihaave's Chemiftry, vol. ii Euoyclopcdie Melho-

dique Art. Alcool. — Friellley on Air, 2d edition. — Aiuraks
Dc Chiniic, torn. xxx.

Alcohol is fometimes alfo ufed for a very fine, impal-
pable powder, wliich women in the liall make ufe of as a
kind ot J'licus. Kohol is a general term applied to a fub-
llance applied to the eye -ball, on the infide of the eye-lids,
in the form of a powder finely levigated. That which is em-
ployed for ornament is called fimply al kohol, or ifplialiany ;
when other ingredients, as llowtis of olibanum, amber, and
the like, are added, on account of fomc particular difoiders,
the kohol is dillinguilhed by tome appropriate epithet. Dr.
Shaw, in his Travels, fpeaking of the women in Baibary,
fays, that none of thefe ladies think thcmfelves completely
drelfed, until they have tinged their hair and edges ot their
eye-hds with ul-La-hoK the powder of lead-ore. Lady Mon-
tague (Letters, vol. ii. p. 32.) takes notice of this cuflom
among the Eallern women; and in lier fprightly manner, (lie
fuppoies our Englilh ladies would be overjoyed to know this
fecret. This ore ufed at Aleppo, called Stibium by the
ancients, but veiy different from antimony, i.; brought from
Pcrfia, and is prepared by roalling it in a quince, an apple,
or a truflle, then adding a few drops of oil of almonds, it
is ground to a fubtile powder on a marble. Of late years
the lead ore, brought from England, under the name of
Arcifoglio, has been ufed inllead of the ifphahany. Tlic
quantity of kohol confumed in the Eaft is incredibly great.
It has been faid by one of their peets, in allufion to the
probe iifed for applying the powder, and the mountains
where the mineral is found, " that the mountains have been
worn away by a bodkin." This probe or bodkin, called
meel, is made ot ivory, filver, or wood ; it is dipped in
water, and when a little of the powder has been fprinkled
on it, it is applied horizontally to the eye, and the eye-lids
being fliut upon it, the probe is drawn between them, leaving
the inlidc tinged, and a black rim all round the edge. The
Roman Satyriil alludes to this cutlom, as well as that of
blackening the eyebrows :

" Ilia fupcrcilium madida fuligine taftum 1

Obliqua producit acu, pingitquc trementes
AttoUens oculos."

Juvenal, Sat. ii. v. 67, and Cafaubon's note.

The kohol is alfo ufed by the men for flrengthening the
fight, and preventing various diforders of the eye, for which
purpofe diflerent ingredients are occafionally added. It is
alfo applied to the eyes of children, as foon as they are
born, and is renewed at the interval of a few days through
the feveral periods of their adolefcence. The ufe of the
kohol is of very ancient date. Paifages relative to it, in
faeied hiftory, may be feen in Shaw, (Travels, p. 229.),
Harmer, (Obfervations, vol. ii. p. 405.), and Lowth's Notes
on Ilaiah, chap. iii. v. [6. Harmtr conceives that the r«/-
iiifs of the eyej, as it is in our v rfion, which the dying pa-
triarch mentions in blefling Judaii, (Gen. xlix. 13.), is to be
explained by this ufage. Dr. Rullell obferves, on a pafTage
in Xenophon referred to h\ Shaw, that blackening the eyes,
though a cullom among the Medes, was not at that time in
ufe among the Perfians ; for Cyrus, among other things,
feems to have been lurpriled at tlie painted eyes of his
grandfather Allyages. Cyropced. lib, i. p. y. See Ruf-
lell's Aleppo, vol. i. p. III. p. 367. Ed. 1794. From this
imp.dpable powder tlic name was transftrred to other fubti'e
powders, and afterwards to fpirits of wine exalted to its
liigheft purity and perfeftion. See Porphvrisation,

Alcohol, in the Arabian ytjlrolo^, is when a heavy
4 D flow-paced

A L C

flow-pr.ccd p!anet receives another lighter one within its oib,
fo as to come in conjunftion therewith.

Alcohol Mart'u, tlhngs of llctl nduciti to an impal-
pnble powder, hy turning it into nift with urine, then levi-
gating it, and mixing it with a large quantity of water ;
that is, about a gallon to two pounds and a half of filings.
After it has Hood a quarter of an hovu-, the upper part of
the water is to be poured off, and evaporated to a drynefs.
The powdt-r at the bottom is to be put into a paper, in the
form of a fucar-loaf, and wallted, by gradually pouring in
l.ot-watcr, till it is freed from the urinous faltf. With
regard to the remaining grofs powder, the fame procefs is
to be repeated.

Mufgrave has a great opinion of this preparation, as a
remedy to bring back the gout from the nobler parts to the
joints. He prefcribes it thus : take of alcohol mnrtis from
five to ten grains, iheiiaci yimlromachi from half a fcrnple
to one dram, mix tliefe with as much fyrup of clove-july-
flowers, as is futRcicnt to make a bolus.

ALCOHOLIZATION, in Chctnl/lrj, the reftification
of a vinous fpirit*

This is othervife called a/coHza/son,

Alcolization, accordinjTto Starkey, denotes the circu-
tion of a volatile fpirit on a fixed alkali, till fuch time as out
of the two arifes one neutral body different from both the
former, yllcohsli'zation is one way of volatilizing alkalis.

Alcoholization is alfo ufed for pulverization-.

ALGOL, or Ancol, in Geo^^raphy, lies on the coaft of
Barbary, on the call fide of the Cape de Tenes, under
which there is a fmall bay and good road, but open to the
north and north-eaft ; fo that when a Levant gale is ex-
pefted, fhips ftiould move round the cape to the well-fide.

ALCOLA is ufed by akhemijls, for the tartar of urine.

Alco}a\% found in three different forms, ^';z. I. Refolved,
or reduced into an impalpable fubftaiice. 2. Sandy, or
voided under the appearance of fmall grains of whitilh or
reddilh fand. 3. Mucilaginous, or vifcous.

ALCOLEA, in Geography, a fmall town of Spain, in
New Caftile, fituated in a fine countiy, a few leagues north
of Madrid. N. lat. 40° 40'. W. long. 3° 6'.

Alcolea is alfo a town of Spain, in Andalufia, on the
banks of the Guadalquivir, fix miles north of Carmona.

Alcolea is alfo another town of Spain, in Aragon, on
the confines of Caftile, fouth of Balbaftro, and north-eaft
of the river Yzuela. N. lat. 41° 30'. E. long. 2° 14'.

ALCOMEN^, in Ancient Geography, a town of lUyri?.
Steph. Byz.

Alcomen.e was alfo a town of the ifland of Ithaca,
whence Ulyffes was called Alcomeneus.

ALCON, in Biography, a furgeon of great eminence in
the firft centur)' of the Chriftian a?ra, acquired confiderable
wealth in his profeffion, under the Emperor Claudius. He
is faid to have been expert in the art of reducing fraftured,
or luxated bones, and in curing hernias by incifion. He is
probably the perfon mentioned by Martial, ii> the following
epigram, lib. xi. ep. 85.

Mitior implicitas Alcon fecat enterocelas,
Fraftaque fabrih dedolat ofla manu.

See more of him in Le Clerc'sHift.dela Medicine, p. 581.

Alcon, in Entomology, a fpecies of Papilio Plebejus,
with entire casrulean wings, brown margin, below cinereous
brown, and numerous ocellary points ; found in Auftria.

ALCOR, in AJlronomy, a fmall ftar adjoining to the large
bright one in the middle of the tail of Ursa major.

The word is Arabic.— It is a proverb among the Ara-

A L C

bians, applied to one who pretends to fee fmall things, but
overlooks D-.uch greater, " Thou canft fee Alcor, and yet
not fi.e the full moon."

ALCORAN, or Al Koran, the Mahometan Scripture
or Bible, containing the revelations, doftrines, and pro-
phecies, of the pretended prophet Mahomet.

It is vulgarly called Alcoran ; but the firft fyllable of the
word is nothing more than an article figiiifying the ; and
therefore the true orthography of the word is Al Coran, or
Al Koran, that is, the Koran. It is derived from the Arabic
word laraa, to nail, and fignifies the reading; or what ought
to be read. Thus Mahomet gave it this title by way of
eminence, in imitation of the Jews and Chriftians, who call,
the Old and New Teftament, Scripture ; and the Bible, i. e.
the Book ; and al Dhllr, the admonition.

Befides this peculiar name, the Koran is alfo honoured
with feveral appellations common to other books of Scrip-
ture ; as Al Forhan from the vtvh faraka, to divide or dif-
tinguifh, denoting a feftion or portion of fcripture. It is
alfo called Al Mo/Im/, the volume, and Al Kitab, the book,
by way of eminence.

It is the commoii opinion among us, that Mahomet, af-
fifted bv one Scrgius, a monk, compofed this book ; but
the Muffulmen believe it as an article of their faith, that
the prophet, who, they fay, was an ilhteratc man, had no
concern in inditing it ; but that it was given him by God,
who, to that end, made ufe of the miuiftry of the angel
Gabriel ; that, however, it was communicated to him by
little and little, a vcrfe at a time, and in different places,
during the courfe of twenty -three years; — ' And hence,' fay
they, ' proceed the diforder and confufion vifible in the
work;' which, in truth, arc fo great, that all their doftors
had never been able to adjuft them. For Mahomet, or rather
his copyift, having put all thefc loofe verfes promiicuoully
in a book together, it was impofiible ever to retrieve tlie
order wherein they were delivered.

Thofe twenty-three years which the angel employed in
conveying the Koran to Mahomet are of wonderful fervice
to his followers : inafmuch as they furnifh them with an
anfwer to fuch as tax them with the glaring contradiftions
of which the book is full : thofe contradiftions they pioufiy
father upon God himfelf ; alledging, that in the courfe of
fo long a time, he repealed and altered feveral doftrines and
precepts which the prophet had before received of him.

The Mahometan doctors obviate any objeftion deduced
from thefe contradiftory paffages by the doArine of abro-
gation ; and they diftinguifh the abrogated paffages into three
kinds ; the Jirjl, where the letter and fenfe are both abro-
gated ; the fecond, where the letter only is abrogated, but
the fenfe remains ; and the third, where the fenfe is abro-
gated, though the letter remains. Of the firil kind v/ere
feveral verfes, which by the tradition of Ans Ebn Malec,
were in the prophet's life-time read in the chapter of repen-
tance, but are not now extant. Another inftanee of this
kind we trace from the tradition of Abdallah Ebn Mafiid,
who reported that the prophet gave him a verfe to read
which he wrote down, but the next morning looking in his
book,^he found it was vanifhed, and the leaf blank ; upon
acquainting Mahom.et with this circumftancc, he was affured
by the prophet that the verfe was revoked the fame night.
Of the fecond kind is the verfe called the verfe oi Jlonlng,
which, according to the tradition of Omar, afterwards K[
Khalif, was extant, while Mahomet was living, though it ' ■
be not now to be found. Of the laft kind are obferved fe-
veral verfes, in 63 different chapters, to the number of 225 ;
fuch as the precepts of turning in prayer to Jenifalem,

falling

A L C

fading after the old cudom, forbearance tBwarJs idolaters,
nvoidiiig the ignorant, and the hkc.

M. D'Herbclot thinks it proliable, that when the hercfies
of the Neftorian?, Eutychians, &c. had been condemned by
recunienical councils, many bilbops, priells, monks, &c.
being driven into the deferts of Arabia and Egypt, fur-
nifhed the impoflor with pafTagcs, and crnde ill-conceived
dotlrines, out of the fcripturcs ; and tliat it was hence that
the Koran became fo full of the wild and erroneous opinions
of thofc heretics.

The Jews alfo, who were very numerous in Arabia, fur-
uidied materials for the Koran ; nor is it without fonie reafon
that they boall twelve of their chief dodtors to have been
the authors of this work.

The Koran, it is to be obferved, while Mahomet lived, was
only kept in loofe flieets ; his fucccflor, Abubeker, firll col-
lefted the contents into a volume, not only from the palm
leaves and (Ivins on which they had been written, but alfo
froiTi the mouths of thofe who had committed them to memo-
ry'; and when the tranfcript wascompleted, cntrufted thekeep-
ingof it to Haphfa, the daughtcrof Omar, one of the widows
of Mahomet, in order to be confulted as an original ; and
there being a good deal of diveriity between the feveral
copies already difperfed throughout the provinces, Ottoman,
or Othman, fucceflbr of Abubeker, in the 30th year of
the Hegira, procured a great number of copies to be taken
from that of Haphfa ; at the fame time fuppreffing all the
others not conformable to the original.

The chief differences, in the prefent copies of this book,
confift in the points, which were not in ufe in the time of
Mahomet and his immediate fuccefibrs, btit were added
fmce, to afcertain the reading ; after the example of the
Mafforetes, who added the like points to the Hebrew texts
of fcripture.

The Koran is divided into 1 14 fiiras, or chapters, of very
uneqvial length ; which, in the m.anufcript copies, are not
dillinguilhed by their numerical order, though they are
aftually numbered in Sale's edition, but by particular titles,
wdiich, except the initial chapter, are taken fometmies
from a paiticular matter treated of, or perfon mentioned
therein, b\it ufually from the firft word of note. Some
chapters have two or more titles, occafioned by the dif-
ference of the copies. Some of the chapters having been
revealed atMecca and others at Medina, this difference is noted
in the title. Several of them are laid to have been revealed
partly at Mecca and partly at Medina ; and as to others,
it is not agreed among commentators to which of thefe
two places they belong. The fiiras are divided into little
verfes, in Arabic, called ayat. Jigns or luonders, which are
all compofed in a broken interrupted ftyle, refembling profe
rather than verfe. Many of thefe have their particular
titles formed in the fame manner as thofe of the chapters.

Befide thefe unequal divifions of chapter and verfe, the
Koran is divided into 60 equal portions, called ahzab, each
of which is again fubdivided into four equal parts. — But
It is more ufually divided into 30 feftions, named ajza,
each of twice the length of the former, and fubdivided
in like manner into four parts. Thefe divifions are for the
ufe of the readers of the Koran in the royal temples, or
in the adjoining chapels where the emperors and great men
are interred. Of thefe readers, there are 5° belonging
to every chapel, and each reads his feftion every day,
fo that the whole Koran is read over once a day. Under
the title, at the head of cveiy chapter, except the ninth,
is prefixed the following folemn fonn, called by the Ma-
hometans the I'J'mUlah, in the name of the mojl merciful Cod ;

A L C

vvluch form, as well as the titles, arc confidcrtd by lome
commentators of divine .original ; though others believe
them to be human additions.

This fonn they conllaully place at the beffinning of all
their books and writings in general, as a peculiar anil clia-
raftcridic mark of their religion ; and it is deemed a fort
of impiety to omit it. There arc 29 chapters of th<-.
Koi-aii, v.'hich have this peculiarity, that they begin with
certain letters of the alphabet ; fome with a lingle one,
and other;; with more. Thefe letters arc confidered as ))c-
culiar marks of the Koran ; and as concealing profound
myderies, the certain underdanding of wiiich, the more
intelligent confefi, has not been comnmuicaled to any
mortal, liieir prophet alone excepted.

There art feven principal editions of the Koran ; tw»
at Medina, one at Mecca, one at Ciifa, one at Dafiora,
one in Syria, and the common, or viilgate edition. The
In-ft contains 6000 verfes ; the fecond and fifth 6214; the
third 6219; the fourth 6236; the fixtli 6226; and the
lad (^225 : but the number of words and ktterE is the fame
in all, W2. 77639 words, and 323015 letters.

The Koran is held not only of divine original, but eter-
nal and uncreated , remaining, as fome cxprefs it, in the
vei-y effence of Ood. The fird tranfcript has been from
cverlading by God's throne, written on a table of vaft
bignefs, in which are alio recorded the divine decrees,
pail and future. A copy from this table, in one volume,
on paper, was fent down to the lowed heaven, by the mi-
nidry of the angel Gabriel, in the month of R.imadan, on
the night of power: from whence it was delivered out by
Gabriel to Mahomet, in parcels, fome at Mecca, and fome
at Medina ; though he kad the confolalion of feeing the
whole once a year, and in the lad year of his life twice.
Some few chapters were delivered entire, the greater part only
in feparate periods, which were written down from time to
time by the prophet's amanucnlis, in fuch a part of any
particular chapter, as he direclcd. The fird parcel tiiat
was revealed, was the fird five vcrfcs of the 96th chapter,
which the prophet received in a cave of mount Harali,
near Mecca.

Although the Sonnites or Orthodox believe, that the Ko«
ran is uncreated and eternal, and Maliomet lijrnfelf is faid
to have pronounced him an infidel who alTerted the con-
traiy, yet feveral have been of a different opinion ; parti-
cularly the feft of the Motazalitcs, and the followers of
Ifa Ebn Sobeh Abu Mufa, furnamcd Al-Mozdar, who
accufed thofe who held the Koran to be uncreated, of
infidelity, as affcrtors of two eternal beings. The difpute,
which occafioned much warm contention, was at length
conipromifed by Al Ghazali, who maintained that the
original idea of the Koran only is really in God, and con-
fequently co-ctfential and co-eternal witli him, but that
the copies are created and the work of man.

The Koran is univerfally allowed to be written with the
titmod elegance and purity of language, in the dialefl of
the tribe of Koreifh, the mod noble and polite of all the
Arabians, but with fome mixture, though very rarely, of
other dialefts. It is confefTtdly the dandard of the Arabic
tongue ; and as the more orthodox believe, and arc taught
by the book itl'clf, inimitable by any human pen ; and
therefore infided on as a permanent miracle, greater than
that of raifing the dead, and of itfelf fuffieicnt to convince
the world of its divine original. Accordingly, Mahomet
himfelf appealed to this miracle as the chief confirmation
of his milTion ; publickly challenging the moil eloquent
man in Arabia, then abounding with perfons whofe folc
4 D 2 ftudy

A I. C

flt.'.y Slid an-.hition it was to excil in elegance of ftyle
and compolilion, to produce even a fmglc cliaptcr that
iniglit be compared with it. Hnwivci, there have not
Lctii wanting, even among the Mahometans theinlelves,
thole who Iiavc alFcrted that there is nothing miracnloiis
in this hook witli lefpect to llylc or eompolition, exeept-
irg only the prophetical relations of things nail, and pr.--
d ctions of thirgi to come ; and that if God lir.d left men
to their natural liherty, and not retrained them in that
particular, the Arabians could have compoled fomethmg
not oidy etpial, but fnperior to the Koran in eloquence,
n..l!iod," and purity of language. Tliis was the opinion
of the Motazalites, and in particular of Al Mozdar and
Al Nodham.

The llyle of the Koran is generally beautiful and fluent,
(fpeciiJIy where it imitates the prophaie manner and fcrip-
tiire-phnifeology. It is concife and often oblcure, adorned
with bold figures after the eailcni taile, enlivened with
florid and fententious exprelTions, and in many places, efpe-
cially wliere the majelly and attributes of God are de-
ftrilied, fublime and magnificent. Ahhough it be written
in profe, vet the ftnteiices generally conclude in a long
continued'rhyme, for the lake of which the fenfe is often
intemiptcd, and unnecefiiuy repetitions are too frequently
made. But this kind of jingling delights the Arabians ;
and thcv are fond of employing it in their moft elaborate
compofit'iouf ; which they embcllilh with frequent citations
from the Koran, and allulions to it. To this pomp i.nd
hai-mony of expreflicn, fome have afeiibed the whole force
and effe'cl of the Koran, whilll others fuppofe, that the
fcnfual pleafures of paradile, which are fo often difplayed
to the imagination of the reader, are the chief allurements
to which it owes its ef&cacy.

" By the advocates of Mahomet;' nifm," fays a learned
and ingenious writer, " the Koran Jias been always held
forth as the greateft of miracles, and equally ilupendous
with the act of railing the dead. The miracles of Mofes
and Jefus, they fay, were tranfient and temporary; but
that of the Koran is permanent and pei-petual ; and there-
fore far furpafTes all the miraculous events of preceding
ages. We will not detraft from the real merit of the Ko-
ran ; we allow it to be generally elegant, and often fub-
Eme ; but at the lame time, we reject with difdain its ar-
rogant pretence to any thing fupernatural." " The real
excellence of the work is to be referred to natnral and
vilible caufes." Befides the general irrprefiions of ad-
rn'rntion and ailonirftment, which the pretended prophet
\Lzi produced on the minds of his followei-s, by the ex-
terior fandlity of his demeanour, and his long and fplendid
feries of victories, Mahomet found, in the language of
Arabia, a language extremely loved and diligently culti-
vated, by the people to whom it was vernacular, " advantages
which were never enjo) ed by any former or fucceeding im-
poftor. It requires not the eye of a philofopher, to dif-
covLT in every foil and countr)- a principle of national
pride ; and if we look back for many ages in the hiitory
of the Arabians, we {hall eafily perceive that pride among
them invariably to. have confided in tlie knowledge and
improvement of their native language. The Arabic, which
has been jultly elVcemed the moll copious of the eaftem
tongues ; which had exiftcd from the remoteit antiquity ;
which had been embeUifhed by namberlcfs poets, and re-
fined by the conilant exercife of the natives, was the
moft fuccefsful inflvum.cnt which Mahomet employed in

flanting his new religion amiong them. Achnirably adapted
y its ur.nvalled harmony, and by it» endlcfs variety to

A L C

add naiiiting to cxprefHon, av.d to purfue the imagination
in its unboumltd flight, it became in the hands of Ma-
hoinet an irrefilliblc charm, to blind the judgment, and to
captivate tiie fancy of his followers.

" Of that defciiption of men, who firll compofcd the
adherents of Mahomtt, and to whom the Koran was ad-
di-efied, few, probably, were al)le to pafs a veiy accurate
judgment on tiie propriety of the fentiments, or on the
beauties of the diction : but all could judge of the military
abilities of tlielr hader ; and in the midll of their admira-
tion, it is not difficult to conceive, that they would afcribe
to his compolitions eveiy imaginary beauty of iufpircj
lant^uage. The fhepherd and the foldier, though awake
to the charms of thefe wild but beautiful compofitions, in-
which were celebrated their favourite occupations of love
or v.ar, were yet little able to criticife any other works
than thofe wiiich were addrciTed to the imagination or the
heart ; to abllracl reafonings on the attributes and difpen-
fations of the Deity, to the comparative excellencies of
rival religions, to the confiftency of any one rcligious-
fyllem in all its parts, and to the force of its various proofs,
they were quite inattentive. In firch a iituation, the ap-
pearance of a work, which polfeiTed fomething like wifdom
and conliHence ; Avhich prefcribed the rules, and illuftrated
the duties of life ; and which contained the principles of
a new and comparatively fublime theology, independently of
its real and permanent merit, was likely to excite their afto-
nifhment, and to become the ftandard of future compofitioni

" In the iirft periods of the literature of every country-,
fomething of this kind has happened. The father of
Grecian poetry very obvioufly influenced the tafte and
imitation of his countrymen. Tlie modem nations of
Europe all poffefs fome original author, who, rifing front
the darknefs of former ages, has begun the career of com".
pofition, and tinttured with the character of his own ima-
gination the llream which has flowed through his pofterity.
But the prophet of Arabia had, in this refpeft, advan-
tages peculiar to himfelf. His compofitions were not to his
followers the works of man, but the genuine language of
heaven wlilch had fent him. They were not confined,
therefore, to that admiration, which is fo liberally bellowed
on the earlieit productions of genius ; or to that fond at-
tachment with which men every where regard the original
compofitions of their country ; but with their admiratioi>
they blended their piety. To know and to feel the beau-
ties of the Koran, was in fome refpeft to lliare in the tem-
per of heaven ; and he who was moll affedled with admira-
tion in the perufal of its beauties, feemed moil fitly the ob-
jerl of that mercv, which had given it to ignorant men.
The Koran, therefore, became naturally and neceflarily the
ftandard of taile. With a language thus hallowed in their
imaginations, they were too weU fatisfied, either to difpute
its elegance, or improve its llruclure. In fucceeding ages
the additional fantiion of antiquity or preicription, was
given to thole compofitions which their fathers had admired j
and white the belief of its divine original continues, that ad-
miration wliich has thus become, the teft and the duty of
the faithtul, can neither b- altered nor dlminifiied.

" When, theretore, we conlider thefe peculiar advan-
tages of the Koran, we have no reafon to be furprifed at
the admiration in which it is held. But, if defcending to
a more minute invelligation of it, we confider its perpetual
inconfiftency and abfurdity, we lliall indeed have cauie for
aftonilhmeut at that weaknefs of humanity, which could
ever have received fuch impofitions as the work of the
Deitv.

" The

A L C

A L C

" The fii !l praife of all the proilviclions of genius is in-
vention, that Ci'iality of the mind, which, by the extent and
ijuicknefs of its views, is capable of the largell conceptions,
iiiid of forming; new combinations of objects the moll dif-
tant and iinufual. But tlie Koran bears little impreffion of
this tranfccndtnt charaAcr. Its materials are wholly bor-
rowed from tlic Jewifli and Chriliian fcriptures, from the
Talmudical legends, and apocryphal f^ofpels then current in
the eai'l, and from the traditions and fables which abounded
in Arabia. The materials, collected from thefe fevcral fourccs,
are here heaped together, with perpetual and ncedlefs repe-
titioEis, without any fettled principle or vifible connexion.
When a great part of the life of ATahomet had been fpent
in preparatory meditation on the fyllcm he was about to
ellablilh, its chapters were dealt out flowly and feparately
during the long period of 23 years. Yet thus defcclive in
it» tlruAure, and not lefj exceptionable in its doctrines, was
the worlv which Mahomet delivered to his followers as the
oracles of God.

" Tile moll prominent feature of the Koran, that
point of excellence in which the partiality of its admirers
has ever delighted to view it, is the fublime notion it ge-
nerally imprefles of the nature and attributes of God. If
its author had really derived thele juil conceptions from
the infpiration of that being, whom they attempt to de-
fcribe, they would not have been furrounded, as they now
are on every fide, with error and abiurdity. But it might
ealily be proved, that whatever it julliy defines of the di-
vine attributes, was borrowed from our holy icripture ;
which even from its firil promulgation, but efpecially from
the completion of the new teilament, has extended the
views, and enlightened the underftandings of mankind ;
and thus furniihed them with arms, which have too often
been ineffeClually turned againil itfelf by its ungenerous
enemies.

" In this inllance particularly, the copy is far below
the great original, both in the propriety of its images, and
the force of its defcriptions. Our holy fcriptures are the
only compofitions that can enable the dim fight of morta-
lity to penetrate into the invifible world, and to behold a
glimpfe of the divine perfcftions. Accordingly, when
they would reprelent to us the happinefs of heaven, they
defcribe it, not by any thing minute and particular, but
by fomething general and great : fomething, that without
defcending to any determinate object, may, at once by its
beauty and immenfity, excite our wiflies and elevate our
affeftions. Though, in the prophetical and evangelical
writings, the joys that fhall attend us in a future Hate
are often mentioned with ardent admiration, they are ex-
prefTed rather by allulious than fimilitude, rather by in-
definite and figurative terms, than by any thing fixed and
determinate. ' Eye hath not feen, nor ear heard, neither

• have entered into the heart of man tlie things which

• God hath prepared for them that love him.' i Cor. ii. 9.
What a reverence and allonilhment does this pafiage ex-
cite in evei'y hearer of talle and piety ? What energy, and
at the fame time, what limplicity in the exprelTion ! How
fublime, and at the fame time, how obfcure is the imagery !
Different was the conducl of Mahomet in his defcriptions
of heaven and of paradife. Unafiilled by the necelTary
influence of virtuous intentions and divine infpiration, he
was neither defirous, nor indeed able to exalt the minds of
men to fublime conceptions or to rational expeftations.
By attempting to explain what is inconceivable, to de-
fcribe what is ineffable, and to materialize what in itfelf
is fpiritual, he abfurdly and impionflv dcfired to fenfuahze
the purity of the divine effence. Thus he fabricated a

fydcm of incoherence, .i religion of depravity, totally repug-
nant indeed to the nature of that Being, who, asheprettni-
cd, was its objeCl ; but therefore more 1 kely to accord
vviih the appetites and conceprions of a corrupt and fcn-
fual age.

" That I may not appear," fays the preacher, " to
exalt our fcriptures thus far above the Koran by an lui-
rcafonable preference, I fliall produce a part of the fccoud
chapter of tlie latter, which is defervedly admired by the
Mahometans, who wear it engraved on their ornaments,
and recite it in their prayers. — ' God ! there is no God
but he ; the living, the fclf-fubfilling : neither flumber nor
ileep feizeth him : to him belongelh whatever is in heaven
and on cartli. Who is he that can intercede with hint
but through his good pleafnrc ? He knovveth that wiiich
is pall, and that which is to come. His tlirone is ex-
tended over heaven and earth, and the prelervation of both
is to him no burden : lie is the high, the mighty.' To
this defcription who can refufe the praife of magnllicence ?
Part of that magnificence, however, is to be referred to
that verfe of the pfalmill, whence it was borrowed : ' He
that keepeth Ifrael, fliall neither flumber nor fleep.' Pf.
cxxi. 4. But if we compare it with that other pafTage of
the fame infpircd pfalmill, all its hoafled grandeur is at
once obfcured, and loll in the blaze of a greater liglit.
' O my God, take me not away in the midfl of my days ;
thy years are throughout all generations. Of old hall tliou
laid the foundations of the earth ; and the iieavens are the
works of thy hands. They Ihall perifli, but thou (h :lt
endure ; yea, all of them lliall wax old, as dotti a gar-
ment ; as a vellure flialt thou change them, and they Ihall
be changed ; but thou art the fame, and thy years fliall
not fail.'

" The Koran, therefore, upon a rctrofpeAive view of
thefe feveral circumftanccs, far from fupporting its arrogant
claim to a fupernatural work, finks below the level of
many' compofitions confefiedly of human original ; and
fi.ill lower does it fall in our ellimation, when compared
with that pure and perfect pattern which we julliy admire
in the fcriptures of truth. It is then abundantly appannL
that no miracle either was externally performed for the
fupport, or is internally involved in the compofition, of the
Maliometan revelation." V>'hite's Sermons, containing a
View of Chrillianity and Mahonietanifm, in their hillory,
their evidence, and their efFeCls, p. 256-271. Ed. 2.

The general aim of the Koran was to unite the profelTors
of the three different religions, then followed in Arabia,
Idolaters, Jews, and Chrillians, in the knowledge and wor-
Piip of one God, under the fanftion of certain laws, and
the outward figns of ceremonies, partly of ancient, and
partly of novel inllitution, enforced by the confidcration of
rewards and punifliments, both temporal and eternal ; and
to bring all to the obedience of Mahomet, as the prophet
and ambaffador of God, who was to ellablilh the true re-
ligion on earth, and be acknowledged chief pontiff in fpi-
ritual matters as well as fuprcme prince in temporal. The
chief point therefore inculcated in the Koran is the unity
of God, to rtllore which the prophet pretended was the
chief end of his miffion ; it being laid down by him as a
fundamental truth, that tlvere nev,er was nor ever can be more
than one true orthodox religion. The reft is taken up in
prefcribing neceflary laws and direflions, frequent admo-
nitions to moral and divine virtues, the worfhip and re-
verence of the Supreme Being, and refignation to his will.
One of their moll learned commentators didinguidics t!ie
contents of the Koran into allegorical and literal ; under tlie
former arc comprehended all the obfcuvc, parabolical, and

inlgmaiical

A L C

ii'.i^mntical paflagcs, with fiicli as arc ropoalod or abro-
entcJ ; the hitter, fuch as are clear, and in lull force. Sc-c
Mahometans.

Amoiigll the Mahometans this book i^ in tlie greatcil
revv.rw-nce and eftoem. The MufTulmcn dare not fo
much as touch the Koran without being firll wafhcd,
or legally punned ; to prevent which, an infcription is
put on the cover or label : " Let none touch it but
they who are clean." It ij read with great care and
rclpeft, being never held below the girdle. They fwear
by it, take omens from it on all weighty occafions, cany
it with them to war, write fenteuces of it in their ban-
ners, adorn it with gold and precious llonts and know-
ingly fuffcr it not to be in the poffefrion of any of a different
religion. Some fay that it is punilhable even w-ith death in
a Chrillian to touch it : others, that the veneration of the
Mulfulmen leads them to condemn the tranflating it into
any other language as a profanation ; but thcfe feem to be
a<'gravations. The Mahometan iiave taken care to have
their feripturc ti-anflatcd into the Perfian, the Javan, the
Malayan, and other languages ; thougli out of refpeft to
the original, theie verfions are generally, if not always, in-
terhneated. It has been often publifhed in Europe, in
Ai-iblc and in other languages. Maracci publiflied it in
Arabic and Latin, at Padua, in 1698, fol. with a partial
and often filly confutation. The German trandation of
Boyfen was printed ai Halle, in 1773 ; the French of Sa-
varv, at Paris, in 1782 ; and the Englldi of Sale, at Lon-
don, in 1734.

The number of commentaries on the Koran is fo large
that the bare titles would make a huge volume. — Ben Of-
rhair has written the hiilory of them, intitled, Tanlh Ben
Ofchair. The priueip;il among them are, ReiJhaori Thaa-
lebi, Zamalchfchari, and Baeai.

Bcfide the Koran which is the bafis of the Mahometan
faith, they have alfo a book containing tlieir ti'aditions,
which they call Somia.

The Mahometans have a pofitive theology, built on the
Koran and tradition ; as well <xs H fc/jo/q/Iic^I one, built on
reafon. — They have likewiie their cafuilts, and a kind of
ranon law ; wherein they diftinguifh between what is of di-
vine, and what of pofitive right.

They have their beneficiaries too, chaplains, almoners,
and canons, who read a chapter every day out of the Koran,
in the mofques ; and have prebends annexed to their office.
—The ka/ii of the mofque is what we call the parfon of the
parilh ; and the _/?/;;•:« are the preachers, who take their text
out of the Alcoran. Sec Sale's Tranllation of the Koran,
preliminary' difcourie.

Alcoran is alfo ufed in a more limited fenfe, for a por-
tion or chapter of the Koran.

In which fenfe, the word is fynonimous with fura.

Alcora'J is alfo figuratively apphed to certain other
books full of impieties and imputbircs.

In this fenfe we meet with the Alcoran of the Cordeliers,
which has made a great noife ; wherein St. Francis is extra-
vagantly magnified, and put on a level with Jefus Chrift.

Ai.coR.AN, among the Perfians, likcwife fignifies a kind
of tower, or llecple, very high and narrow, furroundcd
without by two or three galleries, one over another ; whence
the Moravitcs, a fort of priefts, repeat their prayers thrice
a day, with a very loud voice ; making the tour of the
gallery all the while, that they may be the better heard all
found.

ALCORANISTS, among Mahometans, thofe who
adhere (Iriftly to the letter or text of the Alcoran, from
an opinion of its ultimate fufficiency and perfection. The

A L C

Perfians are generally Aleoranifts, as admitting the Al-
coran alone for their rule of faith. The Turks, Tar-
tars, Arabs, &c. befidcs the Alcoran, admit a multitude
of traditions.

The Aleoranifts, among Mahometans, amoant to much
the fame with the tcxttiaria among the Jews. The Alco-
ranills can find nothing excellent out of the Alcoran ; are
enemies of philofophers, metaphyficians, and fcholaftic
writers. With them the Alcoran is every thing.

ALCOUCHETE, in Geography, a town of Portugal,
in the province of Ellremadura, on the loulh coaft of the
Tagus, ten miles call of Lifbon. N. lat. 38° 55'. W.
long. 8° 26'.

ALCOUTIN, a town of Portugal, in the province of
Algarve, on the border of Alentcjo, defended by a caftle,
and containing fix parilhes. It is iituated on the Guadiana,
and fix and one-half leagues north-north-eall of Tavira.

ALCOVE, in Arch'iUtiure, a recefs in a fieejiing room,
made for the pui'pofc of receiving the bed. It is alfo an
arched feat in a garden.

The w.ord is derived from the Spanith alcoha, which, ac-
cording to the older DiAionaries of that language, fignifies
a vaidted cabinet in a chamber, open on one fide, without
windows, and large enough to contain a bed. The Spanifii
word is dei-ived fi-om the Arabic al kubheh, the alcove, the
place for the bed, and aVkuhbeh is probably from alkuhhaun
the tent, or more probably from hhauh, fieep, alkhaub, the
bed, alkaab the cave. The relation of thefe words is curious.
According to the Spanifli defcription an alcove is not unlike
a cave or recefs in a rock, in which a wandering Arab might
make his abode for the night.

Alcoves in ordinary rooms are fquare receffes conformable
to the definition we have given, and are finifhed in a ftile
correfponding with the apartments to which they belong,
and with flat or vaulted ceilings, as tafte may direct, or the
height of the alcove may require. But in chambers of great-
er magnificence, and rooms of parade, they are not always
receffes ; but more properly a portion of a large apartment
feparated from the reft by an arch, or balluftrade, a fcreen
of columns, or fome other decorations, and elevated a few
fteps above the general level of the floor. On this elevated
platform, a ilate bed is ufually placed, and fometimes feats
and fofas to entertain company. This is what the French
architefts denominate an alcove. The recefs to which the
Enghfli have appropriated the term, and which is conform-
able to its primai-y fignification, the French denominate a
nicbe, as may be feen in Blondel de la Decoration des Edifices
en general. (See Plate I. of Architcfture.)

The authors of the Encyclopedic Methodiquc are ef opi-
nion, that alcoves, were in ufe among the ancients, and this
would be indifputably true if we could receive the term in
the lax fcnie in which they have explained it. But we
cannot give the name of alcoves to the enclolures v.diich they
mention, confilling of a kind of moveable balhiilrade hung
round with drapery, and placed in any part of a chamber
at pleafure, nor to thofe .draperies fupported by terms, or
affixed to the wall, which frequently occur in antique baffo-
relievos. It mull be confeffed that we know very little of
the private apartments of the ancients ; yet if a recefs for
the bed to Iland in had been a fafhionable feature in a Greek
or Roman bed chamber, it is probable that it would have
been mentioned by Vitruvius, or others, and efpecially by
Pliny, who is fo minute and particular in the defcription of
his Laurentine and Tufculan villas. In each of thefe villas
he defcribes a fmall elegant retired clofet, furnifhed with a
bed, which by means of glafs folding doors and curtains,
could be occafionally laid into or feparated from the adjoin-
7 inff

. A L C

iiig f.pnrt!Yient. TTiefe clofets nppcar to h.^ve hoen fome-
whnt fimilar to alcoves, but they difl'tr circiilially from
modern alcoves in having windows. The recefs dilcovered
by the Abbe Winckelniann, in one of the chambers of
Pompeia, in which he conjeftiires, perhaps rightly, that a
bed had been placed, and thofe reccfTes wliieh he found on
the feeond ftory of Adrian's villa, at Tivoli, have better
prctenfuins to the name of alcoves, but fomething more than
a verbal dcfcription is wanting to enable us to determine
wliether they were formed for the exprefs purpoie of re-
ceiving a bed, or for lomc other purpofe ; or whether they
■were not fuch accidental reccfles as are made by necefTuy in
the arrangement of a building which the architccl turns to
the beft ufe in his power.

Be this as it may, alcoves, according to the modern
manner, undoubtedly originated in jVfrica, or Alia, for we
read of them perpetually in the Arabian Ivories, and in def-
cviptions of Aliatic palaces and gardens. From Arabia
they were introduced among the Spaniards by their Saracen
conquerors, and by the Spaniards, after the expultion of
the Moort, at the clofe of the fifteenth ceutuiy, into Ger-
many, France, and other nations, as the name they bear in
every country fnfficiently evinces.

At this time the Spaniards would fcarccly have influence
enough to make any thing fafliionable north of the Py-
renees ; but at the period we are fpeaking of they were held
in high confideration, and many of their cufloms and man-
ners were adopted in the other dominions of Charles the
fifth. It is remarkable that in the deiigns of Palladio, and
of feveral Roman architeSs of the fame age, whofe
works have been confulted, we find no example of alcoves,
from whence it may be inferred that they had not then be-
come falhionable either in Rome or Venice. Whether they
were more fo in thofe parts of Italy which were under tlie
dominion of Charles might be an amufuig fubjeft of inquiry
to an antiquary. It is faid that alcoves are flill frequent in
the houfes of the Spanifli nobility, and Swinburne mentions
two yet remaining in the Royal bedchamber of the Moorifli
palace of the Alhambra, at Grenada, which are probably
the oldeil in Europe, though it is imcertain whether their
decorations are not of a more modern date, as the apartment
was repaired for the ufe of Philip V. The beds were
placed upon raifed pavements of blue and. white tiles, a
fountain played in the middle to refrefh the apartment in hot
weather, and two fmall doors behind the alcoves led to the
royal baths.

In England, alcoves of every kind have been much in ufe,
but the change of manners, in confequence of the general
difr\irion cf wealth, has nearly baniflied the m.ofl magnificent
kind with ftate beds, ^and the parade of which they were
appendages. Even in private bed-rooms they are now fcl-
dom conftruifted, except to obtain uniformity, or a com-
munication to fome other apartment, as they are found lefs
convenient, and by confining the air, fuppofcd to be lefs
healthy to deep in, than tiie uncontrafted fpace of the
chamber.

ALCOY, in Geography, a fmall town of Spain, in Va-
lencia, at the fource of a river of the fame name, which
traverfes the whole province from fouth-wcll to north-eaft.
N. lat. 38'^ 45'. W. long. 0° 21'.

ALCRANES Rocks lie in a direftion north-weft from
Cape Catoche, the north-eaft point of the province of
Jucatan, on the Spanifh main, and about north-north-eaft
from Cape Condecedo, the north-weft point of Jucatan ;
extending from N. lat. 22" 30', to 22" 50' in breadth, and
from W. long. 89° 50', to 91° 10' in iCTigth,

A L C

AT.CUDIA, a town of Spain, in Valencia, eight miles
north-well of St. Felipe.

Alcudia, a fmall town of Africa, near the Cape of the
Three Slaves.

Alcudia is alfo a town of the ifland of Majorca, on the
eaft coalt between Puglierya and Cape de la Pitdra, which
gives name to a large bay with good anchorage, and a Cape
forming the northern limit of the bay. In July and Angult
there is a fidiery of corul. N. lat. 39" 50'. E. long.

3° 24'-

ALCUESAR, or Alguezar, a town of Spain, in
Aragon, upon the river Vcro, north of Balbaftro, lituatcd
in a fertile country. N. lat. 42°. Y.. long. 0° 10'.

ALCl'lN, or Ai.iiiNus Fi-ACCUs, in Biography, flou-
nflied towards the clofc of the eighth century, and was
famous for his genius and erudition. He was born in the
north of England, and educated at Yoik, under the di-
reftion of archbifhop Egbert. Some fay that he received
part of his education in early life from Venerable Bedc, but
as he furvived him about 70 years, others have difputed this
fad. Egbert appointed him keeper of the curious library
which he had founded at York ; and he was alfo deacon of
the church ni this city, and abbot of Cantcrbniy. In 793
he was fent on an embaffy by Offa, king of Mcrcia, to the
emperor Charlemagne, who conceived fo high an opinion of
him, that he folieited him to fettle in his court, and to be-
come liis preceptor in the fciences, as well as to afDfl him in
fettling fome ecclefiaftical difputes that agitated the country
at tliat period. Accordingly he iuftrutted the emperor in
rhetoric, logic, mathematics, and divinity, and was in fuch
high efteem at court that he was called, by way of eminence,
" the emperor's delight." Charlemagne likewife employed
his learned favourite to write feveral books againft the here--
tical opinions of Felix, bifliop of Urgcl, in Catalonia, who
maintained that Jef.is Chrilt was the fon of God, not by
nature but by adoption ; and Alcuin accompanied the em-
peror in 794 to tlie council of Frankfort, which confifted
of 300 bifhops, and of which he was admitted a member.
Although this council decreed, that Jefus Chriil', as man,
ought to be called the proper, not the ndopted, fon of
God, the difpute was continued ; and Felix being allowed
to defend his opinion before an afTcmbly of bilhops at Aix
la Chapelle, in 799, Alcuin was empluyed as his opponent,
and performed the office to the entire fatisfadlion of the
emperor and other attendants, and to the convlftion of Felix
and his followers, who were thus induced to abandon their
errors and to accede to the opinion of the church. Alcuin
performed other fervices on behalf of religion. He wrote
commentaries for explaining the fcripttn'cs, but chiefly witii
a view to the inveftigation of their myllical meaning ; he
correfted the errors of the Latin tranflation in common ufe ;
and the firft German tranflation of the fcriptures has been
afcribed to his direftion and fuperintendence. He was alfo
appointed, m concurrence will\ Paulus Diaconus, to compile,
from the writings of the fathers, homilies or difcourles upon
feleft portions of fcripture, which the ignorant priclls of
that period might commit to memoiy, and recite to the
people. Alcuin, under the patronage and with the alfiitancc
of Charlemagne, contributed ver)' much to the advancement
of learning, by eftabliflung public fchools, particularly in
France. Cave (Hift. Lit. toni.i. p. 637.) fays, that France
was indebted to Alcuin for all the polite learning of which
it boafted in the eighth centmy and tlie following ages.
The univerfities of Paris, Tours, Fuldtn, Soiflons, and
many others, were indebted to him for their origin and in-
erenle ; thofe of which he was not the fuperior aud founder,

beiug

A L C

Iwing at L-aft cnli^jhtencd by lii» doftrine and cxamplo, and
... v.-J by ihe bcndUs he piucurid lor them tVoni Cliarlc-
. A German poet, cited by Camden, thus extols the
iiA-.i. ot" Alcuin in introducing literature into France :

" Quid non Alcuino, facunda I.utctia, debes !
Inffaumre bonas ibi qui feliciter artes,
15;u-bariemque procul lolus depellere, cxpit."

•' Let Gallia's fons, nuitur'd in ancient lore.
To Aleul-i's name a grateful tribute pay ;
'Twas his, the light of fciencc to rcftore,
'And bid Barbaric darknefs flee away."

Dr. Warton, however, (Hift. of Englidi Poetry, vol. i.
difT. 2.) cautions us againft forming " too magnificent ideas
of thofe celebrated mailers of fcience, who were thus in-
vited into foreign countries to conduft the education of
mighty monarclis, and to plan the rudiments of the molt
ilhiilri'ous academies. Their merits are in a great meafure
relative. Their circle of reading was contrafted, their
fyflems of philofophy jejune ; and their leftures rather
fcrved to ilnp the growth of ignorance than to produce any
pofitive or important improvements in knowledge." After
Alcuin had fpent many years in the moll intimate familiarity
with the grcatell prince of his age, he obtained, at length,
with great difficulty, in 80 1, leave to retire from court to
his abi5ey of St. Martin's, at Tours. Here he kept up a
conftant coirefpondence by letters with Charlemagne ; from
which it appearsjthat both the emperor and his learned friend
were animated widi the moil ardent love to learning and re-
ligion, and conftantly employed m contriving and executing
the nobleft defigns for their advancement. The emperor of-
ten and earnellly folicited him to return to court, but no
argument.s could induce him to quit this honourable retreat
where he was employed in the education of the youth of
the fchool which he had founded in this city ; and where
he died on Wliitfunday, in the year 804. He was a perfon
of diftinguidied piety and learning, and reckoned by William
of Malmlbury the beit Englilh divine after Bede and Aid-
helm. He compofed many treatifes on a great variety of
fubjedls, in a ftyle much fuperior with refpett to purity and
elegance to that of the generahty of writers in the age in
whicii he flouridied. Befides his poem, " De pontificibus
et Sanclis Ecclefise Eboracenfis," firft difeovered by Ma-
Vjillon, and publilhed by Dr. Gale among his " Qiiindecem
Scnptores ;" his other writings arc extremely voluminous.
They confiil of commentaries on the Bible, homilies, lives
of faints, theological and metaphyfical difcufiions, epiftles,
verfes, and treatifes on orthography, grammar, rhetoric,
and niufic ; they are recited in the Biog. Brit, and by Cave,
(iil'i fiipra) and amount in number to 53 ; and an edition of
them waspublidied by Duchefne, at Paris, in folio, in 1617,
and at Ratidjon in 1777. Some additional pieces are enu-
merated by Dupin. It has been faid that Alcuin advifed
Bede to publiHi his ecclefiaflical hiiloi7, and furnidied ma-
terials for it; but the aflertion is contradifted by chronology ;
this work having been publidied in 731. There was another
Alcuinus, or Albinus, abbot of St. Auftin's church at
Canterbury, the cotemporary of Bede, who died three vears
before him. By this Alcuin Bede was urged to publidi his
hiilory, and afiilled with communications. Biocr. Brit.
Henry's Hift. vol. iv. p. 33 — 40. 8vo. Modieim"'s Ecd.
Hill. vol. iv. p. 254, &c. 8vo.

ALCYON. See Halcyon.

Alcyon, or Alcyonium, in Ornithology, a name given
by the ancients to the ifpida orking-fidicr, and alfo a fpecies
of the Alcedo.

A L C

Alcyon, a name given by Brown to the rELECANUs
aquiltis.

ALCYONE, in Entomology, a fpecies of the Pa pi no
NfrnphiJis, with dentated brown wings, with yellow bands,
the anterior having two ocelli on both fides, and the pofterior
marbled below ; found in the mountains of the fouthern
parts of RulFia.

ALCYONIUM, in the Linnaean fyftem of Zoology, a
genus of Zoophftes ; the charafters of which are, that the
animal grows in the form of a plant ; the ilem or root is
fixed, flcdiy, gelatinous, fpongy, or coriaceous, with a
cellular epidermis, penetrated with ftellated pores, and
fliooting out tentaculated oviparous hydrx. The number of
fpecies, mentioned and characterized by Gmelin, is 28 ;
•VIZ. I. A. arboreum, with woody ilem, obtufe branches,
and pores in the form of pimples, found in Norway, White
and Indian feas, fometimes of the human height. 2. A.
i.voj-, with Ilem arborelcent, coriaceous, crmiloa-coloured,
above ramous, and with ilellated papillae, called by feveral
authors the fea-hand, and found at the bottom of the Me-
diterranean fea. 3. A. epipiitrum, with ftem, cavated, flediy,
and reddidi : the linger-ihaped fea-pen of Ellis, and fea
mad-apple of Rondeletius, found in the Mediterranean,
about four inches long, and of the thicknefs of the finger.
4. A. agaricum, with flem filiform, and reniform pileus,
kidney-fliaped purple fea-pen of Ellis, found in the fea,
wadiing the coall of Carohna. 5. A. dig'itatum, ftemlefs,
oblong, coriaceous, and rugofe, dead-man's hand, or dead-
man's toes of ElUs ; the tethya of Rumphius, and fucus
palma marinus of C. Bauhin, found in the European fea,
encruiling teilaceous fidi and ftones. 6. A. fchlofferi,
roundidi and llupofe, penetrated with ray-like flars, the
alcyonium ramofum lividum. Sec. of Solanderand Ellis, the
uva marina of Gefner, the botryllus llellatus of Gaertner,
found on the coall of Cornwall, brown or adiy, and covering
other bodies. 7. A. lyncunum, globofe, fibrous, yellow
and warty, the tethya fphasrica of Donat, found in the Me-
diterranean, and at the Cape of Good Hope, about the fize
of an orange and cartilaginous. 8. A. burju, fub-globole,
pulpous and green, the lea-orange of MarfiUi, found in the
Englidi and Mediterranean feas, about the fize of a middling
apple, and coriaceous. 9. A. cydonlum, roundidi, fpongy,
yellow and fmootli, found in the African, Mediterranean,
and Northern feas, affixed to rocks and corals, and fometimes
loofened by the agitation of the waves, 10. A.. Jlciis, obo-
vated, pulpous and livid, the fea-fig of Ellis, and fea-lungs
of Ray, the alcyonium tuberofum of J. Bauhin, found in
the Mediterranean and Englidi feas, very rarely among foflils,
of an olive colour, and within granulofe. 1 1. A.. gelatlnofum,
polymorphous and gelatinous, the alcyonium luteum gclati-
noium pulymorphum of Solander and Ellis, fpongia ramofa,
&c. of Parkinfon, fucus gelatinofus of Hudion, and fucus
nodofus and fpongiofus of Ray, found in the European
ocean and the Icy fea, adhering to the algte, ftones, diell-
fidi, &c. 12. A. manus dlaloli, polymorphous, perforated
with obtufe protuberances, found in Iceland. 13. A. maffa,
yellow, fpongy, patulous, with five radiated fmallftars, and
black center, found in the fea of Norway. 14. A. cranium,
tuberifonn, white and briilly, found in the Norway fea.
15. A. riiLrum, cruilaceous, foft, fprinkled with reddilh
fcattered fpots, found in the Norway fea. 16. A. mammil-
lijjum, whitidi, coriaceous, with convex mammilla, and the
center hollow and fubftellated, found in the American fea.
17. A. ocellaium, ferruginous, coriaceous, with rugofe
fubcylindric cellules, and radiated ocellated apices, found
adhering to rocks, with twelve rays of ilars, 'in the ifland

of

A L D

of St. Dominica. iS. A. tuberofum, yellowifli and tube-
rous, with the apices frequently luliJiviileil, and tubulous
pores, found adhering to rocks in the idand of Mauritius.
19. A. gorgonoiiles, cinereous, fandy-flefliy, with radiated
warty cellules, found, witli 12 niys of cellules, adhering to
coi-als and rocks, in the ifland of CuraiToa. 20. A. ajbejli-
num, with a roundilli Hem, and oblong pores fcattercd over
every part of it, found, in the fea wafliing the American
coail, veiT porous, whilifli and within rofc-eoloured. 21.
A. alhunmm, white, very ramous, attenuated and fubdi\4ded,
■with tubulous terminal pores, found in the Indian lea. 22.
A. papilloj'um, crullaceous, with large papill;c thickly fet
and convex, the boletus marinus of Ivlarligli. 23. A. ecu-
g/omerat:u!i, gelatinous, convex, with conglomerated fingers,
and terminal mouths without teeth, found in the Corniili
feas. 24. A. aJliciioiiLs, crulhiceous, coriaceous, with dif-
perfed papilla, and two fubdentated mouths, found in the
Cornifli feas. 25. A. fynoiciim, with many eylindric flelhy
flems, and an orifice ilellated at the apex, found on the
northern fliore of Spif/.bergen. 26. A. i-irmiciJiin; gtxen,
ramous, with eylindric obtufe pyramidal branches, found on
the rocks of the ifiand of Niiitn, oppolite to Neapolis. 27. A.
JliUatiim, with two ftellated terminal inouths. 28. A. corn'icu-
latum, with four ftellated mouths, encompalTing a papilla, and
four fmall eredl terminal horns, found in the fea of Holland.

From a feries of experiments made by Mr. Hatcliett, on
a few fpecies of alcyonium, -vhz. aftjcftinum, ficus, and
arboreum, he was led to conclude, that they were all com-
pofcd of a foft, flexible, membranaceous fubilancc, (lightly
hardened by carbonate, mixed with a fmall portion of phof-
phate of lime. Phil. Tranf. for 1800. P. ii. p. 364.

Alcyonium is alfo a name given, with various epitliets,
to the TuBiPORA mujica of the Linnaian fyftem, and alfo to
feveral fpecies of Millepora.

Alcyonium is alfo a name given by I^loyd to a peculiar
kind of foffde coral, of the AsTROirrs kind, found in
Wales. It is veiy plentiful in that country, and puts on the
appearance of a fort of marble, being bedded in a marbly
matter for its matrix. Phil. Tranf. N". 252.

Alcyonium Mare, in Ancient Geography, a name given
to that part of the gulf of Corinth, which ftretched itfelf
between the weftern coall of Bocotia, the northern coail of
Megaris, and a fmall part of Corinth, as far as the pro-
montoiy of Olmia.

Alcyonium was alfo the name of a lake in Corinth,
of unfathomable depth, and which Nero attempted imfuc-
cefsfully to fuund. Bacchus is faid to have defcended to hell
through this lake to bring back Semele. Near this lake
was a temple conftrufted by the Oropians to Amphiaraus,
the Sorcerer. Paul'anias. Ed. Kuhnii. p. 200.

AI.DABARAM, in Ofleology, a name given by fome
to the fefamoide bones of the great toe.

ALDAN, in Geography, a river of Siberia, which rifes
in the mountains of Okhotflc, on the borders of China, N.
lat. 55° 50', and E. long. 12 5° 14', and taking a north-eall
courl'e to lat. 63°, changes its direction to weft-nurth-weft,
and at N. lat. 63' 25', E. long. 128^ 24'. joins the Lena.

AEDARU, in Botany, a name given by Aviccnna,
Serapion, and other Arabian writers, to the lentisk tree.

ALDBOROUGH,inGf<-^/-<;/./.v,a fea-port town of Eng-
land, in the county of Suffolk, deriving its name from the river
yllil, near it, and pleafantly iituated between the fea on the
call and a high hill on the weft, on which the church
ftands. The fifliery of this town in the feafon is eonfider-
able, and near it there is a quay, with warehoufes for the
fifli, and conveniences for dr)"ing thofe of the north fea.
Herrings and fprats are tiie principal obji.cts of attention ;
Vol, I.

A L D

and it is faid that this is the only place for curing red
fprats. The town is corporate, and fends two mcmlv, rs
to parliament. Its markets arc on Wcdncfday and Satur-
day. It is 94 miles north-eall of London. N. lat. 52° 16'.
E. long. 1° 42'.

ALDiiOROucH is alfo amarket town in the Weft Riding_
of Yorkfhire, on the river Oufe, 15 miles north-well of
York, and 208 miles north of London. N. lat. 54° 15'.
W. long. 0° 20'. It fends tv;o mcir.bcrs to parliament. It
was formerly a Roman llation, called Ij'ur'r.m Briganttim,
and probably the capital of the Brigantes. It» market d.iy
is Wcdnefdav.

ALDE, or Oldk, a fmall idand on the weft-coaft of
Norway. N. lat. 61° 25'. E. long. 5° 9'.

Ai.DF, Henry Van, in Biography, a painter who
flouriihed in 1650, and excelled in portraits.

AI^DEA GalUga, q. d. GaUidan •village, a fmall market
town of Portugal, m Eftr<:madura, fituate in a kind of
illand formed by the Tagus, north of Setuval, and fouth-
caft of Lilhon. On an eminence, a league from Aides
CJallega, is a church dedicated to Noffa Ser.horada Aleliya,
our lady of the watch-tower j to which the negroes in
Lilbon annually make a pilgrimage ; and tlii.^ black pro-
cefTion is attended by a great concourfe of people. N. lat.
38° 45'. W. long. 8^ 31'.

Aldfa el Muro, or del Poco, a town of Spain, in
Old Caftile, on the frontiers of Aragon.

Aldfa etel liin, a town of Spain, in the province of
Andalufia, and diftrift of Cordova, fituatc on an eminence,
to the iouth oi the Guadalquiver ; eight miles north-weft
of Cordova.

Aldea riz'er is on the coaft of Brav.il, in about S. lat.
19° 40'. W. long. 40" 5', on which Hands the town and
port of Reys Magos. Thcie is a large cape to the fouth
of it.

Aldea ile Trinu'ad, lies on the coaft of Brazil, called
Paraguay, to the north-eaft part of the gulf of Santos,
in S. lat. 24° 30'. W. long. 46'' 30'.

ALDE AS buy is about 16 leagues north-eaft from Cape
Negro, on the fouthern part of the weft coaft of Africa,
in S. lat. 15° 25'. E. long. 11° 25'. The bay is fmall but
fecure ; and European fhips, trading to the coaft for flaves,
frequently touch at it.

ALDEBAC, in the M.-!feria Medica of the ancient
Arabian pliyricians,the namebywhich they have called bird-
lime, and which tliev reckoned among the vegetable poifons.

AI>DEBARA'N, in AJlrommy, the Arabian name of
a fixed ftar, of the firft magnitude, in the eye of the con.
Ilellation Taurus, or the bull; and hence popularly called
the bull's eye. For the beginning of the year l8ooit»
Right afcenfion was - - 66^ 6' 51", to
Amuial variation in AR. -00 51, 31
Declination ... - i6 5 52, 00 N.
Annual variation in decl. - 008, 3
ALDEBERT, or AnELiiFRT, in Biography, a native
of France, who, in the eighth century, deluded the people
by pretended vifions and revelations. He cxercilld epif-
copal dignity without the authority of Boniface, the pope's
legate, and among other irregularities, with which he was
chargeable, both as to his principles and condud, he forged
a letter, addrefted to the human race;;!, which he pretended
to have been written by Jcfus Chrift, and to have been
tranl'mittcd to him by the archangel Michael. He alfo
remitted fins without confcffion, and required his followers
to quit the churches, and to worfnip God in lioufes wliich
he erected in the fields, and to knee! before croftes which
he placed in wood> and near fountains. His popularity

4 E was

AnL d

wrj the caufc of ftdition and tumult among the caftern
t'ranks. Ho w.'.s condcmncil at the iiiftigation of Bonifac-;
by tlie pontiff Zachan-, in a council held at Rome, A. D.
74R, and thrown into prifon, where he probably ended
his days. His forged letter was publidied by Stephen
Balufe, in the fecond vol. of the" Capitularia Rtgum Fraii-
lorum." Mofl;eim's Eccl. Hift. vol. ii. p. 273.

ALDEGO, in Gcosraphy, a river of Italy, which rifcs
near Montcbel'.o in the Vicentin, and joins the Adige in
the eftates of Venice, near Zevio.

ALDF.GRETTUS, or Andreghettu;;, in Biography,
of a noble family at Tadua, taiigh.t n.edicine at that univeriity
34 years, and died of the plague in the year 1631, aged 58
years. He publidied " Luis Venercx perfeiliiUmus trstlatus
ex ore Herculis SaKonij?, Patavini Medici ciariflimi." 1597.
410. See Aib.uc dc Morbis Vencrcis, p. 917.

ALDEGREVER, Hfnrv, a coniiderable engraver
and pair.tcr, was born at Zoull in Weftphalia, in 1502.
He is faid to have ftudicd under Albert' Durer, at Nu-
remberg, whofc ilyle he copied. The mechimical part of
his engraving is very neat, and executed entirely with the
graver, in the llyle of Albert Durer. The light parts
upon his ilclh are rendered foft and clear, by the addition of
fmall lo:ig dots, which he has occafionallv interfpeifcd
with judgment. His drawing of the naked figure is more
correft tlian that of the old German mafters, and he has
Icfs of that ftiff tafte which appears in the beil of their
works. It is obferved, however, that his figures of men
arc more correct than thofe of his women. His heads are
in general very cxpreffive, and his other extremities well
marked, but foinctimes rathtr heavy. As a painter alfo, he
is fpoken of very highly, and confidered as nearly if not
altogether equal to his mafter, Albert Durer. His principal
works are I'.is own portrait and fcveral others, uich as
thofe cf Kriipperdolling, Mclanfthon, 5;c.; thehiftory of Su-
fannaii and the two elders ; Dives and Lazarus ; the paf-
lion of Chrid ; the h'.bours of Hercules ; feveral Ma-
donas ; many hiftorical fubjefls ; a variety of Goldfniith
orramcnts, very bcr.utifully engraved ; and feme few nu-
dities, amongd which is the fcciety of Anabaptills. There
is only one etching attributed to this mafter, which js Or-
pheuo playing on a violin, and Enrydice ftated at the foot
of a tree, dated 1528. It has been obferved, that Alde-
grever would have been very eminent in his profefiion, if
in early life he had been introduced to a knowledge of the
antique, and a more intimate acquaintance with the Roman
mafters. This artill has been crronoufiy called Aldergraft,
and hisChri.lian r.amc has been Albert inllead of Henry; but
his name upon his own portrait is Aldegrevcr. The time of
his deceafe is not known ; but the lal? date which appears
upon his prints is 1558. The number of his plates amounts
to no Icfs than 350.' Strutt.

ALDEN, Fort, in Geo^^raphy, is fituate in Cherry-
valley, in the ftate of New York.

ALDEHAHR., a fmall town of Germany, in the circle
of the LoY/er Rhine, in a prefe&urate of the' fame name,
and m the archbithopric of Cologn, fituate on the river
Ahr, eight leagues fcuth of Cologn. N. lat. 50° 35'.
E- long. 6° 43'.

ALDENAU, a fmall town of the Lower Rhine, and
archbifhopric of Cologn, in a prefcfturate of the fame
name, 10 leagues fouth of Cologn. N. lat. 50° 29'. E.
long. 6° •},()'.

ALDENBERG, a town in the circle of Weftphaha
and di.chy of Berg, four leagues north-eaft of Cologn.

ALDENBORG, a town of ancient Rufslad, now Old
Ladoga, which lies in the government of St. Peterlburgli.

A L D

ALDENBURGH, a town in the circle of Upper
Saxony, and duchy of Anhalt Bernburg, two miles north
of Bernburg.

ALDENHOVEN, a town of the circle of Wt-ftphalia,
and duchy of Juliers, three miles weft-fouth-w ell of Ju-
liers.

ALDER-/JVC, mBoijny. See Eetula.

ALDER, bla:l-. See Rhamnus.

ALDERAIMIN, or Aderaimin, in yfflroiiomy, the
Arabian name of a ftar of the third magnitude, in the left
Ihoulder of the conftellation Ccpheus, marked a by Bayer.

ALDERBURGH, in Geography, a confiderable ma-
nufacturing village of England, in the county of Wilts,
two miles and a half fcuth-taft of Salilbury.

ALDEPx.HOLM, an ifland of Sweden, at the mouths
of the river Gefle, in the gulf of Bothnia, formed, as is
alfo Illandfliolm, by the three branches of this river. This,
ifland is diftaut 80 miles north from Stockholm, and has a
dock, arfenal, warchoufes for deals, Sec, and carries on a.
confiderable trade.

ALDERMAN, among our ancient Saxon anceftors, was
the fecond of the three orders or degrees of nobility.

The word, in its original^ is ealdorman ; compounded of
/eldt old, or teldor, elder, and man, q. d. eldcrman.

jlthel'ing was the firil rank of nobility, aldcrtnan the fe-
cond, and tbam the loweft.

It appears, fays Mr. Hume (Hift. vol. i. p. 476, 8vo.},
from the tranflations of the Saxon annals and laws, and fi^ni
king Alfred's trandation of Bede, as well as from aO the
ancient hiftorians, that comes, in Latin, alderman in' Saxon,
and carl in Dano-Saxon, were quite fyuonym.ous ; and it
alfo appears, (Id. p. 201.), that the aldermen or governors of
counties, who, after the Danifti times, are often called earls,
were admitted into the wktenagemot, or great council of the
nation, and gave confent to the public ftatutes. The biftiop,
together with the alderman or earl, prefided in the county-
courts, or ftiiremotes, where all caufes, ecclciiaftical as weU
as civil, were decided ; but they liad no further authority
than to keep order among the freeholders and inttrpofe with
their opinion. The aldermen received a third of the fines
levied in thefe courts ; and as moft of the punifhments were
then pecuniary, this perquifitc formed a confiderable part of
the profits belonging to the office. The alderman, or earl
of a fhire, appears to have been a perfon of the higheft
dignity and greateft power among the Anglo-Saxons ; and
therefore this office was commonly enjoyed by the thanes (vf"
the largeft eftates and moft ancient families. Pcireifed both
of the civil and militaiT government ol his ihire, the alder-
man was a little king within his own territories, and nflurr.ed
the titles of fub-king and priuee in fubfcrlbing charters and
other deeds. When he appeared at the head of the military
forces of his fhire in times of war, he was called a dnke or
heretogen, which fignify a general or commander of an
army ; and was indeed a high and potent prince. In the
moft ancient times of the Anglo-Saxon govem.-nent, the
aldermen, or earls, were appointed by the king, but towards
the conclufion of this period, thefe great ofBcers feem to
have been elefted by the freeholders of the fhire, in the
fhiregemote or county-court. To enable them to fuppo t
their dignity, they enjoyed certain lands, called the earl's
lands, befides the fines above-mentioned and feveral other
perquifites. The office of earl was fo far from being here-
ditary in the moft ancient period of the Anglo-Saxon go-
vernment, that it was held only during the good pleafure of
the fovereign, and their own good behavioiu-. But towards
the conclufion of this period, the great earls were moft com-
monly, though not always, fuccecded by their fons in their

earldoms.

A L D

A 1. D

carlJom?. TMs, howjvor, was ow!n;r lo the incrcufinj power \lni;cd to t!i? frown of Enj^land Ijv ti:c fivH princ-' of r'.e

of luc ariilocracy, and to the prjifigiuus wjuUli and iullu- Mormaii line, are govcriRd by tlicir own iawa, v.!i:ch arc

cnee of a few great f-imilics, lutlicr tlr.r.i to any formal for tlic niofl part the ducal ciiUoins of Noniiandy, cc.l1cc>td

change in the-coiiilitution. HL'nry'a Hill. vol. iii. j). 342. in thcbnok in'.ithd, " lo Grand CuuHinniir." The kin';'8

It mull be obfcrvcd, however, tiuvt among our Saxon writ, or proctfs from the courts of UVIlininller, is tiure

anccftors, there were fev,.ral niagiilrates who bore the title of no force ; but his cumminion is not bound by common

of alderman. Among them there were ahUrmanniu totiiis ac\s of our pHiliumcnt,;, unlefs particulaily natncd. All

ylii^Tie, alLnnatmtis i\^if, cotmtatiii, civitaits, biirgi, caJIcU'i, caufes are originally determined by tlieir own officers, the

kiimlredifive "WLipcnUi-liij, ij iiovaii <lic';moimn, bailiffs and jurats of the iflands j but an ap;;eal lies fniii

According to SpeUnan, tlw aUamaimiis lolhis yln^/la, them to the king in council, in the lail rcfort. Dlackll.

feenis to have been the fame officer who was afterwards llylcd Com. vol. i. p. 107. N. lat. 49° 50'. W. long. 2" i;'.
crbil^ilis j:ijliti(:riii.' yh^/lit, or c\i\d jaiiici: of England; the Ai.dkrnky Cattlk, a breed of cattle, probably firft

ahhmjn/ius n/.s fecms to have been an occafional magiilrate, imported from the ifland of the fame name, in general fire

anfweving to our-jufticc of aiiivse ; and the hIcLtiiuwiius comi- boned, but fmall and ill-made, and cf a light red or yellowilh

taius, a magiilvate who held a middle rank between what colour. Cows of this breed are moll hcquentlv met wi'Ii

was aftciwiuds called the esrl, aiid the flierlff; he fat at the about the feats of tlie opulent, probably from their mi'.k,

trial of caufes with the bilhop ; the latter proceeding ac- though fmalltr in quantity, being more rich in qnality than

cording to eccleliailical law, and the former declaring and that of moll other kinds, ar.d yielding a largci- portion of

expounding the common law of the land. cream and butter from the fame mcafurc, which is of a

Aldkrman, in the Englilh Polity, an affociatc to the beautiful yellow colour, and line flavour. They are much

mayor, or civil magillrate, of a city or town, for the better
adminiftration of his ofTlee.

The aldermen are an order of magiftrates, in our cities,
and moll of the municipal or incorporate towns, wlio form
a kind of council, and regulate things relating to the policy
of the place. — They fometimcs alfo take cognizance ot civil
and criminal mattei-s ; but that very rarely, and only in cer-
tain cafes. Their number is not limited ; but in fome places
is more, in fomelefa, from fix to twenty-fix. Out of thefe

inehned to fatten, and their beef has a fine grain and is well
tailed, but rather moie yellow or high coloured than tlvat
of iome more jjcrfedl breeds. The author of the treatife
on llve-iloek remajks, that they are a breed of cattle too
delicate and tender to lie much attended to by the J'iritilh
farmer, and not capable of bearing the cold of this ifiand,
cfpecially the more northern parts of it, without being
greatly injurc^l by it. See Cattl!-.

AL.DliSCllS, in Anc'unt Geo^^raphy, a river which, ac-

5\re annually ekdlcd the mayors, or chief magiftrates of cording to the peripius of Dionyfius I'eriegetcs, difcharged
places ; who, at the expiration of their mayoraily, return jtfclf into the Euxine lea.

Al.DlIAFERA, in the Arabian y^;-««j)m^, denotes a
fixed ftar of the third magnitude, in the Lion's mane.

again into the body of the aldermen, whole delegates they
were befoi-e. The twenty-fix aldermen of London prefide
over the 26 wards of the city. When one of them d:es or
refigns, the wardmote chuf; a fucceffor, w'lo is admitted,
and fwoni into oillce, by the lord-mayor and e-ourt of alder-
men. All the aldermen are juiliics of the peace, by a char-
ter of 15 Geo. II. I'he aldermen of London, &c. are ex-

ALDIiEJ>M, or Adslm, S:., in Biography, an emi-
nent fchohr and promoter of literature in the feventh cen-
tuiy, and the nephew or near relation of Ina, king of the
Well Saxons, was born at Caer-Bladon, now called
Maltiiihury in Wiltlliire ; and edueated under Maildulphus,

«mpted from ferving inferior offices ; nor ihall they be put an Irilli Scot, at the place of his nativity, as well as in

vipon affizes, or ferve on juries, fo long as they continue lo
be aldermen. 2 Cro. 5S5. See Court.

Formerly tliere v.-ere alio aldermen of the merchants, of
liofpitals, of liimdreds, &c. See Senator.

ALDERNEY, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the Eng-

France and Italy under Theodore, archbifhop of Canter-
bury, and under Adrian, the moft learned profelTor of the
fciences, who had ever been in England, or under Albin,
the pupil of Adrian. After the death of Maildulphus,
who luid inftitb'.ted a ichool at Malnillinrv, Aldhelm fuc-

lifli channel, belonging to Great Britain, about four miles ceeded him, and built a (lately monallcry, of which he

in length from call to weft, fepasated froin Cape la Hogue,
on the coaft of France, by a narro^v ftrait, called the •' Race
of Alderney," and dlftant from it about three and an liiJf
leagues. This ftrait is very dangerous in iloriKy weather,
more efpecially when two currents meet ; otlierwife it has
fufEcient depth of water for the largeft (hips, fo that through
this ftrait the French fleet made their cfcape after their de-
feat at la Hogue, in 1692. To the well-north-wclt, are the
dangerous rocks called the " Callcets," and the rocks called
♦' Barroches," are clofe to the weft end of Alderney. On
the eaft, for a mile, are feveral rocks, and a bank of land at
the dillance of a league ; eaft of this is the Race, and round
the rocks on the well is the paflage to Jerfey Illand. Al-
derney, called by the French Aurigny or Ornay, is a healthy
ifland, fruitful in corn and pafture, and remarkable for a fine
breed of cows. The inhabitants live together, for greater
fecurity, in a town of the lame name ; confilling of about
200 houfes, and their number is about 1000. The har-
bour, called Crabby, lies on the fouth fide at fome dif-

himfelf was the firll abbot. When the kingdom of the
Weft Saxons was divided, upon the deeeafe of Hedda the
bi(hop, into two dioceies, w'z. Wincheller and Shirebm'n,
Aldhelm was promoted by Ina to the latter, which compre-
hended Dorlellhire, Wiltftiire, Devonlhire, and Cornwall.
At Rome, whither he went to be conlecrated by pope
Sergius I., he is faid to have reproved the holy father for
his incontinence ; but Bale reproaches hiin with not hav-
ing difcharged his confcienceon this occaflon. The monkilli
authors have recorded fome extraordinary inilances of
his charity and felf-denial ; they have afcribtd feveral mi-
racles to him ; and they report, that by his prayers he
lengthened a beam in the church, which the builder had
cut too fhort, and that he hung his garments to dry in the
rays of the fun, which fupernaturally fupported them.
It is of much greater importance, however, to contemplate
his literary eharafter and writings. It is evident, fays Dr.
Henry, from his works, which are ftill extant, that he haii
read the moft celebrated authors of Greece and Rome, and

tance, and is only fit for fmall vcflels. Alderney, as well that he was no contemptible writer in the languages, in
as the iflands of Jerfey, Gueriifey, Sark, and their appen- which thefe authors wrote. In the different feminarics,
dages, were parcels of the duthy of Normandv, and though where he was educated, he had acquired a VC17 uncommon

4 E.3 U.k

A L D

ftock of knowledge, ard became famous for h'n learning,
not only in Kiigland, hut in foreign countries; fo that
fcver:il Itsnied men fcnt him their writings, for his pcrufal
and corrcftion ; particularly prince Arcivil, a foil of the
king of Scotland, who iatrcatcd him to give his pieces
tlie lall j)oli(h, by rubbing olf the Scotch mil. Camden fays,
timt he was tlu- iirll Saxon who wrote in the I.alin language,
liulii in profe and verfe ; and he compolVd a book tor the
inllrudion of liis countiymcn in the prufody of that lan-
guage. Although another writer ]M-ccedtd him in Latin vcr-
fification, it is certain, fays Dr. AVarton, (Hill, of Englifh
Poetr)-, vol i. dilf. 2.) that Aldhchu's Latin conipofitions,
whether in vcrfc or profe, as novelties, were deemed extra-
ordinary performances, and excited tlie attention and ad-
mi atioii of fcholars in all other counlricp. A learned con-
temporary, who lived in a remote province of a Frankidi
territory,' in a letter to Aldlielm, has this remarkable ex-
preffion, — " Velh-JK Latinifatis panegyriens rumor;" has
readied us, even at this dillance. N'enerable Bcde gives the
following character of him : that, " he was a man of uni-
Yerfal erudition, having an elegant llyle, and being won-
'dcrfully well acquainted with books, both on philofophical
and religious fubjecls." King Alfred the Great declared,
that Aldhelm was the bell of all the Saxon poets, and
that a favourite fong, which was univerfally fung in his
time, near 200 years after the author's death, was of his com-
pofition. The charafter of Aldhelm is thus drawn by an
ancient chronicler : " he was an excellent harper, a moll
elegant Saxon and I^atin poet, a very flcilfnl clianter or
finger, a ' doctor egregius,' or doftor of Angular merit,
and admirably verfed in the fcriptures and the liberal Ici-
eiices." It is related of him, that when he was abbot of
Mi'.lmfbuiy, havirig a fine voice and great (kill in mufic as
well as poetry, and obfcrvlag the backwardnefs of his bar-
barous countrymen to liilen to grave inllruftions, he com-
pofed a numVjcr of little poems, whicli he fung to them after
mafs in the f.vtetell manner; and by thefe means they were
gradually inlln.fted and civilized. William of Malmfbury
bears this tellimony concerning him, that hisilyle is lefs lively
than may be defired by tluifc who are more attentive to lan-
gaage than matter ; but if you examine his writings atten-
tively, you will find in them Grecian acutenefs, Roman ele-
gance, and Englifh dignity. After Aldnelm had governed
the monaftery of Ma!rnfl>ury about 30 years, he is faid to
have retired to Shireburn, of which he had been confecrated
bifhop in 705, and where he died, May 25, A. 1). 709.
HiS treatife againll the millakes of the Britons coiiceniin<T
the celebration of Eafttr, was the means of reconciling
many of the Britons to the Catholic ufage on this point.
He alfo wrote ftveral other treatifes on various fubjefts, the
titles of which are recited in the Biog. Brit. ; fome of which
are left, and others publilhed by Martin Dclrio, at Mentz,
in 1601, in 8vo., andby Canifius in the Bibliotheca Patrum.
H;s book, written partly in profe and partly in hexameter
verfe. In praife of virginity, dedicated to Ethelbtirga, abbcfs
of Barkmg, wis publiihed among E-edt's Opufcula. Biog.
Brit. Henry's Hift. vol. iv. p. 10 — 13, 8vo. Cave Hiit.
Lit. f(<r. vii. vol. i. p. 575, ed. Oxon.

ALDHUN, Alfhunus or Aldwinus, the firft biliop
of Durham, was promoted to the fee of Lindisfarne or Holy
Iflar.d, in 990, the izth year of the reign of king Ethelred.
The legends of the time fay, that he was adnumillied by
heaven to quit ttiis iUtiou, in which he was haraffcd by
the incnrfions of the Daniih pirates ; and that he and the
monks, who accompanitd him, took with them the body
of Kt. Cuthbcrt, whlcii h;.d been buried there 1 1 3 years,
and after wandering about for fome time, fettled at Dunelm,
now called Durham, where he tftabliflied a city and a ca-

A L D

tliedral church. Before this time, the town confifled only
of a few fcattered cottages, and the fpot which he feltfted
for the eliablifhmeut of his colony was covered with wood,
which was foon cleared away by the bifhop and his followers.
In three years the church was completed and dedicated to
St. Cutlibert, whofe bones were depofited within its walls.
From tliis time the epifcopal fee was fixed at Durham,
Alfred and Edward, the ions of king Ethelred, were edu-
cated by this prelate ; and when their father was driven
from the throne bv Swain, king of Denmark, he condni'^td
thcni, together with queen Emma, into Normandy, to duke
Richard, the queen's brother, A. D. 1017. In the next
year the bifliop was fo affefted with the news of the defeat of
the Engliih by the Scots, that he died a few days after, hav-
ing eiiioyed the prelacy 29 vcars. Aldhun was of- a noble
familv, but, according to Simeon of Durham, was more
ennobled by his virtues and religious deportment. Biog. Brit.

ALDil, in ^'hitiquity, fervants who attended their mnf-
ters in expeditions to the wars. They were othcrwife called
Ald'tonrs, AWi'jnu, and Ald'wnai'd.

Ai^DPORT, iu Geography, an ancient name for Man-
cheller.

ALDRED, in Biography, an Englifh prelate of the
llth centurv, was a man of an enterprifing and ambitious
fpirit, and gradually rofe from being a monk of Wincheiler
and abbot of Tavillock, to the lee of Worceller and the
archbilhopric of York. Four years after he was promoted
to the fee of AVorcefter, which he obtained in 104^, he
took a journey through Hungary to Jeruialcm, the firft ad-
venture of the kind which any EngUfliman had performed;
and upon his return he was deputed by Edward, the Con-
feflor, on an important embaffy to the emperor Henry 11.
On his arrival in England, after fome Hay in Germany,
where he acquainted himfelf with the church difcipline,
which he introduced into his own countiy, he procured the
adminillration of the fee of Wilton for three years, during
the abfcnce of its bidiop, and that of Hereford for four
years, after the death of its incumbent. In 1061 he was
advanced to the archbifliopric of York, and allowed, as it
has been faid, by means of bribery, to hold the fee of Wor-
celler in commendam. Pope Nicholas II., having heard of
his fimoniaeal praftices, not only refufed him the pall, for
which he applied, but deprived him of his other preferments,
but being robbed in his way home over the Alps, he was
imder a necelTity of returning to Rome, and by the bold
interference of earl Tolli, the pope was prevailed upon to
grant him the pall, on condition of his refigning the fee of
Worceller. Afterwards the king, confidering the depre-
dations which the fee of York had fuffered by the incur-
fions of the Barbarians, permitted Aldred to retain I2 towns
or manors belonoing to the fee of Worceller for his own ufe.
Others, however, fay, that he detained them by violence
and injuftice. The following inftance of refolution, and of
prieflly arrogance, is recorded by his panegyrill Stubbs.
The high Ihcrill having intercepted fome proviiions, which
the archbifliop's fervants were conveying to the palace at
York, and leized them for the king's ufe, Aldred, inftead
of teeking legal redrefs, fent a deputation of clergy and
citizens to demand reflitution, and enforced the demand by
threats of excommunication. Upon the flieriff's refuful, the
archbifnop, with a train of ecclefiallics, hallened to the king,
who was then fitting in council at W^eftminftcr, and abruptly
addreiled him in this imperious lan<juasre. " Hear me,
William I when thou wert an alien, and God had permitted
thee, for our fins, and through much blood, to reign over
us, I annointed thee king, and placed the crown upon thy
bead with a bleJmg ; but now, becaufe thou dcfervell it
not, I will change that bkffing into a curfe againft thee, as
I a per-

A L D

A L D

a perfccutor of God and his miniHers, and a breaker and
contemner of tliole oaths and jironiil'es, which thou madeft
unto ine before the altar of St. Peter." The king was
aftoiiilhed and terrified, threw himftlf at tlie fctt of the
arehbKhop, and anxiouiiv entreiittd to know »ihat offence
he had curnnutted. A'i'hen the noblhtv v.'ho were prefent
exprc'Jcd their indignation at the prflatt"s iiifolence, and at
liis fiiifering tlie king to he at Ids feet ; " let him alone ;"
faid the aichbifliop ;" " let him lie ; he is not fallen at n-.y
feet, but at the feet of St. Peter." At length he railed
the king and delivered his complaint ; upon which an order
was ilTiied, that the goods diould be fidly j'ullored, and the
prelate was lent away loaded with ritli prefents.

Aldred's verfatility cif principle was fuflieiently manifcll
in his condurt under the changes of government that oc-
curred during tlie latter part of his life. When hij patron
Edward w'as dead, he alfiiled Harold in obtaining the crown.
On tlie arrival of W illiam the K\;rman, when Stigand, arch-
bifliop of Canterbury, rtfufcd to crown him, Aldrcd fell in
with the ilrcani, and performed the ceremony. I'pon the
Daiiidi invafioii, when the citizens of York, and others,
declared for prince Edg^r Atheling's title, the archbilhop
liekened at the news, and died Sept. lo, 1069, jull before
the Danes landed ; and was buried in the cathedral church
of York. Biog. Brit.

ALDRICH, or Aldridge, Robert, was bidiop of
Carlide, in the reigns of Henry VIII., Edward VI., and
Marv, and of courfe accommodated liis principles to the
changes of the timtf. He was born at Burnham, in Buck-
inghanifliire, educated at Eton fchool, and elefted fcholar
of king's college, Cambridge, in 1507, where he took the
degree of mailer of arts. At this time Erafraus ftvled him
" blandcE cloqucntia' juvcnis." Leland has alfo celebrated
him for his admirable parts and learning. In 1529 he was
incorporated bachelor of divinity at Oxford, and in 1530
he was licenfed as docfor in the lame faculty. He fuceef-
fively became archdeacon of Colcheftcr, canon of Windfor,
and regillcr of the order of the garter, and at length, in
1537, bilhop of Carlifle. He died March 25, 1555, at
Horn-Caftle, in Lincolnfhire, which was a lioufc belonging
to the bithops of Carlifle. He wrote fcveral pieces, fuch
as " Refolutions concerning the Sacraments," ." Anfwers
to Qiieries, concerning the Abufes of the Mafs," " Various
Epigrams," and " Refolutions," of fome queftions relating
to bilhcps and pricfts, and other matters, tending to the re-
formation of the church, begun by Henry VIII. Biog. Brit.

Aldrich, Henry, an eminent divine and polite
fcholar, was born at AVeftminfter, in 1647, and educated in
the college fchool, under the famous Bufby. In 1662 he
W'as admitted into Chrillchurch college, Oxford, where he
continued, in the feveral fituations and with the appropriate
con.-.iicndations of a diligent ftudent, ufeful tutor, and
excellent mafter, to the day of his death, Dec. 14, 17 10.
Having paffed through the gradations of bachelor of arts
in 1 666, and mafter in 1 669, he took orders, and became an
eminent tutor in his college. In 1681 he was inflalled
canon of Chrift church, and in the fame year accumu-
lated the degrees of bachelor and dodor in divinity. During
the reign of James II. he bore a confpicuous part in the
controvcrfy with the papills, and pnbliflied ievcral trails ;
ranking, according to bifliop Burnet, (Hifl. of his cwn
Times,) among thofe eminent Engiifh clergymen, " who
examined all the points of popery, with a folidily of iudg-
ment, a clearnefs of arguing, a depth o^ learning, and a
vivacity of writing, far beyond any thing that had before
th^t tir.-.e appeared in our language." Soon after the Re-
volution, t'/z. in 16S9, Dr. Aldrieh was inflalled dean of
Chrillchurch, in which high flation he behaved in the moft

worthy and exemplary manner, and exerted himfelf in pro-
moting learning, virtue, and religion. By his fliill in archi-
tedure lie iinpioved the buildings of the College ; and that
part of it called Peckwater quadrangle, fo dcfervcdlv ad-
mired, was deligned by him. The pariili church o^ All
Saints, in Oxford, and the chapil of Trinity College,
which he defigned, are furJicr fpeciinens of his architcdurtil
knowledge. In order to excite and clierifli a talle for jvolite
hterature, he annually publifhed fome ])iece of an ancient
Greek author, as a new year's gift to the fludcnts of his
houfc. The works of this kind which he edited were
" Xenophontis Memorabilia," Gr. and Lat. Oxou. 1690,
8vo. ; " Xenophontis Sermo de Agclilao," Cir. and Lat.
Oxon. 1691, Kvo. ; " Arifleae Hifloria LXXII. Interprc-
tum," Gr. and Lat. Oxon. 1692, 8vo. ; " Xenophontis de
re equcllrilib."Oi-. and Lat. Oxon. 1693, Svo.; " Epidtttus
et Theophrailus," Gr. and Lat. Oxon." 1707, 8vo ; " )'la-
tonis, Xenophontis, Plutarchi, l^uciani Sympofia," Gr.
Oxon. 171 1, 8vo. lie wrote likewife a fylleni of Logic,
intitlcd " Artis Logicac Compendium," Oxon. 1691, 8vo ;
and " Elements of Geometry," in Latin, never publifhed.
He was alfo concerned in Gregor)''s Greek 'i'eftamcnt,
printed at Oxford in 1703, fol. He wrote noteson Haver-
camp's edition of Jofcphns, and in concuiTence witli bilhop
Sprat, he revifcd the MS of Lord Clarendon's Hillory
of the Rebellion. The trafts which he publifhed in the
popilh controverfy were, " A Reply to two Difcourfes,
lately printed at Oxford, concerning the Adoration of our
Blefl'cd Saviour in the Holy Eueharill," Oxford, 1687,
4to. ; and " A Defence of the Oxford Reply, &c." Ox-
ford, 1688, 4to.

Dr. Aldrich amufed his academic leifure with mufic and
poetry. His abilities as a mulician rank him, in the o]iinion
of competent judges, among the mailers of the fcience. He
compofed many fervices and anthems for the church fervice,
and adapted Engiifh words to many of the motets of the
Italian maflers, fome of which are frequently fuiu> in our
cathedrals as anthems. He eftabliflied a muCcal fchool in
hi^ college, and at his deceafe bequeathed to it a moft capital
colleftion of church mufic. Although he chiefly applied
himfelf to facred mufic, yet being of a ehearful temper, and
poffefling a fund of humour, he occafionally diverted himfelf
by producing pieces of a lighter kind. Eor the entertain-
ment of fmoakers, to which fraternity he belonged, lie com-
pofed a fmoiiking catch to be fung by four perfons whilft
they were fmoaking ; and he was alio the author of the
popular catch " Hark the boniiv Chrift church bells." As
a Latin poet, Aldrich is entitled to fome diftindion. Two
elegant pieces written by him are contained in the " Mufx
Anglicanse ;" one on the acceffion of William III., the
other on the death of the Duke of Glouccfter. The fol-
lowing epigram, intitled, " Caufx Bibendi," is alfo iiifcribed
to him :

" Si bene quid memini, caufx funt qninque bibendi,
Hofpitis adventus, prxfens fitis, atqne f^utura,
Aut vini bonitas, aut qu^libet altera caufa."

Thus tranflatcd : " If on my theme I rightly think,

There are Ave reafons why men drink :
Good wine, a friend, becaufe I'm dr\'.
Or left I fhould be by and by.
Or any other realon why."

The candour of Aldrich's temper, and the moderation of
his principles, may be inferred from his having been ap-
pointed by William III. in 1689, one of the comniinioners
for preparing matters towards introducing alterations in the
ftrvice of the church, and Hctomplilhing a comprchenfiun

with

A L D

with the diflTvT.tcrj ; ^r,t r^? dr.-n-l of innorfttion has jUvnys
prcveiUfd tli-.- ■ n. IVfidcs the jiitfLT-

iriLn:.-! ab(.vc i. jioficirtd the living of

Weill, k .Shroplhirc, and in 1702 iu- waschofen piolojulor
of the convi)i:jtion. In 11 10 he died at hit college, leaving
ail order tj bo buried, without any ircmorial, 'w. the cathedra^
" I11S modelly and humility, his eafy pleafanti •-, his at-
tention to acad^-niic buiinefs, and to the credit of his college,
his exertions for the enioiimjen'.ent of learning, and the
pioofs which 111., rr.cnioiis ai'foid of reputable talents, yar;o'.;s
rccoirplilhmrias and amiable q-,:ahlicf, unite to tranfmit his
napie uitb honour to poderity." Biog. Brit. Durney's
'and Hawkins's Hilt, of Mufic. Gen. Biog.

ALDROVANDA, in Botany, a genus of the /OT//7M<^Wa
ftvtngjnia clafs and order ; the characters of v.-'iich are, that
the calyx is a five-parted, erect, equal, permanent perian-
ihium ; the corolla has five petals, oblor-jT. acuminate, of
the length of the calyx, and permanent ; the ftaniina have
filaraents of the length of the Rowers, and fiinple anthers ;
the pillillum has a globofegerm, flyles very fhoit, and oUtufe
ftignias ; the pericarpium is a globofe capfule with five' blunt
angles, five-valved, one-celled ; and the feeds arc ten, longiOi,
fixed to the inner wall of the pericarpium. There is one
fpecies, ris. A. vfjictilo/a, lenticula of Plukenet, and bucarda
of Aublaine, which is found in marflies, both in Italy and
India, with bladders like utricularia.but in bunches. Martyn.
ALDROVANDI, Ulvsses, mBiogmphy, a cclcbnitcd
naturalift, foniitimes called the MoJeni Pliny, was born of
a noble family, at Bologna; in IJ22, and puriucd his ihulics
partly at his native place and partly at Padua. The truth
of his religious opinions having been fufpetVed, he travelled
.to Rome in 1550, for the pnrpofe of vindicating himfelf;
and there he took the advantage of Studying the antiquities
of the place, and dr;w up a treat'fe on the ancient flatues,
which was publiihed in the work of his friend Lucio Mauro,
on Roman antiejuities. O.i this occallon he likewile became
acquainted with Rondelezio, whofe refearches into the hif-
tory of fifnes gave him a tafte for the knowledge ef nature.
Upon his return to Bologna he engaged in the ftiidy of
Botany, and went to Pifa to obtain afTiitance from profeflbr
Ghini. Having gi-aduated in phync at Bologna in 1553,
he was in the following year appoir.tcd to the chairs of phi-
lofophy and logic, and to the Icfturcfliip of botany, and by
his intereft the botar.ical garden of Bologna was founded in
1567. The duties of las profefiion, to which he feduloufiy
attended, did not prevent his devoting his time and property
to the important objtCts of collecting books, conducting an
extenfivv." correfpondence, and taking journeys, v ith a view
to obtain information concerning ever)' branch of natural
hiftor)-. He alfo expended large fums, and involved himfelf
in pecuniarv- diilicultics, in the defigii of forming a mufcum
of rare and curious productions, and in employing the belt
artifts in delineating them. He not only caufed to be de-
lineated the external face of the objects he deieribes, but
frecuently gives anatomical accounts of their internal Rruc-
ture, with the ufes of the parts ; more efpecially of birds,
in which he made fome valuable difcoveries. As the rcfult
of this labour and expcnce, ht uubliflied four folio volumes
with plates : three on ornithology, and one on infects. One
volume on bloodlcfs animals, and another on fillies, were
l-.kev/ife compofed by him. The reft, making the whole
number i 3 volumes, and treating on fei"pents, quadrupeds,
monfters, metals and trees, were ctimpiled after his death,
principally from the materials which he had collected. For
the titles of the feveral treatifes, fee Haller's Bib. Botanica,
Anatomica, and Medica, under the art. Alttro-vandus. Not-
withftanding the liberal afiiftance which he received in the
execution of his cxtcnfive and magnificent plan, the expcnce

ALE

of it ruined his fortune and exhaufted all his refqurccj fo
completely, that he died, in 1 605, after having loft his figid,
as it is faid, at the holpital in Bologna, at the advanced
age of 83 years. Hallcr 1V.)S, that lie qtianellcd with the
apothecarie? and phyficians at Boiogoa, and v.as expelled the
college of phyficians. To his c; si. try he bequeathed liis
immcnfe coUettion, and it formed the bafis of the mufeum
now cxifting at Bologna, whe/c his memoi-y is held in great
and deferved honour. Although his induftiy and '/eal ieem
to have exceeded his judgment, and his works ate defective
in arrangement, and abound with fuperfluous and dubioui
matters, yet natural h'.ftoiy is greatly indebted to his dili-
gence and liberality. BufTon calls him tht molt laborious
and learned of all the naturalifts, and commends tlie plan
and diftribution of his work, and theexactnefs of his de-
fcriptions. Bayle obfenrts, that antiquity does not furnifl'.
us v- ith a defign fo extenfive and laborious as that of Al-
drovandus with regard to natural hiftory, Pliny, he fays,
has treated of a greater number of fubiects, but he only
touches them lightly, and fays but little upon any thing,
whereas Aldrovandus has colltCled all he could meet with.
His Hortus Siccus, or colleftion of dried fpecimens of
plants, which filled fixteen large folio volunies, was cxifting,
Haller lays, near a century after the collection was formed.
Befidts his manufcripts in natural hillory, heleft^various writ-
ings in almoft every other dejiartm.ent of the arts and fciences.
His praifes are celebrated by Barberini, afterwards p>5{ȣ
Urban Viri. in the following epigra;n ;

" Multiplices rerum formas quas pontus et aether,
Exhibet et quicquid promit et andit humus,
Mens haurit, ipeclant ociih, dum cancta fagacj
Aldobrande tuus digerit arte liber.
Miratur proprios folers induttria foctuS
C]h!amque tulit mali fe negat efTe parem,
Obitupet ipfa fimul rerjui foccur.Ja creatrix,
£t cupit clfe fuum quod vidit artis opus."

" The various fwms that fv.im the wateiy plains,

Whate'er the earth's capacious womb contains.

The trees and herbs that on her face appear,

And all the wing'd inhabitants of air.

In thy itupendous work collected lie,

To feail the foul, and ftrii^e th' aftonifti'd eye.

Her own productions iuduili-y no more

Dares own, but wondero at the fruit file bore ;

And fruitful nature at thy deeCa ama/.'d,

Wilhes her own thofe works thy art liHS rais'd."

Gen. Diet.

ALDUABIS, or Aldua Dvbis, now Doui or
D-ot'ES, in ytncknt Geography, a river of Celtic Gaul, which
rofe in Mount Jura, and feparating the Sequani from the
Helvctii, and running tlirough Burgundy, or the Franche
Comtc, ahiioft encompaffed Befan(,on, and fell into the
Saone, n?ar Chalons. The word is formed of Aldua, the
Aide, and Dubis, the Doux, the names of two rivers which
unite near Montbeliard.

AI.DUDES, in Geography, mountains that are part of
the P)renees, in Lower Navane, between Pampehma and
St. Jean Pie de Port.

ALE, a kingdom of Africa, in Guinea, to the fouth of
Senegal, and almoft oppofite to Cap;; Verd. Its capital,
which is the refidence of the king, is Yagog. N. lat. 13"-.
W. long. 12° 46".

Ale, a river of Scotland, which nuis into the Tiviotj
three miles north-north-weft of Jedburgh.

Ale, in jincient Geography, a town of Afia, upon the
coaft of Syria, between Pcdalia and Selinus.

Ale,

A L E

ALE

Ale, a populai' fermented diir.k, made fi'om malt nnd
hops; and chiefly dillinguifhed frcn beer, another potable
liquor made fru-.n the fame iiiffivdieiits, by the quantity ot
hops cfcd therein ; wliieh is greater in beer, and therefore
renders the liquor more bitter, and fitter for keeping. For
the method of brewing ale, fee Bri;v/ing. The brewers
alfo dilHnguilh pale, or fine ale, brown ale, &c. Their fe-
vernl properties, efFeds,, &c. fee under MAi.T-L:/juor.

Tile art of making an ir.uifion of corn, and particularly
of barley, fir.vilar to onr ale, feenis to have been luiown and
practiiod in. very aneicnt times among thafe people who
lived in climaces tliat did not afford grapes. It feemstohave
paffed from Egypt into thofe vvellern nations, wiiich were
fef.lcd by the colonies that mii'rated from the call. The
zythum and curmi, mentioned by Tacitus, as the beverage
of the ancient Germans, arc fuppofed by Matthlolns to ci;r-
tcfpond to our ale and beer.. Diodorus Siculus fays (lib. iv.
a. 26. torn. i. p. jTQ.Vthat the Gauls, who lived in a country
that produced neither grapes nor olive.^, made a llrong liquor
of barley, which tliey called Zvthus. The natives of Spain,
the inhabitants of France, and the aborigines of Britain, ufed
this liquor, under the different appellations of crtliaand ceria
in the firil country, of cerevifia in the fecond, and of curmi in
the laft ; all which names literally denote X\\eJlrong liuiler.

After the introdurtion of agriculture into this iflaiid, ale
or beer v/as fubllitiited for mead, and became the m.)ll ge-
neral drink of all the Britiflr nations which praftifed that
art, as it had been of all the Celtic people on the continent.
" AUthe feveral nations, (fays Pliny, H. N. xiv. 29. torn,
i. p. yio.) who inhabit the weft of Europe, have a liquor
with which they intoxicate themfelves, made with corn and
water, frugi .naJidci. The manner of making this liquor is
fomewhat different in Gaul, Spain and other countries, and
it is called by many various names ; but its nature and pro-
perties are every where the fame. The people of Spain, in
particular, brew tliis liquor fo well, that it will keep good
for a long time. So exquilite is the ingenuity of mankind
in gratifying their vitious appetites, that they have thus in-
vented a method to make water itfelf intoxicate." The
manner in which tlie ancient Britons and ether Celtic na-
tions, made their ale is thus defcribed by llldoru?, (Orig.
lib. :cx. c. 2.) and Orolius, (lib. iv. p. 259.), cited by Henry
(fiill. of England, vol. ii. p. 364, 8vo.) : " the grain is
iieeped in water, and made to germinate, by which its fpirlts
are excited and fet at liberty ; it is then dried and grinded ;
after which it is infufed in a certain quantity of water ;
which, being fermented, becomes a pleafant, warming,
ftrengthening, and intoxicating liquor," This ale was moil
commoidy made of barley, but fometimes of wheat, oats,
and millet. Geopon. lib. vii. c. 34. p. 203. This liquor is
of Inch antiquity in England, that we find mention of it in
the laws of Ina, king of Weffex. Ale was the favourite
liquor of the Anglo-Saxons and Danes, as it had been of
their ancellors, the Germans. Tacitus, de Mor. Genn. c.
23. Before their converiion to Cluiftianity, they believed
tliat drinking large and frequent di"aughts of ale was one of
the chief felicities whicli thofe heroes enjoyed who were ad-
mitted into the hall of Odin. Amougll the liquors provided
for a royal banquet, in the reign of Edward the Confeffor,
ale is particularly fpeciiied. In Scotland and Wales they
had two kinds of ale, called common ale and fpiced ale ;
and their value was thus afcertained by law : " ii a fanner
hath no mead, tie Ihall pay two callcs of fpieedale,or four cafks
of common ale, for one cafit of mead." By this law, a caflc
of fpiced ale, nine palms long, and 1 8 palms in diameter,
was valued at a fum of money equal in elfecl to 7/. los. of
our prefent money ; and a ca(l< of common ale, of the fame
dimenfions, at a fum equal to 3/. 15J. Hence it appears,

that common ale was at this period an article of luxury
among the Wellli, and that it could only be obtained by the
great and opulent. V^'ine at this time lecniB to have been
unknown even to the kings of Walts, as it is not mentioned
in their laws ; thougli Giraldus Cambrenfis, wiio flourillied
a century after the conquell, informs us, tliat there was a
vineyard in his time at Maenarpcr, ne^r Pembroke, in South-
Wales. Henry's Hirt. vol. iv. p. 393. By a ilatute of 3J
Henry III. in 1272, mentioned by lAunie (Hill. Engl. vol.
ii. p. 224.), a brewer was allov/ed to fell two gallon.s of ala
for a penny in cities, and three or four gallons for the fume
price in the country. But the fir.'l alii/.e of ale was fixed
by the famous Stat. J I Heni^ U.

The following method for prcferving ale from turninjj four
in long voyages, was fir.l publjllied by Di-.Stubb,i( Phil.Tnnf.
N' 27.), and exiierienee has evinced its utility. To eveiy
runlet of five gallons, after being placed iri a caflc on (hip-
board not to be illrred any nun-e, put in two new-laid eggs
whole, and let them lie in it. In a fortnight or a httle more,
the egg-lhells will be entirely ditlijlved, and the eggs become
like wind-eggs enclofed only in a thin fl:in ; after this the
wliite is preyed on, but the yolks are not touched or cor-
rupted i and by thefe means the ale has been fo well pre-
ferved, that it was found better iu Jamaica than at Deal.

The duties on ale and beer make aconfiderable braneli of
the revenue in England. Tl-.ey were firll impofed in 1643,
when the excife was firll eilabhfhed, again by Car. II. and
have been continued by feveral fubfequent afts of parliament.
By 2 7Geo. III. c. 13, for every barrel of beer or ale, above
fix fhilling.-; a barrel, (exclufive ot the duty licreby impofed,
and not being two-penny ale, nor table beer) the brewer fhall
p;'.y eight Ihillings ; and for every bai rel of fix IhlUings, or
under, (exclufivr of the duty) one ihilling and fourp^nce ;
and for every barrel of beer or ale above fix lllillings the
barrel (excluiive of the duty), and not exceeding 13s.
(33 Geo. III. c. 23. f. I.) commonly called t.iblc beer,
brewed by common brewers, according to 22 Geo. III.
the brewer Ih:.!! pay tlirce fhillings ; and for every barrel ot"
two-penny ale tliree fliiliings and fourpence.

The faccharine matter entrafted from the farinaceous
feeds, of which ales are made, and fubjefted to a fermenta-
tion an.alogous to that of wine, impaits to our ales a quan-
tity of alcohol ; and they have, th'rrcloie, in ,gelieral, the
cordial, exhilarating, intoxicating, and lejative qualitie&-of
wine. But their tflcft, in thele refpeds, depends partly
upon the quantity and condition of the laccharine matter
that is employed, and partly upon the management of the
fermentation to which they arc fubjeded. Bailey is cliiefly
employed for ihe purpofe of making aks, though it might
be prepared from any of the ctrealia ; and this itlcdioa is
very properly made, bccaufe its germination is moft ealily
conduded, and under its gcnnination it gives out its fugar
moll readily, and in grtatcll quantity. Ales, made in the
ordinary manner, will be itrongcr or weaker accordiiig to
the quantity of the faccharine matter that is ufed ; r.nd this
will be greater or lefs according to the quantity of well-
ripened farina in the barley tiiat is employed, according to
the mode in vrhich it is malted, according to the proper and
complete extradion of the faccharine mutter by water, and
according to the dilTipation in a greater or lefs degree, of a
onantity of the fuperfluous water. The otlier qualities of
ides, befides their flrcngthor weaknefs, will depend upon the
condud of the fermentation. As the infuiion of malt or
wort, is not fo vvell difpofed to fermentation as the juices
of fruits, it will require the addition of a ferment ; and a^.
tervrarus tlic condud of the fennentation will be very much
the fame with that of wines ; at firft ver/ adive, and thea
flowly protradcd for a long time : but liuwever ale is ma-
2 naged,

ALE

na^cil, its fermentation h not fo capable of bcin^ rendered
fo complete and perfcA aa that of wine. In moil ales there
Vi pnibably a Iarg<- portion of iinafTiniilirted faiinnceous mat-
ter, which of courfe renders ales more noiirifliing than
wines, and they arc, ctteris paribus, more liable to acefctncy
in tlie tlomavih than wines. It has been commonly fup-
pnfcJ, that the vifcidlty of worts is never entirely coneftcd
bv the fermentation ; ■•iid therefore that ales are more apt
tlian wines to fill the velTcls of the human body with vifcid
fluids ; but Dr. Cullcn thinks that this circumftance de-
ferves little attention, as it is probable that the power of
the gallric fluid, and of the fermentation which happens m
the ftomach and intellines, reduces the whole nearly to an
equality in refped of fluidity. Cullen's Mat. Med. vol. i.
p. 4i8i Sec.

Alk, cfrtv'ifta, is alfo a denomination given to divers me-
dicated liquors, or diet-drinks, of which ale is the bafis or
vehicle. The medicated ales make a large article in our
old difpenfatorics. Such are the cere-u'ifia oxydorica, for the
eyes ; ccrevifui anlt-artbitica, againil the gout ; cerevifia cc-
phalicn, for the head ; crn-'j'ifia epileptka, &c.

Ale, gill, is prepared by iafufmg the diy leaves of gill
or ground-ivy, in malt-liquor ; which hereby becomes
impregnated with the virtues of that fimple ; and is there-
fore reputed abfterfive and vulnerary, good in diforders of
the breaft, and againft obllruttions of the vifcera.

Ale, J)r. Butler's purging, is prepared of polopody,
fena, farfaparilla, anifecds, fcurvy-grafs, agrimony, and
maiden-hair, put up in a bag, and hung in a vcffel of ale.

We alfo meet in fonie difpenfatories with fyrup of ale,
made by boiling that liquor to a confidence ; which has been
ufed againft obilruftions in the kidneys, and the fluor albus.
A.LY.-bcer. See Beer.

Ale-berry, is ale boiled with bread and mace ; fweet-
ened, ilrained, and drunk hot.

Ale-conner, an officer in the city of London, whofe bii-
finefs is to infpecl the meafures of the public houfes. There
are four of them : and they are chofen by the com.mou-hall of
the city.

A.Li.-houfes muft be licenfed by jufticcs of the peace, who
take recogniKances of the perfcns licenied, viz. lo/. each,
and of their fureties, 5 /. each, that they will not fuffer un-
lawful gaming, nor other diforderly practices in their houfes.
By 35 Geo. III. c. 113. eveiy perfon, excepting thofe
who fell ale in fairs, who (hall fell by retail ale or beer with-
out licence, is liable to a penalty of 20/. for the firft of-
fence, and for the fecond fr.all moreover be incapable of be-
ing afterwards licenfed to keep an alehoufe, with all coils.
Tiie licence is granted on the firft of September, or within
twenty days after, at a generalmeeting of the juftices for the
divifion to which he belongs, upon his producing a certificate
to his charafter, unlefs, by living in a citv or town-corporate,
this laft circumftance is dilpenfed with, and continues in force
for one year only. Ale-houfe keepers, felling ale in (hort
meafure, are liable to a penalty not exceeding 40X. and not
lefs than los. and hkewife to a fine of ioj-. for permitting tip-
ling, S:c. 26 Geo. II. c. 41. 29Geo. II. c. 12. 5 Geo. III.
c. 46. 30 Geo. III. c. 38. and 32 Geo. III. c. 59. By the
laft aft no perfon can fell wine by retail to be drank in his
own houfe, who has not an ale-licence.
AhU-mcafure. See Measure.

Ai.r -filvfr, a rent, or tribute, yearly paid to the lord-
mayor of London, by thofe who feU ale within the city.

ALE-/i7/?cr,isan officer appointed and fworn,in every court-
leet, to take heed that there be a due fize, and goodnefs of
bread, ale, and beer, fold within the jurifdiftion of the leet.

Ale is ufed by fome of our ancient Engliffi writers, and
partieularly in compofition with other words, for feftival.

ALE

Thus, bridal or bride -ale is the feaft in honour of the bride
or marriiige ; lect-ale in fome parts of England denotes
the dinner at a court-leet of a manor for the jury and
cuftomary tenants ; lamb-ale is ufed for an annual feaft at
lamb-diearing ; Whitfun-ale is the name by which in the
midland counties the rural fports and feaftingat Whitfuntide
are denominated ; and church-ale was a feaft eftabliflied for
the repair of the church, or in honour of the church-faint, &c.
See Warton's Hill, of Englilli Poetry, vol. iii. p. 128.

Chunh-nles, as they are defcribed by Pierce, bilhop of
Bath and Wells, in his anfwcr to the inquiries of archbilhop
Laud, are when the people go from afternoon-prayers on
Sundays to their lawful fpoits and paftinies in the church-
yard, or in the neighbourhood, or in fome public-houfe, where
they drink and make merry. By the benevolence of the peo-
ple at thefe paftimes many poor paridies have caft their bells,
and beautified their churches, and railed ftock for the

Clerl-alcs, or lefler church-ales, were fo called becaufe they
were for the better maintenance of the parifa clerk ; and
there is great reafon for them, fays his lordihip, for in poor
countiy pariflies, where the wages of the clerk are but fmall,
the people thinking it unfit that the clerk fhould duly attend
at church, and not gain by his office, fend him in provifion,
and then come on Sundays and feaft with him, by which
means he fells more ale, and taftes more of the liberality of
the people, than their quarterly payment would amount to
in many years ; and fince thefe have been put down, many
minifters have complained to me, fays his lordfhip, that they
are afraid they ftiall have no parifh clerks. A b'nl-ale is when
a poor man, decayed in his lubftance, is let up again by the
liberal benevolence and contribution of his friends at ■". Sun-
day's feall. The people were fond of thefe recreations, and
the biftiop recommends them, as bringing the people more
wiUingly to church, as tending to civilize them, and to com-
pofe diff'erenccs am^ong them, and as ferving to increafe love
and unity. But the juftices of the peace were of a diff"erent
opinion, and figned a petition to the king, in which they de-
clare that thefe revels had not only introduced a great profa-
nation of the Lord's day, but riotous tipling, contempt of
authority, quarrels, murders, &c. and were very prejudicial
to the peace, plenty, and good government of the country,
and therefore they pray that they might be fuppreffed.
Two judges in the weilern circuit, in 1653, made an order
for fuppreffing them ; but Laud complained to king Charles I.
of their invading the epifcopal juriidiftion, and they were
fummoned before the council, reprimanded, and injoined to
revoke this order at the next affizes, Ncal's Hift. Puritans,
vol. i. p. 567, 4to.

ALEA, m Roman Antiquity, fignifies, in general, games of ^i
chance. They svere forbidden by the Cornelian, Publician, J'
and Titian laws, except in the month of December. Hor.
Od. iii. 24. 58. Martial, iv. 14. v. 85. xiv. i. Thefe
laws, however, were not ftridlly obferved. The character n
of gamefters, ahatores or ahones, was held infamous. Ciccr. "
Cat. ii. 10. Pliny, ii. 27.

Ale A, in a more limited fenfe, is applied by Roman writers
to a particular game played with dice, in a pair of tables,
fomewhat alter the manner of our back-gammon, or trictrac.
Inftead of our men, they played with white and black ftones,
which were moved this way or that, ar, the dice direfted.

Alea in this fenfe appears to have been the fame game with
what the Greeks called /)frti« and chivia ; the Romans I'ome-
times tabula, tejfara, and YAl. fcripla.

Alea, the fumamc of Minerva, given to her by Aleus king
of Arcadia.

Alea, in Ancient Geography, a town of Arcadia, fouth-
eaft of Stymphalus. It was founded by Aleus, and had

three

ALE

tKree confiderable temples, viz. thofe of die Ephcfiiin Diana, of
Minerva Alca, and of Bacchus. The fcall of Bacclius, called
SiUrna, was celebrated ever)' third year ; and I'aiilanias re-
lates, tliat on this oceafion they privately fcourged the wo-
men at the altar of this deity.

Alea was alfo a town of ThefTaly, and another of Spain,
where Steph. Byz. places the Carpctani.

ALEANDER, Jerome, in Biographt, was born in
1480, and dillinguilhed hiinfelf in the i6th century by his
■violent oppofition to Luther and the Reformation. Lusher
fays he was a Jew, prabably on account of his accurate ac-
quaintance with the Hebrew language ; but Bayle (hews that
he was defcended from a Catholic family of dillinition in If-
tna_. His memoi'y was fingularly retentive, and enabled him
to acquire not only the Hebrew, Greek and Latin, but alfo
many modern languages. According to Luther, who is con-
traditled by Bayle, he was at Rome in the pontificate of
Alexander VL and was fecretaiy to the infamous Cxfar
Borgia. It is acknowledged, however, that he was invited to
France by I^ewis XH. in 1508, to teach the Belles Lettres
in the univerfity of Paris. In this fituation he was fo much
elleemed, that he attracted the attention of Leo X. and by
the recommendation of this pontiif he became ftcretary to
the cardinal de Medici ; and afterwards fucceeded Acciaioli
as librarian of tlie Vatican. In 1519 he was fent by Leo as
his nuncio into Germany ; and in the diet of Worms he de-
claimed for three hours againll the dotlrine of Luther. Al-
though he declined the contcfl to which Luther challenged
him, he had influence fufBcient to obtain an edift, wliich he
himfelf drew up, for burning his books and prolcribing his
perfon. In 1531 he was again nuncio in Germany, and at-
tempted, though unfucccfsfuUy, to diffuade Charles V. from
niaking a tnjce with the Protellants in this country. Having
been created cardinal by Paul III. in 1537, he was fent a
third time into Gennany, where, as tlie pope's legate, he ex-
erted himfelf in cliccking the progrcfs of the Reformation.
LTpon his return to Rome he died in 1542, in confequenceof
taking too many unnecefTary medicines, andjull as he was
fmilhing a large work againft all the profeiTors of literature,
which was never publiflied. The works which he has left are
a Greek and Latin Lexicon, printed at Paris in 1521, fol.
and a Greek Grammar, printed at Strafburg in I J 17, Svo.
Luther reprefents Aleander as a man deftitute of principle,
of violent palTJons, iiifatiable avarice, and licentious conduft ;
but he was an adverfary, and allowance fhould be made for
the feelings and language of rcfentment. Erafmus fpeaks
with refpecl of his learning, but complains of his unileadi-
nefs as a friend, of his want of veracity, and of the injury
which he fuffered from his accufations. Aleander's mortifi-
cation at feeing the progrcfs of herefy, notwlthftanding his
Mtmoft efforts to rellrain it, is emphatically expreffed in the
epitaph, which he compofed for his own tomb.

" Not unreluftant I refign my breath.

For to behold life's ills is w orfe than death."

Gen. Dia.

Aleander, Jerome, the Touii^ei; the nephew of the
former, was by proftdiou a civilian, and a writer of fome dif-
tinttion in the 17th century. He was fecretury firll to Ban-
dini, and afterwards to Barberini at Rome, and a member of
the literary academy denominated Humouriils ; for which
fociety he wrote feveral pieces, and one on the device adopted
by the fociety. In the way of his profciTion he wrote
" Commentaries on the Inftltutes of Caius ;" and as an anti-
quarian he wrote a piece iiititled, «' E.xphcatiu anliquse ta-

Vol.. I.

ALE

buitt Marmorcx Solis effigie exfculptie," Sec. printed in 4to.
at Rome, in 16 16, and at Paris ni 161 7. He alfo wrote

Italian and I^ailn poem.s, and fome pieces on eecltfiaftical af-
fairs. His death, which is laid to be owing to cxcefs of eat-
ing, happened in 1631; and his funeral, which was magnifi-
cent, wds conducted and attended. by his afibciatca ot the
academy. Gen. Dift.

ALEA70RIUM, in Roman Antiquity, was the place
where they played at alat.

The aleatorlum was near the fpharijlcrium ; that the fpoilf«
men, vs'hen tired with the pila, or more robuft cxcrcifcs,
might refrelh thcmfclves in the alcatorium.

ALEBECE, in Afuiait Geogiiiphy, atown of Gaul, fnp-
pofed to be the fame with Albiccce.

ALEBUS, a rivcrof Spain.

ALEC, in Icl>tbyology,z name given by Gaza, in his com-
mentaries on Arillotlc, to the filh ciUed by that author mat-
tiis, and by Ovid mencrela. It is of the sparus kind.

ALECOST. See Tanacetum.

ALECTO, in Mythology, one of the three Furies, daugh-
ter of Acheron and Night, or of Pluto and Proferpine ; (he
is reprcfented with vipers about her hcaJ and wings, and
armed with vipers, fcourges, and torches. The name de-
notes envy, or tiiat whicli has no reft ; being derived from
c: priv. and ^lyw, / rejl. See a fine defcription of tliij Fury la
Virgil. jEn. vii,

Ai.ECTO, in Entomology, a fpecies of Sphinx, with the
fore wings grey above, and the pollerior red, with a black
bafe and margin ; found in India.

ALECTO R, in Ornithology, a fpecies of C&AX, with *.
yellow cere, black body, and white belly.

ALECTORIA, derived from aAiKri^'^, a cod, in Natu-
ral Hiflory, a ilone laid to be found in the ftomach, liver, or
rather gall-bladder of old cocks. *

It is ordinarily of the figure of a lupine, and feldom ex-
ceeds the bignefs of a bean. It has abundance of virtues at-
tributed to it, but moll of them are fabulous.

This is othenvife called alcilorius lapis, foraetimes ahdora-
lithos, in Englilh the cock-llone.

The more modern naturalifts hold the ale8onus lapis to be
originally fwallowed down, not generated in the ftomach or
gizzard of cocks and capons.

ALECTORICARDITES, compounded of the Greek
a^ixTilp, cod, and KxpJiai, heart, in Natural Hijlory, a name
given by Plot to a figured Hone refcmbling a pullet's heart,
with the fat near the bafis of it, and the coronary veffels de-
fcended from it.

ALECTO RIUS lapis, is ufed for a fmall fpecies of lufon-
lies, or disjunct fcgment of a palate of a fifh, approaching to
the nature of the chckdonius lapis.

ALECTOROLOPHUS, in Botany. See Bartsia,
PEDICUtARIS, and Rhinanthus.

ALECTOROMANTIA, from aXixTc.;, a coch, and
fiKirna, ilii'ination, in Antiquity, an ancient kind of divination,
performed by means of a cock.

This art was in ule ajnong the Greeks ; and the ufual
manner of it was this. A circle was made on the ground,
and divided into twenty-four e<[ual portions, or fpaces : in
each of which fpaces was written one of the letters of the al-
phabet, and upon each of thefe letters was laid a grain of
wheat. This done, a cock was turned loofe in the circle,
and careful obfervation was made of the grains lie pecked.
The letters correfpondiug to thofe grains were afterwards
formed into a word ; which word was to be the anfwer de-
iired.

It was thus that I^ibanius and Janiblichus fought v'h«
lliould fucceedlhe emperor Valens; and the cock anfwering

4 F to

ALE

to the fpacfs © r. O i, they comliuk-cl upon Tl-.ecdore, but
by a mjiiake, iiiUead of" Tbeoilolius. The truth of this ftory
is difputed.

There ire a!fo other fpecies of aleftoromantia : in fome the
aii^nry was taken from the crowing cf the cock, whcrtiu
regard vas had to the time of the day, whether hcfore noon
or after ; to which fome added the confideratioii of the fign
the f\i:i was in, and the motio.iofthe moon. Others fpcak
of a kii.d of alccloroinantia performed by help of a ring.
Phil. Tranf. N^ 162.

ALECTRA, in Botany, a genus of tlie di(^ymmia aripo-
fpiiinia clalsand order: its characters arc, that tlie calyx is a
periawthinm, one-leafed, two-lipped, upper lip two-cltft,
lower three -cleft ; the clefts ovate, obtufe, fliorter than the
tube ; the corolla one-petallcd, tubular ; the tube gradually
widened ; the border expanding, five-parted; the parts broad-
lanceolate, obtufe; the llamina, four filaments, inferted into
the tube, filiform, bearded, of the length of the tube, two
of them a little fliortcr, anthers twin ; the piftillum, a germ
ovate, llyle fihform, of the length of the filaments, ftigma in-
curved, a little thicker than the ftyle, andof the famelength,
ilriated on both fides ; the pericarpium, a capfule, ovate, ob-
tufe, twin, fmooth, two-celled and tv.-o-valved ; the feeds fo-
litary and ovate. There is one ipecies, viz. A. Caperjls, a
native of the Cape of Good Hope, in graffy places near ri-
vers, flowering in November and December, and growing
black in drving. Martyn.

ALECtRUONURUS^oTflw«. SeeFEsrucA.

ALED, in Geography, a river of Wales, in Denbighfhire,
which runs into the Elwy.

A-LEE, in Sta-Laiiguagi, the fituation of the h.elm,
when it is pulhed down to the lee-fide of the fliip, in order to
p<it the fliip about, or lay her head to the windward. See
Hard-o-Ac

ALEFCHIMO, in Geography, a balia or diftrid of the
ifiaiid Corfu, fituate on the coall, containing 28 villages,
and 10,000 people.

ALEGAMBE, Philip, in Biography, a learned Jefuit,
was born at Bruffels in ijyz ; and having iiniflicd his educa-
tion, entered into the fervice of the duke ofOITum in Spain, and
accompanied him to Sicily. After he affumedthe habit of a
Jefuit at Palermo in 1613, he taught philofophy at Gratz in
Auftria; and became profeflbr and doitor of divinity in 1629.
During this period he travelled through Germany, France,
»)pain and Italy, as tutor to the fon of the prince of Eggem-
berg, a favourite of the Emperor Ferdir.and II. and attended
him asconfeflbr, in 1658, in his embaffy to pope Urban VIII.
When this miffion was fininied, he was retained at Rome by
the general of the Jeiuits as fecretary of the Latin difpatches
to GerTnany, and afterwards appointed prefident of fpiritual
affairs, and auditor of confefTions in the profefied houfe. He
died of the dropfy in 1652. His chief work was a " Bi-
bliotlieque des Autcurs Jefuites," printed at Antwerp in
1643 ; and at Rome, by Sotuel, in 1675. Gen. Did.

ALEGER, a name given to an inferior fort of vinegar,
made of ale, or malt liquor, inllcad of wine. Power has
given a defcription of the eels in alever. V. Power, Expcr.
Philof. Obf. 3. p. 32.

ALEGRANZA, in Geography, one of the fmaller of the
Canary iflands, fituated at the north-call end of the Lance-
rota, one of the larger.

ALEGRE, a town of France, in the department of
the Upper Loire, and diftritl of Puy-en-Velay, five
leagues fouth-eaft of Brioudc, and four north-eall of Puy-en-
Velay.

A LEGRETE, a town of Portugal in Alentejo, upon
\\xc nvtt Caia, with the title of a marquifate, and containing

ALE

p.hcut 9CC InhabitriTitsj 2' leagues fouth-cail of Pont-AIegrj,
N. lat. 39^ 6'. W. long 6" 36'.

ALEGRINUS, John, in Biography, cardinal and pa-
triarch of Conftantir.ople, was a native of Abbeville in Pi-
cai'dy. He was legate a latere in Spain and Portugal, and
died in 1240. His works were formerly in eltimation, but
are now difregarded.

ALEHOOF, in5»/(7,T)'. See Glechoma.

ALEI, in Geography, a river of Ruflla, w-hieh runs into
the Oby on the left fide of it.

ALEIPHA, froma?.!iSM, I ano'itil, \\\\\\<i Miitcria Medica
of the ancients, a woi-d ufcd for all fatty bodiis whatever.
The oils of vegetables, and the fat of animals were all called
by this general name. But thefe Cm.ple fubftances were not
the only ones called by it, for it is very frequently ufed to
exprefs any fort of medicated oil impregnated with aromatic
vegetables ; but its general acceptation in this fcnie, was for
fnoh compofitiono as were intended to anoint the body ; and
therefore they were properly only vegetable or animal fats
impregnated with the lighter parts of plants, and not clogged
with an addition of powders, or with wax, or any thing of
that kind, which might have given them the confilltnce of
ointments. The ancient phyficians were very fond of thefe
compofitions, which they applied either to fome difeafed
part only, or to the whole body, and after they had made
the patient ufe the wamibathto relax and open the pores.

ALEIUS Campus, in Ancient Geography, aplain of Ci-
licia, placed by Strabo to the eaft of Sarus, between Adana
and the fea. It is fo called from Bellerophoii's wandering
and perifning there, after being thrown off Pegafus.

ALEKSEVSKI, in Geography, a town of Rufiia, in the
government of Sim.bir/lc, 30 leagues fouth fouth-eall of Sim-
birlli. N. lat. 53° 15'. E. long. 50° 14'.

ALEKSIEPSKOE, a town of RufTia, in the govern-
ment of Saratov, 37 leagues north-eaft of Saratov.

ALEKSlN,a townof Ruflia, in the government of Tula
on the Occa, nine leagues north-eait of Kaluga. N. lat.

54° 44' £■ long- 36' 44'- . ,

ALEMA, a city of Gilead, beyond Jordan, mentioned
I Maccab. v. 26 ; and perhaps the fame v\'ith Helmon-
Deblataim.

ALEMAN, Louis, in Biography, was born in 1390,
and advanced rapidly through fevei-;il gradations of eccleiiaf-
tical prefemient to the archbifliopric of Aries. He was much
refpefted by Louis III. king of Naples, who, on his account,
confirmed the privileges granted to the city of Aries ; and
he was honoured by pope Martin V. who had employed him
in feveral fervices, with the dignity of cardinal. After the
death of Martin V. he embroiled himfelf with pope Eugc-
nius IV. by holding the council of Bafil, of which he was
prefident, in contradidtion to his widies; and he was excom-
municated by this pontiff. He was again reftored to his
conmmnion and dignities by pope Nicholas V. and fent a8
his legate into Lower Germany. On his return to his dio-
cefe, he was uiefuUy employed in reforming the clergy, and
inftrufting the people. He died at Salon in 1450, and was
canonizi.d. With the virtues of an ecclefiaftic he united the
talents of a ftatcfinan. Nouv. Did. Hill. Gen. Biog.

Alemam, Louis Augustine, was born at Grenoble in
1653, where he followed the profeffion of an advocate. His
works were, " Remarks of M. de Vaugelas on the Frencli
Language," with a preface by himfelf; " New Obferva-
ticns, or a Civil War in France upon Language," 1 2mo.
Paris, 1683 ; " Monadic Hiilory of Ireland," l2mo. Paris,
1690 ; " Hiftorical Journal of Europe for the Yeai- 1694."
Nouv. Did. Hiih

ALEMANNI, Allemanni, cr Alemans, in^sc/VM*

Geogrnphy

ALE

Geography and H'l/lory, the denomination of a body of Siicvl,
x^\\o appcaixd on the l)anks of the Mcin, ar.d in tlic iicigh-
liourhood of tlie Roman provinces, in qucil cither of food, of
phnulor, or of martial gk>i"y, ahoiit the year 214, or the
^th of the rcipn of the cinpci-orCaraealla. Dion. Cafi'.lib.lxvii.
p. 1.^50. Afiniua Qnadratus, an original Roman hii^orian,
dtedlsy Agathias, (lib. i. c. 5.) informs U5, that this hally
f'.rmy of volunteers, which coalefccd into a great and perma-
nent nation, was compofed of mar.v diflerent tribes, and ',n
this account afuimed the name of Allemanni, or ^I'-inen, i.e.
men of all nations, to denote at once their various lineage,
nnd their common braveiy. They confifted chiefly of Suevi,
vlu), in procefs of time, were joined by feveral other Ger-
man nations and fomc Gauls ; for we are told by Tacitus,
that a conlidtrable number of Gauls, abandoning tl'.cir own
countiy, went to fettle beyond the Rhine, in that ten-itory
V'hieh had formerly bclonj;;ed to the Suevi. Aurelius Viftor,
St. Jerom, and otiier writers place them between the Da-
nube, the Upper Rhine, and the Mein, in the prefent duchy
of ^VirtcmbcrJ!;. They were numerous and warlike, and
were chiefly celebrated for lighting with great dexterity and
bravery on horfeback. Their abhorrence of Uavery was fo
great, that even thofe who were taken prifoners by Caracalla
chofe rather to die than to be fold for flaves : for when they
were actually fold, they not only dcftroyed themfelves, but
fome of them difpatched alfo their children. Dion. Caff. lib.
Ixxvii. p. 86. Their government was monarchical ; and the
objefts of their worihip were the fame with thofe of the
ether German nations. Caracalla, in confcquence of a vic-
tory which he gained over the Alemanni, in the year 214,
was diftinguiflu'd by the furname of Alemannicus. In 2 "54,
the 13th year of the emperor Alexander Severus, the Ale-
mans, accompanied with other German nations, paffed the
Rhine, took polTefiion of the forts on the banks of the river,
:md ravaged Gaul. Alexander, returning from Perha, haf-
tened to the banks of the Rhine, and as the Alemans had re-
pafTed the river upon the news of his approach, he ordered a
fcridge to be thrown over, propofmg to attack them in their
own counti-y. But being afiaflinatcd by the mutinous fol-
dieiy, at the iBftigation of Maximinus, this bufinefs devolved
upon his fucccffor. Accordingly Maximinus purfued them
Vfith great flavighter, and took many of them prifoners, with
great fpoil of corn and cattle ; and the advantages he gained
were thought to be fo con fiderable, that the fenate conferred
upon him and his fon the title of Germanicus. In the year
256, the fourth of Valerian's reign, the Alemanni made an
imexpefted irruption into Gaul, and laid walle the countrj';
v/hilll thofe who dwelt on the banks of the Danube pene-
trated through the Rhx-tian Alps into the plains of Lom-
bardy, advanced as far as Ravenna, and difplayed the vifto-
rious banners of barbarians almoll in fight of Rome. A large
crmy v.'as fuddenly convened, at the appenrance of which the
Alemanni were terriiied, and retired into Germany laden
with fpoil. On another occai':on 300,000 of this warlike
people are faid to have been var.quiflied in a battle near Mi-
lan, by Gallienus, at the head of only 10,000 Romans.
Whether we give credit to die relation of this viftorj- or not,
Gallienus feems to have formed an alliance v.'ith the Ale-
manni, and protected Italy from their fury, by mar-
rying Pipa, the daughter of a king of the Marcomanni, a
tribe of the Suevi, often confounded with the Alemanni. A
party of them was defeated by Claudius in 268, and com-
pelled to fave themfelves by a precipitate flight into their
own coimtr^-. As foon, however, as they heaid of the death
of Claudius, they prepared for again invading Italy ; 40,000
liorfe appeared in the field, and the number of the infantry
tJeubledthat of the cavalry. Their fall objefls were a few cities

ALE

on the Rhati.in frontier; but as they proceeded fhty eiilar{^ed
their views, and they traced a hue of devallatioii from the
Danube to the l''o. Aurelian, A.D. 270, having colleftcd
an ailive body of troops, marched with lileiice and celerity
along the Ocirts of the Hercyniaii forefl ; and wlieii the Ale-
manni, laden with the fpolls of Italy, arrived at the Danubci
the Roman army, which lay concealed, intercepted their re-
turn. Thedlfmayed barbarians, cnclofed by the Roman le-
gions, and reduced to a condition abjcft and dillrcficd, fued
for peace. Their ambafladors were received by Aurelian
with every appendage of dignity ; and when they were or-
dered to rife and allowed to fpeak, they attempted to exte-
nuate their coiiduft, and demanded a large fubfidy, as the
price of the alliance which they offered to the Romans. The
emperor's reply was tlern ai.d imperious. He treated their
offer with contempt, and tlieir demand with indignation ;
and difmifTedthem with the choice only of fubmitting to his
unconditional mercy, or awaiting the utmoll feverily of his
refentmeiit, Aurelian, being fuddenly called away into Pan-
nonia, committed the dellruMion of the Alemanni, either by
fword or by famine, to his lieutenants. But the barbarians
made their efcapc, and returned towards the mountains of
Italy. As foon as the emperor heard that they had liberated
themfelves, and were ravaging the territoi-y of Milan, he
battened to march to the relief of Italy. The Alemanni, in
the mean while, had fpresd themfelves from the Alps to the
Apennines ; and, by a defultory war, the force of the ene-
my remained unfubdued. Three confiderable battles are
mentioned, in which the principal force of both armies was
obflinately engaged. In the firll battle, fought near Placcn-
tla, the Romans received fo fcvere a blow, that the imme-
diate dlifolutlon of tlie empire was apprehended. But the
finnnefs of the emperor reiiored in fome degree the honour
of his ai-ms. The fecond battle was fought near Fano in
IJmbria ; and here the Alemanni were totally and irretriev-
ably defeated. The flying remnant of their hoft was exter-
minated in a third and lall battle near Pavia ; and Italy was
refcued from the inroads of thefe barbarians. During tlie
alarm which preceded the decilive battle of Fano, the Sibyl-
line books were confulted, A. D. 271 ; and the ceremonies
which were enjoined were punftilioudy obferved. " Thefc
fuperftltious arts, fays Mr. Gibbon, hov/ever puerile in them-
felves, were fubfervient to the fuccefs of the war ; and if, in
the decilive battle of Fano, the Alemanni fancied they faw
an army of fpeCfres combating on the fide of Aurelian, he
received a real and effeflual aid from this in»iginary reinforce-
ment." The emperor Probus, A. D. 277, delivered Gaul
from the invafion of the Germans, and recovered 70 flourifli-
ing cities, which had been oppreffcd by thofe barbarians,
who, fince the death of Aurelian, had ravaged that great
province with impunity. Probus purfued his Gallic vifto-
ries, paffed the Rhine, compelled nine of the moft confider-
able princes of Germany to repair to his camp, to fall prof-
trate at his feet, and to accept fucli conditions as he thought
proper to diftate : and in order to raife a bulwark againll
their future inroads, he conllrufted a flone wall of confider-
able height, and ftrengthened it by towers at convenient dif-
tances. From the neiglibourhood of Nt wlladt and Ratif-
bon on the Danube, it llretched acrofs hills, vallies, rivei-s,
and morafles, as far as Winipfen on the Necker, and at length
terminated on the banks of the Rhine, after a winding courfc
of near 200 miles. Within a few years after the death of
Probus, this wall was overthrown by the Alemanni. In 287
they made another Incurfion into Gaul, but were defeated
by Maximian, who in the following year paffed the Rhine,
and laid their countiy walle wherever he came with fire and
fword. Diockliau alfo at the fame time entered Germ«nr

4. F i tbrougk

ALE

through Rhitia, and is faid to have extended the confines of
tlie empire to the fourcc of the Danube. In the year 7.91 tlic
D\irguiidi.iiis fcizcd on part of the country belonging to the
Alcmaniii ; and in 301 Conilantius Chlonis, the tatlier of
C'oiiftantine the Great, gained a figual vidor)' over them, on
which oceafion tlie Alemanni are faid to have l"ft 60,000
men. Nolwithflandiug this lofs, thcv did not long rcmam
quiet ; for in 310 they again crolTed the Rhine, and ravaged
the neighbouring provinces : but Conllantine marching
ugainft then\, defeated them in a hattk, and ubbgcdthem to
quit thiir booty and repafs the Rhine. Some fay he was
called Ma:cimus on account of this vicloiy. In the liStli
year of Conftantius's reign, the Alemanni again al tempted to
make an incurfion into Italy ; and having advanced as far as
the lake of Conilance, tlic emperor marched againft. them,
and put them to flight. In the courfe of the fame year
another body of them, breaking into Gaul vvith the Franks
and Saxons, took and plundered above 40 towns on the
banks of tlie Rhine, and among thefe was the city of Co-
logne, which they almoft entirely ruined. Tliey were at
length driven out of Gaul by Julian; but affembling near
Stralburg, he marched againil them, A. D. 357 ; and after
viclory had remained for iome time in fufpencc, the Alemanni
were entirely defeated, and driven completely out of Gaul.
Julian ravaged the countries of the Alemans and their allies
for fome time, and granted them a truce for ten months.
When the truce expired, he pafl'ed the Rhine on a bridge of
boats, entered their country, and compelled them to fue fur
peace. Upon the death of Julian they again ravage Gaul ;
defeat the Romans in a pitched battle, but were after-
wards defeated by Jovinus in three battles, A. D. 366. In
the clufe of the following year they again rally, and pals the
Rhine ; but Valentinian gains a fignal viftory over them. In
•^69 Valentinian invades their country ; and in 374 concludes
a peace with their king Macrianus. In 378 they again pafs
the Rhine, and wafte the neighbouring provinces, but are de-
feated with great flaughter by Gratian. In 388 they fub-
mitted to Maximus, who had ufurpcd the empire in Gaul,
and agreed to pay him a yearly tribute. In the reign of Ho-
norlus a colony of the Alemanni was allowed to fettle in
that part of the prefent Switzerland, which is feparated by
mount Jura from the Franche Comte, and by the lake of
Geneva and the Rhine from the prefent Savoy and province
sf Vienne. About the year 411 the country bordering on
the lake Lemanus, or the lake of Geneva, was, according to
Senius, inhabited ty the Alemanni. In 477 Audoacrius,
king of the Saxons, and Childeric, king of the Franks,
marched againft thofe who had fettled among the Alps,
and put many of them to death. Upon the deftruftion of
the wcllern empire, the Alemanni fubdued that part of Gaul,
which is now known by the name of Alface, where they
fettled. Thefe were joined by their countrymen in Ger-
many, and thofe who dwelt between Mount Jura and the
lake of Geneva ; and in 496 entered Germania fecunda, and
walled the country ; but they were overcome by Clovis,
king of the Salian Franks, and difperfed. Thofe who
fettled in Alface and near the lake of Geneva acknowledged
Lim for their king. Others took refuge in Rhaetia and Nori-
cam, where they were allowed by Theodorlc, king of Italy,
to refide. Many of them were tranfplanted by the fame
prince into Italy, and the reft were permitted to fettle be-
tween the Alps and the Danube. From this time the Ale-
manni had no king of their own ; but continued, as they
were difperfed in feveral countries, fubjeft partly to the Of-
trogoths, who were mafters of Italy, and partly to the
Franks, who had dominion in Gaul. When the Oftrogoths
ceded their territories out of Italy to the children of Clovis,

ALE

d)« Alemanni, thofe excepted whom Thcodoric had tranf-
planted into that country, fubmitted to the Franks. Gib-
bon's Iliftoiy, 5:c. vol. i. p. 417, &c. Vol. ii. p. 21, &c.
Anc. Un. Hilt. vol. xvii. p, 28S — 299.

ALEMAMNIA, or Auemania, in indent Geography,
a name given to Germany, which was not known before the
time of the Antonines, and then applied only to a part of it.
The appellation is derived from the Alemanni.

ALEMBERT, John le Romd D', in Biography, an
eminent mathematician and philofopher, and an elegant
writer, was born at Paris, November 16, 17 17. His fur-
name D'le Rond was derived from that of the church near
w hich he was expofed as a foundling by his mother, who
is faid to have been Madcmoifelle Tencin, fifter of the
Abbe, afterwards Cardinal, Tencin. His father Dcf-
touches Canon, hearing of his fituation in the Inmfe of a
glazier, with xvhofe wife he was put to nurfe, yielded to
the impulfe of affeftion and duty, and took meafures for his
future fubfiltencc and education. In acquiring the fint
rudiments of education among the Janfeniils, he manifefted
figns of thofe extraordinary powers, by which he was after-
wards diftinguiihed. At the age of 10 years, his fchool-
mafter declared that he had nothing further to teach him ;
and during his attention to theological ftudies, he compofed
at a vciy early period, " A Commentary on the Epiftles of
St. Paul to the Romans," which led the Janfenifts to ex-
pe£l, that he would be an able champion in their caufe, and
become a fecond Pafchal. But purfuing his education at
the college of Mazarin, he transferred his attention from
theology to mathematics, in which he found greater fatis-
faction, and in the knowledge of which he atterwarda ex-
celled.

Upon leaving the college, he retired to the houfe of his
nurfe, for the purpofe of enjoying a tranquil retreat, and of
profecuting his ftudies without interruption. He hoped
likewife to teftify his gratitude for her former kindnefs by
(baring with her the means of fubfiftence with which he
was provided, and thus contributing to the increafe of her
domeftic comfort. In this obfcure fituation he hved for many
years, with the greateft fnnplicity, and derived fatisfadtion
to himfelf from adminiftering to the happinefs of thofe with
whom he was connefted. His hoftefs had no juft concep-
tion of the extraordinary talents of her gucft ; and fhe
could not help occafionally confidermg him as ftill an ob-
ject of compafijoii. " You will never," faid flic one day to
him, " be any thing but a philofopher ; and what is a phi-
lofopher but a fool, who toils and plagues himfelf, that
people may talk of him after he is dead?" With a. view
to the improvement of his fortune, or rather of the means
of comfortable fubfiftence, he followed the advice of his
friends in direfting his attention, firft, to the law, in which
he took his degrees, and afterwards to medicine ; but his
attachment to mathematics prevailed over every other con-
fideration, and induced him to decline the advantage which
he might reafonably expeft to derive from any other lucra-
tive profefiion. At the age of 24, in ; 741, he attrafted no-
tice by correcting the errors of Ileyneau's " Analyfe De-
montree," which was a work of high eftim.ation in the de-
partment of analytics ; and he was admitted a member of
the Academy of Sciences, He riien ainduoully examined
the path in which a body moves in pafling obliquely from
a rarer into a denfer fluid ; and this inveftigation, which he
fatisfaftorily profecuted, engaged him in extending his
views to the forces of moving bodies. The refult of his
fpeculations was, his " Treatife on Dynamics ;" (Traite
de Dynamique, 4to, Paris, 1743. Ed. 2. 1758.) in which
he fcparates into two parts the action of the moving powers,

and

ALE

and confiders the one as alone producing the motion of the
body, in the iccoiid inllant, and the other as cmpla\'ed to
deitroy that which it had in the tirll. This principle had
been applied by M. d'Aleinbert, fo early as the year 1744.
to the theory of the equilibrium, and the motion of fluids,
(Traitc de I'Equilibre et du Mouvemcnt des Fhiides,
Paris, 1744. Ed. 2. 1770.) and the dil'coveiy of it was
fucceedcd by a new calculus, the hrll efl'ays of which were
publiilied in a " Difeonrfe on the General Theory of the
Winds," (Reflexions fur la Caufe Generale desVents, Paris,
4to, 1747.) which the academy of Berlin honoured with
the prize-medal in 1 746 ; and at the fame time the author
was elefted an honorary member. This work was dedi-
cated to the king of PrufTia, who was terminating a glori-
ous campaign by an honourable peace, in the llu'ee follow-
ing Latin verfes :

" PIxc ego de vcntis, dum ventorum ocyor alls
Palantes agit Auilriacos Frederlcus, ct orbi,
Inlignis lauro, ramum praetendit olivae."

*' Swifter than wind, while of the winds I write.
The foes of conquering Frederic fpeed their flight ;
While laurel o'er the hero's temple bends.
To the tir'd world the ohve branch he fends."

From this time d'Alembert was ranked among the phi-
lofophical friends of Frederic. In 1 747 our mathematician
applied his new calculus of " Partial Differences," to vi-
brating chords, and the propagation of founds. In 17491
he fuggefted a method of applying his principle to the mo-
tion of any body of a given figure ; and he alfo refolved
the problem of the preccfTion of the equinoxes ; determin-
ing its quantity, and explaining the phenomenon of the nu-
tation of the earth's axis, difcovered by Dr. Bradley,
(" Recherches fur la PrccefTion des Equinoxes, et fur la
nutation de I'axe de la Terre, dans la Sylleme Newtonien,
4to, Paris, 1749.) In 1752 he publiftied a treatife on the
" Refillance of Fluids," (" Effais d'une nouvclle Theorie
du Mouvement des Fluides, 4to, Paris, 1752."), and about
the fame time, in the memoirs of the academy of Berlin,
" Refearches concerning the Integral Calculus." In the
fame year he pubhfhed " Elements of Mufic," defigncd to
explain the principles of Rameau, (" Elemcns de Muflque,
Theorique et Pratique, fuivant les principes de M. Rameau
eclaires, developpes, et fimplifies, 1 torn. 8vo. a Lyon.")
Other pieces, publifhed at various times, in the memoirs of
the Academies of Paris and Berlin, were collefted under
the title of " Opufculcs Mathcmatiqucs, ou Memoires fur
differens fujets de Geometric, de Meehaniqucs, d'Optiques,
cTAftrononiie," in 9 vols 4to. Paris, from 1761 to 1773.
He alfo wrote " Rcchetches fur differens Points importans
du Syfteme du Monde," Paris, 1754 and i7jC), 3 vols.
4to. His " Elemens de Philofophie," was printed in
1759. Befides thefe feparate publications, the Memoirs of
the Academy of Paris contain the following pieces, viz.
*' Precis de Dynamique," 1743 ' " Precis de I'Equilibre et
de Mouvement des Fluides," 1744; " Methode generale
pour determiner les Orbites et les Mouvements de toutes
les Planetes, en ayant egard a leur aftlon mutuelle," 1745;
" Precis des Reflexions fur la Caufe Generale des Vents,"
1750 ; " Precis des Recherches fur la PrecefTion deS'EquI-
noxes, et fur la Nutation de I'Axe de la Terre duns le
Sylleme Newtonien," 1750; " ElTai d'une nouvelle Theo-
rie fur la Refiftance des Fluides," 1752 ; " precis des Effais
d'une nouvelle Theorie de la Refiftance des I'luides," 1753;
" Precis des Recherches furies differens Pomts importans du
Syfteme du Monde," 17545 " Recherches fur la Preccflion

ALE

des Equinoxes.et fur la Nutation dc I'Axe de la Terre, dans
I'Hypothefe, de la diflimilitude des Meridiens," 1754;
" Reponfe a un Article du Memoire de M. I'Abbe de la
Caille, fur la Theorie du Solcil," 1757; "Addition;! ce
Memoire," 1757; " Precis des Opufculcs Malhematiques,"
1761 ; " Precis du troifiirme volume des Opufculcs Mathc-
matiqucs," 1764; " Nouvelles Recherches fin- les verre*
Optiques, pour fcrvir de fuite a la Theorie qui en a etc
doiuiec dans le volume 3' des Opufculcs Matlumatiques,"
premiere mem. 1764 ; " Nouvelles Recherches fur les vcrrcs
Optiques, pour fcrvir de fuitc ;i la Theorie qui en a ete
donnee dans le troificme volume des Opufculcs Malhema-
tiques," feconde mem. 1 765 ; " Obfervations fur les Lu-
nettes Achromaliques," 1765 ; " Suite des Recherclies lur
les verres Optiques," troiliemc mem. 1 767; " Rcclierehe-i
fur le Calcul Integral," 1767 ; " Accident arrive- par I'ex-
plofion d'une meulc d'Eniouleur," 1768; " Precis des
Opufculcs de Mathematiques," 4' & 5' vols, leur analyfe,
1768; "Recherches furies Mouvemens de I'Axe d'une
Planete qnelconque dans I'Hypothefe de la Diflimilitude
des Meridiens," 1768 ; " Suite des Recherches fur les
Mouvemens, &c.," 1768; " Recherches fur le Calcul In-
tegral," 1769; " Memoire furies principes de la Mech."

The Memoirs of the Academy of Berlin contain the fol-
lowing pieces, I'/'z. " Recherches fur le Calcul Integral, l'
parte," 1746; " Solution de quelques problemes d'Allrono-
" mie," 1747; "Recherches fur leCourbeque forme uneCorde
tendue, mifc en vibration," 1747; " Suite des Recherches fur
le Calcul Integral," 1748; " Lettre a M. de Maupertuis,"
1749 ; " Addition aux Recherches fur le Courbe que foinie
uneCorde tendue, mife en vibration," 1 750; " Addition-
aux Recherches fur le Calcul Integral," 1750; " Lettre a
M. le Profeflcur Formey," 1755 ; " Extr. de Differ. Let-
tres a M. de la Grange," 1763 ; " Sur les Tautochix>nes,"
1765 ; " Extr. de Differ. Lettres a M. de la Grange,"
1769. The Memoirs of Turiti, contain " Differcntcs Let-
tres a M. de la Grange, en 1764 & 1765." en tom. iii. of
thefe memoirs, and " Recherches fur DifF. Sujets de Math."
en tom. iv.

The numerous and valuable produftions above recited,'
entitle d'Alembert to rank among the moil celebrated
mathematicians of the age. But he is no Itfs diilinguiflied
by his genius, judgment, and tafle, than by bis mathema-
tical knowledge ; and he is defcrv'edly regarded in France
as one of the lirll writers of that nation. To him the ori-
ginal defign of the French Encyclopedia has been generally
aferibed ; a work which was begun in 1750 by d'Alembert,
Diderot, Voltaire, and many other learned men, ajid which
has contributed in a veiy eminent degree to the diHufion of
knowledge. Many of the moll valuable articles in mathe-
matics, hitlory, and polite literature, were compofed by M.
d'Alembert; and the prelinJnary difeourfe,'eonceniing the
rife, progrefs, conneiitions, and affmities, of the various
branches of human knowledge, will be ever coiilidercd by
the befl: judges as the evidence of a well-informed and com-
preheniivc mind, as a fpecimcn of judicious arrangement and
correct criticifm, and alfo as a model of jull thinking and
good writing. Befides the valuable flore with which he
furnifhed this treafure of univerfal fcience, his talents were
difplayed in many feparate publications on fubjedls of
claflical and polite literature. His " Tranflation of fcleft
parts of Tacitus, (" Traduftion de divers moiceaux de
Tacite,") in 2 vols. izmo. afford, fays one of his biogra-
phers, an elegant fpecimen of liis learning : aud his " Me-
moirs of Chriflina queen of Sweden," is a mallerlv piece
of biographical writing, in which the autiior evinces his

acquaintaace

ALE

acquaintance with tlie rights of mankiird, ainl his courage
in alTcrtiiig them. His " Kfl"i!y on the Intcrcouric of Men
of I>etters, with Pcrfons high in rank and office," expofcd
the mean fcnility of the former, ami the infolent tyranny
of the latter. A lady of the court, who heard tlie author
blair.ed for exaggerating the defpotifni of the great, and the
fubmiflion whicli they require, ohferved ; " If he had con-
fuited nie, 1 could have told him llill more of the matter."
Thefe pieces, with other clTays on fuhjefts of polite litera-
ture, " Elogcs" on Bernouilli, TerralTon, Montefquieu,
Mallet and "Dumarfais, and " Elements of Philofophy,"
were coll'.-ded into 5 vols. j2mo. about the year 1760, and
publilhcd under the title of " Melanges de Literature,
d'Hilloire, et de Philofophie." In 1765, M. d'Alcmbert
publilhed liis " DifTertation oh the Deftruftion of the Je-
I'uits," (De la Dellruclion des Jefuites. ) in i2mo. Paris;
a work which' not only ridicules, with the ketneft fatire, the
difciplcs of Ignatius Loyola, but treats with juil feverity
their adverfaries, and which expofed the writer to many
opprobrious and unmerited reflections. In the year 1772,
he was chofen fecretary to the Academy of Sciences ; and
foon after this honour, he formed the defign of writing the
lives of all the deccafed academicians from 1700 to 1771,
as a continuation of the " Hiitory of the Academy," pub-
lilhed by MeflVs. PelilTon and d'Olivet. This defign he
executed in three years, by compoling 70 eloges or pane-
gyrics, comprifed in 6 vols, izino. and publifhed at Paris
in 1787, under the title of " Hiftoire des Memoires de
1' Academic Frangoife, morts depuis," 1700, (ufqu'en 1 77 1.
" This colledlion, notwlthftanding fome inequalities of ftyle,
is jaftly admired : it abounds with Uvely portraits, amufing
anecdotes, ingenious parallels, and jull relletlions."

As foon as M. d'Alembert engaged in the defign of pub-
lifliing the Encyclopedia, he emerged fi'om obfcurity, and
became an objecl of attention, not only in the circle of his
friends, to which he had hitherto been confined, but to the
public at large. Whilft many approved and commended
both the defign and the execution of it, the freedom with
which feveral articles were written, was condemned by
others, and fubjc'Jtcd M. d'Alembert, as well as others of
his colleagues, to confiderable obloquy. However, his li-
terary merit was now thought fufficient to entitle him to
royal patronage. In 1756 the intereft of the minifter,
Count D'Argenfon, obtained for him a penfion of 1200
livres. In 1762, he was invited by the eniprefs of Ruffia
xo undertake the education of her fon, the Grand Duke,
vith the offer of a falary of 100,000 livres, and -^ther pri-
vileges : but tiiis lucrative and honourable office, though
<nforced a fecond time by a letter under the emprtfs's own
hand, his attachment to his country and friends, aid his pre-
-fercnce of literary Icifure, induced him to decline. The
next year he was invited to an interview with the king of
Pruflia at Wefel : when they met, the king afFeftionately
embraced him ; and enquiring of the philofopher, " whe-
■ther the mathematics fiirniihed any method of calculating
political probabilities ?" M. d'Alembert replied, " That if
Xnch a method exifted, it could be of no ufe to a hero,
who could conquer againft all probability." The king of-
fered him the prefidency of the Academy of Beriin, vacant
by the death of Maupertuis. But though the ferment, oc-
•cafioned in France by fome articles in the Encyclopedia,
and eipccially that of Geneva, -and the odium he haa per-
fonally incurred, might have led lim to feek an afjlum in
the court of a philofophical prince, he declined accepting
the flattering propofal ; neverthelefs 3 correfpondence fub'^
■filled between the king'and him as long as he hved. The
letters are publilhed ui the " Poaiiumous works of the

A I- E

king of rrufTia." This con-efpondcnce, and lh.it with Vol-
taire and other eminent perfons, his conllant intercourfe
with learned foreigners, as well as diflinguinied charadters at
home, and his influence in the academy, concurred to give
importance to M. d'Alcmbert ; and tliough he was called
the Ma^arin of literature, candour leads us to believe that
his influence was owing more to his talents, learning, and
virtues, than to artful management, and fupple addrefs.
His abhorrence of fuperftition and prieftcraft, it muft be
allowed, drove him into the extreme of infidelity ; and he
was not only lax in his religious principles, but on iome oc-
cafions indecorous in his mode of attacking doArines that
have been generally received even amongft thofe who have
been accuilomed to think freely on the iubjeCl of religion.
He feems to have adopted that fyftcm of deified nature,
which bereaves the world of a defigning caufe, and prefid-
ijig intelligence ; and his zeal in propagating the free no-
tions he had imbibed, aftuated by his enmity to the jefuits
and clergy, and animated by intercourfe with confidential
friends of the fame defcription, fometimes received a check,
and required a leflon of moderation even from the philolo-
pher Frederic. " The eccentricity of his opinions," fays a
liberal biographer, " did not, however, deilroy the \'irtues
of his heart. A love of truth, and a zeal for the progrefs
of fcience and freedom, formed the bafis of his churatler :
ftrift probity, a noble difintereftedneis, and an habitual de-
fire of obliging, were its diilinguifliing features. Many
young people, who dlfcovered talents for fcience and learn-
ing, found in him a patron and guide. To worthy men,
even in adverfity and perfecution, he was a firm and coura-
geous friend. To thofe who had fliewn him kindnefs, he
never ceafed to be grateful. Gratitude induced him to de-
dicate two of his works to two minifters, w hen they were
in difgrace, the Count d'Argenfon, to whom he owed his
penfion, and the Marquis d'Argenfon, who had given him
many proofs of refpect and efteem. When in early file.
Mad. de Tencin, informed of his fingular talents, came to
him, and fondly carefiing him, difcovered to him the fecret
of his birth: "What do you tell me!" he cried out;
" Ah I you are but a ftep-mother ; it is the glazier's wife
who is my mother." Through life he retained for his nurfe
the aff"e£tionate fenfibility of a gr.itcful fon. He remained
in her houfe near 30 years ; and did not leave it till in 1765,
after a long illnefs, his phyfician repreftnted to him the ne-
ceflity of removing to a more airy lodging. His health
being recruited, he continued to occupy his honourable ilation
among philofcphers, till the 29th of Oclober, 1783, when,
in the 66th y-earof his age, he expired ; leaving behind him
the reputation of amiable virtues and eminent talents. Per-
haps no charafter has ever appeared, which has more com-
pletely exemplified the union of ftrong mathematical genius
with an elegr.nt tafle for polite literat-jre." His eulogium
by Coudorcet is publifhed in the " Kift. de I'Acad. Royale
des Sciences," 1783. Monthly Rev. vol. Ixxvi, p. 238.
Nouv. Dia. Hift. Hutton's Math. Difl. Gen. Biog.

ALEMBIC, Limbec, Jllambic, Fr. An alembic is one
of the numerous articles of DISTILLATORY apparatus. In
the Englilh laboratories and manufaftories its ufe is
almoft fuperfeded by the retort and flill ; but on the con.
tinent, efpecially in France, it continues to be the fa-
vourite veffel for diflillations in the large way. The French
indeed appear to have no word in their language fynony-
mous witli the Englifli one ftill, and hence the difference
between thefe two veflTels is but very imperfcftly noticed
even in their befl authors. As diitillation depends on the
feparation of the volatile from the more fixed parts of a
compound by the action of fire, it is obviou-Oy eflential to
3 every

ALE

every apparatus for this puiiiofe that it /hould confift of
at k-aft two parts ; the one tor the reception and ht-ttting
of tlif matter to be dillilled, and the other for the colkc-
tiou and condenfation of the more volatile part when in
a ftate of vapour. Of all the vt-ifels delliued to this ufe
the alembic is the fimpkft and the mod ancient.

Both Diofcorides and Pliny mention the au,5i| (ambix)
which is defcribed by the latter of thefe writers, as a he-
miljiherical iron cover, luted upon the earthen pots in
which mercury was procured by the diftillation of cinnabar:
it is probable, however, that the ainbix was in the time
ot I'liny a mere plain Hill, without any beak or gutter,
fmcc he mentions the mercuiy being wiped off in fmall
drops from the infide of the vcffel, the neceffity of which
manipulation would be fuperfeded by the invention of a
beak. The alchemills iiaving adopted this inftrument,
prclixed the Arabian article «/ to its name, awd made con-
fiderable alterations in its form. Their objcft in all dif-
tillations and digetlions being to fcparate, as much as pof-
fiblcj the moil volatile products from thofe that are lefs
fo, they imagined that the greater dillance which the va-
pour had to pafs through, in its patTage from the boiler
to the condenfer, the more pcrfeftly would the fpirit or
quinteffence be dephlegmated ; for this purpofe the body
ot the alembic was made of a globular form, terminating
above in a long narrow neck, to the end of which was
luted the capital; (Chemillry, plate iii. fig. lo. A. the
Lody, B the neck, C the capital) fometimes for the purpofe
of more effeftually keeping down the impure jiai ticles, the
neck was bent in a zig zag or fpiral direftiou. The cha-
raftcriftic difference between an alembic and a ilill feems to
be in tlie conftruClion of the head or capital, which in the
alembic is contrived not merely to colleci, but to condenfe
the vapour ; whereas, the correfponding part of a ftill
ferves merely to colleft the vapour, which is tranfmitted
in an elaftic ftate through the beak, and condenfed in the
wonn. In the figure already referred to, the diilance
between the body and the capital is fo great, that much
of the heat mult be given off from the vapour before it
arrives in this part ; the mere refrigerating power, there-
fore, of the atmofphere is amply fufficient to condenfe the
vapour into drops on the inner furfaee of the capital,
which, trickling down into the channel or gutter at the
bottom, are dehvercd by the beak into any vefiTel placed
to receive them. The length and narrownefs, and convo-
lution of the neck were, however, foimd to condenfe fo
much of the vapour before it reached the capital, as to
render all procefl'es, in which it was employed, unfufTerably
tedious ; belides requirnig fo high a heat as to alter and
injure the products very confidcrably; the neck was there-
fore {hortened and made wider, and as in confequence
of this the vapour came into the capital more heated than
before, it was necefTary to fubftitute a more powerful re-
frigerating caufe to the cafual and varj'hig action of the
external a;r ; with this intention, the capital of the me-
tallic alembics was iiifcrted into a vcflil of water, (fig. ii.)
called a refrigeratory, and thus the alembic, as far as con-
cerned the number and general difpofition of its parts, was
completed.

The glafs and earthen-ware alembics foon received all
the perfeftion of form which their materials would allow :
the body, inftead of being a globe with a long neck, was
iiitered into a cucurbit ; and the capital adiimed a more
conical lliape ; the two parts of the apparatus were alfo
fitted clofely into each other, by grinding with emery.
The irregular expanfion and contraftion of glafs by heat,
rendered the ufe of a refrigeratory impoCble, lb that

ALE

when diflillinp brilkly, it is ncceffar)- to cover the cspital
with cloth foaked in cold water and frequently renewed ;
thus requiring a conilant attention, belidvs running the
rilk of cracking the cucurbit, by a diop of cold water tailing
upon it from the head. On this account, the glafs alembic
is but little employed, although capable, vlien fldlfnlly
managed, of diililling a much larger quantity in a given
lime, than a retort of equal capacity. (I'ig. 12. A the
bodv of the cucurbit, 13 the capital, C the clianntl, D the
beak.)

Tile metallic alembics being formed of more manageable
fubllances, and being approi)riated to large procefl'es, in
which economy of time and uiel was of great importance,
invited and obtained a number of valuable improvements.
The molt confiderable of thcfe are due to Beaume, a re-
prcfentation of whofe alembic, as furtiier improved by
Chaptal, is given in fig. 13. This velTel is compofed of
three parts ; the one marked A is the boiler, being a
hollow cylinder of tinned copper, of equal diameter at top
and bottom, but bulging out into a ftioulder at g, by
which it is fufpended over the furnace ; in this part are
fixed two handles a a, and a (hort pipe /, fitted with a
cork, for the purpofe of fupplying water or any other
fluid, without the necellity of taking the apparatus to
pieces. B is a cucurbit or balneum maria made of tin,
of a cylindrical figure, with two handles, and a collar on
the outfide, whicli fitting into the inner groove i, of the
boiler, fupports it when fufpended within this lafl. The
third part of the apparatus is the capital, a feAion of
which is reprL^cnted at C : j is the collar, by which it is
fixed on the inner groove /•, of the cucurbit B ; jj- is the
proper capital, in ikape a fliort cone, made of tin, termi-
nating at its bafe in a circular channel /, flightly inclined
towards the beak m. iSurrounding the capital, and clofely
foldered to it is the refrigeratory e, made of copper, and
accommodated in fhape to the capital ; at the bottom is a
large flop-cock p. For the diftillation of water, or of
fpirits from the wadi, where a brifli boihng heat is required,
the liquor is put into the boiler, and the cucurbit is
omitted ; but for the redlification of alcohol and other
fimilar proceftes, the fubftance to be diftilled is to be put
into the cucurbit, and the boiler being filled with water,
the heat is conveyed through the medium of this fluid,
and of com-fe is more moderate and equal.

Moll of the French brandies are prepared in al<:mbics,
whereas all Britifli fpirits are manufaftured in flills ; the
advantage of the alembic is that lefs fuel is required, and
the fpirit is but little expofed to the rifk of becoming em-
pyreumatic. Its difadvantage confifts in being lefs ex-
peditious, and in rcquirhig greater accuracy in the tempera-
ture of the refrigeratory ; if too cold, the vapour is in
part condenfed before it touches the infide of the capital,
and falls back into the boiler ; if loo hot, a portion of va-
pour efeapes into tl>e air ; a greater proportion alfo of
water is required for the condenfation of a given quantity
of vapour, than where a worm and ftill is made ufe of.

Encycloped. Method. Art. Alambic Beaume Elemens

de Pharmacie Macquer's Didl. — Boerhaave's Chcraiflr)-.

ALEMBROTH, Salt of. This term, the ufe of '
which is derived from the alchemills, has been fucceflively
applied to a variety of preparations and native falls. The
general idea whicli the word feems to convey, is that of
a flux or folvent, either to aflift in the fufioM of metallic
ores and earths, or to dilfolve obltruclions, and attenuate
vifcid humours in the human body, when employed medi-
cinally. A peculiar earth, found at mount Olympus in
the iiland of Cvpius, was called jJembrolh, which was

faid

A I- E

Taid to be of a nitrous and aluminous nature, and was
aniially employed in metalluvpy as a flux. Probably, how-
ever, it was a native fixed alkali, as the terms nitrous and
alum'incus were formerly applied in a very loofe manner
to fijjnify any thing of a faline nature, and the artificial pre-
pai aliens of alembroth fait, piveii by the old writers of
jihamiacT, all contain a fixed alkali.

Alembroth Salt is Hill retained in chemical nomen-
clature, and is now employed exclufively to exprefs that
compound fait which arifes from the union of con-ofive
mercurial muriat with muriated ammonia. The amnumia-
cal fait remarkably iiicreafes the folubility of the nuicurial,
and a folulion of the alembroth fait is generally the form
in which the corrofive fublimatc is given internally in dif-
cafes which require the ufe of this adive medicine. See
Mercvry, (inurialeof.)

ALEMDAR, an officer in the court of the Grand
Gcignior, who bears the green ftandard of Mahomet,
v.\\en the fultan appears in public on any folemn occafion.

ALEMETH, ia Scripture Geography, a city in the
tribe of Benjamin.

ALEMPIGON, in Geography, a lake of North Ame-
rica in Canada, north of lake Superior.

ALEN, in Geography Sec Aalen and Ahlen.
Ai.E>j, a river of North Wales, which runs into the Dee,
rear Wrexham. Alcn is alfo a river of Germany in Lower
Saxony, in the diilritl of Calenberg, which rifes in mount
Soelling, in the dillrift of Corvey, and i-uns into the fea.

Ales, Van, or Oolen, John, in Biography, a painter
of fowls, landfcape, and ftill life, was born at Amilerdam
in 1 65 1, and died in 1698. He had no ready talent for
invention, but he poffeffcd a very extraordinary imitative
genius, fo that, in the touch and peculiar tints of colour,
he could mimick the work of any mafter in any ftylc ; and
as the works of Mclchior Hondekoeter were in the great-
ell repute, he applied himfclf particularly to imitate and
copy his works, which he did fo exaftly, that connoifTeurs
vere at a lofs to determine, whether any pifture was Van
Alen's or Hondekoeter's. By this practice he gained both
money and reputation. Pilkington.

ALENBY, in Geography, a town of Norway, 50 miles
fouth of Drontheim.

ALENCON, a city of France, and capital of the de-
partment of Orne, fituate on the river Sarte, in an cx-
tenfive and fruitful plain, which abounds ^vith all forts of
corn and fruit, hemp and pafturc. It has a well-fortified
-caftle, and feveral public buildings. The number of in-
habitants was fome years ago computed at 10,000. Its
-commerce confifts of linen, lace called point d'jileticon,
ferges, fluffs, leather, &c. ; and it has three markets every
week. In its vicinity are ftones fit for building, and others
called flints of Alen<;on. It is eight leagues north of Moris,
25 fouth-wefl of Rouen, and 35 fouth-weft of Paris.
N. lat. 48° 25'. Long. 0°.

Alencon is alfo a fmall town of Dauphine, in the ge-
nerahty of Grenoble.

ALENDIN, a town of Africa in the empire of Mo-
rocco.

ALENIO, Julius, in Biography, was born at Brefcia,
in Venice, travelled into the Eallern countries, and ar-
rived at Maca, in 1610, where he taught mathematics.
From thence he went to China, where he\vas employed for
;?6 years in the propagation of Chri'.lianity. He is "faid to
have been the firll who planted the Chriftian faith in Xanfi,
and to have built feveral churches in the province of Fokien.
He died in 1649, and left feveral works in the Chinefe lan-
guage. Biog. Dia.

ALE

ALENQUER, in Geography, a town of Portugal, in
Eftiemadura, fituate on an eminei;ce near a fmall river,
which falls into the Tagus. It is faid to have been built
by the Alans, being anciently called Alenher rana, i. e. the
temple of the Alans. It contains about 2500 inhabitants,
is a marquifite, and has 13 pariflies belonging to its diilricl.

ALENSTEIG, a town of Germany, in the archduchy
of Aullria ; four miles fouth of Bohmilh Waidhoven.

ALENT, a town of the archduchy of Auilria, four
miles wcll-north-weil of Baden.

ALENTAKIE, or Alentak, a province of Eftthonia,
upon the gulf of Finland ; the capital of which is Narva.

ALENTEJO, or Alemtejo, one of the largell but
leaft populous provinces in Portugal, fituate between the
rivers Tagus and Guadiana, and extending from the moun-
tains of Algarve on the fouth, to the frontiers of Eilrema--
dura on the north, and from the fea and Tagus on the weft,
to the borders of Spanifli Eftremadura and Andalufia on
the call. Its length from north to fouth is computed at 36
leagues, and its breadth from eaft to weft is nearly the fame.
It is called Alemtejo, /. e. alem do no Tejo, q. </. beyond the
river Tagus, becaufe it lies in that direftion with regard to
Eftremadura and the countries further north. It contains
four cities, the chief of which is Evora, 105 towns, 358
parifhes, and about 339,355 inhabitants. The towns are
very populous ; but there is a fcarcity of villages, which
contribute moft to cultivation ; and another caufe of it&
fcanty population is its always having been the theatre of
war between Spain and Portugal. It contains a great num-
ber of fortreffes, maintains ten regiments of infantry and
four of cavaliy, which are conftantly recruited here, and
form a fourth part of the military eftablifliment of the whole
countr)'. The lands in this province are far from being well
cultivated, being fown only once in three years ; though
fome of our geographers reprefent it as a fertile province,
and call it the granary of Portugal. Its principal produfts
are wheat and barley, and in many places it alio affords
grapes, olives, and other fruits, as well as game and iilh.
Some parts yield marble and gems. In this province there
are three kinds of foil, vi'z. fertile black folid fat earth,
which is found in the red clay of Elvas, Campomayor, Oli-
ven^a, Fronteira, Eftremoz, Beja, and Serpa ; a lighter
earth mixed with a little land, which foiTns the foil round
Evora and Arrayolos, where the bad kinds of wheat, barley
and rye, fucceed very well, and cork trees and evergreen
oaks alfo grow ; and a fandy barren foil, which forms the
heaths of Cantarinho, Ponte de Sor, Monte Argil, Tanccs
and Vendas Novas, a tract of couatiy about 30 leagues in
circumference. At prefent thefe heatlis, which afford beau-
tiful varieties of heath plants and evergreen fhrubs, ferve
only as pafture for goats ; though the clayey foil is very
capable of cultivation ; as are alfo marfhy tradls which might
be drained. The rivers in Alemtejo, particularly in winter,
are very rapid, and do much damage. There is a fmall
chain of mountains in this province, about feveu leagues
long, and two and one-half broad, which runs between the
city of Evora and the town of Eftremos, and which in
reality belongs to the chain of Toledo. The commons arc
generally covered with ciftus, which is ufed in fome parts
for heating ovens, and in other parts as pafture for cattle.
The whole province is full of vagabond beggars, who beg
or fteal by day, and at night fleep in the huts of the liul-
bandmen. The nobility keep large herds of flieep and goats,
and thus prevent the heaths from being cultivated. The
profperity of this province is impeded alfo by the luxury of
the peafantiy, by the number of faft-days, and of religious
Jio.ufes, and by the badnels of the roads. The Upper
6 Alemtejo

ALE

Alomtcio would export, and confcqucntly grow, niucli moro
com, if tlierc were but ro ids for its conveyance. 6ee Link's
Journey tlirough PortiJg;il, p. i ;o — 164.

Al^EOS, in Anaer.l Ceografhy, a river of Afia, to the
weft of Smyrna, according to Pliny. To the waters of it
was attributed the virtue of making the hair and (Icin to grow
on di'ircrent parts of the body.

ALEPPO, in Geography, the metropolis of Svria, is
deemed, in importance, the third city in the Ottoman do-
minions. Although it is much inferior to Conftantiiiople
and Cairo with regard to fituation, magnitude, populatiuii,
opulence, and courtly fplendo\u-, it may be reekonud iu-
perior to both thefe cities in the falubrity of its air, the lo-
lidity and elegance of its private buildings, and alfo the
convenience and neatnefs of its (Irccts. With refpcct to
commercial advantages, it has much declined, but ilill con-
tinues to maintain a trade that is lar from being ineonfider-
able. In Arabic, Aleppo is called Haleb, to which is ul'ually
added the epithet Al Skahbit. According to tlie fabulous
hiltory of the Arabian writers, who trace the origin of this
city to the migration of the patriarch Abraham into the
land of Canaan, who relied tor fome time on the hill,
where the calllc of Aleppo is now iituated, the appellation
Hcikh is derived irom the eircumftance of his dillributing
milk to the poor of a neighbouring village. Their frequent
repetitiiin of the words " Ibruheem haleb," or " Abraham
has milked," gave oecafion, as it is laid, to the name Haleb,
vvhicli was conferred on the town that was afterwards built
on this i'pot. The fame hillory refers the epithet Al Shuhba
to a pied cow, wluch the populace dillinguifhtdhy its lowing
in the herd oi the jjatnarch. Goliub and others, with much
greater probabihiv, deduce this term, which denotes a varie-
gated grey and white colour, from the colour of the foil
and of the buildings. Some have luppoied that Aleppo
was the Zobah ot Scripture ; but it was, more probably,
the Beroea of the Greeks. Aleppo is fituated, according
to celeftial obfervations (fee Conn, des Temps. 1792.) in
N. lat. 36° 11' 25" and E. long. 37° 9', at a confiderable
height above the level of the fea, near the nsiv Ko'-Muk,
which luns in a fmall ilream to the well of the city. Its
dillance from Scanderoon or Ai.exandrf.tta, the neareft
fea port, is in a Ib/aight line between 60 and 70 miles, but
in the caravan road between 90 and ico miles. It is en-
compafTed, at the dillance of a few miles, bv a circle of hills,
which are in general rocky, fcantily provided with fprings,
and totallv dtllitute ot trees, but aifordiiig good paihire for
{heep and goats. Witliin this circle, there are hills and
hillocks, which are interleifted by plains and little valleys ;
the foil of which is in !ome parts of a reddirti or black colour,
rich and fertile, but in general whitidi, fliallow, and mixed
with many fmall flones. This city, including its exteniive
fuburbs, occupies eight fmaU hills, the intermediate vallies,
and a confiderable extent of flat ground, comprehending in
the whole a circuit of about Icven miles ; though the city
itfelf is not above three and one-half miles in circumference.
The wall that iurrounds it, which was built, or at kail re-
paired by the Mamaluke princes, is negleclcd and moulder-
ing into ruin. Befides this wall, the city was formerly de-
fended by a wide and deep ditch, which is now filled with
rubbifli or converted into garden grounds. It has, at this
time, nine gates, two to the foiith, two to the eaft, two to
the north, and three to the weft. One of the northern gates,
formerly called the Jews' gate, which the fon of Saladin
changed into Bab al Nafer, or Gate of Victory, was once,
according to the Miffionaries, the refidence ot the prophet
Elifha, and it has lamps which are kept couftantlv burning

Vol. L

A L i;

in commemoration of that faint. The caftle, wiiich ftands
on a hill near the iiorlli-caft corner of the city, and which
is encompulied by a broad deep ditch, about half a mile in
circumference, may he dillinguilhcd at a confiderable dif-
tiiiiee'; but a traveller, ai)pioaehing from the weft, can fee
fcarcely any other part of the city, till he gains the brow
of one of the hilla within two or three miles of the gate:. ;
and thus it becomes an exteniive and ftnkiiig objeft. Tiic
mofqnes, the minarets, and numerous cupolas, form a fplendid
fpeClacle, and the llut ro(;ls ot the houfes which are Iituated
on the hills, riling one behind another, preftnt a fuccelTuin of
hanging terraces, interfperfed wiili eyj)refs and poplar trees.
Aleppo is, in general, a well-built city, and the houfe»
within are grand and handfome. The ftrects arc better
dilpofed and broader than thofc of eallern cities ; they
are well paved and remarkably clean, and they have a
commodious toot-way, on each lide, raifed half a foot above
the other part. The mofques in Aleppo are numerous ; of
wliich leven or eight are reckoned magnificent, thougli none
have more than a fingle minaret, or II .eple, whence the
people are fuiumoned to prayers. Thefe minarets were firll
annexed to the mofques, as it is faid, by Al Walecd, who
fuceeeded to the Caliphate, in the b6th year of the Hegira.
Into tliele luolques none but Modems arc permitted to
enter ; and at Aleppo, it is only one of thein into the court-
yard of which Jews and Chriftians arc allowed admiliion.
The public edilices, next in importance to the mofques, ai-e
the Khanes, or Car avansari Ks, intended principally for
the accommodation of ftrangers, and partlv as warehoufes
for goods. The Bazars, or Markets, are lofty ftone edi-
fices, arranged in the form of a long gallerv, arched above
or roofed with wood. Of thefe the principal are fituated
clofe to one another, in that part of the city that is con-
tiguous to the great khaiie ; and others are diftributed
through feveral parts of the town, and the fuburh called
Bankufa, where the corn-market is kept. The ftrects, in
which are Ihops, for the neceflarics of life, are alfo called
bazars, and they are dctended from the fun by mats fpread
on wooden rafters, projefting from each fide. The bazar
gates are regularly Ihut at fun-fet, and watchmen, provided
with a pole and a lamp, are ftationtd for the night within
them. Thefe gates are fecured merely by wooden locks and
keys. There arc alfo gates and watchmen in the principal
ftrects, and by thefe the town is fecured irom nocturnal
brawls and depredations. The natives, who arc habitually
fober and regular, retii-e to their habitations at an early
hour, and the dread of being carried by the patrol to the
Seraglio, rcilraiiis the moil riotous from drunken frolics.
The public baths, or hummums, do not contribute much to
the embclliniment of the citv, as their" fronts to the ftreet
are veiy iimple ; but the coff^ec-houfes, which are fpacious
and handfome, and difperfed through all quarters of the
town, attraft the notice of ftrangers. They are gaudily
painted, and furni'hed with matted platforms and benches ;
and tliofe of the better fort have a fountain in the middle,
with a gallery for muficians. At certain hours of the day
the coffee-houfes are full of company, though they arc not
frequented by pcrfons of the firft rank. The dwelling-houfes
of Aleppo comprtheiid the-leraglios, or pal ices, the hoiiles
of the opulent merchants, and the habitations of the mid-
dling and ordinaiy people. The leraglio,in which the Bafiiaw
of Aleppo ufually refides, is fituated near the caftle, and is
a very ancient and extcnfive Ijuilding, furrounded by a ftrong
and lofty wall. The gates of this edifice lead to feveral in-
terior courts, which are deftincd for barracks, ftables, an
hippodrome, and various other offices. The principal builJ-
4 G utjr

ALE

in" contains apartments for l!ie bafliaw, his harem, hoiilhold
olScers, and paj,'cs. It confids of tiiree courts, one of
» hicli is the divan, where the bafliaw gives public audience.
The whole of ihis building is much neglei^cd, and if it had
not been originally a very fubftantial edifice, it would long
ai-o have been in ruins. There are five or fix other fcraglios
D? more modern date, that are much fmaller, well built, and
gaudily decoi-atcd ; they were erefted at different periods by
Former bafhaws, and belong to their heirs. They are now
occalioiiallv let to fuch govcriiors as do not chufc to refide
in the old fcraglio, and to other officers of the Porte, who
vlfit Aleppo on public bufinefs. Other buildings, con-
ftrufted on the fame plan with thcfe, though not deno-
minated feraglios, arc occupied by the principal agas and
effcndees.

The roofs ofall thehoufci.thofe that have domes excepted,
are flat, and plallered with a compofition of mortar, tai-,
afhes and fand, which in time becomes very hard. Thcfe
flat roofs, or terraces, are feparaH d by party walls, and moll
of the natives fleep on them in the fummer. The Franks,
who live near one another, have doors of communication,
and by means of their own and the bazar terraces, can make
a large circuit without defcending into the ftreet. The na-
tives have no intereourfe by the terrace, and guard by high
*al!s againll being overlooked.

To the lower clafs of ftrangers, as Arabs, Kurds, and
other Turks- of foreign extraftion, and Armenian Chriftians,
there is appropriated a kind of accommodation, called Kei-
faria, which is a large area, furrounded by a number of
mean, low houfes, each confifling of two or three rooms.
Other buildings, in the form of a clofe or court, allotted to
weaving and other manufaftories, are called by the lame
name.

The caflle of Aleppo is deemed, by the natives, abfo-
lutely impregnable ; but its walls and turrets are in fo bad
a flate, that a few cannon would foon demolifli them. It is,
however, of importance as a magazine for military ftores in
times of war with Pcrfia, for the awe of the city, and an
afylum to the magiflrates in cafe of infurredtion ; as a prifon
for flate criminals, and a place of execution for the Janiza-
ries, when condeinned to die. The Aga of the caftle is im-
mediately de-pendent upon the Porte, and fubjeft, only in
certain cafes, to the bafliaw. He commands a numerous
garrifon ; and the private men, with their families, lodge in
the caftle.

The fuel ufed at Aleppo is wood and charcoal ; and that
*'hich is employed in heating the bagnios renders them a
public nuifanee. This confilts chiefly of the dung of animals,
the filth of llables, and the pairings of fruit, which, both in
drying and burning, are very cffenfive. Cow dung is feldom
ufed in the city, but by the Arabs and peafants it is ufed
not O'.ily as fuel, but for forming a kind of flat pan in which
they fry their eggs. Camel and theep's dung with brufh-
wood, or the ftalks of fuch plants as grow in the Defert, are
the common fuel. At Aleppo, in one of the fuburbs called
Mafhirka, they have a glafs manufaftory, and a tannery to
the fouth-wefl of the town near the river. Their flaughter-
houfes are fituated in an aiiy field, in the (l-;irts of the
fuburbs, towards Baukufa, and their principal flefh market
is in the fuburb called lideida. They have fevcral lime-kilns
near the walls, "on the fouth-v.'efl of the cily, and a manu-
faftory of catgut half a mile to the fouth, which occafionally
emits a very offenfive flench. Within the waUs, they have
•only one public burial ground befides fevcral private ceme-
teries ; but without the walls the burial grounds are of
v.jds txtcnt round the town, and the white tomb* ar.d grave

ALE

ftones, viewed at a dillance, add to the rocky flerik appear-
ance of the country.

The city is fujiplied with water by means of an aqucduft
from two fprings, at the dillance of about eight miles to the
north. Tills aquedudl, which is faid to be coeval with the
city, was repaired by the emprefs Helena, the mother of
Conllantinc, and again repalied and enlarged by the fon
of LSaladiii, in 1218. It fupplics with water a range
of gardens, formed on its banks, and called the gardens of
BabuUah, which is the name of an adjoining village, and
the water is diftributed through the grounds by means of
fmall interfeifting channels dug in the eaith ; and regulations
are eftabliflied for its communication in due proportion to
difTeient perfons. This traft of gardens extends about la
miles, and generally belongs to fomc effendee or aga, pof-
fefiir.g fufficicnt authority for the proteftion of his tenants,
or forms a part of fome religious etlate. The whole extent
of thefc gardens is fubdivided into fquare or oblong fields,
bordered with dwarf trees, flowering Ihrubs, and taller trees,
fuch as the plane, weeping willow, afli, and white poplar.
Within thcfe inclofures are cultivated mad-apples, melons,
and cucumbers, with a variety of efculent roots, cabbages
and greens for the kitchen ; in others, cotton, tobacco, fe-
famum, pahna chrifli, and lucern ; and fome are town with
barley, which is ufed in the fpring as green fodder for the
horfes. Among thefe inclofures are large plantations of
pomegranate, plum and cherry trees, and fometlines groves,
compoted of the various fruit trees W'hich the country pro-
duces. The gardens,thofe of BabuUah excepted, are fupplled
from the river by means of Perfian wheels. In moft of the
gardens, there are fummer-houfes, furnifhed -viMth fountains,
and with kiofl-cs, or a kind of balconies, projefting over the
river. The Aleppo gardens are fpokeu of with rapture by
the natives. They lupply the city with greens.and fruits,
and contribute both to the health and amufement of the
inhabitants, by affording fcope for exercife and a pure
air.

In the vicinity of the city are many cxtenfive quarries,
which afford a gritty Hone, when firfl dug eafily cut and in-
durated by expofure to the air ; and the more ancient of
thefe quarries have fubterrancous excavations of great length,
which ferve the Bedoween Arabs for winter habitations, as
ftables for the camels, and as dens of debauchery to the Ja-
nizaries. The marble of Aleppo is of a yello-wifh colour,
but by rubbing it with oil and expofing it to the moderate
heat of an oven, it is made to refemble the red marble of
Damafcus. Aleppo is fupplied with fait from an extenfive
plain at the diflance of about 18 miles, called the valley of
fait, or fait lake.

Aleppo, though encompaffed by bills, is well ventilated,
and enjoys a pure penetrating air, which is reckoned fo fa-
lubrioiis, that from the end of May to the middle of Sep-
tember, the inhabitants are accuftomed to fleep expofed in
their terraces, without receiving any injury. The fpring
here commences early in February, when the fields are co-
vered with an agreeable verdure ; the almond tree bloffoms
about the middle of the month, and is foon followed by the
apricot, peach and plum. Early in May the corn begins to
be yellow ; and a few weeks bring on the hai-vefl, and when
the grain has been plucked \\p by the roots, the whole country
bears a parched and barren afpeft. Some fliowers commonly
fall in the beginning of June ; but from the middle of this
month to the middle of September, it is extraordinary to
fee any rain. The heat of July and Augutl is mitigated by
the weflerly breezes ; but when thefe fail, the weather be-
comes extremely hot. When the wind blows from the north,

north-wtft>

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nortli-wcft, ea!V, nort'i-"aft, or foutli-eafl, the lica* is ex-
tremely opprcffivc, and tlie .-".ir is dry and fcorching, as if it
proccc<Ld from an oven. Tlie eyes, lips, and uoftrils are
parch.-d, and it produces a lafiitiide, attended with an op-
prefiion at the bread, of wliich the natives are not k-ls fen-
iible than the Europeans. It is iifir.il to exclude thefc hot
winds by fliutting the doors and windows. Tliey do not,
however, occur every year, nor do they produce Inch fatal
effeiV. as the defeit wind, named Simoolv. At the end of
Auguil tlie Nile clouds, as they arc called, make their ap-
pearance, and are often attended witli dew. About the
autumnal equinox the air is refredied by (lioucrs, whicli are
termed the lirlt rains, and are ul'ually preceded by irregular
guils of wind that raife the dull in vortices. Thefe are fuc-
cceded in 20 or 30 days by the fecond rains, which are more
plentiful than the firil, and after them the weather becomes
variable and much cooler. The tranfition from the Autumn
to the Winter is flower tlian that from Spring to Summer.
The trees retain their leaves till the beginniiig of December,
and the moll delicate perfons have no lires till the middle of
this month. The rigour of winter commences about the
middle of December, and lalls forty days ; but though there
is almoll always fome frofl; in winter, many years pafs without
fnow. The narcjfTus is in flower during the grcatell part of
the winter, and violets and hyacinths are plentiful in January.
Although violent ftorms of wind are rare at Aleppo, fqualls
accompanied vrith heavy (liowers, and fometimes with tiiun-
der, are frequent in the Spring and Autumn. Lightning,
imaccompanied with thunder, is frequently feen in the night
during the months of September and Odlober ; and it is
fometimes feen in Summer ; but the nofturnal (ky, in the
hot months, is almoft always ferene, exhibiting a glorious
fceneto the aftronomer, who may indulge his ftudy, and at
the fame time enjoy the cool air on the terrace. There are
few years in which earthquakes do not occur at Aleppo ;
but they are generally flight and do no injui-y.

The nature of the foil near Aleppo has been already
mentioned : Jn the more diftant plains, it confifts of a reddilh,
fometimes of a blackifh, light mould, and produces the fruits
of the earth in great abundance. The fields near the city
yield, in confequence of much manure, two or three crops
of different kinds ever)' year ; but without manure, they are
fown only once a year with different forts of grain alter-
nately, but are feldom fuffered to remain fallow. They
begin to plough in September ; and the plough is drawn by
one or two fmall cows, or by a (ingle afs, in furrows fo
ftraight, that one would imagine a hne mull have been ufed
in tracing them. They fow wheat, barle)-, lentils, chiches,
beans, chichling, fmall vetch, a fmall green kidney bean,
and Indian millet. The earliefl wheat is fown about the
middle of October, and barley fo late as the end of Fe-
bruary. They feldom ufe the harrow ; the grain being co-
vered by repafllng the plough along the edge of the fnnow; in
fandy foil, they fow firfl, and tlien plough. The barley harveft
commences in May, about 10 or 14 days before that of the
wheat, and early in June corn of every kind is taken off
the ground. Amongfl the reapers in Syria, a cuftom prevails
of accofting apaffmg traveller and prefentingto him a handful
of corn, with a general (hout ; and a fmall prefent is cx-
pcfted in return. The corn, when reaped, is carried on
aTes to the fummit of the neareft hill, and being laid on hard
even ground, it is feparated from the cl.-aff, not by tlirefhing,
but by means of a fledge fixed on two or three rollers, and
armed with feveral iron rings, with ferrated edges, fo fharp
as to cut the draw. This macliine is drawn by oxen, mules,
or alTes, and driven by a man feated on the fledge, and as it

ALE

pafTcs circularly over the corn fpread beneath, the grain, by
repeated operation, is trodden out, whflethe Iti-aw is chopped
by the iron rings. The chaff and briiifcd fpikcu are then
feparated from the gi'iin, by throwing up the whole into
the air with wo>den fljovels, when the wind blows mode-
rately. The fpikcs that have been imperfeflly trodden arr
afjaiii fubinifted to the fledge. When the grain has been
afterwards more perfectly winnowed and feparated from lite
ftrjw, it is thrown together in a large heap, and is then di-
vided in a llipulated proportion between the hulhandmaii
and the landlord. The cattle em|)loyed in the harvcll are
left unmuzzled at the heap, as the Scripture mentions. See
L.owth's Com. on Ifaiah, ch. xxviii. v. 27. z8. Notes, p.
130. The grain is then removed to granaries, which are
fubterraneous grottoes, with one round opening at top,
which, when the maga/.ine is full, is (hut clofe and co-
vered with earth, and thus completely concealed from the
enemy. Tlie corn is chiefly ground in mills wrought by
mules, though there are fome water-mills upon the nver
Kowick, and among the lower people by hand-mills. Wind-
mills are unknown.

The olives produced at Aleppo refcmble the SpanifR
olives, but are not fo large, and the annual prodtice
of them is inconllderable. The city is fupplicd wjth oil
from other parts, and particularly from Edlib and adjacent
villages, where the olive plantations are more extenfive.
"Ijarge quantities arc employed in making foap, and theaflio
employed in this manufacture are brought from the Defcrt
by the Arabs. The gardens afford feveral varieties of grapes ;
thofe that are ripe appear in the market in September, but
the vintage is not at its height till the middle of November.
The dried fruit of the vine affords part of the food of th;
inhabitants ; it is eaten with bread and ufed in flierbets ; a
large quantity of raifins is alfo confumed in the diftillerv,
carried on both by Turks and Chriflians. Ani-
feed is added in the diftillation, and the fpirit, which is
very ftrong, is called araki. The infpiffated juice of the
grape is much ufed by the natives ; it is called ilibs, and
much refembles coarfe honey in appearance. It is brought
to town in goat flcins, and fcrves for the common people in-
flcad of honey. The piftachio tree is diligently cultivated,
and the nuts reckoned fuperior to thofe of any other part of
the world. Pliny (lib. xiii. c. 5. lib. xv. c. 24.) fays, that
piftachios were firll brought from Syria into Italy, by Lu-
cius Vitclhiis, in the reign of Tiberius ; and Galen fDe
Alim. I'acult. lib. ii. c. 30.) mentions Bercra as famous for
that fruit in his time, l^argc quantities are exported from
hence to Europe. The nuts of the wild ))iftachio are brought
to tpwn from the mountains ; the trte not growing near
Aleppo. The white m.nlbcri-)' is coinnion in the gardens,
and brought to market in May, and the fruit of the red
mulbeny, which is not ripe till two months later, is deh-
cious. Very little filk is made at Aleppo ; that wliich is
exported from hence to Europe, by way of Scauderoon, iit
chiefly the produce of Antioch and the adjacent mountaiiw,
or it is brought to Aleppo from placts more diftant. The
pomegranate is common in all the gardens, and is ripe to-
wards the end of Augufl. Tlie markets aj-e plentifully
fupplied with feveral varieties of i'gs ; but the middle fizcd
yellow fig is the moil ellecnied. Tlie gardens alfo produce
other fruits, as cherries, apricots, peaches, plums, apples,
pears, quinces, cornehan clien-)', almonds, walnuts, liazcl-
nuts, jujubes and fumacli ; the former ijf thefc two la(l bcir.g
much valued as a medicine, ai.d the latter as an ingredient in
cookerv. Oranges, lemons, and citrohs, were formerly pro-
duced in the orchards of Aleppo ; but as they are not no'.r
4 G 2 cultivated,

ALE

cultivated, it has been inferred from this circumftance.that the
winters in Syria art now more rijjorous than they were in for-
mer times, and this is the opinion cntcrlaintd by the natives.
Among tlic vegetables which form part of the diet ol the
iaiiabitants, the mad-apple (Solanum Mtjongena of Lin-
na-iis), of which there are three varieties, claims a principal
place. Their other efculenl vegetables, wc fliall not recite.
Of the vegetables produced in the fields without culture
there are capers, barrage, common mallow, forrel, dan-
delion, water crefi and truffles. Savor)- is much ufed to give
a rclifh to their bread.

The number of inhabitants at Aleppo has been computed
at 300,000 ; but Dr. RuiTell conjectures, that they do not
now exceed 235,000, of whom 200,000 are Turks, 30,000
ChriiHan.:, and 5000 Jews. M. d'Ameux (Mcmoires, torn.
vi. p. 4^4, Paris, 1 735.) m:ikes the whole number of houfes
and public buildings in i65?3 to amount to fomcwhat more
than 14,100, and the number of dwelling-houies 13,360.
From an account prcfened by Dr. Rufiell, and fuppoied to
be obtained from the office of the Mohafhl, the number of
houfes in i 752, amounted only to 10,742; to that, if thefe ac-
counts be jull, there had been a decreale from 1683 to 1752
of .2,628 houfes. M. Volncy obferves, that as this city is
not larger than Nantes or Marfcilles, and the houfes coiifilt
only of one ftor}-, it is not probable that the number of in-
habitants (hould exceed 100,000. The language univerfally
Qwken by the natives is the vulgar Arabic ; and the Turkilh,
which is fpokcH by people of condition, and which is the
court language uftd in the feraglio, is laid to be corrupted
by the cpncourfe of ilrangers from the northern provinces.
The people are generally of a middle llature, rather meagre
than corpulent, and neither vigorous nor aftive. Their
complexion is naturally fair, their hair black, or of a dark
chefnut colour, and their eyes for the moll part black. The
females affeft to appear full and plump ; they ufe no ftays,
and wear their girdles very loofe. The men gird themielves
tightly with a broad belt, and a long (bawl cinfture. The
people that are expofed to the fun become fwarthy.

The men drefs in the long eaftern habit, and during fix
months in the year wear furs. Under the furs their garments
confiil of a filk or linen fliirt, and drawer.;, wide trowfers
of red cloth, to which are fewed focks of yellow leather,
ferving for breeches, ftockings, and within doors, for (hoes;
but in walking, they ufe flippers without heels. They alfo
wear a waiitcoat, called a kunbaz, that comes lower than
the knee, and a long veil reaching down to the heels, which
covers all, and is named a dulaman. Above the dulaman,
they have a long Perfian ihawl, and a belt under the waifl-
coat, and to this cincture they attach a fmall dagger or
knife, and with men of bufmefs it ferves to fuppoit a filver
ir.Ichorn. For an account of the turban, fee Tl'RB.\n.
i lie Abai is a filk, or camelot gown, with larc^e lleeves,
laced down the feams with a narrow gold lace, whrch is worn
in fummer inftt.ad of the kurk, or loofe gown trimmed with
furs. Abai is the name of the ordinaiy veftment of the
Arabs. The drefs of the ladies in many'refpefts refembles
tiiat of the men. But their dulaman and kunbaz fit clofer
to the fhape, and not folding over the bread, leave the neck
uncovered. Inftead of the coftly, long-haired furs of the
Dien, they ufe fable or ermine, and thev' are formed in a dif-
ferent fafhion. The ladies are fend of thick long hair ; and
their hcad-drefs, confilHng of a warm cloth cap, under
cotton and mufliii, which compofe the reft of the attire, is
much warmer than that of the men. They wear ear-rings,
» necklace, or collar, of gold, large clumfy gold bracelets,
CO tJic wiift and ankles, a ilring of zcchins clofe to the hair,

ALE

on the forehead, atid another, very long, acrofs the body in
the manner of b falh. Both fexes wear rings on the fingers,
and fome women wear them on the toes. The ufe of rouge
is very little known ; but the women tinge their fingers,
hands, feet and toes, of a duflcy red or yellow colour, by-
means of a pafte formed of the powdered leaves of henna
and water. See Alcanna. The hands and feet are after-
wards covered with another paile, compofed of flour and
water, with crude fal ammoniac and quickhme, which
changes the colour into a fort of black or very dark green.
They alfo tinge the infidc of the eye-lids with a powder,
callsd kohol. See Alcohol. The women apply another
compofition called khatat, to the eye-brows, wliich tinges
them of a fine black colour, and makes the hair fmooth and
gloffy. It is the cuftom with the men to let the beard grow,
after a certain age, or after performing the pilgrimage to
Mecca, and mucli pains are bellowed upon drcfling it ; but
many of the Turks wear whilkers only. Some conceal the
appearance of grey hair by tinging the beard with a black
or red dye ; the pratlice, however, is not deemed reputable,
and is not common. Perfons of both fexes ufe a variety of
perfumes, compofed of niuflc, fandal wood, and fpikenard,
which they few up in fmall bags and carry in the breaft
pockets. Women of every clafs, when they go abroad, wear
thin yellow boots, reaching up half the leg, and over thefe
yelTuw babooge or flippers, or n\ wet weather wooden clogs,
called kiibkal. They never appear in the flreels without
their veils. The ordinary Aleppo veil is a linen flieet, co-
vering the whole habit from head to foot, and concealing the
whole face, except one eye. The veils of the Chriilians and
Jewiih women, are formed of plain white callico, which the
Turkilh vvom^en checker with blue and red, and the Jewifh
v^'omen have one arm free, fomewhat in the manner oi the
Scots plaids.

As to the ordinary diet at Aleppo, it confifts of a con-
fiderable proportion of animal food, which is cut in fmaU
pieces and blended with rice, herbs, and ftrong fauces. The
lower people live moftly on rice, butter, milk, new cheefe,
greens and fummer fruits, with a very fmall proportion of
mutton. Their ordinary bread is formed into flat cakes,
and made of wheaten flour, not well fermented and ill baked.
Loaves of a fuperior quality are ftrcwed over with the feeds
of fefamum, or fennel flower. The Pilaw and Burgle
are common diflies. M. d'Arvicux remarks, that a greater
quantity of fruit is confuined at Aleppo, than in any three
cities in Europe of equal fize. The butter brought to
Aleppo is made of the milk of goats, cows, fhetp, and
buffaloes, and is c'lurncd in goat-lkins, and thus brought to
market. Coftcc, without fugar or milk, is in ufe among
people of all ranks ; this is drauk conftantly after meals, and
in all familiar vifits prefented with the pipe. It vj'as intro-
duced into Syria about the middle of the 1 6th century.
See Coffee. Tobacco is fmcakcd immoderately by all
the men, and by many of the wonr-.en. Their tobacco is
brought from different parts of Syria, particularly from
Latachia, and is much milder than the American. See
Tobacco. The tobaeco pipes are made of the twigs of
cherry-tree, almond, rofe or jafmine, dexteroufly ilraight-
ened and bored, in length from three to fix feet, and deco-
rated with filver or gilt ornaments, with mouth-pieces of
amber or ivory ; the bowl is made of reddifti clay and often
changed. See Kalian and Nargeeli. The praftice of
taking fnuff, though the Porte, about the year 1 760, granted
a monopoly for making and vending Rappee fnuff at Aleppo,
is much lels common than that of fmoaking. The cullom
of taking opium is held at Aleppo almoft equally fcandalous
2 with

A I. E

With that of drinking wine, nnd is praflifed by few openly,
except by perfons regardlds of their reputation. Tlie
bagnio, or humnium, is niucl> reforted to by perfons of both
fexes. The people of Aleppo in general lead a fcdentary
life. Dancing is not reckoned a genteel accompliflinunt for
people of condition, and even among tiie vulgar it is fcldom
praftiled, unlefs by fuch as make it tlieir trade. Chefs, and
a kind of baek-ganimon, which tiiey are faid to have learned
from tiic Perfians, are played by both I'cxes. They have two
other games unknown in England, called mankah and tab-
waduk. The former is played by two perfons, and the i'uc-
cels depends chiefly onmcmoiy and a readlnefs in counting.
The latter is a mixed game ; the movement of the pins on
the board being dctermincj by carting four fmall flat Hicks,
on one fuk' white and black on the other. Tliey are par-
ticularly detcrlbed by M. d'Arvieux and Niebuhr. The
Turks play merely for amufement ; gaming being prohibited
by the Koran. The natives of every denomination obferve
veiy reguku- hours. 'I'iicy rife with the fun, and are in bed
between nine and ten at night. The women never appear
in the ilreet after it is dark. The coffee-honfcs, as we have
before obferved, are not frequented by perfons of the firit
rank, but by all others indifcriminately. Tliev are tnter-
tatned by a band of mufic, a puppet-lhow, and a llory-teller.
The Alcppeens have, in general, a correct ear, and are fond
ot mufic. Ike inilrumental mutic is of two kinds ; martial
and loud, intended for the field, and the other lefs fonorous,
adapted to the chamber. A band of mufic, belonging to
the callk, Imaller than tliat of tlie bafliaw, performs regu-
larly twicer day from the battlements; and the baihaw's band
performs alio twice a day in tlie court of the feraglio. The
feails of the natives, who are frugal in tlieir domertic eco-
nomy, have every appearance of plenty and hofpitality ; and
all great entertainments are commonly attended by a fet of
buffoons, who are pardy muficians, and others, who for hire
aiuime the charaAer of profelfed jefters.

The firll clafs of the inhabitants of Aleppo confiRs of
Turks, comprehending all Mahometans, and they amoulK
according to Ruffell, to about 200,000. Thelc are a mixed
race, partly detcended from thofe who inliabited the city
before it was fubduedby the emperor Selim in 1516; paitly
fi-om fuch as came to fettle in the new conquell, and from
ethers drawn thither by commerce from mofl of the Otto-
man provinces. They are united under the fame government
and belong to the feft of Sonnites. The merchants at
Aleppo are numerous, and fome of them are clleemed opu-
lent. The trades are divided into different companies, under
their refpeftive mailers, or flieih? or flieiks. The mechanics
are, in general, induihious and frugal ; and the Alcppeens
poffefs the art of tent-making unrivalled ; the tents for the
fultan and great officers of the Porte being ufually made in
this city ; and inany hands are employed in the flk and
cotton manulaftures. The keifarias, or fmall mean houfes,
in the city and fuburbs, are inhabited by a canfiderable num-
ber of Arabs. Thcfe are called Bidowtens or Bldouins,
and the men are employed in various kinds of manual labour.

In the fuburbs of Aleppo there are many families of
Turkmans, who are a flout hardy people, cliielly employed
ia agriculture, or as camel drivers in the caravans ; and there
are alio a great number of Kurdeess, who are fimilarly
employed.

With regard to nuptial conlrafts and ceremonies at Alep-
po, they are fimilar to thofe generally obferved among the
Turks. When a matrimonial engagement is proicfted, the
propofal is intimated to the mother of the intended bride,
and the relations on both fides proceed to make the neceffary
inquiries. If the refult prove futisfactory, the young woman

ALE

is formally demanded of her parents by the father of the
young man. Subflitutes are tlien appointed to ftijjuljte the
neceffary conditions ; and thefe proxies adjull the Inni to be
paid to the bride's father, with other articles of the marriage
contract. When the money is paid, the ct)ntra<St is regularly
figned and lealed, and then the Cadi grants his licence for
the marriage. About ten days before the wedding, the bride
is invited by her female relations to the bagnio, and tltcre
file is entertained till the day preceding the marriage, when
they proceed to apply the henna. At Aleppo it iscuftomary
for the father of the bride to make i'ome addition to what is
paid by the bridegroom, and to lay it out for the benefit of
his daughter ; but among the Bidoween inhabitants and in
the villages, the father ufually retains a part of what he re-
ceived for his daughter ; and in this rcfpecl thty may be
faid to fell their dauj;htcrs. This cuflorn of purchafing
wives is pratfifed by aU llie oriental ChrilUaiis, as well as
the Turks, and appears from the facred writings, to have
been the ancient practice. Accordingly, among the Arabs,
daughters conflitute the riches of a family. On the nuptial
day, the women go in proceffion from the bridegroom's
houfe to fetch the bride, who is brought home aniidll the
acclamations of the women, accompanied by her mother,
and feveral other female relations. The procelTion is in the
day time, and at Aleppo, they do not carry tapers, as fome
travellers have reported. On their arrival in the houfe, the
remainder of the day is fpcnt in ftalling and mulic. When
the bride, covered with a veil of red gauze, and drefied in
her wedding garment, has been introduced to her hulhand,
the relations withdraw, and conlimie Ihiging and fealling till
morning ; and the nuptial I'ljoicings lall feveral days. The
mother for the moft part fuckh"; lier child, unlefs prevented
by incapacity, and the child is feldom kept at the breall lefs
than two years, fometimes three or four ; and the mother
often fuckles during the whole time of pregnancy. During
the firrt week the child is fwaddled, and then dreffcd iu
clothes which are more loofe and eafy ; and as foon as they
are able, they are left at liberty to crawl about on the carpet.
When children lan fupport themfelves, they are ul"iially car-
ried aibide on the flioulders ; and the expreffion ufed by
Ifaiah, ch. ]x. v. 4, upon which biihop I.owth comments
(Notes on Ifaiah, p. 258.), viz. S^f|5 ^'J is literally that
which is now ufed by the Arab women. The diflerencc of
carrying a chiltl in the bofom or on the flioulder, referred to
If. xhx. 22, and noticed by Harmer (Obf. on iScripture,
voL ii. p, i^if".), maybe owing to their different age, without
regard to lex.

In the funeral ceremonies prarlifdat Aleppo, the women
perform a confpicuous part. When a perfon is dangeroufly
ill, one or two fiieiks are employed to read portions of the
Koran, and to pray by the bed-iule. At the approach of
death, the attendants turn the face of the dying perfon
towards the keblah, that is, towards Mecca. When he
expires, the women in the chamber give the alarm, by
llirieking as if thty were diiliaftcd, and are foon joined by
all the other females in the harem. This conclaniation is
termed the Wulwaly, and is fo flirill as'to be heard, efpe-
ciallv in the night, at a prodigious dillancc. Sehultens in
hib Ceimmentary on Job x. 15, (torn. i. p. 278.), confiders
the Arabic lyiilwal as corref'pondiug to the Ilebrew 'p^*
and to the Greek oAoAt^u and a/.a?.i(x', and he fuppofes that
the former Greek word was applied in a joyful fenfe.
However, the Arabic wulwaly is aiipUcablc only to diftrtfs
and affiiftion, and feenis to have a greater alhnity to the
latter term than to the former, which was commonly ufed by
the Greeks on facred or joyful oecafi(ms. See Mark, v.
38. Plutarch refers to this practice in his account of Portia's

• fainting

ALE

' fair.ting on tlie day of Cxfar's death, when licr maids, ap-
prdienJiiig that (he was dead, wailed over her. (Biutus,
Oper. torn. i. 991.) We alfo learn from Cicero, (de legibus,
lib. li. opcr. torn iii. p. 221, cd. Olivet.), that the extrava-
gant exclamations of wciiieii atfunenils was prohibited by the
twelve tables. See Pr«fic>«:. In a few hours the corpfe
is prepared for interment by ablution, and by (lopping all
the natural palfages with cotton, fprinkling part? of it with
a powder compoled of fpikenard and other aromatic herbs,
and wrapping it np in a cotton winding-flieet. Over the
bier, at the head of which is fixed a batoon, on which tlie
man's turban, or the attire of the female head, is placed, is
thrown a black pall, and over this the bell wearing apparel
ut the deceafcd. The funeral proceffion is attended by
the acquaintance and kindred of the deccafed : a number of
tlie fliaiks, fome of whom inceffantly repeat Ullah, Ullah,
and others chant verfcs of the Koran ; and one perfon is
the chief mourner, who manifells her grief, real or htlitious,
by the moll extravagant and frantic cries and geftures. —
Other niourners are fometimes hired, who, at intervals, join
in the general wuKvaly. A funeral fervice is performed by
tlic imam in fome neighbouring mofque, and the corpfe is
then dcpofited in the grave, in a reclining poflure, with
the head to the well, and the face turned towards Mecca.
A handful of earth is then thrown by the imam, or ffieik,
after a funeral Icrvice, into the grave, which is alfo done
by others who (land near, and who at the fame time pro-
nounce a (hort benediclion ; after which the grave is iilled
up. The funeral fervice in ufe among the Kurdeens is veiy
laconic, and is as foUows : " If thou had taken away, thou
(lialt reftore ; if thou hall given, it (hall be reftored to thee ;
and if thou doubted this, thou (halt now be convinced."
The funeral fervice, recited by the iman at the grave, is as
follows : " O man ! from earth thou wad at (irll created,
and to the earth thou doft now return : this tranlitory
abode being the (irll Hep of thy progrefs to the manfions
of eternity. If, in thy aclions in life, thou had been bene-
ficent, God will pardon thy ti-anfgrefTions ; and if thou
hall not, dill the mercy of God has no bounds. But re-
member what thou didll profcfs in this world, that God is
thy Lord, and Mahommed thy prophet — and thy belief in
all the prophets and apodles, and that God's forgivenefs
is amply extended." The fepulehre is vifited by the near
relations on the third, feventh, and fortieth day after the
interment : they alfo celebrate the anniverfary : folemn
prayers are oflFered at the tomb for the repofe of the deceaf-
ed, and viftuals and money are didributed to the poor.
The tomb is bedr>;wed by the women, in their vifits, with
flowers and aromatic herbs ; and the wvdwaly is repeated.
The men make no alteration in their drefs as a mode of
tnourning ; but the women lay afide their jewels, drefs in
their plained garments, and wear on the head an embroi-
dered handkerchief of a duiky brick-dud colour. They com-
monly mourn i z months for a huftand, and fix for a father.

The governor of Aleppo is ufually a vizir balhaw, or a
badiaw with three tails ; though fometimes the province is
conferred on an inferior badiaw of two tails. He feldom
remains in of&ce for more than 1 2 months at a time, though
the office may be renewed in the fame perfon ; and indances
occur, in which he has been continued for feveral fuccelTive
years. The regular revenue of the bafhaw is barely fuffi-
cient to defray two-thirds of his annual expence, including
the fums which he is obliged to remit to Condantinople, in
•rder to fecure the intered of friends at the Porte. To
this circumdance is owing the nefarious praftice of making
avanias upon the people, or raifing money by falfe pre-
teijces, io order to fupply the deikiency. According to M.

ALE

d'Ai-vIeux, the bafhaw's regular falary was So,ooo dollar?,
or above 8,300/. of which .^5,000 is allowed for the main-
tenance of his troops, confiding of 4 or 5000 men. But by
extortions, prefeiits, and other means, they raife their revenue
to 200,000 dollars, or about 25,000/. In 1769, the reve-
nue of the badiaw fell Ihort. of 200,000 dollars, though
avanias were as common as ever. In 1783, Volney gives
nearly the fame account »vith d'Arvieux ; but he men-
tions an indance of one bad.aw, who, within 12 or 13
years, raifed, by extraordinary extortions, ih 15 months,
160,000/.

A cadi, or judge, appointed by the Porte for one year, ,
is fent annually from Condantinople, who brings with him
his principal oflicer. A deputy, called Naib, (its in the outer
court, to hear inferior caufes, while aftairs of moment are
decided by the cadi in jicrfon. There aro three or four
fubordliiate tribunals in diderent parts of the town, which
are farmed of the cadi by certain effendees, who, under
his authority, determine petty (uits ; but from thefe an ap-
peal lies to the fuperior court of the cadi, or tlie great Mali- '
kamy, which is the name of the old palace, where he re-
fides. The cadi has no edabliflicd falai-y ; but he finds
means to raife a handfome revenue, though not merely
from the legal perquifites of office, which, however, arc
ver)' confiderable. The mufti is nominated annually by '
the Porte ; and he gives a fitwa, or an opinion upon all
cafes that are laid before him ; for which his fee is little
more than a (hilling. The nakub, or chief of the (hereefs
or greenheads, is nominated at Condantinople, and either
annually confirmed, or changed. He judges in particular
cafes, and to his tribunal the fhereefs are amenable. The
mohalTil, formerly called difter-dar, is reckoned the fecond
perfon of the city in the civil line, and is ufually appointed
by the Divan, a temporary governor on the demile of the
bafhaw, till orders are received from the Porte. He is far-
mer-general of tire land-tax, the cudoms, and the capita-
tion-tax ; his influence is extenfive ; he is much courted by
the agas or land-renters, as well as by the merchants ; and
he lives fplendidly. Volney Hates the mohaffil's annual
farm at 40,000/. befides 4 or 5000/. which he is obliged to
pay to the officers at the Porte. The balhaw, mohalTil,
cadi, mufti, nakub, and fardar or aga of the janizaries
are, by their offices, members of the divan, or council.
The janizaries of Aleppo are modly perfons who live in a
domedie manner, in the exercife of their refpeftive trades.
They have no pay, but being enrolled in one of the odas or
chambers at Condantinople, they enjoy in time of peace
feveral privileges and exemptions. In war-time they are
liable to be called out, and are obliged to provide them-
felves with arms, and to march to the camp at their own
expence, as they receive no regular pay till they arrive there.
Out of thefe is formed a city guard, under the command
of the fardar, who holds his appointment from the janizary
aga of Condantinople. They have a peculiar drefs, and the
attendants of the fardar, when he appears abroad, as well
as hiinfelf, are dillinguilhed by particular turbans.

Thefe janizaries were formerly fubjeft to regular exercife
and difciphne ; but within the lad 60 or 80 years, fays
Volney, there no longer remains the (lighted trace of their j^
ancient good order. When the balhaw or pacha abufes his W
authority, they are always the fird to ereft the ilandard of
fedition. The Turkilh government revenges itfelf, it is true,
by ordering the mod aftive mutineers to be drangled ; but,
on the fird opportunity, the janizaries create other chiefs,
and affairs return to their ufual courfe. The pachas, thus
thwarted, have taken foreign foldiers into their fervice, who
have neither friends nor families in the country. Thefe are
7 ef

ALE

of two forts eavalrv and infantry. The cavaliy, who alone
n.erit tlie name of loldiers, alFiimc for this rtal'on the appt-l-
lation of Daoula or Deltti, and likcwift that of Ddibaihes
and Lawend, from wliencc we have formed I.eventi. Their
^rms are fhort fabrcs, pillols, nniflcets, and lances. They
wear a kind of ielt cap, nine or tea inclies iiigh, witliout
any projefting rim ; and tlieir faddlesare made in tlie Enghfn
n.anner. In the rell of their cloathing and accoutrements,
they refemble the Mamalukes. Indeed, they are more
like banditti than foldiers, and frequently aft as fuch. Al-
moil all the cavaliy in Syria arc Turkmans, Curds or Cara-
nianians, who, after excrcifmg th.e occupation of robbers in
their own country, feck employment and an afyliim near the
p..rfon ot the pacha ; and tiiey often lay wafte the country
and pillage the peafants by open furcc. The infantry are
a corps in every refpecl inferior to the former. Within the
laft 50 or 60 years, the peafants of Tunis, Algiers, and
Morocco, have, under the name of Mograbians, or Men of
the Welt, fought employment in Syria and Egypt ; and
they compofe the infantry of the pacha. Their whole ac-
cotitremtnts and baggage are confined to a rully fuxlock, a
large knife, a leathern bag, a cotton (liirt, a pair uf drawers,
a red cap, and fometimes (Uppers. Their pay is about los.
and lod. per month, out of which they furnlfli themfelves
with arms and cloalhing ; but they are maintained at the
expence of the pacha. The pay ot the cavalry is double,
belides whith eachhorfeman has his horfe and ration, which
is a meafure of chopped llraw and 15 pounds of barley a
day. Thefe troops are divided by bairaks or colours, con-
fiftingof about 10 men each, under the command of an aga,
who reduces their number in order to purloin their pay.
The fuperior agas tolerate this abufe, and the paclia over-
looks it for the lake of the emolument derived from this
fpecies of fraud.

On the demife of a badiaw, the mohaflil takes poffef-
fion of his effefts till a capugi-baHiaw, from Conllantinople,
comes to receive them in the name of the fultan. The
eitates of merchants, and of other private perfons, defcends
to the heirs, agreeably to eftablifhed laws, which allow a
certain portion only to be devifed by will, and the cadi is
fjppofed to fee ftritl: juftice done to the heirs. The pro-
perty of merchants, ftrangers, who die in the public khanes,
is fubjeft to the infpettion and care of the mohaflil, who
detains it till it is claimed by the legal heir.

Crimes of a capital kind are very rare at Aleppo. Tlie
iifual capital punifhments are hanging, beheading, ilrang-
ling, and impaling. Janizaries are itrangled, not with a
bow-ftring, but by a cord put round the neck, and then
twifted with a flick in the manner of a tourniquet. The
bodies of all who are executed remain for fome days ex-
pofed to public view. Theft is uncommon ; when it oc-
curs, it is fometimes punifhed by amputation of the hand,
but more commonly with the baftinado, which is performed
with rods about the fize of a fmall walking-ftick ; and this
is the ufual punifhment for offences of an inferior kind.
Banifhment to the ifland of Cyprus, and the maritime towns
of Syria, is chiefly employetl for removing turbulent mem-
bers from the city or the divan.

The agas are thofe who chiefly farm the lands ; and the
peafants are entitled to one-third of the produce, from
which are annually deducted a part of what may have been
advanced by the aga to ftock the farm, and alfo a certain
proportion of the avanias, that are from time to time im-
poftd on the villages. Thefe peafants are fimply clothed,
indifferently lodged, and live chiefly on coarfe bread, Icban,
or a preparation of milk, pulfe, barley and melons ; but
ftldom taile auiraal food. However, habit and ignorance

ALE

mitigate the rigour of their condition, which they bear
witii patience, exercifing out of the fcanty pittance of the
fruits of their labour, a fpirit of hofpitality.

The Europeans, or Franks, as tlicy are called, rcfiding
at Ahppo, are Englifh, French, Venetian, Dutch, and
Tufean, or Imperial fubjeds. The language in common
ufe is the Italian. The Englifh faftory confifts of a con-
ful and 10 merchants, a chaplain, chancellor, phyfician,
and an officer named a chanfe, who walks before the con-
ful, carrying a ilalT tipped with filver, and takis care of
all letters and difpatciies. The number of Englifh hoiifes
in 1772 was reduced to four, and in 1783 to two. There
are two druggomans or interpreters, Greek natives of
Aleppo, who fjjcak the Italian, but can feldom read or
write any other language, befides the Arabic and Turkilh.
They have fabrics from the /.e'Dnn/ company. Two ja-
nizaries are alfo kept in conllant pay, who attend at the
houfe of the conful, and walk before him when he goes
abroad. The French factory is more numerous than the
Englilh, each merchant having a clerk or writer, or a pcr-
fon under tlut title, who afterwards becomes a partner in
the lunife. The refidence of the French in the Levant
is limited to a certain numijcr of years, after they take
the name of fadors, or merchants ; and they are therefore
fcnt early in life from Marfeilles, under the denomination
of Scrivains, and they evade taking the name of faftor
after they have a fhare in the bufmefs, that they may pro-'
long their Hay in the countiy. The number of French
houfes of trade was reduced in 1772 to fix, or feven, the
number in 1783. The conful has his chancellor, chaufe,
and janizaries, and maintains the fame ftate with the Eng-
liflr conlul ; but he has precedence on all public audiences,
on account of the prior ellablilhment of the French factory
at Aleppo. Under the protetlion of the cohful are two
or three French furgeons, who praflife ph)-fic ; the drug-
gomans are French fubjedfs of the Levant, or native
Frenchmen. Befides the merchants, a number of French
fubjefts find their way here, and by intermarriage with the
native Chriitians, produce a half French race, called mezza
razza. There are four convents, under the protection of
the French conful. The Dutch conful, being the fole
perfon of that nation at Aleppo, excrcifes alfo the pro-
feflion of a merchant ; but the EngIKh and French con-
fuls are prohibited engaging, dlreftly or indireftly, in com-
merce. However, fince the year 1772, the Dutch conful
has regular appointments, without benefit of trade. The
Venetians were eilablifhcd at Aleppo before any other
European nations. For fevcral years preceding 17,1, the
Venetians had no conful, but they, as well as the Tufean?,
were under the proteftion of the French or the Englifh ;
but foon after 1754, a conful of their ov\-n nation came to
rcfide at Aleppo. The emperor appointed a conful there
in 1784, who was a rich Jew merchant, and who fliaved
his beard to affume the uniform and the fword : Rullia has
alio veiy lately fent one. The houfes of the Franks are
as commodious as their fituation in the khanes will admit ;
and their tables are well fupplied. Although they have
little or no focial intcrcourfc with the Turks, they live
together in harmony. The Englilh gentlemen keep ex-
cellent tiorfes, and ufnally take an airing every day ; in
the month of April they retire to the ganlens, in tlic vi-
cinity of Babullah, where they refide till towards the end
of May, coming to town for bufinefs in the morning, and
returning at night. The French natives at Aleppo are
equally protedled by government, and they enjoy confidcr-
ablc privileges. The confiilar houfes are refpefted as fanc-
tu.iries ; the officers of juftice cannot enter the houfes of

private

ALE

private mercTiants without pcrmifT.on ; the cuftom on pjoods
IS vcrj' favourably rated ; and in aU luits at tlie maikany
court, aboic the amount of an inconfiderable fum, they
have a rig;ht to decline the competency of tlie court, and
to remove the caufe to Conftantinople. In confcquence
of the regard publicity paid by the government to the
Europeans, they arc commonly treated with civility by
people of all ranks.

The Chridian inhabitants at Aleppo are faid by Ruflell
to amount to ;o,ooo ; of wiiith number the Greeks compofe
13,500 ; the Anncniarf; 67JO ; the Syrians 3750 ; and the
Maronites 3030 ; and the remainder confiils of llrangei-s, oc-
caftonally refide;it in the city- Each of the four Chriilian
nations has a church, and enjoys perfect toleration under
the Mohammedan government. The Greek nation was
once opulent and flourilhuig ; but it has long declined, and
is now reduced to a very low condition. This decline is
afcribcd partly to the decay of commerce, and principally
to the ccmteRs that have fnbfifted between thofe who ad-
here to the patriarch of the Greek church, and thofe who
acknowledge the fupremacy of the pope. The Greek
language is almoft obfolete at Aleppo. The Armenians
are divided into two parties, the orthodox and the fchiim-
atic ; betides their own language, they fpcak the Arabic
and Turkifli ; but their church fervice is performed m tlie
learned Armenian, which is duTerent from the language
vulgarly fpoken. The Syrians of Aleppo are moilly re-
conciled to the Romifli church. The Maronites are more
connected with the Franks than tlie other fects. They
acknowledge the firpremacv of the pope, and have added
many rites, borrowed from tlie church of Rome, to tlieir
own. l>ivine fervice is performed in Arabic. The native
Chriftians have no monalleries at Aleppo, but contribute
towards the fnpport of feveral in ancient Lebanon and
its vicinity. For the regulation of cxpcnces, and the
tranfaftion of bujintfs at the feraglio, each of the Chriilian
nations has a public agent or wakeel ; who, being elected
in an afTembly of the principal perfons oi the rdpeftive
nations, is confirmed in his office by the badiaw, and in-
verted by him with a pelice, as a mark of honour. The
turban, ufually worn by the Chriftians, differs fomewhat in
form trom that of the Turks, and the falii is bhie and
white Itriped ; their flippers are red, and their drefs is,
upon the whole, more plain. In their mode of eating,
they genei^lly imitate the Tiirks. Their women, when
they appear abroad, wear a veil of white linen, and keep
more at hoin« tliao the TurklPn ladies. They are estra-
vagant in the article of drefs, which vadies in fome cir-
rumrtances from tlw Turkifli falhion. They are more
formal in their addrefs, and their courtefy borders too
much on fenility- The men are generally rather fawning
than affable ; but thofe in eafy circumfbances are hofpitably
fecial. Thofe of them who have obtained protection,
under the appellation of honoraiT interpreters, are dillin-
guifhed by a peculiar furred cap and ydlow flippers.

The computed number of Jews at Aleppo, fays Ruffcll,
is about yooo. They have one fynagogiie, which poffcfTes a
MS of the Old 'J'eftament, which, as they pretend, is of high
antiquity. For its antiquity, they urge the concurrent tra-
dition of their rabbics, and their fuhiniflion to its authority in
difputed pafTages, and alCo a prayer at the end of it for
the prefervation of the temple ; from which they conclude,
that It mud have been written before the expedition of
Titus, their pniyers afterwards having been offered up
for the relloration, and not the prefervation of the temple
of Jerufalem. A fpccimen of this MS was examined by
Dr. Kennicott, who did not find fufficknt reafon for af-

A L E

cribing fucK high antiq\iity to it as the Jews do. Th^
Jews are diilinguidied by their violet-coloured babuoge'
and tlieir turban, which is lower than that of the Chrit-
tians. Few of thc*m apply cithei- to munufaftures, or to
manual trades : moll o£ them are bankers or merchants ;
the others are brokers, grocers or pedlars. The eftablifiied
banker of the feraglio is a Jew, and the private bankers
of moft of the grandees are likewife Jews. The Jews, arc
generally more iober than the Chriftians. The lower peo-
ple live chiefly on bread, pulfe, herbs, and roots, drcffed
with the expneiTcd oil of fefamum ; and they are of all
people the moil flovenly and dirty. Some of the women
are handfome, but the proportion of fuch is fmall. Their
head-drefs differs confiderably from that of the Turkitli
and Chriltian ladies; and is commonly richly decked wilii
pearls. Their boots and flippers are of a violet colour.
Their veil is white, and in the prefcnce of ftrangers tlicy
alwavs wear it. The chief prieil of the Jews is, by way
of eminence, called the Khakan ; arid the priefts are dii-
tinguilhcd from the other Jews by the fize and colour of
the turban, and by the long wide ileevts of their, outer
garments. The khakan excrcifes temporal as well as
fpiritual authority, and his decifions are generally more
refpeCtcd than thofe of the bifliop^are by the Chriilian^,
but his civil juril'diclion is very limited. .

Tlie ftate of literature at Aleppo is much degenerated
fiDm that of ancient times, when it was rc.ore refpecl-
able. There are indeed public day-fchools adjoining to
fome of the principal inofques, but their colleges fur ftu-
dents in advanced life are few in number, and poorly en-
couraged. They are m.ore properly feminaries of pcdantiy
and fuperftition than of fcience , and they are chiefly fi-e-
quented by the fcadious of the poorer clafs, who dedicate
themfelves to the fervice of the mofque. Grammar and
fchool-divinity are the fubjefts chiefly taught at college.
The cfFendees, who aflume an appearance of rcfjjcct tor
learning, have no liberal notion of icience. Aftronomy,
which was once a favourite ftudy among the Arabs, is at
prefent wholly negletled. Although they have books on
the fubjeft in their libraries and fome inftrumeiits, yet fo
little is known of the fcience at Aleppo, that a perfon who "
'is found capable of calculating eclipfes has, on this account,
the reputation of a moil profound atlronomer. Almanacks
are feldoni coiiftrufted at Aleppo, but are brought thither
from Conftantinople or Cairo. As to mathematical ftudles,
they are httle attended to by the modem Arabs ; nor
have Katural hiftoiy and the experimental part of philofo-
phy made any progreis amonglt them for feveral centuries.
Hulory is little regarded by the literati at Aleppo. Their
knowledge of diflant flates, and of the revolutions of em-
pire in the weflcrn world is very partial and imperfect ;
and even their own hiftorv, before the appearance of their
prophet, remains in great obfcurity. Their geographical
knowledge alfo lies within verj- narrow bounds ; nor have
they any good maps, except fuch as have been imported
from Europe. Superilition has banilhed painting from
Syria, and mufic, degraded by faftiion to a mercenary pro-
feffion, is rather tolerated than encouraged : poetiy, which
was formerly much cultivated among the Arabs, has very
perceptibly declined and languifhed ; fo that the modem
Aleppo bards never attempt any performance beyond a
dirge, a ballad, or an epigram. Although the medical
practitioners at Aleppo are numerous, their knowledge of
medicine is fuptrficial, perverted by prejudice, and accom-
panied with pedantic affectation, arrogance and obftinacy.
A very competent judge affirms their general praftice to
confill in fpccious trifling. Their knowledge of anatomy

is

ALE

ALE

IS acquired by reaiiing, ,iiid not from JifTei5\ion ; and both
anatomy and phyfiology remain prccifcly in the ftattf in
mhich they were tranlTiiittcJ by Galen. Their ignorance
of the circulation of the blood leaves them quietly in pof-
feffion of the ancient dodriiics, which were held facred
before that important difcovery. With a copious Materia
Medica, and a large colleftion of conipinuul remedies,
their praftice is confined to a few oflioinal preparations.
The precious ftoncs, pearls, bizoar, and leaf gold are in
high eileem. The principal cordials are the confections
of All.'ermcs and Hyacinln. The few chemical prepara-
tions that are in nfe are brought from Conftantinople, and
the Aleppo pharmacy is chiefly confined to the diilillation
of fuTiple waters, and the preparations of fyrups, conferves
and decoctions ; for fpirituous waters, tinfturcs and elixirs
are profcribed by the law of Mohammed. Some few in-
dividuals, however, are to be found, who are not only
more learned, but in their practice fagacioits, active and
rational ; and who, allowing for the difadvantages under
■which they labour, are entitled to merit in their prcfcffion.
Surgeiy is lefs cultivated than phyfic.

Of the quadrujjeds found in Aleppo and its vicinity,
we may mention two varieties of the cow, buffaloes, two
varieties of flieep, as many of the goat ; wild hogs, ga-
zelles or antelopes ; two forts of hare, the hedge-hog, the
jerboa ; four varieties of the camel ; three varieties of the
afs ; various breeds of mules, iwifes, dogs, cats, varieties
of mice, the mole, two varieties of bats, foxes and wolves ;
an animal called the flieeb, the hysna, the lynx, and the
panther. The markets of Aleppo are pkntihilJy fupplied
with poultry ; the cock and hen, turkeys, geefe, ducks
and pigeons. They have alfo abundance of game in the
different feafons, 8:c. Dr. RuflTell has given an ample cata-
logue of the ornithology of Aleppo. The confpicuous
fituation of Aleppo brings thither a great number of fea-
birds, and affords the curious a fingular amufement. If,
from the terraces after dinner, a motion be made of throw-
ing bread, numerous flocks of birds, which were floating
in the air, at a height which rendered them invifible, will
defcend and fly about the place: having been accuftomed
to receive morfels of bread which have been fcattcrcd for
amufement. For an account of the carrier pigeons of
Aleppo, fee cxkrizk J,i^eon.

Tlie river Kovvick fupplics feveral fpecies and varieties
of fiih ; but it does not afford a fufTicient quantity for the
Aleppo markets : fo that the Chriflians, in their great lents,
are fupplied from the rivers Orontes and Euphrates, from
the lake of Antioch, and aH'o from another lake near Ma-
rafh. Amongft the reptiles, we might enumerate the frogs,
vhich abound on the banks of the Kowick, and from the
croaking of which it is faid to have derived its name.
Thefc are of a large fize, and fo dehcious, that fome
European epicures have declared it was almoft worth while
to make a journey to Syria, for the fole purpofe of re-
gahng on them. Tlic Kowick alfo fiirnifhcs a particular
kind of crab, (cancer fluviatilii') which is much efleemed.
This river likewife affords tortoifes in abundance. The
fdk-worm is a mofl material objeft to Syr'ji, being the
chief fource of its commerce with Europe. The bee is
alfo of great importance, on account of the confnmption
cf honey and wax. Among the noxious animals, the
frorpion is the principal. The fcolopendra, fnakcs and
ferpents, are found in Aleppo and its vicinity. Few houfes
are exempt from bugs, fleas, and mufquetoes. The com-
mon fiy and horfe fly are troublefome ; but of the infeft
tribes, the locuft is the moft dreadful in ^ts depredation :
this fets all the dcfcnfive ai-ts of man at defiance ; and dc-

VOL. I.

flroys, in a few days, the beautiful verdMre of extenfive
trails of cultivated country. Dr. Raffcll has given a ca-
talogue of the reptiles, feri>entii, infefts, and wofrnj that
are found in this country, and alfo a catalogue of Aleppo
plants, with appofite remarks.

The epidemical difeafcs mofl prevalent in Aleppo are
continual f-vers, iutcrmitleul and lemiltent fevers, regular
and anomalous^ cnatic fevers, commonly attended with
diarrheta ; the dyfenteiy, quinly, pleurify, peripneumony,
rheumatifm and ophthalmia. The fporadic and chronic
d'ieafes are, with few exceptions, nearly the fame as in
Britain. Thofe which are mofl common at Aleppo, aie
pulmonaiy complaints, fpitting of blood, and confump-
tions, obllniiflions of the abdomuial vifcera, cachexy,
jaundice, dropfy, inguinal ruptures, the lixmorrhoids and
worms. The tinea is common, and various other cu-
taneous eruptions ; hut the true or confirmed leprofy is
now become; obfoletc in Syria. The vcuercal difcafc i*
alfo' very common in this country. The Europeans foon
after their arrival at Aleppo are fubjedl to a fever, whicU
has been dillinguiflied by the name of I'oca, or goofe. The
difcafc attacks but once ; and the Englifli are rather more
liable to it than the ProveiKjals and Italians. Tlie natives
of Aleppo and European ftrangers, after fome rcfidcncf
here, are fubjeft to a fingular kind of cn:ption ; which,
from the fuppofed time of its duration, is denominated the
botch of a year, or the ring-worm or pimple of Aleppo ;
but by the Europeans and Tiuks, il mal d'Aleppo, the
Aleppo evil, and the Aleppo ulcer. No part of the
body or limbs is exempt from this eruption, but it mod
commonly fixes on the face and leaves a fear, with which
almoft all the inhabitants are disfigured. Volncy fufpcfts
that it proceeds from the quality of the water. Dr.
Ruffell has particularly dcfcribed it ; and he obferves, that
the mercurial plafter was the mofl; cfhcpcious remedy. The
moft calamitous and deilruclive difcafe to which Aleppo
and its vicinity have been fubjeft is the plague. The
means which are praftifcd by the Europeans for their prc-
fervation, confiil either in a retreat from the city, or in
fhutting thcnifelves up in their town-houfes, in fuch a
manner as effeftually to prevent all intercourfe or commu-
nication, by which the infcttion might be received from
without. Befides the common regulations adopted by the
Europeans at Aleppo, and which have the fanciiou of long
experience. Dr. Ruffell recommended fome further pre-
cautions, which we fliall here tranfcribc for the informa-
tion of thofe who have no accefs to his comprchcniive and
valuable work. The firft of thelc precautions is, in the
general regimen of life, to guard againil exceffcs of all
kinds, violent paffions of the mind, and immoderate evacu-
ations. 2. In refpecl to diet, not to hve more fpa-
ringly than at other times, nor to kffen the quantity of
wine : perhaps one or two gluffes extraordinary might ra-
ther be beneficial; and the free ufc of acid hquors (fuch
as very weak four punch) was, in the fummcr, found not
only grateful to the palate, but falutaiy. 3. Never to
venture abroad in the morning faftirig. 4. When in the
chamber of the fick, or in palling near a corpie, or any
thing fufpe61ed of infeftion, carefully to avoid fwallowing
the faliva ; and, at t!ie fame time, to brtstlic through the
double folds of a handkerchief molllentd with plain vi-
negar, or vinegar impregnated with rue. 5. To reflrain
inipiration as much as poffible, while employed in examin-
ing the pulfe, or fuch other circumflanceS of the fick as
require drawing clofe to the bed ; and upon coming out of
the chamber, to wafli the mouth, face and hands with vine-
gar. 6. On the return home, after vifiting the iuftfted, or
4 H pafTmg

ALE

pa/Iiiij through the Bazars, to undiffs and cxpofc the
clothes in the open air ; and before drtufling in frcfii clothes,
to wafh once more with vinegar. 7. The only prelcrvation
uffd internally, was a large dofc, twice a day, of extrart
of hark ; drinking after it a draupjht of wine and water,
aeidulattd witli elixir of vitriol. Thefc precantions, ob-
ferved by the Doftorhimlelf, were attended with l^c<.:efs.

Aleppo, nightly defended by the ruined walla and towers
of its ealUe, and expofcd to the appriiachcs of alfailants by
the rifing grounds that environ it, is a place ot no import-
unce in tin\c of war, tliongli it be the kev ot Syria to the
north : but, confidered as a commercial city, it is the em-
porium of Armenia, and the Diarbekir ; fends caravans to
Bagdad and into Perfia ; and communicates with tlie Per-
fian GuJf, and India by liafia, with Egypt and Mecca by
Damafcus, and with llnrope by Scanderoon or Alexan-
drttta and Latakia. Commerce is here principally carried
on by barter. The chief commodities arc raw- or fpun
cotton, coarfe linens, fabricated in the villages, filk Huffs,
manufaiftured in the city, copper, coarfe clollis like thole of
Rouen, goat's hair, brought from Natolia, tiie gall-nuts of
the Curdeftan, tiie merchandize of India, fuch as fliawls and
muflins, and piftachio nuts of the growth of the neighbour-
hood. The articles fupplied by Europe are the Langue-
doe cloths, cochineal, indigo, fugar, and fome other groce-
ries. The coffee of America, though prohibited, is intro-
duced, and ferves to mix with thai of Mocha. RufFell's
Natin-al Hiilory of Aleppo, 2 vols. 410. 1794, pafTim. —
Volney's Travels into Syria, &c. vol. ii. p. 1:19, &:c. For the
coins, weights, and nieai'ures of Aleppo, fee Syria.

Alfppo, old, now Kinnasrefn, the ruined remains of
the ancient Chalcis, of which there are veftiges of the
fotmdation of walls without a fmgle houfe Handing. This
ancient city furrendered on capitulation to the Saracens, in
the I7lh year of the Hegira, A. D. 630, foon after their
invafion of Syria.

Aleppo, Bashawlick or Pachalic of, one of the five
pachalies of Syria, is a province of great extent, reach-
ing ealhvard from the bay of Scanderoon to the banks of
the Euphrates, and from 40 miles north of the city, ex-
tending about 50 miles to the fouth call. But it is not
row nearly fo extenfive as it was in former times. Khillis,
which was formerly dependent on Aleppo, is erefted into a
diftinft province, on account of the frequent depredations
of the Kurdeens, who inhabit the neighbouring mountains ;
and fmce the year 1752 an alteration has taken place with
refpeft to Bylan, which, together with Caramoot, Scande-
roon, Byas, and the adjacent momitains, has been put under
the government of a native of Bylan, who for that purpofe
was created a bafliaw of two tails. At prefent the pacha-
lic on the north is bounded by the village Bailik, fituated
in the road to Aintab, eallward, by the Dcfert, Bab at the
diftance of ten hours eaft-north-eaft, and Haglah, about the
fame diftance to the fouth-fouth-eaft, being among the lall
inhabited villages : on the fouth it is bounded by the Great
DeferL, between the fkiits of which and the weft, or weft
north-weft, are fituated the moft fertile and populous parts
of the foreft. Sirmeen is the laft town fouthward ; and
Antioth, with its dependencies, may be reckoned the
veftem boundary, which, till a late period, reached to the
fea : Scanderoon and Byas being then the two frontier
maritime towns. About one half of the villages which ftood
formeriy on the books of the province, are faid to be to-
tally deferted. Many of the inhabitants of this mountain-
ous trad acknowledge fcarcely any authority but that of
their own chieftains ; and the champaign, in' many places,
is eithct dcfert, or only occupied tranfiently by the wander-

A L E

ing tribes of Turkmans, Begdelccs, and RuOiwans, from tlie
north, or by the Bidoweens and Chingana ; who, though
they pav an annual tribute, can hardly, in other relpecls,
be reckoned fubjefts of the province. The opprefiion of
the agas, the deftructive marches of the grandees thiough
the province, and the roving of the ruffian troops of Le-
vands out of pay, oblige the peafant tenants to remove ;
fo that vail tracts of the beautiful plains in the bafltawlick,
are fliamefuUy overrun with thiiUes, whilft the mountainous
parts, better fecured from opprcilion, are finely cultivated,
full of people, and prefent on every fide thriving haniUtsr

Such is the account given of this pachalic by Dr. RufTcH,
Vohiey defcribes it, as extending from the Euphrates to the
Mediterranean, between two lines, one drawik from Scan-
deroon to Beer, along tlie mountains, the other from Beles
to the fea by Mare and the bridge of Shogar, and as con-
fining of two plains, that of Anticch to the weft, and that of
Aleppo to the eaft : the north and lea coaft being occupied
by conliderably high mountains, known to the ancients by
the names of Araanus and Rhofus. The foil of this pa-
chalic is generally fat and loamy : the greateft part of the
lands lies wafte, and the traces of cultivation are fcarcely
difcernible in the environs of the towns and villages.

Thofe European merchants, who have refided at Aleppo
20 years, have witncfTed the depopulation of the greater-
part of the environs of the city. The traveller fees nothing
in this and other pachalies of Syria, but houfes in ruins,
ciilerns rendered ufelefs, and fields abandoned. Thofe who
cultivated them are fled into the towns where the population
is abforbed, and where the individual conceals himfclf
among the crow-d from the rapacious hand of defpotifm.
Its principal produce conlifts of wheat, barley, and cotton,
which are found in the flat country : in the mountains they
cultivate the vine, midberrv, olive, and fig-trees. The fides
of the hills, towards the fea-coaft, are appropriated to
tobacco, and the territory of Aleppo to piltachios. The
pafturage is abandoned to the wandering Turkmen and
Curds. For other particulars, fee the article of Aleppo.
Ruftell's Hill. vol. i. p. 314. 339. Volney's Travels, vol. ii.
p. 139, &c.

ALER, a river of Siberia, which joins the Atiga at AIe»
urika.

ALEREA, Ardantss-, in Ancient Geo^raph^, a city of
Gaul, belonging to the Bituriges Cubi, and placed by M.
d'Anville between Ernodurum and Argentoraagus.

ALERIA, a town of Corfica, fituated on an eminence in
the eaft fide of the illand, near the mouth of the river Ro-
tanus, according to Ptolemy. Herodotus (lib. i. c. 165..
p. 78.) mentions it under the name of Alalia, and fays it was
founded by the Phocaeans. Diodorus Siculus (lib. v. c. 1 3.
torn. i. p. 340.) calls it KaXaptf, Calaris, and fays that it was
built by the Phocsans. Sylla ellabliflied a colony in it, and,
on this account, has been reprefented as its founder. It is
now in ruins, and altogether abandoned on account of its un-
healthy fituation, though in former times it has been a confi-
derable city, and the fee of a bifhop.

ALERION, in Heraldry. See Allerion.

ALES, Alexander, in Biography, a divine of Augs.-
burg, was born at Edinburgh, April 23d, 1500, and having
raadeaconfiderable progrtfs in the fchool of divinity, engaged
in the controvcrfy of the day againft I,uther. He alfo took
a part in the difpute with Patrick Hamilton, and endeavoured
to profelyte him to the catholic religion ; but in the progrefs
of the conference, he himfelf began to entertain doubts,
which were increafed by the conftancy of this Scots martyr
at the ftakc. The perfecution he fuffered drove him into
Germany, where he was at length converted to the proteft-

ant

ALE

ALE

ant faith. Encouraged by the national change of religion,
which took place on the marriage of Henry VIII. with
Anna Bullen, lie removed to I^ondon in 1535 : and here he
was highly clleemedbyCranmcr, Latimer.andThomasCrom-
well. Wi'.en thefe favourites loft their interell at court,
Ales retired to Germany, and was appointed profeflbr of
divinity by the elector of Brandenburg, at Frankfort upon
the Oder, in l J-).0. Upon foine difguft he withdrew to
Leipfic, where he was ehofen profefTorof divinity, and where

he died in March i

}•>}■

He was much eftcemed bv Mc-

laiifihon, and is extolled by Cainerarins as a very great di-
vine, a fubtle dilputant, and a man of dillinguiflied wojth
and learning. He wrote Commentaries on the Goipel of St.
John, and the Epiftles to Timothv ; an Expofitiun of tlie
Pialms ; a Juftification againll Ofiander ; on the Trinity ;
and an Anfwer to the thirty-two Articles of the Louvain
X)ivines. Gen. Diifl.

ALESA, Aloesa, orHALESA, \n /Indent Geo^^npl.'Vf a
very ancient city of Sicily, built, according to Diodorus Si-
culns (lib. xiv. c. 16. torn. i. p. 651.), by Archonider. of
Herbita, about the 2d year of tlie 9-fth Olympiad, or 40^
years before Chrift. It llood, he fays, upon an eminence,
about eight ftadia from the fea ; near the place, as Fazellus
conjeftures, where the city of Caronia now ftands, on the
river Alxius, or Fiumi di Cafonia. The inhabitantr, were
called Alefini and Helefini, and, as Diodorus and Cicero in-
form us, were exempted by the Romans from taxes. Near
Alocfa was a fountain, which, as Solinus pretends, ufeu to
bubble up at the found of a flute, fo that it coold not be
kept within the b.ifon,

ALESBURY, mGeography. See Avlesburv.

ALESENI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Arabia,
■whom Strabo places in Babylonia towards the Perllan gulf.

ALESHAM, or Aylsham, in Gengraphy, a town of
England, in Norfolk, near the river Thyrn ; 12 miles north
from Norwich, and 121 north-north-ealt from I^ondon.

ALE.SIA, or, as it is fometimes written. Alexia, in
Ancient Geography., a confiderable town of Celtic Gaul, be-
longing to the Mandubii, iituated, according to Csefar,
(Bell. Gall. lib. vii. c. 6S.) on a high hill, walhed on two
fides by two rivers, and of fuch antiquity, that Diodonis Si-
culus (lib. V. c. 24. torn. i. p. ^49.) afcribes the building of
it to Hercules in his war againil Geryon. It was fo llrongly
fortified, that when Ca:farbcfieged and took it, Velleius Pa-
terculus reprefents the undertaking as more the work of
a god than of a man. After Cxiar deltroyed this city,
it was rebuilt, and maintained a confuleraljle rank imder
the Roman emperors. Pliny (H. N. tom. ii. p. 669.)
fays, that the art of filvering the ornaments of horfes was
invented in this city. It is f\ippol"ed to be the prefent Alife.
The mountain on which it Hood is faid to be Mount Auxois,
which is 150 toifes high, and the foot of it is wallied by two
rivers, viz. the Oze and the Ozerain.

ALESIAS, a village of Laconia, in the road from The-
rapnes to Taygetas, where, as Paufanias informs us (lib. iii.
Lacon. c. XX. p. 2fio. ), Myles, t:he fon of Lelex, firft
taught the art of grinding corn by a mill ; and where an he-
roic monument was erected to Latedoemon, the fon of Tay-
getas.

ALESIE^M, a towji of Greece, in the interior of the
country, at fome dU-lance fouth-eall from Elis.

ALESONE, in Geo^-jraphy, a town of European Tur-
key, :o miles north-well of Larifia.

AEESONNE, a town of France, in Languedoc, in the
generahtv of Touloufe and diocefe of Lavaur.

ALESSANDRIA. See Alexandria.

ALESSANO, a finull town and biSiof 's fce of Naples,

in Italy, in tlie diftriiSl of Otranto ; t2 miles foiith-foutli
wed of'Oti-into. N. lat. 40° 12'. E. long. 18° 14'.

ALESSI, Gaifaz/.o, in Biography, a famous arclif-
teft, was born at Perugia, in 15CO, and anivcd at fuch emi-
nence, that he wa'i applied to from France, Spain, and Ger-
many for plans of jniblic buildings. His plan for the monaf.
tery and church of the Efcuiial was preferred to lliofe of the
ablell architeds in Europe. Genoa has acquired the deno-
mination o( f:ipcrh, partly from the buildings which he has
eredVed in it. He died in 1572. Nouv. Dift. Hill.

ALESSIO, Am ssis, or Lissus, in C'ogmfihy, a tovrn
of European Turkey, in Albania, on the Adriatic gulf, near
the mouth of the Driii, and 16 leagues f(mth-weft of Alba-
nopolis. This is the fee of a bilbop, fuffragan of Durav.7.0 ;
and it is famous for having the tomb of Scandeiberg, king of
Albania, wlio died in 1467. N.lat. 41° 48'. E. long. 29'^ 29'.

ALESUS, in Ancient Geography. See Alfsa.

Alf.sus, Sanguinaria, a river of Italy, in Etruria.

ALET, Lat. Alecta or Electa, in Geograph, a
city of France, in the department of the Aude, and dillriot
of Limoux, fituate at the foot of the Pyrenees, on the ri-
ver Aude. Before the Revolution it was the fee of a bifhop,
fuflragan of Narbonne, and the diocefe contained 80 pa-
ridies. It is 15 leagues fouth-wcil of Narbonne, and 17J
fouth of Paris. N. lat. 42" 59'. E. long. 2° C.

ALETA, in Ancient Geography, a tow n of Dalmatia.

ALETON, fignihes meal, as Erotian and Hefychius ex-
plain it. It fecms derived from a.\'ii, to grinJ, and to import
the meal of any fort of corn. The word is frequently ufed by-
Hippocrates.

ALETRIS, formed from oAtTp'ua or aXm, to grinJ, in
Botany, a genus of the hexnndria monogynia clafs and order, of
the natural order o( li/ia or /i/iacea, the coronaritt of Linn, and
afphodeli of Juff. Its charadlers arc, that it has no calyx ;
that the corolla is one-pctalled, ovate-oblong, hexanguiar,
Ivmnel-fliaped, femifexiid, very much wrinkled, the divifion*
lanceolate, acuminate, fjjreading, ereft, and permanent ; the
{lamina have awl-(hnped filaments of the length of the co-
rolla, iiiftrted into the bale of the divilions, the anthers ob-
long and ereft ; the piflillum is an ovate germ, the llyle fu-
bulate, of the length of tlie ilamens, and (ligma trifid ; the
pericarpium is an ovate, three-cornered, acuminate, three-
celled capfule -, and the feeds are veiy many. ProfefTor Mar-
tyn enumerates eight, and Gmelin nine fpecies, -viz. \, A. /a-
rinofa, American A, ftemlels, leaves lanceolate, membra-
naceous, flowers alternate, which grows in North America,
and was cultivated here in i 76S, by Mr. Miller. The natives
frequently ufe it as a beehic and ineifive in coughs and in the
pleurify. 2. A. capenju, waved-leaved A, veltheimia of
Gleditteh, tleinlefs, leaves lanceolate waved, fpike ovate,
flowers nodding; a native of the Cape of Good Hope, flow-
ering with us from November to April, and brought here in
1768, by Mr. W. Malcolm. 3. A. glauca, ftemlcfs, leaves
lanceolate glaucous, flowers nodding witli a fjjreading bor-
der ; a native of the Cape of Good Hope, flowering in Ja-
nuary, and introduced in 1781, by Mr. G. Wynch. 4. A.
wraria, aloe uvaria of others, great orange-flowered A, ilem-
Icfs, fe.ipc longer than the fword-fliaped keeled leaves ; a na-
tive of the Cape of Good Hope, cultivated at Chelfea in
1 707, and flowering in Augufl and September in large fpikes
of a fine aj)pcaiancc. There is a variety with narrower leaves,
and longer fpikes of flowers. 5. A. ptimi/a, fmall orange-
flowered /\, ilemlcfs, fcape fliorter than the linear ftiai-ply-
keeled leaves ; a native of the Cape, introduced in 1774, and
flowering from September to November. '•. A. hvacin-
tholJe/, ilemlefs, leaves lanceolate, flefliy, flowers germinate ;
having tvro varieties, reckoned by LaMarck asdiftinft fpecies,

4 H 2 «(c.

ALU

vrs. A. afy/an.V/T, Ceylffi A. or aloe, with fomf of the leaves
fi/bulate and compn-flld j and A. .ji/'jicfn./'i) GuintraA. or
a!oc, w ith all the Icavts lanccclatc, of wiiich tht katu-'iiai^el
ot" Rliecd 13 coiiriikad Ijy La Marck as a variety . Thi. fiift
of thcfc is cornnnoii ia gnrdenr., wliere exotic plants arc prc-
fc!VLd ; tht I'.xond was cult ivatod hcic in 161,10 ; its flowers,
wliicU al'ccud its wUoli- kngth, are of aViear white-, but fcl-
dom continue in beauty more tl'.aii two or three days ; and it
never prodiico^ feeds in England. 7. tX.fra^riws, fweet-
fe-tntcd A, eaiilcfcent, le".ves lanceolate, loofc 5 feunj in
Africa, and cultivated in 1768 by Mr. Miller. 8. A. cc-
cilndfitjis, caulefrcnt, leaves lanceolate-linear, reflex, flowers
panidcd; cultivated in the gardens of Coclunehina, where it
is a native ; Uie jiiiee of the leaves are ufed to dye green, and
the flowers aie eaten. The eighth Ipccits of Gmelin is A.
jnfanica, ftemlcfs, with leaves peliolatcd, ovate-lanceolated,
'fevcn-ncrved, and fpiked flowers. The ninth fpecies is A.
ourfa. The fecond, third, fourth, and fifth fpecies are re-
ferred by WiUlenow to the genus ^''clt.ieiri:a.

Culture. T!ie firft fpecies may be preferred through the
winter under a hot-bed frame, 'i'he roots of the iceond fort
inuft be planted in pots filled inth light earth, and Iheltered
in winter in a dry airy glafs-cafe. In May they may be
placed abroad in a flitltered fitv.ation, and often refrelhed
with water in warm weather. I'he fourth fort is fufficiently
hardy ta live abroad in mild winters, when planted in a
warm border and dr)- foil. It is propagated by feeds, fown
in pots, and (heltered under a hot-iicd frame ; the plants,
when they come tip in fpring, flioiild be gradually expofed
to the open air ; and when they are large enough, fome may
be planted in pots, and others in a w.-irm border, where they
should be (heltered during the enfuing winter. The Ceylon,
Guinea, and fwect-fcented fpecies are too tender to live
through the winter in England, unlefs they are placed in a
warm ftovc ; and they will not produce their flowers, if the
plants are not plunged into a tan-bed. The creeping roots
of the Ceylon and Guinea forts fend up many heads, which
fhould be cut off in June, and, after having been laid in the
ftovc for a fortnight, that the wounded part may heal, they
fiiould be planted in fmall pots of light fandy earth, and
plunged into a moderate hot-bed of tanner's bark, giving
them but littli: water till they have put out good roots ;
they fhould then be treated like other tender fuccu-
lent plants, and be never fet abroad in fummer. The feventh
fpecies is eafily propagated from the fide heads, which it puts
out after flowering.

ALETUM, Guich-Alet, in j4ricient Geography, a
town of the Gauls, mentioned in the Notitia Imperii, and
placed by M. d'Anville upon the fea-coail, north-weft of the
teiTitory of the Rhcdonnes. It was formerly a bilhop's fee,
which, in the 1 2th century, was transferred to St. Malo,
about a mile from it.

ALEVAIA, in Geography, a river of Siberia, which
runs into the Penzinflvoi lea. N. lat. 62°. E. long. 157° 14'.
ALEURITES, AX'vftln.:, furinmeous, of aXa'po»,;nffl/, parts
of the tree having ameal fcattered over them, in i?o/i7njr,a genus
of the monoec'ia monac!elph':a clafs and order, of the aatural order
of tricoccit, and euphorbits of JufTieu ; the charafters of which
are, that the flowers are male and female : the calyx of the
male is a periauthium, three-cleft, very fhort, the clefts ovate
and obtufe ; the corolla has five petals, oblong, fpreading,
obtufe, much longer than tlie calyx ; tlie nedary has five
fcalts fomewhat cornered, very fliort, at the bafes of the pe-
tals ; the ftamens are numerous filaments, connate into a
conic columnar receptacle, the anthers roundifli. The female
flowers are few, in the fame corymb ; the calyx, corolla, and
ntftarium as in the male, but larger ; the piftillum has a
5

ALE

prrm c«nic fuperior, the ilyle none, the ftigmas two, very
(hovt ; the periearpium a large, globofe, tvs-o-feeded berry ;
tlic feeds arc two, globofe, coated with a double bark. There
i.i one l^iecies, -uk. A. trilol/a, which is a tree of the illaudi; of
the South Sea.

AI.EURCTMANCY, Aleuromantia, derived from
«>.f! pv, Mti!li and (xKvMix, i.'ivinrJ'wn, in j^iitiquity, is the fame
with what was otherwife called V\lphitomaiitia and Critho-
iirautia, and means an ancient kind of divination by means of
meal or flour.

ALEURSKA, in Geography, Vitovm of Siberia, at the con-
flux of the Agila and Aler, 64 miles north-eail of Nertcliinllc.
ALEUT1:VN, or Aleutsky Islands, a group or
chain of iflands, on the north-eaft of Kamtlchatka, and
near the continent of America, belonging to Afiatic Ruf-
fia. Thefe iflands were partly difcovered by Behrmg
ill 1 741, and the reft at feveral periods fuice his time.
I'he moil eonfiderable of them amount to 40 in num-
ber, and they may be juftly conildered as a branch of
the Kamtlkadale mountains continued in the fea. Some
have erroneoully included BEHRiNG's-;/7(znc/ and the Cop-
r tR-iJlntul \\\ this group ; but they are ufually diftinguilhed
from them. South-eaft of the Copper-ifland, within 150 or
200 verfts between the 54th and 55th degrees of north lati..
tudc, he three fmall iflands, known by the names of At-
TAK, Shemya, and Semitshi; and thtfe, with a few
others, were denominated by the Ruffians Alentilcie Oftro.
va, becaufe a bold rock, in the language of thefe parts, is-
Ci-Jled aleiit. In the fequel this name was extended to the
whole chain ; though a part of it, namely, as far as the
iiland Yamblak, is named the Andreanofskoi, andthereil,
lying further towards America, the Yox-'Jlands. The Ruf-
fian charts divide the long Archipelago, known under the
name of the Aleutian and Fox-illands, into feveral Archipela-
goes under different names. On thefe Aleutian iflands, and on.
upw.irds of 300 leagues of coaft, which extend beyond the
polar circle, the indefatigable Ruflianshave formed thofe nu-
nierous fettlements or fjiftories that iupport the fur-trade,
from which the empire of Ruffia derives fuch great advan-
tages in its commercial concerns, and exchanges with the em- j|
pire of China. This Archipelago, known, in the moft ex-
tenlive fenfe, by the collective name of the Aleutian-iflands,
forms with the noilh-weft coaft of America and the north-
eaft coaft of Afia a large bafin of about 1,200 leagues in
circuit, which communicates towards the fouth with the
great Boreal ocean, by as many ftraits as the iflands form
channels between them ; and towards the north, under the
66th parallel, with the Arftic Frozen Ocean, by Behring'S.
ftrait alone. The furvey of thefe iflands, more anciently dif-
covered by the Ruffians, and of the adjacent parti of the two
continents, was made by Captain Cook in his third voyage in
1778. If the RuflTians, then, can defervedly claim the prio-
rity of the difcovery, no one can withhold from the adven-
turous and perfevering Captain Cook the glory and the merit
of having fixed the dillance of the two continents, and their
refpeftive extent, to the eaft for Afia, and to the weft for
North America ; and, by his refeaiches and obfervations, of
having opened a career to the navigators of the European
nations, who fhould be defirous of availing themfelves of the
benefits which the difcovery of thefe coafts prefents to the
fpeculations and enterprifes of commerce. We fhall here add,
that in afcending towards the north-weft. Cook made Beh-
ring's Mount St. Elias towards the latitude of 60° 30'.
He anchored in alarge bay, which he named Prince Wil-
liam's found ; and thence fteering again to the fouth-wcft,
he difcovered and afcended a river, on which, after his death,
the gratitude of his nation impofed the name of Cook's

River.

ALE

ALE

RiTSR. He tlien coal^eJ the eaft fhorc of tlie peninfula of
Alaska, and touched at the i(l;iiid of Oonalaschka,
which is fcparateJ'from tlic fouth-wcil point ot" the peninfula
only by tiic iflund of Ooneemak ; thcfc two iflandi are tiie
nearclt to the continent, and the moil caileni of that Archi-
pelago, or long chain of itlaiids of various ii/.es, which ex-
tends from ealt to well, on a lir.e bending towards the fouth,
to within 350 leagues of the main land, if we confidcr Beh-
ring's ifl.ind as the extremity of the chain. (Japt. Cook ex-
tended Ills courfe into the north of Behiing's bafiu, and made
alternately the coalts of America and Alia ; in the former
lie perceived the outline of a large bay, which he called
Bristol bav ; and (landing toward the middle of the ba-
fin, he faw the Matweia ilTand of the Rufiians, which he
named Gore's island, and further to the northward he dif-
tinguifhed the iflands called Clf.rke's islands. To tlie
f all-iiorth-eaft of thefe, on the continent of America, he dil'-
covered Norton found ; he then pad'ed Behring's ilrait,
a:id advanced into the Arftic Frozen Ocean, as far as the pa-
rallel of 70° 44'. A plain of ice obllrudlcd his progrefs
nearer towards the pole. Here he might lay with the poet
Regnard, when he reached the northern rocks ot Lapland :

" Hie tandem ftetimus nobis iibi dcfuit orbis."

Prom comparing Cook's progrefs northwards with that of
Captain Phipps it appears, that the ocean is navigable much
further towards the north, between luirope and America,
than between America and Alia ; for Captain Phipps, in his
" Voyage to the North Pole," reached very near the 8 ill
parallel, whereas Captain Cook could not penetrate beyond
the latitude of 71° 10'. See Marchand's Voyage round the
World in 1790, 1791 and 1792, by Tleuricii. Vol i. Intro-
duftion partim. A Ruffi.ui expedition for making difcove-
rics in the north-eaft fea was propofed by Catherine II. in
1784, and the conduiS of it entrulled with Capt. Billings, an
Englifhman, Capt. Behring, the grandfon of the Behring
already mentioned, and fome others. After wintering at
Kamtfchatka, thefe navigators explored, in the fummer of
1790, the whole chain of the Aleutian iilands, which feem
to be of volcanic origin ; and they proceeded to explore the
large eallerii iflands explored by Capt. Cook, Oonalafchka
and Kadjak, the bay of Cape St. Elias, &c. and returned to
winter at Kamtfchatka. In the fummer of 1 791 they re-
newed their fearch for a northern paffage through the Fro-
zen Ocean, and purfued their route from Gore's and Clerke's
iflands to the continent of America. From the account of
their expedition, publiflted at Gottingen by Blumenbach,
we learn, that a principal ornament of the ladles of the Aleu-
tian iilands confills of a pair of the long tulks of a wild boar,
cut down to a fmallcr fize, which are ftuck into two holes,
one on each fide of the under lip, from which they projedt,
and give the wearer an appearance fimilar to that of the Wal-
rus ; and this is confidered as abeanty almoll irrefillibk-. In
thefe iflands, when they were firft difcovcred, more than 60
families were found, vvhofe language had no relation either to
that of Kamtfchatka, or to any of the oriental languages of
Afia ; it is a dialeft of the language fpokcn in the other
iflands adjacent to America, which ftems to indicate that
they have been peopled by the Americans, and not by the
Afiatics. They have no wood in thefe iflands bcfidcs that
which is floated to them by the fea, and this wood feems to
come from the fouth ; for the camphor-tree of Japan has
been found on the coafts of thefe iflands. The inhabitants
of thefe iflands are, in proportion to their dimenfions, tolera-
bly numerous, and they are at prefent tributary to the Ruf-
jian empire. See Yox-rJIanJi.

ALEXANDER the Great, in Biogiaj/Iiy zni jinc'uiti

Hifiory, was the fon of Philip, king of Macedon, by Olyin-
pi.is, daughter of Neoptokmus, who was fon of Alcetas,
king of Lpirus. He was born at Pc lla,the capital of Ma-
cedonia, in the firfl year of the io6th Olympiad, B. C. 356.
Hii natural difpofition, which is faid to have been excellent,
wTis betimes corrupted by the mercenary adulation of his lirik
preceptoi", Lylimachus, the Acarnanian ; and neither the
counlel and example of Leonidas, h.is mother's relation, nor
the inlhudUons of Arillotle, were fufiicient to counterat\ its
pernicious eftects. It was, howevci, a Angular advantage to
Alexander that he was placed \mder the tuition of this great
phiiofopher. Soon after his birth Philip wrote to Arillotle,
informing him, that he deligned to place this fon that was
jull born under his inilrutlion. " I return thanks to the
Gods," fays he, " not fo much for having given iiim to me,
as for his having been given during the life of Arillotle ;
and I may jullly promile inyielf, that you will make him a
hicceiior worthy of us both, and a king of Macedonia." Ac-
cordingly, at the proper feafoii, he invited his attention It
him by the ofler of a confiderable llipend, and he afterwards
recompenfed it by rebuilding Statnra, the native place of
Arillotle, wliich he had dellio) ed; reinilating tlie inhabitant*
who had fled from it, or who had been made llaves; and aflign-
ingthcma lincpark in itsvicinity fortheirlludiesand alTemblies.
The pupil lecms to have conceived an early and affuilioiiatte
attachment to his mailer, whom he thought hiinfclf bound to
love as much as if he had been his father ; and to this pur-
pofe he declared, " TJrat he was indebted to the one for
living, and to the other for living well." His progrefs ii
every kind of fcience correfponded to the natural talents
which he polfelfed, and to the dlllirigullhed attention and abi-
lities of his tutor. He devoted himl'elf with Angular affi-
duity to the lUidy of metuphyfies, mathematics, and morals ;
he was no lefs folicltous to be a mailer of rhetoric, both in
the theoi-y and praftice of it ; and to his fulicitude in this
refpeft we owe Ariflotle's treatife on rhetoric, which, with
a jealoufy altogether unbecoming a griat charai^er, he rc-
quelled the author not to communicate to any but himfelf.
His t;ule for clafllcal literature is hkev/lfe manifeft in the
very ardent elleem which he profelfed for Homer, whofe
poems he denominated, as Pliny (H. N. lib. vii. c. 29. torn. i.
p. 391.) informs us, " the moil precious prodiiftion of the
human mind." He particularly admired the Iliad, whicU
might probably contribute to give his mind a decided direc-
tion to military glory. The paflage, we are told, which
pleafedhlm mofl:, was that (II. iii. v. 172.) which repreferits
Agamemnon as " a good king and a brave warrior." He had
alfo a tade tor the arts in general ; he knew their import-
ance and utility ; and muhc, painting, fculpture, and archi-
tecture flourilhed in his reign, becaule thev found in him u
competent judge, and, as fome fay, a munificent piotcclor.
In hisexercifes he dillinguiftied the uleful from the fancifal ;
in his diverlions he declined whatever was \in:nanlv ; aiul in
his fludies he defpiled whatever was trivial or pedantic. In
early hfe he manifelled a genius and difpolition formed for
great and fplendid aflions. Emulation and ambition were
the predominant pallions both of his youthful and riper
years. When he converfcd with the Perfian ambaffadors at
his father's court, at the age of no more than fcven years,
the fubjecis of his enquiry were, not the palaces and retinue
of their king, but the charaAer and manners of their fove-
reign, the number and difclpline of his aiTny, the rohd that
led into Upper Afia, and " the number of days' march from
Macedonia to Sufa." When he was requelled to enter his
name among the Olympic competitors, he replied, " So I
would, if I were to have king', for antagonllls." On occa-
fion oJ his taming th« famous horfc Bucephalus, which none

uf

ALE

/^fV.ls fat'uer's grooms wo\:'.il ventuio to mount, Pliilip was
/■,! J.-HjWiteJ, that he laid to him, " My fun, i'eck a kingdom
j^ore wtfitliv of thee, for M.icedoii is below thy merit." Be-
iides the qii'alitios which wc iiavt recited, the youth of Alex-
ander was dillinguHhed by temperance, ciiaiUty, and lelf-
conuuand.

Hisuutifiil rcfpcelfor his mother, whom Philip divorced,
produced a difiigrccmcnt between him and hii tather ; and it
was increafi-d by a fiifpicion, which they entertained, that he
would be dirmlieritcd, and one of Philip's children, by ano-
ther wife, prefen^d to him. However, before this period,
when he wa^ |6 years of age, he was appointed regent ot
Macedonia durinjr his father's abfence ; and his condiid ma-
nifelled fuch prudence and bravery, that he was aftenvards
employed in feveral military enterprifes, in which he behaved
with great honour to hiiufclf, and fingular fatisfac\ion to
Philip, whofc life he had prcferved by his refolute and fea-
fonable interpofition. In the battle of ChaMonea, at the
age of 1 8, he fignahzed himfelf by his valour, and greatly
contributed to the viftory. Before Philip undertook his
•projected expedition into Afia, he recalled his fon from Epi-
ruf , whither he and his mother had retired, and was apparently
reconciled to him : but when his father was adaffinated by
Paufanias, wliom he had grievoufly offended, Alexander and
his mother were fufpeCted of bein;^' privy to the confpiracy.
The fufpicion, however, feems to have been groundlels ; and
f.he firft ad of his reii^n was the juft punifhment of the mur-
ilcrers. In the 20lli year of his age, B.C. 336, he fuc-
ctcded to the throne of Maccdon ; and commenced his mi-
litary- career by marching into Theffaly to overawe the
Greeks, who were difpofcd to emancipate themfelvcs from
the Macedonian yoke, and by caufmg Attalus, who encou-
raged their revolt, to be put to death. Having fucceeded in
this enterpri/,e, he marched into Thrace, defeated the Tri-
balii, who inhabited the modern Bulgaria, and drove them
beyond the Danube ; he alfo made the Getas to fly at his ap-
proach ; fubdued feveral barbarous nations, and eitablifhed a
•treaty of peace, in which the Celtes, a fierce and high-fpirited
^leople, and others, were comprehended. During his abfence
in thefe expeditions, the cities of Greece, inftigated by the
eloquence and influence of Demofthenes, fomied a powerful
alhance againil him. The report of his death had induced
the Thebaiis to revolt ; and, having murdered two officers of
the Macedonian garrifon, they were preparing to befiege the
citadel. Alexander, receiving intelligence of this event,
haftened to Greece, B. C. 335, pafled the Straits of Ther-
mopylae, and entered Bocotia before the Thebans were unde-
rcived as to his death. To thofe who accompanied him he
/poke in the following manner : " Demofthenes, in his ora-
tions, called me -a child when I was in lUyria and among the
TribalU ; he called me a young man when I was in Theffaly ;
and I mud now (hew him, before the walls of Athens, that I
am a man grown." The city of Thebes, which was bravely
defended by the inhabitants, animated by a love of liberty, was
at length taken by ftorm, with a dreadful flanghter : the build-
ings were razed, the houfe of Pindar, the poet, excepted from
a refpeft to its owner ; the inhabitants were fold for flaves,
and the lands diliributed among the foldiers ; this conduft
ftruck the Greek ftates with terror. Atliens fent a deputa-
tion to Alexander, imploring his clemency ; but he de-
manded the furrendtr of ten orators, whom he fuppofed to
have been the chief i:ift rumer.ts in forming the league which
Philip his father had defeated at Chajronca. On this occa-
fion Demofthenes recited -to the people the fable of the
Wolves and the Dogs ; in which it is fuppofed, " that the
wolves told the (lieep, that if they defired to be at peace
•svith themj tliey mull deliver up to them the dogs wko

ALE

were their gunrd." Alexander having relented, by the in-
terference of Damades, whom he had honoured with hij
friendlhip, waved the enforcement of his demand, Having
re-cftablilhed the tranquillity of Greece he went to Corinth,
where his ofiice of geacraliilinio was recogni-^ed and fettled.
At iEgae he held a grand council of ilatc and war, in order
to deliberate upon his expedition into Afia. Antipater and
Parmenio recommended delay, but Alexander had formed
his pui-j)ofe ; and having oftered facrifices, and entertained
his friends with feafts, and diilributed among them thi^
crown-lands, Perdiccas alked him what he referved for him-
felf i" " Hope," replied Alexander. "The fame hope ought
therefore to fatisfy us," was the rejoinder of Perdiccas. Ac-
cordingly he affembled his ami)', and prepared for his march
into Alia. When one of his attendants aiked him why he
fucceeded fo well in quieting the dangerous tumults in Afia,
he anfwered, " It was by delaying nothing."

In the 22dyear of his age, B. C. 334, Alexander crofTed
the Hellefpont into Alia, with an army of about 30,000
foot, and 4 or 5000 hoiTe. Parmenio, who commanded the
infantry, pafled over with the greateil part of the array from
Seftos to Abydos ; and Alexander crofled firft the Stiy-
mon, afterwards the Hebrus, and after 20 days march
arrived at Seftos. Having prepared for his expedition by a
variety of fuperftitious ceremonies, to which he was attached,
he proceeded to Ilium, where he facrificed to the heroes buried
in tile neighbourhood, and particularly to Achilles, to Minerva,
and to the gholl of Priam. In his march he preferved Lamp-
facus, whicli he had determined to deftroy on account of its
adherence to the Perfians ; and this he did in confcquence of
the interpofition of Anaximenes. " I fwear folemnly,"
fays Alexander to Anaximenes, who met him on the road,
and the objecvt of whofc interview he fufpetted, " that I will
not do what you defire me." " My requeft, then," faid
the old man, fmiling, " is, that you would burn I.ampfa-
cus." The Perfians collected a large force to meet him on
the banks of the river Granicus, May 22, B. C. 334; but,
after an obftinate refiftance, they were routed with great
flaughter. The confequence of this viftory was the furren-
der of Sardis, the chief town of Lydia, and the poffeflion of
the whole country as far as the river Hermus.

Alexander proceeded to Ephefus, and reftorcd the demo-
cracy; and by an edict he eftabliftied the popular government
in all the Greek cities. At Miletus, which he befieged and
took, he difinifled his fleet, and advanced to the fiege of Ha-
licarnafllis, which was abandoned by the Perfians, and then
to Tralles, which he took and levelled with the ground.
Having demoliftied HalicarnaiTus, he appointed Ada, wlio
claimed the title of queen of Caria, and who delivered up to
him Alinda, governefs-gcneral of all Caria ; and this con-
duft induced many of the princes of the Lefler Afia to revolt
from the Perfians, and to put themfelves under his protec-
tion. Alexander ingratiated himfelf with the army, by
permitting the foldiers who were married to fpend the win-
ter with their wives in Macedonia ; a practice conformable
to the law of Mofes, (Deut. xxiv. 5.) and which Aiiftotle
probably learnt of fome Jew, and recommended to his pupil.
Whilll the king was bufily preparing for the next campaign,
an attempt was made upon his fife bv the corruption and
treachery of an oflicer of his army ; but it was difcovered
and prevented from taking eflett.

The next campaign was opened early in the fpring.; and
Alexander, taking poflefiion in his march of the cities of Ey»
cia and Pamphylia, proceeded to Phrygia ; and at Gordium,
the capital, he was defirous cf feeing the famous chariot to
which the Gordiac knot was tied. The oracle had foretold,
according to an^ ancient tradition of the country, that the

man

ALE

Tiian v.ho could untie it fliould poiTufs the empire of Afia :
Alixaiider, pcrfuadtd th;\t this prcdiftion related to hiinfclf,
after ir.any fniitlefs trials, exclaimed, " It is no matter
which way it be untied," and cut it with his fword. Having
fubdiied Paphlaponia and Cappadocia, he advanced by hallv
inarches into Cilicia, and arrived in the country called Cyrus's
Camp. Through a narrow ttrait, called the I'.ifs of Cilicia, he
marched with his. army to Tarfus, where Parmenio arrived jull
in time lo prevent its being fet lire to by the I'erfians. Alex-
ander, heated and fatigued by this rapid march, plunged into
the river Cyduus, which ran tlnough this city, and was in-
ilantly fei/.cd with a Ihivering, which his attendants thought
would prove fatal to him. His danger alarmed the whole
army, and they cxprell'ed their appiehenhons with lam.en-
tation and tears. In thcfe cireiimllances, and whillL the
fpeedy arrival of Darius was expefled, Alexander confulled
his friends and phyfieians, and intimated to them that the
condition of his affairs would not admit either of flow reme-
dies or timid phylieians. " A fpeedy death," fays he, «' is
more eligible than a flow cure." Philip, an Acarnanian,
one of his phylieians, who tenderly loved him, and had at-
tended him from hisyo\uh, offered to give him a dole, which
would be ipeedy in its effefts, and defired three days to prepare
it. In the mean while Alexander received a letter from Par-
menio, who had been left in Cappadocia ; the purport of
which was to bid him beware of Philip, becaufe Darius had
bribed him by the promife of a thoufand talents, and his
fifter in marriage. But his confidence in a phyficiaa, whole
fidelity he had experienced froni his infancy, prevailed over
liis fears, and removed all his doubts. The contents of the
letter he did not divulge. When Philip came to adminifler
his medicine, Alexander took it from under his bolller and
gave it Philip to read ; at the fame time, fixing his eyes on
the phyfician, he fwallowed the dranglit without helitation,
or without dilcovering the leall fufpicion. The efftiSs of the
medicine were very violent, but the ikill of the phyhcian pre-
vailed, and his fidehty was proved. Alexander recovered,
and, in three days prefented himfelf to the joyful gratulatioas
of the army.

During this interval Darius was on his march, and Alex-
ander advanced to meet him near Plus, in the month of Oc-
tober, B. C. 3'^3. The army .of Darius confilled of 6co,0oo
men ; but by infatuated couiifels, and a vain confidence in
the number of his forces, he had quitted an open and level
country, and prepared to engage in a clofe and mountainous
fituation, where his multitude could only erabarrafs him in
attion. Victory was for fome time obftinately difputed ;
Alexander received a wound in his thigh ; but at length the
Perfian e iperor fled, and his immenfe anny was thrown into
confufion. A dreadful carnage fucceeded, and the tent of
Darius, with his mother, wife, and daughters, came into the
poffcfiion of the conqueror. When Alexander had performed
the ofRces of duty and compaflion to the dead and wounded,
he entered the tent where the queens were lodged, accompa-
nied only by his favourite Hcphaeitiorl. The queens, n^.if-
taking Hephaeftion for the king, paid thcii refpefts to him
as fuch ; but as foon as Syligambis, the mother of Darius,
had difcovered the miftakc, fhe fell proftrate at the feet of
Alexander, and begged his pardon. The king railed her
from the ground, and faid to her, " Dear mother, you are
not raiftaken ; lie alfo is an Alexander." Alexander, after
this refpeftful vifit, declined expofmg himfelf to the danger of
human frailty, and folemnlv refolved never to fee the queen
of Darius any more. At this time, the fourth year of his
reign, Alexander was young, viftorious, and free, or imcn-
gaged in marriage, as has been obfeived of Scipio on a like
octafion—

ALE

" Et jtivenis, et coelcbs, ct viftor."

After thisviftory, Alexander purfncd his march to Syria.
Parmenio went to Damafcus, and poflefled himfelf of the
treafurcs of Darius. The king propofed to vilitTyre, that
he might have an opportunity of facrificing to the Tyriaii
Hercules : but the Tyi ians refolved not lo admit a Macedo-
nian within their gates. Alexander was incenfcd, and deter-
mined to beficge the city ; and this fiegc, one of the moll
famous which hifloiy records, lalled for fcven months; at
length the place was flornied and utterly deflroyed. The king,
on thisoccafiow, incurred deferved rejjroach by his cruelty to-
wards a people, who had only ofiended by brasely defending
their country. Thoufands were put to the fword, two thou-
fand werecrucilied, and the reil fold for flavcs. After hav-
ing liepopulated the city, he colonized it anew, and boalled
of being the founder of a city which he had ruined. This
event look place, Augull 20lh, B. C. 3^2.

I'rom Tyre Alexander proceeded to Jerufalem, with the
intention of puniHiing the jews for affording relief to the Tv-
rians during the fiege ; but on his approach he met Jad-
dua, the high priell, in his pontifical habit, accompanied by
the priells in their facred vcftments, and the people clothed
in wiiite. When the jjroeeffion drew near, Alexander bowed
before the prieft, and paid him religious adoration ; alledging
to Parmenio as the reafon of this conduct, that the figure of
aperlon in fuch habit had appeared to him at Diiim, in Ma-
cedonia, and affured him of the divine guidance, and of ulti-
mate fuccefs in his expedition. After this interview, Alex-
ander accompanied Jaddua to Jerufalem, facriliced in the
temple, and conferred great favours onthcjewidi nation.
Such is the account given by Jofephus, but the whole is re-
jefted as fabulous by many judicious writers. Confidering,
however, the fuperllitious temper of Alexander, and his
friendly conduct to the Jews, it is not altogether improb:i-
ble. From Jerufidem Alexander proceeded to Gaza, beliegcd
it, and took it by ftorm : from Gaza he marched to Pelu-
fuim, left a garrifon in it, and failed up the Nile. He after-
wards inarched through the deferts to Hehopolis, and crofT-
ing the river, he airived at Mcm.phis, where he offered pom-
pous facrifices not only to the Grecian gods, but to the
Egyj)tiau Apis. From Memphis he failed down the river to
the fea, and fixed on the place where he propofed to build j.
new city, which h-isfince become fo famous under the name
of Alexandria. Here he formed the defign of vifiting tlie
temple of Jiipiter Amnion, fituate on an oaUs in the niidfl of
the Lybian deftrts. The fenior pnefl of this temple flattered
him with the title of the fon of Jupiter, which Alexander
joyfully accepted; and he was farther affured that he (hould
be the monarch of the world. From this journey, whicft
had proved fo fucccfsful, he returned as from a triumph ;
ar.d from this time, in all his letters and decrees, ufed the
following flyle : " Alexander, king, fon of Jupiter Am-
mon."

During his abode at Memphis, lie fettled the atfairs of
Egypt ; and in the fpring marched towards the eaft againil
Darius. In his way to Tyre, which was the place ap-
pointed for the general rendezvous of his forces, he heard
that Andromachus, whom he had appointed governor of Sy.
ria and Paleftine, had been maffacred at Samaria ; and, in
order to avenge this audacious aft, he put thofe that were
concerned in it to death, banilhcd the rcfl from Samaria,
fupplied their place with a colony of Macedonians, and di^
vided part of their territories among the Jews.

From Tyre he direfted his march to Thapfacus, and Hav-
ing paiTed the Euphrates, he advanced towards new con-
queits. On his march he was informed of the death i){

btatira^

ALE

Statim, th; captive queen of Darius : and this event de-
tained him, till he had viiitcd Syligajiibis, admiiiiiltrcd fuit-
aHc coiifolation, and penormoJ li-.c funeral ohfequics of the
dii.-c:i!"ed queen in tlie niofi; i'plendid and magnificent manner.
D-.'.rii'!, tlioiif;h his mindharbuurtd fufpicions oi'n diflionour-
able kind, that were eqiiiilly iinjiiH, was mucli gratified by
tlie tokens of rtfpoA which Alexander li;'.d rendered to lus
queen and family, and renewed propofitioiis of peace; On a
Former occafion,' during the fiego of Tyre, he had made very
advantageous propof:il?, whieli Parmeiiio willied him to ac-
cept ; declaring, that he would agree to them if he were
Alexander. " And fo would I," replied Alexander, " were
I Parmenio." Darius now offered him all the pro-
\Hi\ces between the Euphrates and the Hellefpont : but
Alexander had more extenfive views in his career of glory
and ambition. Darius prepared for battle, and pitched his
camp near a village called Gaugamela, in a plain at fomc dif-
tancefrom Arbela. Alexander, at the fight of his formida-
ble army, confultcd foothfayer?, offered up viftims to Fear,
and joined in prayers addrcfTcd to Jupiter, Minerva, and
Viftory. Thefe ceremonies being ended, he went to bed,
and flept foundly through the whole night. Parmenio
awaked him in the morning, and exprefling his furprife that
he fliould be able to fletp fo calmly, jufl as he was going to
fight a battle in which his whole fortune was at ftake :
Alexander addrefled him — " Kow could it be poffible for us
not to be calm, lince the enemy is coming to deliver himfclf
into our hands I" The army of Darius confifted of 6oo,oco
foot, and 40,000 horfe ; fonie fay of upwards of a milUion of
men: bu^ that of Alexander of no more than 40,000 foot,
and 7 or 8000 horfe. The Perfians were totally routed :
Parmenio, who was in great danger, was refcued by Alex-
ander in perfon ; and they both joined in the purfuit of Da-
rius, and, pafiing the river Lycus, marched to Babylon,
which was inftantly delivered by Mazseus, the governor, into
his hands. According to Arrian, the Perlianson this occa-
fion loll 300,000 men, befides thofe who were taken pri-
foners ; but the lofs of Alexander did not amount to more
than 1200 men. Such was the illue of this battle of Arbela,
fought in Oftober, B.C. 331, which decided the fate of
Aiia.

From Babylon Alexander marched towards Sufa, where
he found treafures of various kinds, and of great value.
Here he left Darius's mother and children ; and having re-
duced the Uxii, whofe counti-y- lay near Sufa, and extended
to the frontiers of Perfia, he forced his way through the Per-
fian ftraits, and arrived at Perfepolis. Having deftroyedthe
royal palace, to which he and his companions in the feafon
of debauch and phrenfy, a;:d at the requeft of Thais the
courtezan, and Ptolemy's miftrefs, fct fire, and plundered
the city, he purfued Darius firft to Ecbatana, the capital of
Media, and then as far as Rhages, a city one day's journey
from the Cafpian ftraits. But his progrefs was interrupted
by the news of the death of this ill-fated and unhappy mo-
narch, who was murdered by a confpiracy of his own fub-
jcc\s. Having fettled the governinent of Parthia, he reduced
Hyrcania, difperfed the Mardi, took pofTeffion of Zadra-
carta, the capital of Hyrcania, where for 15 days he cele-
brated folemn games, and offered magnificent facrificesto the
gods of Greece, and then entered Aria, and reduced the
whole province to fubmiffion.

The relaxed difcipline and unreflrained luxury which the
manners of the Perfians produced in an army flufhed with
fucccfs, terminated in faction and difcontcnt, and even in a
confpiracy againft the life of Alexander. Philotas, the fon
of Parmenio, was forced by torture to confefs his guilt, and
punilbed with death ; and his condemnation was foon foi-

A L E

lowed by the afTafTination of the father, at the age of 70
y;ars, and after a life faithfully anil zealoufly devoted to tjae
fervice of his prince. The death of both Parmenio and Phi-
lotas, upon a fufpicion of guilt, and without any dirert
proof, alienated the affedions of the army from Alexander,
and produced fuch a degree of diffatisfadion and difguft,
tiiat he fepnrated thofe who were difpofed to ledition Irom
others, and proceeded without further deljy to a6lion. Hav-
ing paffed through Drangania, Aiachofu, and the country
of the Arimafpi, all which fubmitted to his arms, he arrived
at a part of Mount Caucafue, called Paropamifus, where his
army endured much toil and hardlhip ; and where Beifus,
whom he was purfuing, had laid wafte the country, in order
to deprive him of provifions and forage. This Beifus was a
principal agent in procuring tlie death of Darius, and he had
afTumed the imperial purple, under the title of Artaxerxes.
Alexander having found an opening that led into Media, di-
refted a city to be built there, which he called Alexandria ;
and he alfo founded feveral other towns in its vicinity.
From hence he penetrated into Baftria, and took Aornos
and Bafli-a, the two ilrongeft. cities of the country : he then
paffed the river Oxus in purfuit of Beflus, who, although
deferted by 7 or 8000 Baftrl.uis, had withdrawn with a icvt
adherents over this river to Nautacus, a city ol Sogdiana.
Vv'hen Alexander arrived at a fmall city inhabited by the
Bkanchid.'e, he was guilty of an ac\ of favage cruelty,
which fixed an indelible llain on his memory. The fad:,
though omitted by Arrian, is related by Curtius (lib. vii.
c. 5. torn. ii. p. J20. Ed. Snakenb.) and referred to by
Strabo (lib. xiv. torn. ii. p. 787.). Here Beffus, defpoiledof
all the enfigns of royalty, and flripped even of his garments,
was brought in chains to Alexander ; who, having ordered
his nofe and ears to be cut off, delivered him up to Oxatres,
the brother of Darius, by whom he was fent to Ecbatana,
where he fuffered a cruel death : fomefay that he was cruci-
fied. Plutarch relates, that being faftened by his hmbs to
trees which were bent together, he was torn afunder by their
elaftic force, when they were allowed to return to their na-
tural pofition.

Alexander purfued his march to Maracanda^ the capital of
Sogdiana, known by the modem name of Samarcand, and
by long and dangerous ftages advanced to the river laxartes,
erroneouHy called by Arrian, Curtius, and others, Tanais.
On the fide of this river he was furprifed by the barbarians,
who, rudiing fuddenly from their lurking holes in the moun-
tains, and fighting with bows and flings, killed many of the
Macedonians, and took others prifoners. The king himfelf
was wounded in the conflld ; but the barbarians were at
length overpowered and defeated with great flaughter. Soon
after this tranfadion he formed a treaty with the Abian Scy-
thians, who, from the time of Cyrus, had lived in freedom
and independence, and who were dlilinguiflied by the equa-
lity and liberty that fubfifted among them, and by their
love of poverty and jullice. Whilft he was forming a plan
for building a city on the river laxartes, in order to curb the
nations he had already conquered, and thofe he intended to
fubdue, he was diverted from the execution of his dcfign by
the revolt of the Sogdians and Badrians ; and, dirediag his
arms againft their combined forces, he took and dellroyed in
a few days feven of their cities. The capture of Cyropolis,
which was one cf them, and which was the greateft and moil
populous of the whole country, was vigoroufly refifted by
the inhabitants ; but it was at length taken, and razed to the
very foundations. In thefe different fieges the enemy are
faid to have loft above 120,000 men; and in one of them
Alexander, as well as Craterus and many of his principal of-
ficers, were wounded. Ke then returned to tire laxartes,

marked

ALE

marked a fpnce of about three leagues in circumference, and
built a city, which was called AlcNandna. In Ids than 20
dars the ramparts were raiftd, and the houfes built ; and, in
order to people it, he rant'umed all the prifoners he could
find, fettled in it feveral Macedonians, wlio were worn out in
the fervice, and permitted many natives of the country, at
their own requeil, to inhabit it. His next conflift was witii
the Scythians, whom he defeated with difficulty, and to
whom, as he had other objecls in view, he frranted a peace on
. their own terms. The Sacx, who were a poweiful nation,
fubmitted to him, and, by an embafly, requelled his fricnd-
ihip.

At this timeAlexander received a reinforcement of upwards
of 16,000 men from Macedonia and Greece, and was thus
enabled to fubdue all thofe who rebelled ; and, to curb them
for the future, he built feveral fortrclFes in Margiana. But he
was gradually throwing oil both the habit and manners of a
Macedonian prince, and alTuming thofe of an eaftetn defpot.
He was alfo furrounded by a number of fycophants, who arc,
»nd ever will be, fays one of his biographers, the banc of
princes, and tJie curfe of nations. Thcfe, by indulging his
humour and foothing his paflions, precipitated him into ex-
travagances of condutl, and deprived him of that ccpiani-
niity and moderation, which were neceflary forprefcrviiig the
aequifitions he had made. One faithful Iriend declined con-
curring in this general adulation. At a banquet which
fuceeeded the facnfices performed at the anniverlary fcilival
of Bacchus, the honour of which Alexander had transferred
to the DIofcuri, ;'. e. to Caltor and Pollux, fome of
the attendants extolled the aflions of the Macedonian
piince above thofe of Caftor and Pollux, and even of Her-
cules. Clytus remonllrated, alledging, that " he could not
bear to hear fucli indignities offered to the gods, or the cre-
dit of ancient heroes undervalued, to tickle the ears of a liv-
ing prince." As to Alexander's actions, he allowed they
were great and glorious, but he maintained that they were
pot fupernatural ; that the army had (liared in them, and
that they had a right to participate in the praife belonging
to them. Alexander was indignant ; and as Clytus pro-
ceeded in the fame flrain, and affirmed that he had preferved
the life of the king at the battle of the Granicus, itretcliing
out his arm and laying, " this hand, O Alexander, faved
thee ;" the king rufned upon him, and endeavoured to kill
him, but was prevented by the interpohtion of friends. At
length, however, when his friends retired, he fciz.ed a lance, or
long Macedonian pike, and laid Clytus dead on theipot. His
paffion foon fubfided, and vefleAing on the deed he had per-
petrated, he indulged excelTive grief, refufed food ior three
days, neglected his apparel, and, as fome fay, would have
flain himfelf with the pike that killed Clytus. Flattered,
however, by tlie army, and perverted by the dete'lable doc-
trine of Anaxarchus of Abdera, the fopliili:, wlio taught
him, " that let a fovereign prince do what he will, all his
actions are juft and lawful," he foon became more compofed
and tranquil; and lettures of tliis kind were more acceptable
to his mind, already corrupted, than the honeft and moral dif-
courfes addrefled to him, with a view of fettling his mind, by
CalUllhenes, the difciple and relation of Arillctle. His fer-
vile attendants renewed their adulation, attempted to pcr-
fuade him that he was more than man, and that it was un-
juil and difloyal in his fubjefts not to own his divinity; and
fome of the moft officious of them, amongll whom Anaxar-
chus was the chief, endeavoured to engage the Greeks as
well as the Afiaties to pay him adoration. Alexander was
pleafed ; and was highly provoked by a fpeecli of Callif-
thenes, who attempted to awaken in his mind more fober

Vol. I.

A L K

thoughts. His reafoning was incffedlual ; and it was d-.'tcr-
mined tliat when liie king drank to any guell, lie (iiouid iin«
mediately rife, adore him, and having received a kit* from
the king, depart.

The feveiid circumllanees tliat liave been now recited,
produced a new confpiracy againll the lung ; and the con-
Ipiratons, being difcovered, were iloncd to death by the
army. Callillhencs was apprehended, and, as fome fay,
carried about in chains, till lie died a natund diath, but
according to others, he was full racked and then crucified.
I'he deatii of Callillhencs, fays Seneca (Nat. Qiiift. lib.
vi. c. 23.), is an eternal reproach to Alexander, and a crime
of fo horrid a nature, that no quality, however excellent,
nor militaiy exploit, however iliullrious, can ever eflace it»
infamy. In favour of Alexander it is laid, that he killed
many thoufaiid PeiTians ; that he dethroned and killed Da-
rius, the moll powerful king of the earth ; that he conquered
innumerable provinces and nations, penetrated as far as the
ocean, and extended the bounds of his empire fiom the moft
remote part of Tiirace to the extremities of the call. In
anfwer to each of thefe particulars, " Yes" fays Seneca,
" but he murdered CalUllhenes ;" a crime of lo heinous a
nature, that it entirely obliterates the glory of all his other
attlons.

Tiie only (Irong hold which the rebels dill retained was
the .Sogdian loek, or the rock of Oxus, into which Ox-
yartes, the Badlrian, had conveyed his wife and family. It
was defended by Arima/.es, with 30,000 foldiers under liis
command, and furnifhed with provlfions for two years. It
was deemed by its lituation impregnable ; and therefore,
when Alexander, before he commenced tlie liege, fummoncd
tlie garrifon to fubniit, the commander infulted him, and
alked " whether Alexander, who was able to do all things,
could alfo fly ; and whether nature, on a ludden, had given
him wings ?" Alexander was highly exafperatcd, and felcdttd
from the mountaineers in his aniiy 300 of the moft active
and dexterous, dircfting them to fcek a path to the top of
the rock ; to which the greater number of them at lail af-
cended by means of wedges and ropes. When Alexander
perceived the appointed ligiial, he fent a melfage to the
commander, fummoning him to furrender, and informing
him, " that he had now a corps of winged foldlcrs." The
whole Macedonian camp refounded with the fiiout of " vic-
toi"v,'^ and the Barbiirlans furrendered the place at dlfcre-
tioii. Alexander's refenlment was invircible, and regardlefs
of tlie diftates of humanity, he ordered Arimav.cs and the
principal nobility of the country who fought ihelter in his
camp to be fcourged with rods, and afterwards to be fixed
to ciollcs at the foot of the rock. After the reduction of
Sogdia, he marclied into the country of the I'aratacs,
where was another fortrefs, called the rock of Chorianes,
wliich was alfo deemed impregnable. Alter the liege was
begun, Chorianes, the commander, was induced by Oxyaitcs
to furrender it ; and having been enrolled in the number of
Alexander's friends, he was entruilcd witii the charge of it,
and in return for this honourable treatment, fupplied the
Macedonian army with provlfions. On one of ihele occa-
fions, Roxana, tiie daughter of Oxyartes, who was efteeined
the moil beautiful woman in Alia, after the death of the
wife of Darius, fell into the hands of the conqueror ; and
fuch was the influence of her channs, that he publicly cf-
pouleil her.

India was the next objedl to which Alexander dlreifted his
attention. Accordingly he difpatchcd a herald to Taxiles,
and the other princes on this lide the river Indus, enjoining
their fubmifSon ; and Hepha:ftion, with part of the army,

4 I v.as

ALE

wa« difpirtchcd to join Taxilca and thf reft of the Indian
■ri:icti, vvlio wcie come out to meet them, and to reduce
the country as far as this river. This commilTion was caiily
and Ipecdily executed. Alexander bent his march towards
the river Choalpcs, and reduced teveral pUices in hisprogrcls,
among which And.ica was one of the moll coiUiderable.
He proceeded accainll the Afpii and Aflaecni, whom he
fuccelTivcly dcfealt.d, notwiihllanding ohltinate rcfiftance ;
but having inveiled Majjaza, the capital of the latter people,
he was woundtd in tiie luge, a:;d the army was repeatedly-
repulfed. At length, however, the Indians were compelled
t^ lubmit ; and by an ad of pcrlidy, which Diodoriis Siculiis
Jeverelv condemns, they were all put to the fword. Plutarch
aifo reproaches the king for this barbarous action. Ora and
Uiizira, and the rock of Aonui.':, to which the inhabitants
of the latter place retired, were next reduced ; and Alex-
ander proceeded to the liver Indus, where Hephxllion and
Perdiccas had already provided a bridge of boats for the
palTage of the army. Having retrefhed his troops in the
territory of his friend and ally, Tiixiles, Alexander pafled
ths Indus, B. C. 327 ; and advanced forward to the Hy-
dafpes, known in modern times by the name of the Bctah
or Che'um, or, according to the orthography of Major
Rennell, Beliut and I!iyl«m, where Porus with a large aniiy
lay encamped to difpute his padiige. When he approached
the banks of this river, he found that the people with whom
he had to contend were not to be fubdued fo eafily as the
Perfians, and other Afiatics. The Indians were not only a
very tail and robult, but alfo a very hardy and well dilci-
plincd people ; and their king Porus, a prince of high fpirit,
invincible courage, and good conduct. Alexander, however,
after encountering great difficulties, on account of the in-
undations to which the Indian rivers are fubjedl at the time
of his march, which was Midfummer, or about the height
of the rainy feafon, pafTed the Hydafpes ; and having van-
quiflied a detachment under the command of the fon of
Porus, who was flain in the aAion, he encountered Porus
himfelf at the head of 4000 horfe, 30,000 foot, 300 chariots
and 200, or as Q. Curtius fays (lib. viii. 13.) 85 elephants.
The dilpute, though fhort, was vei-y bldidy. Porus be-
haved with finp;ular prudence and intrepidity ; but the In-
dians were completely routed after a great flaughter. Porus,
compelled tolubmit, was conduftcd to Alexander, who re-
ceived him with refpe61,and treated him with kindnefs. t^Hien
he was allied " how he wifhed to be treated ?" Porus re-
plied, " as a king." " Tliat for my own fake," faid Alex-
ander, " I {hall do." " And therein," rejoined Poms, " is
comprehended all that I can a(li." Alexander gave him his
liberty, rellored his kingdom with additional provinces ; and
Porus, in return, became his true friend and conftant ally.
For perpetuating the remembrance of this vidory two cities
were built ; one caHtd Niccea, and the other Bucephala.
Paffing the river Acetines, he entered the territories of an-
other Porus, and in purfuit of him cro.Ted the Hydraotes ;
and having conquered the whole kingdom of this prince, he
gave it to Porus his ally. In the midft of this fuccefs
Alexander received advice, that the Cathei, Oxydracx, and
Malli, the mod warlike nations in India, were confederated
againll him, and had afTembkd a great army. He determined
immediately to att:ick them ; and though they made a vi-
gorous defence, they were put to flight ; and foon after, their
city of Sangala was taken by ftorm and razed. He then
prepared to pafs the Hyphalis, having nothing in view, as
Anian fays, but to feck new enemies. Here he was told
that after paffing this river, he muR travel ii days through
ielertf, and that he wo.ild then arrive at the Ganges, the

A L £

largcft river m India ; and that farther in the country were
the Gangarids and I'rafii, who were colleding a great force
in order to oppole his entering into their dominions, Ru»
mours of this kind were fpread through the army, and pro-
duced no inconfiderable degree of difcontent and murmur.
Unable to allay the ferment that vas prevailing among the
troops and to fotisfy them, that they had any object in view
which could warrant their being led on to new difhculties and
toils, he was conlh-ained to terminate his progrcfi, and to
prepare for his return. When his purpofe was madeknowii
to the army, be was faluted with loud acclamations and re-
ceived the thanks of his followers ; " becaule," they laid,
" he who was invincible had fuffered himfelf to be overcome
by their prayers." On the banks of the Hyphalis, the mo-
dern Beyah, which were the limits (M his conquefts, he
caufed to be ereCled 12 altars, on which facritices were of-
fered. Tiiefe altars, if we may believe the biographer of
Apollonius Tyaiisus, were ftill remaining,, with legible in-
fcriptions, when that fantaftic fophill vii'ited India, 373
years after Alexander's expedition. Philoftrat. vita Apol-
ion. lib. ii. c. 43. ed. Olearii.

Having exhibited pubhc {hows in the Grecian manner, he
added all the conquered country to the dominions of Porus,
and began his retrograde march towards the river Hydraotes.
Prom thence he proceeded to the Acefmes, and marched on
to the Hydafpes, propollng to emb?-.k on the river Indus,
and to pafs by this river to the ocean. Whilft he was march-
ing near thefe rivers, he obferved many crocodiles, and that
the country produced beans like thofe of Egj-pt ; and hence
he inferred, that he had difcovercd the fource of the Nile,
and prepared a fleet to fail down the Hvdafpes to Egypt.
Strabo. Geog. lib. xv. p. 1020. This circumllance {liews,
that the knowledge of the Greeks, in his age, did not extentj
beyond the limits of the Mediterranean. The breadth of the
Panjab, as it is now called, through which Alexander pafTed,
from Ludhana on the Setlege to Attock on the Indus, is
computed to be 259 geographical miles, in a flraight line ;
and his march, computed in the fame manner, did not exceed
above 200 miles. But in his advance and return, his troops
were fo fpread over the country, and all his movements were
fo exactly meafured and delineated by men of fcience, whoiT*
he kept in pay for the purpofe, that he acquired a very ex-
tenfive and accurate knowledge of that part of India.

Having prepared a fleet, conlifting of 80 velTcls of three
banks of oars, and about 2000 klTer Ihips and tranfports,
and having offered facrifices to the gods, he embarked, and
at the fignal of the found of a trumpet the fleet began to
move. Having arrived at the confluence of the Acefines
with the Hydafpes, where thefe united ftreams roll with
great rapidity into tlie Indus, many of his vefTels were lo{f,
he himfelf was in danger, and Nearchus, the commander of
the fleet, not a little perplexed. When the danger was part,
and the fleet and amiy were joined, Alexander went on fliore y
and began his march through a defert coimtry, in order to
reduce the Malli and Oxydracx, who were railing forces to
oppofe him. He fiirprifed them, unprepared and unex-
pefting his arrival ; many of them were flain in the field, and
the refl fled into the city and fliut the gates. In ftomiing-
their principal city, Alexander, with a romantic valour,,
which approached to fool-hardinefs, fcaled the walls, and
leaped down into the city, accompanied by only three of his
guards. Whdft he perionally encountered a fevere attack,
he was wounded, and fainted tiirough lofs of blood ; twot
of his guards, who were themfelves wounded, covered him
with their fhields ; till the foldiers from without afcended
the walls, tiirew ihetnitlves into ths city, and by an aft of

the

ALE

the moft undaunted refolnlion, refciied tlicir fovereigp ;
tliou^jh, when he was carried out upon his fliicld to the
cuirn', his recovery was very doubtful. As foon as he was
able, he rejointd his forces and was received in the cainp
with gieat joy.

His firll thoughts were now diretled to the increafe of
his fleet ; and having accomphllied this obje<f\, having given
order for erecting a city in the commodious fituation afforded
by the confluence of two great rivers, and having conferred
upon Oxyartes, the father of his wife Roxnna, the govern-
ment of Paropamifus, with fomc additional territories, he
embarked on board his fleet and continued his voyage. Put
ns he proceeded, he was occalionally employed in reducing
jTome Indian princes, who were either negligent in paying
hin-i the attention and retpetl to which he conceived himfetf
intltled, or who aeUially took up arms againil him. Of ihii
.ninnber were Muficanus, the fovereign of one of the rieheil
and moft populous kingdoms in India ; Oxvcanus, another
Indian prince, who was taken priloner, and Sambus, whofe
capital Sindomana opened its gates to receive him. Mufi-
caniis afterwards revolted ; and Alexander diretied him to
be carried back into his own dominions, to be there crucified,
tOjjcther with all the Brachmans who were about him, and
who had inlligated him to this revolt. Tlie king n.cxt failed
to Patala, the modern Tatta, an ifland formed by two
branches of the river Indus, where he ordered an haven and
convenient docks to be conilrucl;ed for his Hiips ; and when
hehad careened hisflcet, hefailed down the right-hand branch
of the river towards the ocean. As they approached the
Tea, they were expofed to great danger for want of ll<ilful
pilots ; and therefore, alter having gratified his vanity by
entering the ocean beyond the Indus, performing religious
rites in honour of Neptune, and furveying two fmall iflands,
lie retuiiied to Patala. Having furveyed the other branch
of the Indus, and found a place of fafety for his fleet, he
gave dircclions to Nearchus to conduft the fleet, by the
ocean, at the proper feafon, through the Perfian gulf, up
the river Tigris, to meet liim and his army in Mefopotamia ;
and he departed with the army in order to march back by
land to Babylon. From the refearches of Major Rcnnell
we learn, that the diflance of that place on the Hydafpes,
where Alexander fitted out his fleet, from the ocean, cannot
belefsthan a thoufand Britifh miles. Confidering the various
operations by which he was retarded, and the flow navigation
of fuch a fleet as he condufted, it is no wonder that he was
above nine months before he reached the ocean. When we
attend to the various movements of his troops, the number
of cities which they took, and the different ftates which
they f\ibdued, he may be juftly faid to have explored the
countries through which he paffed.

Alexander, having left Patala, crofled the Arabis, and
marched through the country of the Oritce, whofe capital
he feized and converted into a new and noble city, which
he committed to the government of Hephajflion. He then
purfued his arduous march through Gedrofia ; and in the
whole of his progrefs fuffered much from fiekncfs, exceflive
heats and fatigue, and alfo from famine and thirll ; fo that
he brought back from India fcarcely the fourth part of his
army, which had confilled of l20,oco foot, and 15,000
horfe. In thefc circumftances, trying and diftrelTnigas they
were, he maintained an invincible refolution and patience,
and by his example encouraged the perfeverance of his troops.
Jhlaving reffed and refreflied his army at the capital of Cle-
drofia, he prepared his maieh into Caramania, a very plen-
tiful country, where his attendants were amply recompenfcd

ALE

for the harddiips and fatigues they had endured. Here he
punifhed thofe governors who were charged with mal-
adminiftration, fome of whom were put to deatli ; and rc-
dreflt'd the viuious grievances which the people had fuffered
during his abfence. He then continued his march through
Caramania, and was joined by Nearchus, his adu-.iral ; and
turning afide to Peifia, he vifited the tomb of Cyrus, at
Pafargadx ; ordered Orfincs, th.e governor of Pcrfia, who
was charged with many atrocious crimes, to he crucified, and
placed Peuceftas, who had faved his life in a city of the
Malli, in his room ; and commanded Baryaxes, a Medf,
who had ufurped the title and tiara of king, to be put to
death. In thefe marches Calanus, an Indian brarhmaa,
who hid accompanied Alexander, finding his health declinirg,
requeffed to hav<- n funeral' pile prepared; on the top of
wliich he ffretehed himfclf at full length, and remained
without voice or motion in the midfl of the flame?.

At Sufa, to which Alexander next marched, he put to
death Abulites and his fon Oxathrcs, who were charged
with enormous crimes in the adminiftration of public affairs ;
and he attempted to unite the Macedonians and Perfians by
fonning alliances between the nobleft families of Pcrfia and
the principal perfons of his own court ; and he himfclf fet
them an example by taking two wives of the royal hlood of
Perfia, -viz. Statira, the daughter of Darius, and Paryfatis,
the daughter of Ochus. He alfo bcflowed fortunes on
thofe Perfian ladies of liigh rank, who were married to 1ii<
own principal officers. He likewife paid the debts of iiii
army, and conferred rewards and promotions on thofe wliu
had fignali/.ed ihemfelvcs in his fervicc, witliout diflinftioa
of countr)'.

Alexander, having flill a curiofity to fee the ocean, and
to explore tiic maritime parts of his empire, went down fron»
Sufa upon the river Eulsus ; and having croffed the Perfian
gulf to the mouth of the I'igris, went up that river to the
army, which was previoufly encamped, under the commar.d
of Plephseftion, on its banks, near the city of Opis. Here
he iffued an edlft that thofe Macedonians, who were either
unable or unwilling to make any more campaigns, might have
their difcharge, and return home, and that lliofc who chofc
to remain with him flioidd be duly encouraged. Tiiis edift
which was intended to pleafe the army, produced a contrai"y
effeft, and excited a mutiny, which was quelled by cxtraordi-
nar)' refolution and intrepidity. Whiltl the foldiers furrounded
the tribunal on which he was feated, all clamouring for their
difcharge, reproaching him with the favours which he had
conferred on the Barbarians, and infolcntly telling him, that
his father Amnion and he might go and fubdue the world liy
themfelves, he leaped into the niidll of them, ordered hu
guards to feize 13 of the ringleaders, whom he pointed out,
and commanded their immediate execution. This ae^l ter-
rified them into filencc and fubmifllon ; and then remounting
his tribunal, he pointed out to tlicm, in an eloquent fpeech,
thejuilice of his own couduft and tlie folly of theirs. Ho
afterwards promoted tiie Perfian nobility to the principal
commands in his ariny ; and by thus feeniiij^ to tiloi.-li r his
confidence to them, he humbled the Macedonian";, and in-
duced them to deliver up the authors of the frdition, and
earneftly to feek reconcill;ition and favour ; wliicli they ob-
tained, and which were fueceeded by a folemn fellival at
which 9000 perfons were piefent.

At Ecbatana, wliither he next went, ho offered facrlfice?,

and exlilblted fports and games ; which were followed by a

roval banquet ; but iiis joy on this oerafion was nnexpertedly

interrupted by tlie fuddcn illuefs and death of IJeplnrfliou.

4 1 2 Frum

ALE

From Ecbatana lie mnnrhed agaiiid tlic CofTa-ans, and fub-
diud them ; and he thjn purfiud his courfe towards Baby-
lon, uh.-if he formed a variety of projefts, for improving
th; city aiid extending his domi-iions. tie propofcd invading
and conquering Arabia, draining the Babylonian fens, and
conllriiaing in the city a bafon, capable of containing a
thoufand gallies. But before he could execute any of thefe
prand fchemes, he was fcized with a fever, which, as fome
fsy, was occafioned, or at Icaft aggravated, by excefs of drink-
ing, and which in a few days terminated in liis death. He
died on the 2 ill of April, in the fecond year of the 114th
OK-mpiad, B. C. 323, after he had lived 32 years and eight
months, and reigned 1 2 years and eight months. When his
principal courtiers, perceiving his death to be inevitable,
alked him to whom he left the empire, he anfwered, " to
the moll worthy :" and when Perdiccas enquired at what
time they fliould pay him divine honours, he replied, " when
you are happy ;" and having pronounced thefe words, he
expired. When Alexander's corpfe had been embalmed
after the manner of the Egyptians and Chaldeans, Arida;us,
bis bailard brother, who" had been declared king, was ap-
pointed to convey it to the temple of Jupiter Ammon. Two
whole years (fceiElian.lib. xiii. c. 30. tom. ii. p. 898.) were
em.ploycd in preparing for this magnificent funeral, which
made Olympias bewail the fate of her fon, who having had
the ambition to rank himfelf among the gods, was fo long
deprived of burial, a privilege allowed to the meancft of
mortals. The funeral procefiion, conducted by Aridxus,
was fingulariy fp'lendid ; and fome of our readers may pro-
bably he amu'fed by the following brief account of it. It
was preceded by pioneers, who cleared the way ; and it con-
fided firfl; and principally of a fuperb chariot in which the
remains of the king were conveyed. The naves and fpokes
of the axle-trees of this carriage were covered with gold,
and their extremities, made of gold, reprefented the mufclea
of lions biting a dart. It was drawn by 64 mules, har-
nedcd to four draught-beams or poles ; and thefe mules
were adorned with crowns of gold, and collars enriched with
precious Hones and golden bells. On the chariot was erefted
3 pavilion of folid gold, 1 2 feet wide and 1 8 feet long, fup-
ported by Ionic columns; and the iniide was ornamented
with jewels, dlfpofed in the form of (bells. The circum-
ference was beautified with a fringe of golden net-work, to
Ir.e threads of which were fufpended large beUs, the found
of which might be heard at a great diftance. The external
decorations confifted of four relievoes. The firft reprefented
Alexander feated in a militaiy chariot, with a fplendid fcep-
ter in his hand, and furrounded on one fide with a troop of
Macedonians in amis, and on the other with an equal number
of armed Perfians ; and thefe were preceded by the king's
equerries. In the fecond were feen elephants harneffed, with
a band of Indians feated before, and a band of Macedo-
nians, feated behind, and armed for battle. The third ex-
hibited feveral fquadrons of horfe in military array. The
fourth reprefented (hips prepared for battle. The entrance
of the pavilion was guarded by golden lions. The four
corners were adorned with llatues of gold, reprefenting
victories, with trophies of arms in their hands. Under the
pavilion was placed a fquare throne of gold, adorned with
tlie heads of animals, with golden circles round their necks,
and to which were attached crowns, glittering with the moft
brilliant colours, and fuch as were carried about at the cele-
bration of facred folemnities. At the foot of the throne
was placed the coffin of Alexander, formed of beaten gold,
and half filled with aromatic fpices and perfumes ; and the
toiHn was covered by a pall of purple, wrought with gold.

ALE

The arms of the Monarch were dlfpofed in the manner in
which he ufcd to wear them, between the colfin and the
throne. The outfide of the pavilion was covered with purple
flowered with gold ; and the top terminated in a large golden
crown, refembling a duller of olive branches. The rays of
the fun, which darted on this diadem, as the chariot moved,
caufed it to emit a kind of rays refembling thofe of light-
ning. The chariot was followed by the royal guards, armed
and magnificently arrayed. Among the numerous attendants
and fpe£tators, who were aflembled on this occafion, Pto-
lemy advanced, with a numerous guard of his bed troops,
as far as Syria, to meet the procelTion. He prevented their
depofiting the coi-pfe in the temple of Jupiter Ammon, and
caufed it to be conveyed, firft to the city of Memphis, and
thence to Alexandria. Here he reared a magnificent temple
to the memoiy of Alexander, and rendered him all the ho-
nours which were ufually paid to demi-gods and heroes by
Pagan antiquity. Freinfiiemius, in his fupplement to Livy
(lib. cxxxiii. c. 6^. tom. vi. p. 910. ed. Drakenb.), relates,
after Leo Africanus, who lived in the 15th century', that
the tomb of Alexander was to be feen in his time, and that
it was reverenced by the Mahometans, as the monument
not only of an ilUillrious king, but of a great prophet.

As to the ifTue of Alexander, we may obferve in general,
that by Barfina, or Arfinoe, the daughter of Artabazus,
and the widow of Memnon, a lady of great beauty and
merit, he had a fon named Hercules, who was afterwards
murdered ; by Roxana, the bell beloved of his wives, he
had a pofthumous fon, named Alexander, who for a time
enjoyed the title of king ; by Cleoplies, queen of part of
India, he had a fon named Alexander, who fucce;ded his
mother in her kingdom ; by Statira, the daughter of Darius,
he had no children, nor by Paryfatis, the daughter of
Ochus.

As to the extent of the Macedonian empire, and the dif-
tribution of it after his death ; fee Empire.

As to his pcrfon, Alexander was of a middle fee, with
his neck fomewhat awry, with full eyes, and a fierce ma-
jeftic countenance. Either through taite or vanity he would
never fuffer any portraiture to be formed of him except by
the greateft artifts of his age ; Praxiteles in fculpture, Ly-
fippus in caft metal, and Apelles in painting.

As to his talents and charaftcr, they have been differently
appreciated by his biographers. From his more ancient
biographers, whofe memoirs are in a great meafure loft, five
pofterior writers have compiled the hiftory of his life, namely,
Diodorus Siculus, Plutarch, Arrian, Q. Curtius, and Tro-
gus, abridged by Juftin. The Baron de St. Croix, in his
" Critical Inquiry into the Life of Alexander the Great by
the ancient Hiftorians," which firft appeared in the memoirs
of the French Academy of Infcriptions and Belles Letters,
and obtained the premium of that focicty in 1772, and of
which Sir R. Clayton pubhfhed an Englifh tranflation, with
notes and obfervations, in 1793, has appreciated the merit
and veracity of thefe hiftorians. Hiftorians, fays another
w-riter, have confidered him either as an enterprifing and
fuccefsful prince, the glory of whofe great aftions fcarcely
fulTered the blemilhes in his perfonal conduti to be feen,
v.'hich is the light in which Arrian has placed him ; or they
make his virtues and vices ahke confpicuous, which feems to
have been the view of Curtius. Philofophers and moral
writers have dealt more ftridly with him, and have therefore
feldom run into high panegyrics, Plutarch only excepted ;
who in his orations on the fortune and virtue of Alexander,
fpeaks as a rhetorician. The Satirift Lucian hath defcribed
him with great fpirit and with gonfummate judgment ; but

ALE

he fcertis to Iinve kept liis eye too clofcly on the latter fcenes
of Ilia lift, when his fortune, not his merit, was at its grcatell
height. It is jidUy obfervcd by I, ivy (lib. ix. e. l8.), that
Alexander iippears very diiTerent, according to the times or
feafons in which we confidtr him. He difcovcrcs in him a
kind of double Alexander ; the one wife, temperate, judi-
cious, bnive, intrejjid, but at the fame time prudent and
circumfped ; the other immcrfed in all the v/antonnefs of an
haughty profperity ; vain, pioud, arrogant, fiery ; foftencd
by delights, and abandoned to intemperance and exccffes ;
in a word, refembhng Darius rather than Alcxandei", and
having made the Macedonians degenerate into all the vices of
the Perfians, by the new turn of mind, and the new manners
he affumed after his conquefts. M. RoUin, guided by this
clue, contemplates him in two different periods of his life,
and correfponding afpefts of his charafier : firll,' from his
youth to the battle of Iffus and the iicge of Tyre ; and
I'econdly, from that victory to his death. In the firlT: period,
we acknowledge and admire a happy difpofition, cultivated
and improved by education. He had a great, noble, and
generous ioul, which was dehghted in bellowing favours and
doing fervice. He was alio actuated by a high degree of
emulation and love of glory ; he was betimes accullomed to
exercilcs of body and mind, and to a fober and temperate
mode of living. No prince in the world had a nobler edu-*
cation than Alexander; fo that he was convcrfant in elo-
quence, poetry, pohte learning, the whole circle of arts,
and the moll abllracted and fublimc fcicnccs ; and in the
progreis of his years he was a favourer and promoter of li-
terature and the arts, and attached to his train poets, orators,
and philofophers. Under Arillotle he enjoyed fingular ad-
vantages of inftruftion ; nor was heinfentible of their value ;
and he rendered clfential fervice to fcience by the prefcnts
which he conferred on his preceptor, for en;ibling him to
purfue his enquiries in natural hillory. He alfo employed
men of talents of eveiy defcription, and hbcrally rewarded
them. In the early life of Alexander we perceive and ad-
mire the judgment manifefted in his converfation with the
Perfian ambaffadors ; the wifdom with which he acted as
regent during ins father's abfence, and by which he pacified
the feuds that had broken out in Macedonia ; and the valour
by which he dilliiiguifhed himfelf in the battle of Chxronea.
The firft years of his reign were, perhaps, all circumftances
confidered, the mod glorious of his life. At 20 years of
Kge, he appeafcd inteiline feuds, fubjecled foreign enemies,
difarmed Greece, when moll of its flates were combined
againft him ; and in three years accomplilhed the plan which
his father had projefted. For effecting thefc purpofes in-
trepidity and prudence, courage and prefence of mind, thofe
qualities which form the charafter of the true hero, were
indifpenfable. In the former part of his expedition againll
Darius, the fame qualities arc manifeft. When he was fcarce
20 years old, with dangers, domeftic and foreign, threaten-
ing him, with a treafury not only exhaufted but encumbered
with debts, with an army much inferior to that of the
Perfians, Alexander turns his eyes towards Babylon and
Sufa, and projctls the conquefl of a vaft empire. The
fwiftnefs of the execution correfponded to the wifdom of
the project. Having gained the affeftion of his officers by
an unparallelled liberality, and the attachment of his foldiers
by condefcenlion and aifability, he aftonifhed his enemies by
bold cnterprlzes, terrified them by examples of feverity, and
won them by afts of humanity and clemency. The pafTage
of the Granicus, followed by a famous vitloiy ; the two
celebrated lieges of Miletus and HalicarnafTus, exhibited to
Alia a young conqueror, to whom no part of military id-

A h E

ence was unknown. When he allowed to thofc whom he
conqueitd, and who readily fubmitled, the tiijoynient of
their liberties and ancient laws, obfervers were ltd to believe,
that the conqueror had no other view than to make nations'
happy, and to procure them an eafy and lalling peace. The
two battles of Illus and Arbtla, with the liege of Tyre,
proved, that Alexander poffetred the qualities of a gitat
foldier ; Ikill in chuling the field of battle ; prefence of mind
in ifluing proper o'ders even in the heat of aftioa ; courage
animated by prclTing dangers ; impetuous adlivity, tempered
and guided by caution and cirtumfpeftion ; and an invintiblc
lirmnefs and coiiftancy, neither difconcerted by unforeftcn
obHacles nor difcouragtd by difliculties. The circumllance
which raifes Alexander above moll conquerors, and, as it
were, above himfelf, was his conduit toward the mother,
wife, and daughters of Diriu$ ; all of them princcfrcs,
whofc beauty was not to be parallelled through the whole
of Afia. If this conduft towards the family of Dariuo had
been accompanied with the gTant of a peace, which he fap»
plicated on terms fo humiUating to himfelf, and fo advan-
tageous to Alexander, the conqueror would have rifen ilill
higher m our ellecm, Alexander, it is fa!d, had a foul ca-
pable of friend Hiip ; he endeared himfelf to his offieers and
foldiers, by his attci tion and far.iiharity ; he grieved for
thorn when they were lick, rejoiced in their recovery, and
participated in whatever betel them.

If we follow Alexander to the fecond period of his hif-
tory, after the battle of IlTus, we (hall fee the virtues and
noble qualities of this prince degenerate on a fuddcn, and
make way for the greatelt vices and the moll brutal pairions.
Was ever enterprifc more wild and extravagant than that of
crofling the deferts of Libya, and interrupting the courfe
of his victories, in order to purchafe a title, that of the fon
of Jupiter Amnion, which, in reality, only ferved to render
him contemptible. The drunkenncfs and debauchery to
which he addicted himfelf, and the follies and crimes of
which he was guilty in his feafons of intoxication, degrade
his charader, and expofe it tojufl abhorrence and contempt.
What ihall we fay of his marking hi j footfleps with fire and
blood, of his burning cities and flaughtering their inha-
bitants ? of his burning Perfepolis,murdering Clytus, putting
Philotas to the torture, difgracing Parmenio, an old, tried,
faithful friend, and putting both father and fon to death,
and of permitting Calliflhenes, the philufopher, to die in a
dungeon, or in a worfe mode ? what apology can be made
for his wanton cruelties ? the devaitation of whole countries,
the Haughter of millions of inhabitants, the crucifixion of
an Indian prince, and the punifliment of many Brahmins,,
whofe only crime had been that of encouraging their coun-
trymen to defend their liberties againll a lawlefs invader ?
well might the Gentoo annals call him " a moll mighty
robber and murderer." How jullly docs the author of the
firll book of Maccabees charafteriy.e liim, by faying that
" he butchered kings," so-Jals /3ao-iX!i.; th,- y>i,-. His debau-
cheries, his abominable revellings, his more than Aliatic
luxury, his Sardanapalian effeminacy, were fo flagrant, that
his warinell encomiafts have not been bold enough to deny
nor even to palhate them.

As to his magnanimity and gcnerofity, which have been
wonderfully extolled, thefe, upon clofe examination, would
probably appear to be the fruits of that lame vain-glorious
ambition, which was the main fource of all his adlion!"..
Plis liberal prefents tovvriters and artills were the price of
the groHell adulation; the mod pitiful fcribblcr, if he wag
lavifh in his flattery, was as lavilhly rep.iid for his grateful
iiicenfe ; and a Chserilus, a Cleo, and an Agis, (the very

dregs-

ALE

dTfjft of their rffpe6\ive countries, as Q^Curtiu? call* tlicm)
were as hire of beiiij rccompcnfed as an Arillotle ora X-;no-
nhon, and were pretcrred by this famous hero, even to his
own relations and generah. He war. not lei's liberal to
fin;;ers, harpers, and pipers ; on whom he btftowtxl at one
caroufal, above 10,000 talents, as we may naturally fnp-
pofe, for chanting his bloody vidories and reloundinjj his
praife.

If vrt examine his clmrafter as a wanior and a conque-
ror, and trace his niilitar)- exploits to their moving fpring ;
it is natviral to direOl our enquiry to the juilire of the war
in which he enga ^cs, without a regard to whicii he ii not
a conqueror and a hero, but an ufui-per and a robber. If
■we allow that the Pcrlians were the ivowcd enemies of the
Greeks, what right had Alexander over the great number
of nations «ho did not even know the name of Greece,
and had never done or defigncd him the leall injury ? The
Sc)-thian ambadador fpoke julUy, when he faid : " What
have we to do with thee ? we never once fct our foot in thy
country. Are not thofe who live in woods allowed to be
ignorant of thee, and the place from whence thou comeft ?
Thou boalleft, that the only delign of thy marching is to
extirpate robbers ; and thou thyfelf art the greatell robber
in the world !" To the fame cffeCl was the anfwer of the
pirate, when Alexander quellioned him, what right he
had to infell the feas ? " The fame that thou haft' to iufeil
the univerfe ; but becaufe I do this in a fmall fhip, I am
called a robber ; and becaufe thou afteft the fame part with
a great fleet, thou art entitled a conqueror." Upon the
principle now ftated, what idea ought we to form of Alex-
ander's lall conquefts? Was ever ambition more extravagant,
or rather more furious, than that of this prince ? It is re-
lated that Alexandei-, when he was told by Anaxargus the
philofophcr, that there was an infinite number of worlds,
vcpt in thinking, that it would be impolTible for him to
conquer them all, fince he had not yet conquered one.
Val. Max. lib. viii. c. 14. Is it wrong in Seneca, (Nat.
Oiiell. lib. iii. in pref. ) to compare tliefe pretended heroes,
^vho have gained renown no otlierwife than by the ruin
of nations, to a conflarjration and a flood, which lay wafte
and dcftroy, or to wild beads wl-.o fiibfill merely by blood
and (laughter ! Alexander, continues this writer, (Dc Benef.
lib. i. c. 13.) an unjull robber from his youth, a cruel ra-
vager of provinces, an infamous murderer of his friends,
makes his happinefs and glor)- to confift in rendering himfelf
formidable to all mortals ; forgetting that, not only tlie
fierceft animals, but even the viltft, make themftlves feared
by their poifons. If the conquefts of Alexander are exa-
mined in thcmfelves feparateiy from their moving fpring,
we fhall find that they are frequently effected bv a kind of
valour nearly allied to a boldncfs that is blind, rafh, and
impetuons ; that has no other guide befidcs a fenfelefs ar-
<lour for falfe glorj- and a wild defire of diftinguifhing itfelf
ty any methods, let them be ever fo unlawful. To form
an accomplilhed general, prudence nuift foften and dircft
the too fiery temper of valour ; as tl\is latter muft animate
and warm the coldnefs and llowncfs of prudence. Do
thefe chanideriftics belong to Alexander ? When we follow
him to fieges and battles, are we not perpetually alarmed
for his own fafety, and that of his army ? and do we not
•conclude, that they are every moment upon the point of
being deftroyed ? Plutarch, in pronouncing the eidogv of
Alexander, as au accomplifhed hero, gives a long detail of
the various wounds he received ; and intimates, that his
courage was thus rende^ed more confpicuous. But it has
htea obftrved ia praife of Hannibal, that ht was never

ALE

wounded in all his battles. It ought alio to be obfei-ved,
in eftimatiiig the characler of Alexander, as a conqueror
and warrior, what Livy has fuggefted (lib. ix. c. 17.), who
were the enemies with whom he combated. " Had he
marched," fays this writer, " againft the Romans, he would
foon have found, that he was no longer combating againft
a Darius, who, encumbered with gold and purple, the vain
equipage of his grandeur, and dragging after liim a multi-
tude of v.'omen and eunuolis, came as a prey rather than
as an e.ijiTiv ; and wiiom Alexander conquered without murli
blood, lud without wantln;^ any other merit, thsn that of
darinp to defpife what was really contemptible. He would
have round Italy very different from India, through which
he m.iiched in a riotous manner, his army quite ilupified
with v, ine ; particularly when he fliould have ieen the forefts
of Apulia, the mountains of I^ucania, and the itill receiit
foo- tops of the defeat of Alexander his uncle, king of
Eiurus, who there loft his life." Alexander, therelrvre,
p'.iily owed his conqueft to the weaknefs of his enemies.
After all it cannot be denied, that Alexander poffefl'ed veiy
great qualities : but they were thofe which were fitted to
infpire admiration rather than ifteem ; while the worft ren-
dered him a peft of mankind, and refcmbled him, as an ex-
cellent biographer obferves, " to one of thofe baleful me-
teors, which dazzle as they fly, but ruin where they fall."
He poffeffed talents, fays Dr. Robertfon, (Hift. America,
vol. i. p. 20.) which, notwithftanding the violent pafQonj
that incited him, at fome times, to the wildcft aftions and
the moll extravagant enterprizes, fitted him not only to
conquer, but to govern the world. If we throw into the
fcalc of his errors and vices, the prefumptuous idea he enter-
tained of his merit ; the high contempt he had for other
men, not excepting his own father ; his ardent thirft of
praife and flattery ; his ridiculous notion of fancving him-
felf the fon of Jupiter ; of afcribing divinity to himfelf ; of
requiring a free, vi£forious people to pay him a fervile ho-
mage, and to proftrate tiiemfelves ignomiuioufly before
him; his abandoning himfelf fo (hamcfully to wine; his
violent anger, whicli rifes to brutal ferocity ; the unjuft and
barbarous execution of his braveft and moil faithful officers,
and the murder of his moft worthy friends in the midil of
feafts and caroufals : Can any one, fays Livy, (hb. ix. c. 17.)
believe, that all thefe imperfetlions do not fully the repu-
tation of a conqueror ? But Alexanders frantic ambition,
which knew neither law nor limits ; the ralh intrepidity
with which he braves dangers, without the leaft reafon or
neceffity ; the weaknefs and ignorance of tiie nations, to-
tally unflvillcd in war, againil whom he fought ; do not
thcle enervate the reafons for which he is thought to have
merited the furname of Crcit, and the title of Hero ? Rol-
lin, in clofing the eftimate of Alexander's charafter, ob-
ferves, that we do not find that he polTeflcd the tirlt, the
moft effential and moft excellent virtues of a great prince,
fo as to be the father, the guardian, and fliepherd of his
people ; to govern them by good laws ; to make their trade,
botii by lea and land, to flouridi ; to encourage and protect
arts and fciences ; to eftablifli peace and plentv, and not
fuffer his fubjefls to be in any manner aggrieved or injured ;
to maintain an agreeable harmony between all orders of the
ftate, and make them confpire, in due proportion, to the
public welfare ; to employ himfelf in doing juftice to all his
fubjefts, to hear their difputes and reconcile them ; to con-
fider himfelf as the father of his people, tonfequently as
obliged to provide for all their ncccfTitics, and to procure
them the feveral enjoyments of life. He adds, Alexander
feems poffefl'ed of fuch qualities only as are of tile fecoiid

rauk

ALE

ALE

rjrrk, tliorc of war, and thcfe are ;J1 cxti-avagaiU. They
arj carried to tin; moil rafli and odious cxcfia ; and to the
extremes of folly a-.id fury ; whilll his kingdom is U-ft a
prey to the rapine and exactions of Antipattr, and ail the
conquered provinces abandoned to the infatiable avarice of
the governors, who carried their opprefTions fo far, that
Alexander was forced to put them to death. And as for
his own loldiers, when they had plundered the wealtlv of
tlie eart, they became fo licentious, fo debauched, and aban-
doned to vices of every kind, that he was under a ncceffity
of paying their debts, amountinir to fifteen hundred thoufaud
pounds. Although the Romans held Alexander's memory in
great veneration, it is very doubtful whether, iu the %irl.uous
ages of the commonwealth, he wo>ild have been confidered
as fo great a man.

Upon the whole, if an impartial perfon of good finfe
reads Plutarch's Lives of lUudrious IMen with attention,
they will leave fuch a kind of im])refiion on his mind, as
will make him conlider Alexander one of the leail valuable
among thein. But how llrong would the contrail be found
had we the lives of Epamlnondas, of Hannibal, and of
Seipio ? How little would Alexander appear, fet off with
all his titles, and furroundcd by all his eonquclls, (ven if
confidered in a military light, wh(.n compared with thofe^
heroes, who are truly great, and \\orthy ot their exalted re-
putation ! Diodorus Siculus.llb. xvii. torn. ii. p. ifio. — 253.
Ed. Weffeling. Plutarch. Opcr. torn. i. p. 664, — 707. Ed.
Xyland. Q. Curtii de Rebus geiUs Alex. Mag. Paf-
fim. Ed. bnakenb. Arriani Exped. Alexandri. Paffim.
Ed. Gronov. Strabo. Geog. turn. i. & ii. Ed. Amll.
1707. Rollin's Anc. Hift. book xv. vol. iv. and v. Anc.
Un. Hill. vol. vii. p. 280 — 437. 8vo.

Alexandfr Severus, the Roman emperor, was born
at Acra, in Phoenicia, according to one account, in the
year 208, but, according to another preferred by Gibbon,
Dec. 12, 2nj. His father was a Syrian, and became a
conful. His mother was Mamsea, daughter of Juha
Ivljefa, the filler of Julia, wife to the emperor Severus ; and
as another daughter of Ms;fa was married to Heliogaba-
lus, Alexander, or Alexianus, which was his family name,
was firll coufin to that emperor. His mother, who was a
woman of excellent talents and character, and who is fup-
pofcd to have imbibed Chriflian principle's, paid particular
attention to his education, and employed inch perlons for this
purpofe as were eminent for their probity and learning.
His application and improvement correfponded to his ad-
vatafres ; and every day was devoted to literary acquire-
ments, and to martial excreifes. With a robuil and grace-
ful form and confideiable mental acccmplilhments, he com-
bined a mild, humane, and generous temper, fo that he not
only abhorred every kind of cruelty, but made it his chief
fludy to pleafe and oblige his parents and relations, and even
his domtftics. When Mxfa, his grandmother, perceived
ttte approaching tennination of Heliogabalus's career of
profligacy, (he embraced a favourable opjiortunity of per-
fuading him to adopt Alexander.' Accordingly he afTumed
th'.s name inftead of that of Alexianus, with the addition
of Severus, and was inveiled with the title of Csefar, A. D^
221. The young prince foon gained the affections of the
people to a def^ree which excited the jealoufy of the empe-
ror ; and he therefore refolved to deilroy tlie envied and
dangerous competition, either by corrupting the manners,
or by taking away the life of his rival. Mama-a and her
mother defeated his defign in both thefe refpefts ; and by
means of the Pratorian guards, whofe attachment they had
fecured, Pleliogabalus's attempt againil the honour and life
of the your.g Csefaic teniuaaud iu kis own premature aud

ignominious death. By thcfe guards Alexander was ad-
vanced to the throne, A. 1). 222. 'J'he fenatc concurred,
and immediately inveiled him with tlie vanous titles and
power, annexed to the imperial dignity. At the fame time
they offered iiim the name of Antoninus, and the furname
of Great ; butr tliefe he modelUy declined. Alexander was
a dillident and dutiful youtii, of only 17 years of age ; the
reins of government were in the hands of his motlier and
grandmotlier ; and after the death of the btter, Mannea
remained the fole regent of her fon and of the empire.
With her confent he married the daughter of a patrician»
who afteiuards became the object of her jealouly and
cruelty, ai.d was baniflied by her inlligation, which Alex-
ander durft not oppofe, into Africa. It has been laid, in-
deed, by Lampridius, that the father was detefted in a coii-
fpiracy, and that the repudiation of the daughter was lli«
tonfequence of his crime. Ikit Herodian reprefents him
as innocent. Under her direclion, and with the approba»-
tion of the fenate, a council of (tate was ajipointed, confdU
ing of 16 of tin wifeil and mofi '.irtuous feuators. At ths
head of this number, as pr.etorian pneieCl, was Ulpiaii, dif-
tlnguinied by his knowledge and refpett for the laws of
Rome ; and the prudent fiimnefs of tliis arXluetacy reAored
order and authority to the government. The city, by their
influence, was purged from the fuperftition and luxury,
which Heliogabahis had introduced ; his worthlefs creatures
were alfo removed from every department of public admini-
ilration ; and their places were fupplied with men of virtue
and ability, l^earning, and the love of jullice, became the
only recommendations for civil offices. V'alour, and the
love of difcipline, were the only qualifications for military
employments. But the moil important objeft of Mama-a's
follcltude was that of forming the character of the young;
emperor. His excellent underftandlng encouraged cultiva-
tion, and led him duly to value the advantages of virtue,
the pleafures of knowledge, and the neceinty of labour.
The natural mildnefs and moderation of his temper prefer-
ved him from the affimlts of paflion and the allurements of
vice. Plis unalterable affciition for his mt^ther, and his re-
fpedl for the wife Ulpian, guarded his unexperienced youtlv
from the poifon of flattery. As Mamsa had probably cm-
braced the profefllon of Chrilllanity, it is no wonder that
Alexander was very indulgent to the Chriilians, and would
not fuffer them to be pcrfecuted on account of their religi-
ous tenets. He himfelf feems to have been well acquainted
with the Chriilian morals ; for he frequently repeated the
golden rule of the gofpel, " Do as you would be done
by ;" caufed it to be infcribed over the ga:es of his palace,
and on feveral public edifices : and obferved it in his own
conduft, with the greateft exaflneis.

" The fimple journal of his ordinary occupations," fays a.
popular hillorian, " exhibits a pleafing picture of an accom-
pllflied emperor,and with fome allowance for the diflerence of
manners, might well defcrve the imitation of modern princes.
Alexander rofe early : the firft moments of the day were .
confecrated to private devotion, and his domcftic chapel was
filled with the images of thofe heroes, who, by improving
or reforming human life, had defcrved the grateful rever-
ence of polierity. But, as he deemed the fervice of man-
kind the moH acceptable worfliip of the gods, the greateft
part of his morning hours was employed in his council,.
where he difcuffed public affairs, and diftermined private
caufes, with a patience and difcretion above his years. The
drynefs of bufinefs was relieved by the charms of literature ;
and a portion of time was always fet apart for his favourite
fludies of poetry, hillory, and philofophy. The works of
Virgil and Horace, tlic repubUcs of flat© and Cicero,
3 formed

A h K

formed hU tade, eiil.iv;,rtd liis underilHiiJlnjJ. und gave !''«
tliL- noblcil ideas of nuin and goverinncnt. The cxercifcs
..f the body fucccoded to tliofe of the mind ; ?.nd Alexan-
der, "ho was tall, attive, and robull, fni-palTed moll of liia
equals in the gymnalllc arts. Refiofiied by the ufe of the
bath and a lliglit dinner, he refiimcd, with new vigour, the
bnfmefs of the day ; and, till the hour of fupper, the pnn-
tipal meal of the Romans, he was attended by his fecrctanes,
with whom he read and anfwered the multitude of letters,
memorials, and petitions, that mull have been addreifed to
the maftcr of the grcateft part of the world. His table
was ftned with the moll fnigal fimplicity, and whenever
fie was at lib-rty to oonfult his own inelination, the com-
pany conlllltd of a few kKH friends, men of learning and
viriuc, amongll whom Ulpian was conilantly invited. 'I'heir
tonverfation was familiar and inilnidive ; and the paufea
were occalionally enlivened by the reeital of fome pleating
compofitiun, which fiipplied the place of the dancers, come-
dians, and even gladiators, i'o frKjiicntly fumnioned to the
tables of the rich and luxurious Roirans. The drefs of
iVlexandcr was plain and modell, his demeanour courteous
and atr:di!e : at tiie proper hours his palace was open to
nil his fubjecls ; but the voice of a crier was heard, as in
the Eleuiinian mylleries, pronouncing the fame lalutary
admonition ; " Let none enter tlufe holy walls, unlets he
is confcious of a pure and innocent mind."

His mother,thougli a princtfsofluund judgment and good
difpofitlon, and though he owed many of the excellencies he
poirefTed to herwifdoin and attention, was more fond of pomp
than himfelf; and did not approve the plainnefsand popularity
of his behaviour. " Take care," faid (lie to him one day,
")0u weaken not your authority,and render it contemptible."
" I render it," he anfwered, "more fecure and more dur-
able." Whilil he was ilnct, and fomttimes fevcre, in his
adminiftration of public jullice, and in the punidiment of
thofc who opprcfrtd the public, he was naturally mild
and gentle : and though he praftifed rigid economy, and
exercifcd felf-denial in eveiy thing that pertained to his
own gratification, he was liberal and beneficent. In the
courfe of his reign he made three general diliributions of
provifions to the people, and three largefiVs in money to the
foldicrs. To the indigent and dillreffed he gave lands,
flaves, cattle, and all necelfaiy implements of hufbandry ;
rightly judging, that this mode of cxercifing his liberality
was more beneficial and lefs humiliating than the giving of
gold and filver. If he granted pecuniary afllftance, it was
by way of loan ; and he eilabliihed a bank, where all who
wanted money found it at a moderate intereil, and on fome
occafion he lent without intereil. It was a faying of this
emperor ; " Imperium in virtute, non in decore ;" /. e.
" The majcily of the empire confifls in virtue, and not in
an oftentation of riches." Although he was very religious,
his offerings in the temples were not magnificent. He of-
ten repeated the words of Pcrfius (Sat. ii. v. 69.) " In
fanfto quid facit aurum ?" " What has gold to do with
facred things ?" His icfpedl for virtue extended to the
dead, as well as to the living. Accordingly he collefted in
Trajan's fquare the ilatues of the deified emperors of
Rome, and of the hunous Roman commanders, and
adorned them with infcriplions, fettlng forth their great
exploits and eminent virtues. In his palace he had two
chapels, in which the principal objefts of his veneration
were ranged in two clafTes, the one deftined to virtue, and
the other to talents. In the firil were placed the good em-
peror?, among whom he very enoneoufly ranked Alexan-
der the Great ; and next to them the wife men, by whofe
tjfeful leffous mankind had been benefited j and here were
7

ALE

blended Abraham, Orpheus, Apollonius TyaMKu?, and
Jefus Chrilt. The fecond chapel was dellintd to military
heroes, and men confpicuous in the republic of letters,
Acliilles, Cicero, Virgil, whom he called the Plato of the
poets, and fome others. In order to encourage the pi'ogrefs
of letters and of fcience in general, he allotted penfions to
rhetoricii.ns, graminarianp, phyficians, architedls, men
(killed in mechanics, and even to arufpices and adrologers.
He eilabliihed fchools for all ihefe arts, and provided for the
iidlruftion of the poor without expcnce to them. His life,
however, has not been free from blemilhes. His deference
for his mother was confideied as carried to a culpable cxcefs,
more efpecially as fhe, with all her good qualities, was ad-
difted to vanity and avarice. He gave htr name to fcveral
buildings, which, as we learn from 7\nimianus Marcelliiiu;)
(lib. xxviii. p. 372), they retained in the fourth century;
and caufed her to be honoured with the titles of Augufta,
mother of her country, of the armies, and of the leiiate.
He was alio charged, and not altogether without foundation,
with being of a fufpicious and inquifitive temper ; and with
being inclined to vanity; which latter weaknefs he indicated
by his avidity of praife and his affeiiiation of being regarded
as a Roman and of the family of iVIarcclli, and not a Syrian.
Plis timidity likewife betrayed him into imbecillity of con-
dnft ; particularly with reference to the prxtorian guards,
who by their mutiny produced a civil w ar in Rome, that
lailed three days, and that terminated in the maifacre of
Ulpian. Although this wife man, who was the friend of
the laws and of the people, fheltered himfelf from the fc-
ditious rage of this clafs of peri'ons in the emperor's palace,
and was murdered even in his prefence, he had not reiulutioa
fufficient to avenge this atrocious crime in the manner it de-
ferved. Such indeed was the weaknefs of government, that
the tyranny of the army threatened with inftant death his
moll faithful minillers, provided that they were only fuf-
peiled of an intention to corrett their intolerable diforders.
The hiflorian Dion Caffius, who had commanded the Pan-
nonian legions with a fpirit of ancient diicipline, and whom
the emperor recompenfed by appointing him his colleague in
the confullhip, was compelled to retire, by his advice, from
the citv, and to fpend the greatefl part of his confullhip at his
villas in Campania, and the remainder of his days in Bithynia,
his native countiy. Dion. Caff. Hill. lib. Ixxx. p. 1371.

On another occafion, however, he manifefled a becoming
firmnefs and magnanimity. When fome of the foldiers at
Antioch had excited a fedition in the legion to which they
belonged, and interrupted his mild expoflulations by their
clamours, he addrefled them in the following dignified and
fplrited language : " Refcrve your fhouts, till vuu take the
field againft the Perfians, the Germans, and the Sarmatians.
Be filent in the prefence of your fovereign and benefaftor,
who beftows upon you the corn, the clothing, and the money
of the provinces. Be filent, or I fliall no longer flile you
feldiers, but citizens; if thofe indeed who difclalm.the laws
of Rome deferve to be ranked among the meaneil of the
people." When their brandiihed arms threatened even his
perfon ; " your courage," refumed the intrepid emperor,
" would be more nobly difplayed in the field of battle ; me
you may dcftroy ; you cannot intimidate ; and the fevcre
juflice of the repubhc would puniih your crime, and revenge
my death." The clamour continuing, the empcior, with a
loud voice, pronounced the decifive fentencc : " Cilizens,
lay down your arms, and depart in peace to your rcfpeftive
habitations." Such was the cffeft of the fentence, that the
clamour was inllantly filenced ; the foldiers conteifed their
crime, and fupplicated forgivenefs ; nor were they reflored
to their rank in the army, till he had punifhed with death

thofc

ALE

ALE

tliofe tribune*, wliofc connivance had occafioncd the trmtiny,
Tlio grateful lection fcrvcd t'nc emperor, wlilill living, and
revonijeii him wlicntlcad. The difttrenee of his temper and
conduct on tiie oecafions above recited m\i(l be afenbed to
the dilferent vljrour of mind, which he puireired in liis youth
and iii his riper ajre. When he became cajKiIjle of taking
the government into his own hands, and of exerting liis
genius and couraj^c, no prince could more cfTeftually com-
mand til!; awe, as no one ever more dcferved the love, of
bis foldicrs. It was a frequent declaration of Alexander,
" the foldier does not fear his commanders, unlels he be fed
and clothed, and has fome money in his purfe." And
whilll he furnifhed lliem with mules and camels to cr.'rry part
of their baggage in their marches, he ufed to fay, " that
he took more care of his foldiers than of himfelf, becaule
it was on them that the welfare of the republic depended ;"
and he perfeftcd tiie plan which other emperors lind con-
certed for fecuring to the troops a decent and comfortable
retreat in their old age.

Whilll Artaxerxes, the reftorerof the Perfian monarchy,
•was preparing to invade the ]loman dominions, Alexander
fent ambafladore in order to dilfuade him from engaging the
two empires in a long and dangerous war. The nielTage
was received with contempt ; nor did any of Alexander's
remonllrances avail to prevent the Perlian monarch from
ravaging Mefopotamla and entering Cappadocia. The em-
peror, therefore, refolved to march againft him in perfon. In
the fpring of the year 233, Alexander, with an army of the
pi-a>torian guards and part of the hardy legions of Europe,
advanced ton-ards the frontiers of the Roman dominions to
meet the great king, which was the haughty ilyle affnmcd
by Artaxerxes in his embafllcs ; whofe force confifted, as
hiftory, fcarcely credible, reports, of i 20,000 horfe, clothed
in complete armour of fteel, of 700 elephants, with towers
filled with apchers on their backs, and 1800 chariots armed
with feythes. Of tlie event of the battle which cnfued, liif-
torians have given very oontraditlory accounts. Herodian
afferts, and Mr. Gibbon acqiiiefces in his account, that the
plan of Alexander for the condudl of the war, however ju-
diciouily concerted, totally failed. The emperor himfelf,
influenced by his mother's counfcls, and pei'haps by his own
fears, deferted the bravcft troops and the faireft. profpcft of
vidlory ; and after conf.miing in Mefopotamia an madive
and inglorious fummcr, led back to Anlloch an army dimi-
nilhed by ficknefs and provoked by diiappointment. But
the Perfian m.onarch, in feveral obflinate engagements againll
the veteran legions of Rome, lotl the flower of liis troops ;
and inftead of expelhng the Romans from the continent of
Alia, found iiimftlf unable to wreft from their hands die
little province of Mefopotamia. Crevier and manv other
modern writers chufe rather to follow Lampridius, whofe
account is entirely different fiuin that of Herodian. The
Perfians, fays tliis lad author, were totally defeated, and
Alexander approved himfelf an intrepid foldier and a Ikilful
general. The great king fled before his valotu' ; an immenfe
booty and the eonqueft of Mefopotamia were the immediate
fruits of this fignal viftory. Alexander, it is faid, having
taken care to guard Mefopotamia with feveral well garrlfoned
forts, returned to Rome, A. D. 2^4, to give the fenate an
account of liis exploits, and was received by ptrfoiis of all
ranks-with the greateil demonflratiuns of joy ; and obtained
a fignal triumph. His triumphal car was drawn by four
elephants; the air refounded with acclamations, and the
fli(uiting attendants uneeafingly exclaimed, " Rome is happy,
whilll ilie fees Alexander ahve and viiitorious."

Soon after his triumph, Alexander, accojnpanied bv hii
Vol. I.

mother, marched againft the Gernisn-:, who had pafleJ tlir
Rhine, and who were making ineinfi</ns into every part of
Gaul. Upon his arrival in Gaul, lie fent ambalTadois to the
barbarians in order to treat with them ; and if Herodian may
be credited, to purchafe peace, which he preferred to the
precariou'; ilfuu of a war. Having ])alTed tlie winter in tiic
neiglibinirhood of the Rhine, he eii'.ploved himfelf in intro-
ducing di(ci])liiic among the licentious legionaof Gaul. His
attempts for tins jinrpofe produced ditcontent in the army,
which were aggravated by a perfon, originally a barbarian
of mean origin, whofe father was a Goth and mother an
Alan, and who had been raifed from the lowefl: flation to
the rank of a general ofiicer. This perfon was proclaimed
emperor by the feditious foldiers ; and made his way to the
throne by the inaffacic both of Alexander and his mother.
This event happened on the 19th of March, A. D. 235,
when Alexander was in his 27th year, and after he had
reigned 13 years. The untimely death of Alexander wa»
univerlally regretted. The foldicrs, who were not concerned
in the plot, nianitefled their refentnient by a fi>ccdy vengeance
in immediately killing the murderers of their prince. The
lenate decreed both to him and his mother divine honours ;
appointed for them altars, priefts and facrifices ; and infti-
tuted, in honour of the deceafed empenn-, an annual feaft,
which was celebrated on the firll of Odober, the day of
his nativity. Crevier's Rom. Emp. vol. viii. Book xxiv. p.
279 — 350. Anc. Un. Hill. vol. xiii. p. 432 — 449. Gib-
bon's Hill. vol. i. p. 238, 240, 337. vol. ii. p. 450.

Alexander JE.gs.vs, a difciple of Sofigenes, and pre-
ceptor of Nero, by whom he is faid to have been corrupted,
is known as the author of a commentary on Arillotle's Me-
teorology ; wliich has been attributed to Alexander Aphix)-
diixus. isuidas. Fab. Bib. Grace, lib. iii. c. II.

Alexandi;r ALtolvs, a grammarian of Pleuron, in
TEtolia, was a co itcmporary of Aratus, and celebrated among
the feven writers of tragedy, called ihc pki as in the time of
Ptolemy Philadclphus. He alfo wrote elegies, cited byAthc-
nxus (lib. xiv. p. 699.), and other poems, commended by
Servius on the loth jiineld of Virgil, and referred to by
Athenxus (vii. p. 283. 296.) Suidaj. Eabr. Bib. Grxc.
lib. ii. c. 19.

Alexander Aphrodis.eus, fo called from a city of
Caria, where he was born, was ^n emintut philofopher of
the fchool of Ariilotle, about the clofe of the fecond or
beginning oT the third ucntury. flc' was appointed publiy
protcffor ot tlic Ariftotclian philofophy under the Roman
enipenn-s, Septimius Sevcrus and Caracalla, cither at Athens
or Alexandria, and dedicated the lirll fruits of his labours,
which is an excellent treatil'e, " On Fate," alferting the
doilrinc of Divine Providence, to thefc emperors. He was
iuppoled to have fo well underllood the fpeculations of his
mailer, and to have fo fatisfaclorily explained them, that he
was refpeiSted by his contemporaries as an excellent preceptor,
and followed by fucceeding Ariilotelians ainong the Greeks,
Latins and Arabians, as the bell interpreter of Ariilotle. He
obtained.the appellation of '• The Commentator," on account .
(if the number and value of his Commentaries. Hottingeraiid
Herbelot aifirm, that Arabic tranflatlons of his commentaries
are ilill extant. In his book concerning the foul, he main-
tained, that it is not a diftinS fubftance by itfelf, but the/or;n
of an organized body: he denied its immortality, and aflertcd«
that to maintain the poflibility of its exilling leparately from
the body, was as abfurd as to fay that two and two make
five. The works of this philofop!Krfl.ill extant are his book
" l)e Fate," publiilied from the prcfs of Aldus, at Venice,
in 1534, with a tianflation by Giutius, izmo. at Amfter-
4 S dam, I

ALE

<1am
lit

1, in 1648 ; and in London, witli a new I-atintrannation,
i6«S, Hvo. ; liis ComnKtitiiiics on ArUlotk's Topics,
An-alytic-s, Mitapliyfics, Phvlics, Rlutoiic, v<!cc. lirll pub-
lilhcd' nt Venice, in tlie l6tli century, and many of them
aftcnvartls reprinted in different places ; but iince tlie Ihidy
of Aridotle ha? been nejletled, liis bell commentator is
forsrotten. The principal of his medical works is his
" Treatife on Fevers," tranflated into Latin by Valla, of
which Haller has given an analyfis ; Bib. Med. Prad. vol. i.
p. 22 7. Tabr. liib. Grxc. vol. iv. c. 25. Bruckcr's
Philof. by Enfield^ vol. ii. p. 104.

Alexander, Cornelius, furnamedPoA'/'i/'''"'' °" account
of the numerous hillories written by him, a celebrated hillorian
and gi-ammarian, was bom, accordin<j to Suidas, at Miletus;
but, according to others, at Cotyreiun, a city of Phrjgia.and
having been a nave,w;is fold to Cornelius LenluUis, to whom he
was preceptor ; and from whom he obtained his freedom and
the name of Cornelius. He flouriftied about 80 years before
Chrift. From Suidas we learn, that he was the difciple of
Crates, and that he was at Rome in and before the time of
tiylla. He periihed in tlie flames of hk houfe at Laurentum ;
and his wife became dittrafted by the event, and hanged
horfelf. Suidas further adds, that he wrote innumerable
works ; and particularly five books concerning Rome, in
which he fays, that a Hebrew female, called Mofo, was the
author of the Hebrew law. His works in hiftory and phi-
lofophy are cited by Plutarch, Laertius, and other ancient
writers. Clemens Altxaiidrinus (Strom, lib. i. torn. i. p.
596, ed. Potteri) cites a book concerning the Jews, in which
Alexander mentions letters of Solomon to Vaphres, king of
Egypt, and to the king of the Phoenicia of the Tyrians,
and their refpeclive anfwers. He refers alfo (tom. i. p.
538.) to remarks made by Alexander on the mode of living
in ufe among the Indian Brachmans ; he reports (tom. i. p.
357.) from a book of Alexander concerning the Pythagoric
Symbols, that Pythagoras was a difciple of Nazaratus, an
Affyrian, erroneouily fuppofed by fome to be the fame with
the prophet Ezekiel, and that he had alfo received inftruftion
from the Galli and Brachmans. Eufeblus, (in his Praep.
Evang. hb. ix. c. 1 7.) makes a long extraft from Alexander's
book concerning the Jews, and extols the author's well-
known great ingenuity and various learning. This is pro-
bably the work refeiTed to by Juftin Martyr, in his " Ex-
hortation to the Greeks," when he mentions thofe who re-
pfefent Mofes as the leader of the Jews. Plutarch (de
Mufica, Op. tom. ii. p. ii32.)and AthenKus (hb.xi.) fpeak
of him as a writer in mufic ; and his acquaintance with na-
tural hiftory may be inferred from Phny's frequent references
to his works. Fabr. Bib. Grasc. lib. v. c. 38. tom. ix. p. 439.
Alexander Pseudomantis, an artful and profligate
impoilor, was born at Abonotichos, in Paphlagonia, and
praftifed his dclufions in the reign of the emperor Aurelius,
towards the clofe of the fecond century. He pofTefled by
nature a variety of talents and accompli (hments, by the mif-
applicatiou of which he was qualified for impofing upon the
credulity of the vulgar. DciUtute of principle, he engaged
with a countryman and difciple of Apollonius Tyansus,
who, under the mafic of a medical profeffion, exercifed the
trade of an impoilor and magician, and deluded thofe who
applied to him by pretending to reveal fecrets in concerns of
love, and of loll and hidden property. Alexander was an
ufeful fervant and an apt fcholar ; and when his mafter died,
praftifed his leffons and followed his trade. Such was his
fuccefs, that he infatuated a rich Macedonian woman, and
incuced her to follow him and his alTociate from Bitliynia to
Macedon and to Pella, and to contribute by her fortune to
their fupport. Having procured, in tlie iieighbouihood of

ALE

Pella, one of thofe large ferpents, which arc perfei'\!y Iiaiw.
lefs and very tracleible, ;md with which tliat country abounds,
thev determined by means of this animal to ellablilh an
oracle, which flu)uld impofe upon thole perfons vvho wtrc
eager to gain the knowledge of iuturity, and who by their
credulity were futceptible of delulion. In their way to
Abonotichos, the propofed fcene of their operations, they
vifited Chalcedon and formed a party, by whole aflillance
they had accefs to the temple of Apollo, where they hid
tablets of brafs on which it was written, that iEfculapius,
with his father Apollo, would foon make Abonotichos th«
place of their relidence. The inhabitants of this place were
fo completely deluded, that they laid the foundation of a
temple to jEfcuIapius, with whofe preience they expeftcd
foon to be honoured. Alexander, by a pretended oracle,
caufed himfelf to be declared a defceiidaut of the hero Per-
fius, and the fon of Podalirius, which his ftupid countiymen
believed, though they well knew that his father and mother
were perfons of the meaneft condition. With a drefs and
accompaniments, fuited to this hig'.i original, he entered hii
native tovvn. Having hidden a gooie's egg, in which he
had put a young ferpcnt, near the foundations of the temple,
and having previoufly performed a variety of fuperllitioua
ceremonies, he went with a crowd of attendants in fearch oF
his egg ; and when he had found it, he declared that jEfcu-
lapius, who was worfhipped under that form, was actually
arrived, and the people received him with acclamation.
Alexander proceeded with his impofture by exhibiting his
ferpent, prepared for the purpofe, to the deluded multitude,
who believing him pofTelTed of the power of working miracles,
and mifledby his affefted enthufiafm, were fuitably difpofed for
eveiy thing that followed. From Abotonichos the delufioa
fpread through all the neighbouring nations, and the people
hallened from Galatia, Bithynia, and Thrace, to fee the
new god, whom the prophet called Glycon. Money was-
procured to finifli the temple, and the god was to make it
the place of his abode, arid to give oracular anfwers to thofe
who confulted him. The oracle was confulted by a billet,
which Alexander contrived to open fccretly ; and he adapted
the anfwer to the purport of its contents. By degrees he
made his god pronoimce oracles with his own voice, by the
affiilance of a perfon that was concealed behind liim ; and
thefe oracles were delivered only to the rich and powerful.
This praftice became a gainful trade, and the impoftor de-
rived from it a yearly income, which amounted to 7 or 800
thoufand drachmas, and which enabled him to live fumptu-
oufly, and to purfue thofe debaucheries to which he was
inclined, and to which he had been habituated from his youth.
It was not long before the reputation of this profligate
reached Rome ; and Rutilianus, a fuperftitious fenator of
the firft rank, was deceived by him, and thus the number of
thofe who confulted him was prodigioufly augmented. Ru-
tihanus, who believed the doftrine of the tranfmigration of
fouls, dcfirous of being informed under what form he had lived
in former ages, and whofe foul he now pofTeflTed, received an
anfwer which ferved the impollor's purpofe, and which gave
him fuch influence over the credulous fenator, that he con-
fented to marry his daughter, and conceived himfelf to be
exalted to the rank of the gods. Lucian, who blends
fiftion with his humorous account of Alexander's impofl;ures,
relates, among other inftances of his delufion, the following
incident. Rutilianus, having procured for him accefs to the
emperor, he delivered an oracle, commanding that, in the
war between Marcus Aurelius and the Qjiadi and Marco-
manni, two lions fhould be thrown alive into the Ifter, with
fpices and a facrifice, and promiiing, that the confequence
would be vidlory, glory and peace. The o)"der was executed,

and

ALE

RiiJ tlie lions, wlio fwam on (liorc into th? enemies' cntintiy,
were delh'oyed ; bat the Romans were iooii aftenv;uds to-
tally defeated. Alexander, for prefervinij liis reputation,
calmly faid, that the oracle had foretold a viftory, but had
not declared whether it would happeu to the Romans or
their enemies.

Amidft the fuccefTes of Alexander, he found himfelf at-
tacked by two claiTcs of adverfaries, who detei-niiiied to mi-
madv his importure. Thele wei-e the ChrilHans and the Epi-
cureans. In order to counterail their infiuenee, he began the
ceremony of the pretended myfteries, which he inllituted in
imitation of the Eleufinian, with proclaiming, '• Hence all
Chrillians ;" and the choir rejoined, " Ilenee all Epicu-
reans." He alfo often repeated, that Pontus was full of
Athcift.i and Chrillians, and that thefc enemies of the gods
ought to be iloned; and what lie adviled, he endeavoured more
than once to execute. Lueian, who once endeavoured to
enfnare him, had nearly loll his life in the attempt. The
impoftor, however, determined to dcllroy him ; and with
this view he received him politely, and, at his departure,
made him prefeuts, and furnifltcd him with a veflcl and
rowers. When he was at fea, he oijlerved the pilot weeping,
and difputing in a myfterious manner with the feamen. At
length the honell pilot difclofed the fecret, and with great
concern informed Liician, that he had received orders to
throw him into the fea ; but that he had lived with honour
for 60 years, and that he could not prevail with himfelf to ren-
der his old age infamous, and to incur the difpleafure of the
gods by mtn-der. Lueian was put on ihore, and elcaped the
villainy of theiimpollor. This delufion lafled 20 years ; but
it is faid, that Alexander terminated his life in a tragical
manner ; being deflroyed by worms, which proceeded from
a mortification in 'the foot, leg and thigh. Lucian's Alex-
ander feu Pfeudomantis apud oper. tom.ii. p. 207. Crevicr's
Rom. Em. vol. vii. p. 346 — 357. See impollure and
truth admirably contralled in the charafter and conduft of
St. Paul, and this Alexander, by Lord Lyttelton in his
*' Converfion, Sec. of St. Paul," Works, vol. ii. p. 54,
&c. 8vo.

Alexander, the Soph'iji, was born in Seleucia, a city of Ci-
licia, and educated under Favorinus, Adrian's great favourite,
who taught him the art of fpeaking, in which he excelled,
and for which he is highly commended by Philoftratns. The
firft office he fuftained was that of ambaffador from Seleucia to
the emperor Antonine; and he was afterward interpreter for
the Greek tongue to M. Aurelius. He fpent the greateil
part of his life in the fchools of Antioch, Rome and Tarfus ;
and he vifited almoft all the parts of Egypt. Whilil he was
at Athens he acquired great fame by the extemporaneous
orations which he delivered, and received very diitinguifhed
tokens of favour from Herod. He died, as fome fay, in
Gaul, but according to others in Italy, at the age of 60,
or by fome accounts, 68 years. Philoftratus de Vitis So-
phiftarum, apud oper. p. 570. ed. Olearii.

Alexander Trallian, a learned and ingenious phy-
fician pf Tralles, a city of Lydia, flouriflied at Rome in
the time of the emperor Juftinian, about the middle of the
fixth century. Friend is very copious in his account, and
profufe in his encomiums on the works of this great man,
VFhom he confiders as one of the bell praftical phyficians
among the ancients.

Like Hippocrates he travelled over various coimtries, over
Italy, France, Spain, and Egypt, to improve himfelf in
knowledge ; and is faid to have acquired a competent ac-
tjuaintaiice with the languages of the different , countries
through which he palTed^ He invented feveral compolitions,

A L E

and improved many of thofc in common ufe. lie wasliber4l
in adminlllerlng preparations of iron, internally, which before
liis time was little, if at all, done. He followed the pradlicc
of Hippocrates and Galen, though not fervikly, but ua
preferring it to that of ylitius and Oribulius, with whofe
woiks he appears to have been well acquainted. He was not
however free from fome of the errors ol the age in which Kc
lived, being credulous and fuperftitious, and having great
faith in charms and amulets. He has given no accouut
of the difeafes peculiar to women, which Friend juftly
thinks, conlidering the general cdimation he was in, and the
extent of hispradlice, is very fmgular.

His works were full printed in Greek by Robert Ste-
phens, at Paris, 1548, in folio ; in Greek and I^atin, at
BaOe, 1556, Johan. Guinthero Interprete. For .m account
of various other editions, fee Haller's Bib. Med. Pr.l£l. vol. J.
p. 305 Haller's edition was printed at Lavfannc, in

Alkxander Javn;i:us, king of the Jews, was the third
fon of Hyrcanus, and lueeeeded his brother Ariftohidus in
the year before Chrill 106. Q^ueen Salome, the widow of
Ariftobuhis, took him and his two brother,", out of prifon,
and placed Alexander on the throne. His fourth brotlicr
endeavoured to deprive him of the crown, and was put to
death ; but the youngell, whofe name was Ablaloni, was fa-
voured with his protection, as long as he lived. Alexander,
being a fublle and warlike prince, began his reign witJl
leading an army againll Ptolemais ; but his ov/n dominions
being invaded during his abfence by Ptolemy Lathyrus, he
was obliged to raife the liege and return to defend them.
On the banks of the Jordan he was defeated, with the lof»
of 30;000 men, befides thofe that were taken priloncrs, and
if he had not been fuccoured by Cleopatra, Lathyrus
would have forced his way into Juda'a. Alexander, afteT an
interview with Cleopatra at Ptolemais, returned to Jerufalem ;
and having recruited his broken army, he marched againft.
Gadaraand took it. He next proceeded againft Amathus, and
reduced it after a very (hort ficge ; but he was foon obliged
to relinquifh it in confequencc of a defeat by Thcodotui,
the fon of Zeno, tyrant of Philadelphia, in which he loft
many men, his baggage, and the whole of the treafure which
he had taken poll'eflion of at Amathus. The next place
againll which he direfted his arms was Gaza, which had af-
forded proteftiou and affiftance to Lathyrus ; and on this
account, as foon as the town was betrayed to him, he
revenged himfelf on the inhabitants after leading them to
expeft clemency and moderation, by abandoning them to
the fury of his foldiers. However, this art of vengeance,
executed with fingular fevcrity, provoked the citizens to
reful to the utmoll of their power ; fo that he lofl of his
own men as many as he dcllroyed of the enemy. He then
reduced the city to a heap of ruins. On his return to Jeru-
falem, the people, exafperated by the Pharifees, who were
conllantly caballing againll him, infulted him with the mod
opprobrious language, exclaiming that fuch a flave as he was
unworthy of either the pontifical or regal dignity, and pro-
ceeded even to violence againll his perfon. Although he
took effeftual meafnres 10 ieeure himfelf from further infult
and injun', he was v.earied with their clamours and marched
out of Jenifalem, in order to gratify his inclination for war.
Having taken and deRroycd the city of Amathus, he pro-
ceeded againll the Arabians, whom he fubdued, and then
laid the Aloaliiies and Mountaineers of Gilead under tribute.
Near Gadara he fell into an anib\illi, and il was with great
difficiJty that he efcapc<l and regained his own capital.
During his abfence, his inveterate enemies, ths Phanfces,
4 K 3 had

ALE

caufcd a rebellion, which brought on a civil war, that lafted
fix years. Dcinctriii?, fumamcd Eiichterus, adiited the rebels
with a conliderable force ; and after Tome previous iliinniftics
Alexander was defeated, and forced to retire for (belter to
the mountains. This defeat, however, induced the Jews
^ho had joined Demetrius to defert him, and join the army
of Alexander ; and Demetrius.alarmcdby this dcfcAion.lcft
Judia. This circumilance afi'orded Alexander an oppor-
tunity to march againft the rebellious Jews ; but tbough he
defeated them in every engagemait, the fur)' of their rcfent-
ment continued till a'ddcifivc battle put an end to the war.
In this lall afiion he cut off the grcatell part of their army,
and drove the reft into Bcthome, which he befiegcd and
captured. Tofcphus, who being a zealous Pharifec, may
poffibly have exaggerated, infomis us, that be caufed Sco
of the principal captives to be earned to Jerufakm, where
they were all crucified at the fame time and place ; and that
whilft they were hanging on the crofs, he ordered their wives
and children to be butchered before their faces. It is added
bv the hiftorian, that a banquet was prepared for himfelf and
his concubines, fo near to this horrible fcene, that they might
behold and enjoy the torture and diftrcfs of the fufferers.
After this event, the rebels difperfed ; nor were the Pharifees
■ able to make any effort againfl him as long as he lived. The
fncceeding years of his hfe were employed in extending his
conquerts througli Syria, Idumaea, Arabia and Ph^nicia ;
and in ellabhihing his charaftcr as a warhke and viftorious
prince. His return to Jerufalem, after an expedition of
three years' continuance, was the occafion of loud acclama-
tipns on the part of his fubjefts. But from this time he
demoted himfelf to drinking and other debaucheries ; which
at length brought on a quartan ague, that prevailed till the
day of his death, which happened about three years after
his return. His ambition for making new conquefts ftill
continued ; but his ftrength being exhaufted both by fatigue
snd intemperance, he died in bis camp before Regaba, a
fortrefs in the Geiafcne territory beyond Jordan, which he
Tvas bcfieging, in the 27th year of his reign, in the year
before Chrift 79. He left two fons, Hyrcanus and Arifto-
bulus ; but decreed by his will, that his wife Alexandra
fhould govern the kingdom during her life, and appoint
for her fucccfTor either of them, according to her own plea-
fure. Alexandra, by conciliating the Pharifees, according
to the advice of lier hufband, fccured their influence with
the people ; fo that they celebrated the funeral of the
dcceafcd king with great pomp, and confirmed her as a
fovereign adminiftratrix of the nation. Her eldeft fon
Hyrcanus was appointed high prieft, and the direction of
all affairs of importance was committed to the Pharifees.
Their refentment againfl thofe who had oppofcd them in
the late reign ftill continued ; and they contrived every me-
thod that was practicable for deflroying them. This con-
duft, to which they faw no end, induced them to affemble,
and with Ariflobulus at tlieir head to wait on the queen and
to implore her proteftion. The queen, having furrcndered
herfelf and the government to the Pharifees, could devifc
no means for their liberty, that were likely to be effcftual.
At length (lie complied with their requeft, and confenled
that they fhould difperfc themfelves into places where fhe
had garrifons. In the year before Chrift 70, Alexandra
was feized with a diforder which threatened her life ; and
when Ariftobulus perceived her danger, he repaired to liis
■friends, in the garrifoncd towns, and they arranged them-
felves in great numbers under his ftandard ; hoping that he
would exert himfelf for abohfliing the odious and oppreflive
tyranny of the Pharifees, and well knowing, that no fervicc

ALE

of this kind could be expefted from his brother Hyrcanus,
who had been educated ly his mother in a blind fuluiiifTion
to this fed. The Pharifees were alarmed, and accompanied
Hyrcanus to the queen, in order to reprefent what had oc-
curred, and to demand her afiillance. The impaired llate of
her he'nlth would not admit of her interference, and having
left the care of the government to them, fhe appointed
Hyrcanus her heir general, and foon after expired. Accord-
ingly he took pofTefiion of the throne, and raifed an army to
oppofe his brother, who was fupported by the people. A
battle near Jericho decided the quarrel. Hyrcanus, aban-
doned by the greatefl part of his troops, who went over
to his brother, was obliged to fly to Jerufalem, and after-
wards to feek an afylum in the caftle of Baris, whilll his
partifans, who were chiefly of the (cA of the Pharifees, took
refuge in the temple. In a little wOiile they, as well as
Hyrcanus, fubmittcd to Ariflobulus, and in the year before
Chrifl 69, he obtained both the high-prieflhood and the
crown. Jofephus Ant. lib. xiii. c. 12 — 15. torn. i. p. 666 —
675. Bell. Jud. lib. i. c. 4. torn. ii. p. 59 — 62. Anc. Un.
Hill. vol. iii. p. 114 — 123. Rollin's Anc. Hift. vol. viii.
p. 4— II.

Alexander, Balas, king of Syria, was, as fome fay,
the natural fon of Antiochus Epiphanes, but according to
others, a young man of mean extratlion at Rhodes, named
Balas, fuborned by Herachdes, at the infligation of Pto-
lemy, Attalus, and Ariarathes, to perfoliate the fon of
Antiochus Epiphanes, and under that title, to lay claim to
the crown of Syria, in oppofition to Demetrius. After he
had been acknowledged by the three kings above-mentioned,
Herachdes, who condufted the impoflure,took him to Rome,
in the year before Chrifl 153, and together with him Lao-
dicea, the real daughter of Antiochus Epiphanes, and pre-
fented them to the fenate, who received them gracioufly,
and pafTed a decree in their favour ; though, as Polybius
afferts, (Legat. cxlii. p. 966.) the whole city was con-
vinced of the impoflure. The fenate not only acknowledged
Balas under the affumed name of Alexander, but decreed,
tliat their allies fhould aflifl him in his endeavours for reca-
vering the rights of his father. Thus countenanced by the
Roman fenate, he landed in Syria, and found no difficulty
in raifing troops, which, together with the fuccours afforded
him by Ptolemy, Attalus and Ariarathes, enabled him to
make himfelf mafter of Ptolemais, the reduftion of which
induced a great number of perfons who were difaffefted to
Demetrius to join him. Demetrius and Alexander were
competitors for the favour and fupport of Jonathan, who
had fucceeded Judas Maccabxus in the command of the
Jewilh forces, and flrove to outvie each other in their alluring
offers. Alexander, however, prevailed ; and with him Jo-
nathan jbrmed an alliance. Thefe tvro competitors took
the field at the head of their refpeftive armies ; and though
Alexander was defeated, he maintained his ground ; and
being fupplied by his powerful allies with frelh fuccours,
he fucceeded in a fecond battle, in which Demetrius was
killed, before Chrifl 150. Alexander, having gained pof-
feffion of the whole Syrian empire, fent an embaffy ta
Egypt, demanding Cleopatra, the daughter of Ptolemy, in
marriage ; and the king not only complied with his requeft,
but attended her in perfon, and the nuptials were folemnized
at Ptolemais in a very fplendid and magnificent manner.
Alexander could not bear his elevation and profperity, but
became indolent and debauched, and committed the manage-
ment of his affairs to a profligate and tyrannical favourite,
whofc name was Ammonias, and who conduced himfelf
with a degree of defpotifm aud cruelty, which expofgd him
(i and

ALE

and his mafter to the hatred of the whole nation. Deme-
trius, the elJcll of the deceafed kinjj's fons, availed himfclf
of this opportunity for recovering his right ; and was ac-
knowledged by ApoUonius, governor of Ca:ltfyria and
Fhccnice. When Alexander was roufed out of his lethargy,
and perceived the danger of his iituation, he applied to his
father-in-law, Ptolemy, for adillance ; and he marched to
his relief with an army, which the author of the fecond
book of Maccabees compares to the fand of the fea-fliore.
Upon his arrival at Ptoltmais he was informed, or as others
fay, he pretended, that Alexander was plotting againft his
life, and that Ammonias had charged himfelf with the exe-
cution of this deteflable fcheme of treachery. Ptolemy
complained to the king of Syria of this plot, and demanded
the criminal to be delivered up to him ; hut Alexander re-
fufmg to comply, Ptolemy concluded that he was privy to
the defign, and that Ammonins was only executing his
mailer's orders. Upon this real or feigned plea, Ptolemy
determined to turn his arms againll his ibn-in-law, and fent
amhaiTadors to young Demetrius, offering him his daughter
Cleopatra, the wife of Alexander, and promifing to fettle
him on the throne of his ancellors. Demetrius accepted the
offer, and when the news of this event reached Antioch,
Ammonius was put to death by the populace ; but the inha-
bitants of the city refufcd to declare in favour of Demetrius.
However, fuch was the hatred they had conceived againll
Alexander, that they entered into a confederacy againil him,
and opened their gates to Ptolemy, offering to put the crown
on his head. This prince, fays Jofephus, knowing how
to fet bounds to his ambition, rcjefted ti»e propofal, and
vith Angular felf-denial and generoiity, declared, that he
could not, without the moil flagrant injuftiee, place himfclf
on the throne of Syria, by excluding the lawful heir. He
proceeded to recommend Demetrius by an eulogy on his
charafter, and by pledging himfelf as guarantee for his
future conduft, at the fame time undertaking to affiH him,
and to teach him the art of governing. Thefe difiaterefled
reprefentations of Ptolemy had the defired effeft. Deme-
trius was proclaimed king of Syria, and placed on the throne
of his ancellors. Alexander, who was then in Cihcia, af-
fembled a numerous army and advanced to Antioch. Pto-
lemy met him, aid a bloody engagement enfiied, in whie'i
Alexander was defeated ; and his adherents abandoning him,
efpoufed the caufe of Demetrius. Upon this Alexander
fled to Arabia, and feeking refuge in the houfe of Zabdiel
or Zabel, or as Diodorus Siculus (in Excerpta Photii cod.
244.) calls him. Diodes, was murdered by his treacherous
holl. Ptolemy was wounded mortally by Alexander's
friends ; and when the head of the murdered prince was
brought to him as a prefent from the Arabian, the joy he
felt on the occafion foon put an end to his life. Demetrius,
without any further oppofition, took poffcffion of his father's
dominions, and llyled himfelf from this vielory Nlcalor, or
the conqueror. Alexander Balas had reigned, according to
Jofephus, five, but according to the hillory of the Maccabees,
fix years, reckoning from the i6oth year of tlie sra of the
Seleueidre to the 167th, which was the firil year of the
reign of Demetrius Nicator. This happened in the year
before Chrill 145. Such is the account which Jofephus
gives of the troubles of Syria, and the death of Alexander
Balas. But the author of the hiftoi-y of the Maccabees
varies much from him, efpecially in what relates to the cha-
rafter of Ptolemy Philometor, whom Jofephus highly com-
mends ; whereas the author of the firlt book of the Macca-
bees reprefents him as an ambitious and perfidious prince,
who trampled under foot die raolt facred laws of jiature and

ALE

jnftice, to raife himfelf on the ruins of his fon-in-la«r. Jj.
lephus Ant. lib. xiii. c. 2.4. torn. i. p. 634 — 643. DiudMrua
Sic. torn. ii. p. 592. i Maccabees xi. "4 — 12. Ane. Uii.
Hill. vol. viii. p. 224 — 2^3.

Alkxandkr, bhhop of Jerufalcm, was a difciple of Pan-
txnus and Clement of Alexandria, towards the clofc of the
fecond century, and dillinguidied in his maturer ycart, by the
iirmnefs and zeal with v/hich he maintained his ChrilUan pro-
feffion at a period of fevere perfecution. In the I2thytar
of the emperor Sevtrus, A. D. 204, when he was bil'hop
of the church in Cappadocia, he was imprifoned for his pro-
feffion of theChriilian faith ; and his fidelity and fortitude
on this occafion induced the church at Jerufalem to chufc
him as colleague to Narciffus, whofe advanced age of n6
years rendered him incapable of performing the duties ol*liis
office. His imprifonment feems to have continued from the
year 204 to the year 2i i, at which time it appears from a-
letter written by him to the church of Antioch he was not
releafed from confinement. About this time, however, or
foon after, he vifited the church at Jerufalem, and was pro-
moted to the hifliopric of that church. Of the revelation
and vifions which are laid to have preceded his eledion, it is
not neceffary to give any account in this place ; as they are
not likely to obtain much credit, plis known charadler ai-d
tried integrity obvioufiy recommended him to this choice,
and he approved himfelf worthy of it by a courfc of fervice
and fuffering that lailed 39 years. When the perfecution of
the Chrilbans was renewed under the emperor Decius, Alex-
ander, now venerable for his old age and grey hairs, as En-
lebius expreffes himfelf, was fummoned "to the governor's
tribunal at Cefarea, and about the year 250, avowing Iris
profeffion, before the tribunal, he was call into prifon, where
his confinement and fufferings terminated in his dctith,
A. D. 251. From the fragments of his hillory ihat remain,
and that are chiefly preferved by Eufcbius in his " Ecclc-
fiaflical Plillory," (p. 212. 216. 222. ed. Valef.), welearn,
tl'.at Alexander erefted a libraiy at Jerufalein, which con-
tinned in his time, and furnifhed materials for iiis hifton-. It
appears alfo from the tellimony of Origen, with whoin
Alexander was intimate, that he was not only eminently
pious and devout, but peculiarly diflinguiflied by his hu-
mlhty, meeknefs and gentlenefs ; that he was a frequent and
agrecab'e preacher ; that he was a perfon of competent
knowledge and learning, having been educated by Pant.Tnu3
and Clement, and maintaining an intimate friendfliip with
Origen and Clement, two of the mod learned men that ever
lived, and that he was alfo a patron of learning. We
are alfo indebted to him for his glorious tellimony to the truth
of the Chriilian religion, and his own remarkable example
of lleadinefs in the faith of Chrifl, of which he made
two confeffions before heathen magillrates, at the dillancof
above 40 years from each other, for the lail of which he
fuffered an imprifonment, under which he made a happy
end. And certainly the fncccfl^on of bifliops and churches
in the land of Judea, where the preaching, miracles and
fufferings of Chnll and his firil apollles, ar.i placed by the
evangelills, under fo many difficulties and troubles, affords
a ftrong argument for ihe truth of thofe great and extraor-
dinary fads, upon wliieh the Chriitian religion is founded.
Lardner'o Works, vol. ii. p. 391 — 397., Cave. Hill. Liter.
Sxc. iii. tom. i. p. 100. ed. Oxon.

Alexander, bilhop of Alexandria, fucceeded Achillas
in this fee, in the year 312 or 313. In his time commenced
the Arian controvcrfy, in which he appears to have engai-til
with an ardour that was blended with a very confidenible
degree of bittemefs of fpiiit. He culls Arius and 'Lis fol-
lowers

ALE

lowers apo(lat«, enemies of Chrift, and impious ; and adds,
t!iat tlicy had done tlieir iitinotl to exceed all paft lierefies,
and to approach nearer to Anliclirill ; accordingly he excom-
municated them from the church. He is called, however,
byThcodoret (Eccl. Hirt. p. 7. ed. Valcf.) the "Great
Alexander," and " a verj- excellent defender of the evan-
gelical docirinc." Alexander was prefent at the council of
Nice in 32 j, and died at Alexandria, before the end of that
year, or fome time in 326, within five months after the
breaking up of the coui.cil, or after his return home from
it. His writings confilled of epillles fent to bifhops in
feveral parts of the world, which, according to Epiphanius,
(H. Ixix. n. 4.) amounted to 70 in number, and were extant
in his time. Of thel'e two now remain ; one in Socrates
(Hill. Eccl. hb. i. c. 6. p. 10. ed. Valef.) addrefled to the
bilhops of Alexandria, and another in Theodorct (H. E.
lib. i. c. 4. p. >>. ) to Alexander, bifhop of Byzantium, with
fragments of fomc others. Fabr. 15ib. Grec. torn. viii. p. 341.
InthefeepiftlesfcvcralbooksoftheNewTertamcnt,particularly
St. Paul's epillles, arc frequently quoted, and the eplille to
the Hebrews was received by Alexander as Paul's. He
expreffcs a high rcfpeCl for the fcriptures, which lie calls
" divine ;" and though he profcffcs great regard to the wif-
dom and piety of ancient writings, near the days of the
apolUes, he feems not to have confidcred them as dccilive
and of authority in matters of religion, as he has not fre-
quently cited them. Lardner's Works, vol. iv. p. 103 —
105. Cave H. L. torn. i. p. 173.

Alexander, of Lycopolis, a city of Thebais, was, as
Fabricius (Bib. Grxc. torn. v. p. 290.) fuppoles, firll a
Heathen and Manichee, and afterwards a Catholic Chrlllian,
in which opinion Cave (De Scriptoribus Eccl. incertae setatis,
p. 2. H. L. torn, ii.) concurs, and a writer, probably of the
fourth century. Photins calls him archbifhop of Cyropolis ;
but Beanfobrc argues, that he was a mere Heathen or Pagan
philofophcr, and Tillcmont adopts the fame opinion. Dr.
Lardner obfenes, that if he was ever a Manichee, he muil
have been at that time a Chriftian, as the Manichees were
Chritlians ; but it is not eafy to detennine what he was
afterwards, when he wrote agaiuft them. This excellent
writer inclines to think that he was a Gentile, and places him
at the year of Chrill 350. He feems to have been well ac-
quainted with the Manichees and other Chriftians ; and to
have had fome knowledge of the fcriptures of the Old and
New Tcftament, to which lie occafionally refers. He ex-
prcffes himftlf, with rcfpeft and commendation, concerning
Chriit and the Chridian philofophy, which he reprefents as
** fmiplc, and intended, by plain precepts, witliout nicedif-
quifitions and intricate reafonings, to promote virtue among
all forts of men, and es-en among the lower ranks, and com-
mon people." He was evidently, fays Lardner, a learned
and rational man. His work, intitled, " irfo; la,: Mctvi^^aia
3eja:-," " againft the opinions of the Manichees," was pub-
lifhed in Gr. and Lat. by Combcfifius, in tom. ii. Auftarium
Patr. Ghec. Novifllmum, at Paris, in 1672, fol. It is extant
alfo in M.S. in the Ca;farcan library. Fabricius, uHfupra,
Cave. H. L. ubi fupra. Lardner's Works, vol. iii. p. 384.
vol. viii. 349—351.

Alexander was the name of one ef the martyrs of
Lyons, A. D. 177. He was a Phrygian by nation, and
by profefTion a phyfician ; he had lived many years in Gaul,
and was known almoft to all men for his love of God and
boldnefs in preaching the word. When he flood before the
tribunal, to which he was cited, he boldly confefled that he
was a Chrillian ; upon which the enraged prcfident con-
<lemned him to the wild bcafts. When he had undergone

ALE

ail tlie inflnimcnts of torture in the aiTipliithcatre, which
were invented to torment him, and his aflbciatc Aualus, they
were both run through with a fword. Alexander neither
fighed, nor faid any thing at all : but in his heart converfed
with God. Such is the account given by Eufcbius, Eccl.
Hill. lib. v. c. I. p. 163. ed. Valefii.

Alexander, BENtDicrus, of Verona, phyfician to the
emperor Maximilian, taught anatomy and medicine with
great reputation, et maxima frequentia auditornm, Caftal-
hmus fays, at Padua, towards the end of the 15th centuiy.
Of him wc have the following, " Alexandri Ecnedicliphyfici
Aiiatomia;, five Hilloria Corporis Humani, ejufdem coUec-
tiones feu aphorifmi,i527." The dedication to the emperor
is dated 1503. This work has been feveral times reprinted.
See Bibllog. Anat. Specimen Jacobi Douglas, p. 6o. Alfo,
Pet. Cailallani \'ita; lUullr. Mcdicorum, p. 159.

ALrxAXDKR, Massarias, of Viccuza in Italy, prac-
tifed medicine there for twenty-five years. In 1578, ho
was made principal of the college of medicine at Venice.
Having held this office, witli great reputation, nine years,
he went to Padua, ubi fenio confeftus, Douglas fays, obiit,
1598. This phyfician was ufed to fay, " fe malle cum
Galeno errare, quam cum recentioribus vera dicere." He
left a treatife, " Dc Urinij et pulfibus," publiflied 1608, at
Frankfort, and " Opera Medica," publiihed at Lyons,
1634. Douglas Bibhog. Spec. p. 197.

Alexakder, bifhop of I^incoln, in the 12th century,
was by birth a Norman, educated under his uncle, bifiicp of
Salifbuiy, and by his intereil promoted to the epiicopal fee
in 1 123. Having been accuftomed in early life to a fpiendid
mode of living, he affected a degree of flate, and indulged
to expences which were fuitable neither to his charatler nor
fortune. Henry of Huntingdon, in the dedication of his
hiilory to him, which is penned in the language of fervile
adulation, calls him " the flower and top of the kingdom
and nation ;" and he infomis us, that at the court of Rome
he was llylcd " the Magnificent." St. Bernard, in a letter
addreffed to him about a year before his death, a£ts the part
of a more honeft friend, and cautions him " not to be dazzled
with the luHre of fecular grandeur, nor to look upon any
worldly advantage as permanent ; nor value his fortune more
than himftlf; to guard againfl the flattery of profperity, for
fear of a turn of misfortune, which will lall longer ; not
to be charmed with the tranfient fatisfaiftions of life ; for
that fcene will quickly be fhut up, and make way for another
both lafling and uncomfortable." He alfo .idvifes him
" not to deceive himfelf with any diflant profpeA of death ;
for fuch dclufive hopes lead direftly to danger and furprife,
and are the likcliell way to hurry a man into the other world
without preparation." In the courfeof his life tliefe prudent
and falutary lefTons did not feem to have been duly regarded
by the oflentatious prelate. In imitation of the barons and
fome of the billiops, he built three cailles ; one at Banbury,
another at Sleaford, and a third at Newark. He hkewife
founded two monalleries. King Stephen was, not without
reafon, offended by thefe flately edifices and flrong for-
trefTes ; and when he determined to take the caflles from
the barons, he felzed that at Newark ; iu confequencc of
which the bifhop was imprifoned for feven months, and with
difficulty obtained his liberty. From this time he employed
his thoughts and time in ornamenting his church, which he
had rebuilt with a flone roof the year after his confecration ;
increafing the number of its prebends, and augmenting its
revenue with feveral manors and eftates ; and at length he
rendered it the moil flately and flourifhing of any in the
kingdom. He went twice to Rome, w'.i. in 1142 and

IJ44;

ALE

1 144; and after his fivft vifit, lie returned as the pope's
lc-j;:'.tc, and caUcd a fynod, in which he pubhihcd feveral uie-
fid canons. In 1147 lie vilited the pope in France; and
tliere fell lick, fo tiiat he retunitd witii ditliculty to England,
wiicie he fuon died, in the 24th year of his prelacy. JDiog.
Brit.

ALE.\'ANnER I. pope, was a Roman by birth, and bifhop
of Rome during the reigns of Trajan and Adrian, from the
year IC9 to the year 1 19. J-Ie is faid to have introduced the
\ife of holy water and other ceremonies. He was enrolled as
a martyr, and canonized as a faint. Bower's Hift. Popes,
vol. i. p. 21.

Alexander II. pope, was a native of Milan, of the
name of Anfehn, and removed from tb.e fee of Lucca to
that of Rome, in the year 1061. He was elefted pope by
the influence of Hildebrand, who was at the head of the
ecclefiallical facition at Rome, in oppofition to the emprefs
Agnes, widow of Henry HI. who was regent during the
minority of her fon Henry IV. and who fupported the lay-
faftion, in tlie contcft that fubfifted between the clergy and
laity. By her influence Cadalous, bifliop of Parma, was
eleCled pope, under the name of Honorius II. The difpute
was terminated by a council at Mantua in 1064, and Alex-
ander, by a fignal triumph of the church over the civil
power, was declared lawful pope. The'difcipliiie and pri-
vileges of the clergy were the principal objects of this pon-
tiff's attention ; and the fubordinate inllrument of conducing
Ijis meafures was Peter Dnmien, a monk, and a zealous de-
lender of the monaftic orders. Having acquired a power
thus paramount to every other, Alexander laid hold of
every opportunity that occurred forinterpofing in the fecular
concerns of kingdoms and princes. With a view of extend-
ing the influence and increafing the emoluments of the papal
fee, he fanftioned the projeft of William, duke of Nor-
mandy, for the conqueft of England ; denounced excom-
munication againll Harold as a perjured ufurper ; and fent
William a confecrated banner, and a ring with one of St.
Peter's hairs in it; thus, as Hume fays (Hift. vol. i. p.
186.) "covering over fafely all the ambition and violence of
that invafion with the broad mantle of religion." His views
were accompliflied ; William fuccceded ; the authority of
the pope was confirmed ; and his legates, till this time un-
known in England, exercifed arbitrary power.

Alexander extended his authority to other countries as
well as to England. He not only prohibited the young
emperor from divorcing his wife Bertha, but, in 1073, f"™-
moned him to appear at Rome, and to account for his con-
duct in the difpofal of church benefices for providing his
army with fupplies. Henry was indignant ; but the difpute
was clofed by the death of the pope in 1073. ^'^^ increafe
of papal tyranny, under the direftion of Hildebrand, to
whom this pope was fubfervient, and by whom he was fuc-
ceedcd, difcriminates his pontificate. Many of his letters
on pubhc affairs are extant ; and one of them, addreffed to
the birtiops of Spain for the purpofe of reftraining the cruel-
ties v.hich they exercifed towards the Jews, does honour to
his humanity. For an account of thefe letters, amounting
in number to 45, fee Dupin's Eccl. Hift. vol, iv. p. 29 ;
and alfo Bower's Hift. Popes, vol. v. p. 224.

Alexander. III. Pope, was born at Sienna, where he
■was biftiop under the name of Roland, and fucceeded
Adrian IV. in 1159. At the time of his acceffion to the
papal chair, Frederic I. was making vigorous attempts for
reducing the power of the Roman fee ; and cardinal Ofta-
vian was elefted pope under the name of Viftor IV. in op-
pofit ion to Akxandeiv After the deathi of Vidor, ia 1 1 O4,.

ALE

cardi.ial Guy was chofen by the influence of llic emperor,
and denominated Pafclial III. But the whole intdcil of
the Roman clergy was exerted in favour of AUxander,
who, in the former pontificate, had been compelled to re-
tire into France, and he now returned to Rome, and was
reftored to his fee. Councils were fummoncd to fettle the
difpute. The council of Wnrtv.burg, convened by the em-
peror in 1 166, produced an ur.ion of the nobility and clergy
ill fupport of the rights of Pafchal ; and the council of
Lateian, called by Alexander in 1167, 'lepofed the emperor,
and abrogated the oath of allegiance by which iiis fuhjefts
were bound to him as their lawful fovereign. At length
an appeal was made to tiie fword ; and though Frederic was
at fiill i'uceefsful, and upon the death of Pafehal procured
the eledion of John, Abbot of Strum, as his fuccefltir, un-
der the name of Calixtus III., he was in ihe iffuc obliged
to give up the contcft, and in a treaty of peace, made with
Alexander at Venice in 1177,10 acknowledge liini as law-
ful pontiff. The pride of Alexander knew no bounds on
occalion of this triumph. When Frederic was proflrate at
his feet, he addreffed hiin witii the words of the Pfalmift,
" Thou fltalt tread upon the lion and adder ; the young
lion and the dragon thou flialt trample under foot :" and
when the emperor replied, " Not to you, but to Peter;"
the pope anfwered, " To me, and to Peter." This ftorv-
is difcredited by foine writers, but believed by others, and
the truth of it is confirmed by concurring circumftances,
for which we refer to Dupin. After the eftablifliment of
Alexander, he treated his rival Calixtus III. with conde-
fcenlion and kindnefs, and appointed him to the fee of Bc-
nevento. The pope, fecurely feated in the papal chair,
direfled his attention towards fecuring the independence,
and maintaining the prerogatives and privileges of the triple
crown ; and in order to prevent the diforders likely to ariic
in future from equal faftions, he obtained a canon in the
third council of Lateran, held at Rome in 1 179, which en-
afted, that the right of election to the pontifical dignity
fliould not only be vefted in the cardinals alone, but that
two-thirds of the votes of the eleftors fliould be neceflary
for rendering it legal. Thus the people, and even the
Roman clergy, were entirely excluded from all participa-
tion in the honour of conferring this important dignity.
At this council, the right of reccmimending and nominat-
ing to the faintly order was taken away from councils and
bifhops, and canonization was ranked among the greater
and more important caufes, the cognizance of which be-
longed to the pontiff alone. In this year he exercifed
that tyranny over princes, which had been ufurped by the
popes from the time of Gregory VII. iu conferring the
title of king, with the enfigns of royalty, upon Alphonfo I.
duke of Portugal, by an arrogant bull, in which he treats
him as a vaffal. Whilft he was in France, he had fupported
the caufe of Thomas Becket againft his fovereign Hemy II.,
and in 1 164, when the conftitutions of Clarendon, which af-
ferted the king's jurifdiftion over the clemy, were fent to
him for confirmation, he rejcAed and annulled them. When
Becket was banifiied, he received him kindly ; obtained for
him a penfion from the I'Vench king, abrogated the fen-
tence that had been paffed upon him ; reinvefled him with
his dignity, and appointed him his legate in En"-land.
After the murder of this arrogant prelate, Alexander, who
had kept the king in awe during the whole of the conteft,
by the terror of excommunication, compelled him to under-
go a very fevere penance ; and having forgiven him, ifTued
bulls at his defire, againft his fon, and caaonized the arcli-
bifliop. Alexander, iis a rigorous defender of the catholic

faith,

A I. E

T.MtVi, er.erteil his power on a variety of occafions, anil with
a I'crveritv which no circumftanci-s can jiiftify. Witli a
vjcrt- of rcftoring order and tranqnilllty in the church, he
convoked a folemn and numerons afTembly of the clergy in
1:64, in which tlie heentious rage of dlfinitiiig about re-
ligious matters was condemned ; and in tlie council of La-
tcran, of 1 179, a fpiritual war was dcchired againllheretics,
and more particularly againll the Albioensks.

Having enjovcd tlie unconttlled and unJillurbed pofTef-
fion of the pontifical chair fcaroely four years, Alexander
III. died in the year I 181, with the charadcr of having
exhibited more proofs of ambition to obtain, than of mode-
ration in csercifing, the fupreme ccckfiallical authority.
Dupiil, liccl. Hift. vol. iv. p. 116. Bower's Popes, vol. vi.
p. II. Moflieim, vol. ii. p. 4P1. vol. iii. p. 53, &c. Hume's
Hilt. vol. i. p. 381, 396, &c.

Alexander IV. pope, was RaynalJ or Roland, bifliop
of OlUa, andfuccecded Innocent IV. in 1254, at tlie time
of the contcll between the Guelphs and Gibellines. The
right of the Roman fee to the d ifpofal of the crown of
Sicily was fupportcd by a war, in the pontificate of Inno-
cent IV'. againft Mainfroy or Manfred, regent for Conradinc,
-the fon of the emperor Conrad ; and this pope, in order to
engage the aflillance of a powerful ally, had conferred the
ci-own on Edmund, the fccond fon of HeniT III. of Eng-
land. Alexander I V. purfucd the plan of his predeceffor,
and publilhed a ci ufade againft Sicily, and for defraying the
expcnces of it, induced Henry to levy a tenth on all eccle-
fiafticnl benefices in England for three years. Upon the de-
mand of farther fapplies, though it was enforced by a legate
and a till cat of excommunication, Heniy rtliiled ; and ilie
nominal polVeflion of the crown reverted to Alexander 4
.but Mainfroy hiving defeated the crufaders became the real
pofFefTor of it, A. D. 1258. This pontiff was equally un-
Aiccefsful in his attempts to oppoi'e the progrefs of Ezzelin
or Ectlin, who, at the head of the Gibellines, and on the
part of the heirs of Frederic II., had made himfelf maftcr of
Lombard. The pope's army was defeatc-d, and his legate
imprifoned. In defiance of the banner of the crofs, and
anathemas fulminated bythc npoilolic fee, Ezzelin purfued his
TJctories ; and Mainfroy kept polTelllon of the throne of the
tivo Sicilies, which he had ufurped.

Alexander, in the exercife of his ecclefiaftlcal authority,
maintained the .caufe of the mendicant dominlcan Iriars,
againft the mcn\bers of the univerfity of Paris, who rt iufed
to admit them to a participation of the rights and privileges
tif their fociety ; and he condemned a book written by
William de Saint Amour, one of the dotlors of the Sor-
bonne, and entitled, " The Perils of the Lall Times," in
«\i'hich the charafter of the dominicans was defcribed, and
U.eirpride, hypocrifyandlicentioufnefs, indlreftly but cruelly
Ctnfured. In the council of Aries, held in 1260, he con-
demned another book, written by the abbot Joachim, under
the title of " The Everlafting Gofpcl ;" and at the fame
time profcribed thofe who, under the denomination of JoA-
CHiMiTES, had adopted the doftrine which this book pro-
Mulgated. Differences of another kind having arifen between
the ftates of Venice and Genoa, a council for fettling them
v.as fummoncd to meet at Viterbo ; but in the mean time
Alexander IV. opprelTed by the diffenfions of the church,
and by the vexation which his ineffectual attempts for com-
pofing them produced, clofed his life in the year iz6l.
" He appears to have been a narrow-minded bigot, more
concerned to preferve and enlarge the privileges of a mo-
naftic order, than to corretl abufes and encourage improve-
ipcnts." Dupin. Eccl. Hift. vol. v. p. ^o, u8, 138, See.

ALE

■Bower'j Popes, vol. vi. p. 225. Cave H. L. torn. ii. p.
303. Hnmc'i Hift. vol. ii. p. 1 73, &c.

Alexander V. pope, was born in the ifle of Candia, about
the year i ^39. His original name was Ph.ihrgo, and his pa-
rents were fo poor, that in his childhood he was under a re-
ceditv of begging his bread. An Italian monk took him
under his protection and inftruftion, and procured his admif-
fion into his order of friars minors. By his rtcommendatioa
he became a ftudent at Oxford, and afterwards took his de-
gree of doftor in divinity at Paris. Having paffed through
feveral gradations of preferment, being firft bilhop of Vi-
cenza, then of Novara, and at length archbilhop of Milan,
cardinal, and legate of pope Im.oceiit VII. in Lombardy,
he was unanimoufly eleiited pope by the cardinals, at a coun-
cil in Pifa, in the year 1409. This pontiff was good-hu-
moured and liberal ; and having no needy relations and
dependants, for whom he w-as under an obligation of pro-
viding, he had the means of extending his gencrofity to
thofe that were connefted with the church, particularly to
the mendicant orders of monks, who were diftinguilhed by
his patronage and favour. Such was his munificence during
his pontificate, that he ufcd to fay, " When I became a
bifliop, I w'as rich ; when a cardinal, poor; and when pope,
a beggar." He feems, however, to have counteratltd the
mildnefs and liberality cf his natural difpofition by the orders
tranfmitted to the archbifnop of Prague, enjoining him to
proceed with rigour againll Kufs and his follo\vei-s. This
zealous reformer, confiding in the known candour of the
pontiff, inftead of perfonally appearing at Rome, in compli-
ance with the fummons that had been lent him, commiffioned
two friends to plead his caufe, faying, on his own part, " I
appeal from Alexander iU-iiifonned, to Alexander well-in-
formed." When Alexander propofed to vifit Rome, where
he was expcited, he was perfuaded by Balthafar Coffa to ac-
company hlin 10 Bologna. Whilft he was at this city he
died, as fome fay, by the contrivance of Coffa, in the year
1410, having poffcffed the papal fee little more than ten
months ; and Coffa, by his iafluci;cc with the cardinals, and
a recommendation from Louis of Anjou, king of Sicily, was
chofen to fucceed him. Dupin, Eccl. Hid. vol. v. p. 8, &.C.
Bower's Popes, vol. vil. p. 123.

Alexander VI. pope, was born in 1431, at Valencia in
Spain, and by the intereft of his uncle, pope Cahxtus III.
was appointed cardinal in 1455 ; and afterwards archbiffiop
ot Valencia, and vice-chancellor of Rome. The emoluments
of this laft office enabled him to maintain the ttate of a
prince, and fuppHed him with the means of liccntioufnefs and
extravagance, to which he wasadditfted from his youth. Un-
der pope Sixtus IV. he was legate in Spain ; and at laft by
affuming a fanclity, which his conduft did notjuftify, and
by bribing the cardinals, he was elcfted, at the age of 61, to
fucceed pope Innocent VIII. in 1492. He then changed
his original name of Roderic Borgia fortbat of Alexander VL
By Vanozza, a Roman lady, with whom he had continued
an illicit connection for many years, he had five children.
His fecond fon was Cxfar Borgia, who was amonfter of de-
bauchery and cruelty, and who is faid to have quarrelled with
his elder brother for the favour of his fiftcr Lucretia, and to
have killed him, and thrown his body into the Tiber. Not-
withftanding his infamous charaft'er he was the favourite of
his father, who trampled with contempt on every obftacle
which the demands of juftice, the diftates of reafon, and the
remonftrances of religion laid in his way, in order to aggran-
dize his children, and enrich himfelf. In his poUtical con-
nections he was fahhlefs and treacherous ; and formed al-
liances with the purpofe of violating them. Having ens^asfed

Chark*

ALE

Charles VIIT, in an enterpiife for the conquoft of the Wng-
doni of Naples, he entered into a leafjue with tl\e Venetians
and with Maximilian, to rob him of the fruits of liis vidory ;
and, after having obtained a large remittance from the lultan
Bajazet, in order to enable him to carry on war againll this
king of France, he delivered up to him Zi/.om, the brother
of Bajazet. His perfidy was only exceeded by his hypo-
crify ; for, notwithllanding his notorious vices, lie propofed
to the ChrilUan princes to march at the head of an army
againll the Turks ; and under this pretext he ilTucd a bull for
B jubilee in 1500, by which he contrived to enrich his Irea-
fury. Of his prefumption, as well as of his hypocrify, we
have a curious fptcimen in his divifion of America between
the Spaniards and thi Portuguefe. For this purpofehe ap-
pointed that a line, iuppefed to be drawn from pole to pole,
a hundred leagues to the wellward of the Azores, ihould
ferve as a limit between them ; and, in the plenitude ol his
power, he bellowed all to the call of this imaginary line
upon the Portuguefe, and all to the well of it upon the Spa-
niards. At the fame time he profeffes, that zeal for pro-
pagating the ChrilUan faith, which was the confideration
urged by Ferdinand in foliciting a bull for this purpofe,
was his chief motive for ifl'uing it. In confcquence of this
bull, a great number of Francifcans and Dominicans were
employed, with the avowed defign of inllrufling and con-
verting the Americans, both in the ifles and on the conti-
nent.

The profligate career of this execrable hypocrite and ty-
rant was continued till the year 1 503, when the poifon which
he and his fon Csfar had prepared for others, and particularly
for Adrian, a wealthy cardinal, who Hood in the way of
their avarice and ambition, by a happy millake, terminated his
own days. Some writers, amongll wliom is Voltaire, have
difputed this account of AleNander's death ; but Guicciar-
dini and other reputable hillorians atteft it. The life and
actions of this pontiff fhew, fays Molheim, that there was a
Nero among the popes as well as among the emperors. The
crimes and enormities which hiflory has imputed to this papal
Nero, evidently prove him to have been not only dellitutc of
all religious and virtuous principles, but even rtgardlefs of
decency, and hardened againll the very feelings of (hame.
Befides other inllanccs of infamous licentioufneis with which
he is chargeable, he is accufed of incelt with his own daugh-
ter. And though it may be poffible that the malignity of
his enemies may have forged falfe accufations againft him,
and in fome inilances exaggerated the horror of his real
crimes, yet there is upon record an authentic lilt of un-
doubted fafts, v/hich, by both their number and atrocity, are
fufficient to render the name of Alexander VI. odious and de-
tellable in the elleem of fuch as have the fmallell tincture of
virtuous principles and feehngs. His infatiuble avarice is
pointedly exprefled, fays one of his biographers, in the fol-
lowing lines :

" Vendit Alexander claves, altaria, Chriftum,
Vendere jure poteft ; emerat ille prins."

" Chrift's akars, keys, and Chriil liimfelf,
Werebavter'd by this pope for pelf :
Ent who fliall fay he did not well ?
That which he bought, he fure might fell."

Dupin's Eecl. Hid. vol. vi. p. 14. Bower's Pope.-., vol. vli.
p. 328. Gen. Did. Gordon's Life of Alex. Vl. by Gor-
don. Amil. 1732. Modieim's Eccl. Hill. vol. iii. p. 431.
Robcrtfon's America, vol. i. p. 162. 8vo.

Alkxandfr. VII. pope, was born of the illuftrious fa-
r»ily of Chighi, at Sitnna, in 1599, and rccymiucnJed by

V»L. I.

ALE

the marquis Pallavicini to pope Urban VIII. Having been
inqnifitor at Malta, and legate at Fcirara, lie was nuncio iii
Gennany, and employed at Mundcr in condufting the con-
ftrences that were intended to rellore the peace of Europe.
Some writers relate, that at this time he had formed the de-
fign of abjuring popery, and embracing the protcilant reli-
gion, but that he was deterred from executing his pni-pofe
by the fate of a civilian, who had been polfoncd on a fimilar
account ; and that he was confirmed in his religion by the
elevation to the cardinalthip. Upon his return from lhi»
mbafly, he was appointed bifhop of Imola, in Romagna,
and afterwards cardinal and fecretary totlie pope. His next
advancement was to the papal chair, to which he was intro-
duced bv the unanimous fuffrage of the 64 cardinals, which
he contrived to obtain by that diffimulation and addrcfs, of
which he is faid to have been complete mailer. After his
eledion, m 1655, he ordered his collin to be placed under hit
bed in his apartments in the Vatican, that it might ferve to
him as a memento of mortality ; when he was robed in the
pontifical habit, he appeared to have a hair-cloth under his
iliirt ; and when a wealthy female, fignora Oiympia, waited
upon him with congratulation, he difmifTed her with a cold
repulfe, faying, " It is not decent for a woman to enter the
dwelling of the father of the ci.urch." That the whole of
this appearance of humility and felf-denial was a farce, wa«
fufficieatly verified by his future condud. The diilingnifh-
ing feature of his charader, next to his craft and diffimula-
tion, was a'l attachment to his relations, for whom he pro-
vided by all the offices and honours which he could command.
His /.eal for religion, and his concern for terminating the
wars wliich dillraded the Chridian woild, fecm to have fnb-
fided after his elevation to the pontificate : nor did he take
any pains to conciliate the crowns of France and .Spain. The
five propofitions of Janfenius, which contained the fum of
his dodriue, had been condemned by Innocent X. ; but the
Janfenills havl contrived to evade this fentence by a fubtle
dlftindion, which allowed them to acknovvlege that thefe
propofitions were juftly condemned by the pope; but at the
fame time to maintain, thai they were not contained in the
book of Janfenius in the fcnfe in which they were condemned.
The benefit of this artful diflindion they were not permitted
long to enjoy. At the infligation of their enemies, Alex-
ander VII. the fucccfTor of Innocent, ilTued a bull, in 1656,
declaring, that the five propofitions which had been con-
demned were the tenets of Janfenius, adually cgntaincd in
his book. He proceeded, in 16^)5, to fend into France the
form of a declaration to this purpole, which was to be fub-
fcribed by all thofe who afpired to any preferment in the
church. This declaration produced the moll deplorable di.
vifions and tumults. It was vigoroufly oppofed by the Jan-
fenills, who maintained, that in matters of fad the pope was
fallible, efpecially when his decifions were pcrfonal, and not
confirmed by a general council; and,confequently, that they
were under no obligation to fnbfcribe this papa! declaration,
■ which had merely for its objeft a matter of fac^. Notwith-
llanding this unv, ife and intolc.-ant bull, Alexander is faid to
have been liberal in his fentiraents ; to have difapprovcd the
feveritics exercifed t6wards the Vaudoisin Piedmont, and to
have treated the protellaiitswho vifitcd Rome with condefctii
fion. It is further related, that when fome Englifu gentlemen
prefented themfelves at his feet; to pay him the cuilomary ho-
mage, upon finding that they were proteilants, he courieoufly
faid, " Rife, you dial! not commit what you think an idolati^ :
I will not give you mybleffing, but I pray Gojyou may be
worthy to receive it." To the Jcfuits this pontifi manifelled
a peculiar partiahty ; for though Innocent X. Iiad, in 1545,
condcttiued Uie indulgence which thefe artful miffiouaries had

4 L fltewK

ALE

ALE

fJifwn to the Cliinefe fuperftitions, Alexander virtually an-
tmlkil, in 1656, the fciitence of his predcctfTor, and allowed
ihc Chine fc converts the liberty of performing feveral of the
rites to whieh they had been accultomed, and to which they
Were principally attached.

Alexander VII. whatever were his principles and pcrfonal
charafter, approved himfelf a friend to htcrature andtlie fine
arts, and expended confiderable fums in promoting them.
He embellifhed the city of Rome, and ereftcd the magnili-
ccnt college, " Delia Sapienza," which he furnidied with a
line librai-y, and a botanical garden. He appointed fix new
^rofelTorfliips, and inereafed the falarics of the former profef-
lors. As an author, this pontiff has been highly extolled by
Ms paiiegyrifts; a volume of Latin poems, entitled, " Philo-
matni Mufa: juveniles," confiding of heroic, elegiac, and
lyric verfes, and a tragedy under the title of " Pompty,"
after the model of Seneca, written in his youth, whilil he
was a ftudent at Sienna, was publidied in folio, at the Lou-
vre, in 1656 Alexander VII. died in the year 1667, with
a higher reputation for talents than for honefty, as Bayk
fays, more lamented by the Jefuits than the Janfenills.
Mofteim's Ecel. Hift. vol. v. p. 26 — 99 — 214. Bower's
Popes, vol. vii. p. 483. Gen. Uift.

Alexandlr VIII. pope, originally called Peter Otto-
boni, was born at Venice in 1610; and having iludied at
\ enice and P;idua, was made a bifliop and cardinal by Inno-
cent X. ; and, at the age uf 79, fucceeded Innocent XI. in
"the papal fee. Inftead of devoting the powers which he had
acquired at this late period of life to the fervice of religion,
his thoughts were chiefly employed in providing for his rela-
'tions, and accumulating upon them honour and wealth. Ac-
cordingly one of his domeftics being alked by this pontiff
what the people faid of him, replied, that they faid, " He loft
no time in the advancement of his family." Right," fays
the pope, " for I have only half an hour left of the four and
twenty." His indifference with regard to compromifing the
difpute that fubfilled between France and the court of Rome,
was confidered by the French court as an evidence of his
difpofition to yield to the claims of the clergy of France ;
and he found panegyriils who extolled his liberality. But
they found themfelves deceived, when, at the clofe of his life,
he ilFued a bull of execration againft every thing that had
been done to the prejudice of tlie pope's authority in the
affembly of the clergy of France in 1682. Having enjoyed
tlie honour and emoluments of his ftation 15 or 16 months,
he died in 1691, with " a charaftcr ftained with the reproach
of avarice and duplicity." Gen. Dift. Bower's Popes,
vol. vii. p. 490.

Alexander, an abbot of Sicily, was an hiftorian of the
1 2th century. He wrote four books of the life and reign of
Roger, king of Sicily ; printed at SaragofTa in 1578, and
inferted in the coUeftion, intitlcd, " Hifpania illuftrata."
Dupin. Eccl. Hift. vol. iv. p. i8x.

Alexander Celisenus, abbot of Ceglio, wasanhifto-
nan, who flourilhed in the reign of Roger, king of Sicily,
between the years 1102 and 1 154, and recorded the aftions
of this reign. His dates are incorreft. Voff. de Lat. Hift.
lib. ii. c. 53.

Alexander, bifhop of Hierapolis, flourifhed about the
year 43 1 . He was deputed by John of Antioch to attend
the council of Ephefus, and to defend the caufe of Nefto-
rius, to whom he was zealoufly attached ; and on that occa-
fion he figned the excommunication of Cyril : but as Cyril
and his party prevailed, he was himfelf expelled from his fee,
and fent into exile in Egypt. Several of his letters are ex-
tant among the " Ephefian Epiftles," cited by Lupus. Cave.
H.L. vol. i..p. 418. (

ALTXANnER AS Alexandro, fo calkd, becaufe his
Chriftianand family names were Alexander, was born at Na-
ples in 1461. He relinquifhed the praflice of the law, to
\fhicli he was at firll devoted, becaufe, in the exercife of this
profefTion, his integrity was in danger of being corrupted ;
and lie preferred a fmall fortune, in the tranquillity of retire-
ment, and with the approbation of his own mind, to the pur-
fuit of gain, with the liazardof his confcience. Againft the
power and favour of the great, he himfelf fays, an advocate
would find it inipoffible to fnpport his clients ; and the iffue
of fuits depended not fo much on thejullice of the caufe, as on
the will and favour of an indolent or corrupt judge ; fo that it
was fruitlefs to ftudy with diligence and labour controverted ,
points of law, with the varieties of its cafes; and he adds, that
the provifions of law, though wifely contrived, were often ini-
quitoufly fet afide and perverted. To fuch circumftances,
and with thefe views and apprehenfions, he afted honour-
ably in declining a profeflion, which he could not exercife at
the period, and in the country in which he lived, with ad-
vantage to thofe by whom he was employed, and without
incurring felf-reproach. From the works of the ancients,
to which he had been accuflomed to direft his attention, he
made a colleftion of paffages relating to the hiftory and cuf-
toms of the Greeks and Romans, which he arranged in fix
books, under the title of " Dies Geniales ;" a work which
manifcfts more learning than judgment or tafte.' An edition
of this w-ork, with notes of various writers, was publidied in
two volumes, 8vo. at Leyden, in 1673. The author ap-
pears to have been credulous and fuperftitious, as he gives
a ftrange account of dreams and fpeftres, and of haunted
apartments in his houfe at Rome. He died in this city
about the year 1523. Gen. Dift.

Alexand-ro ab Alexandro, proto-medicus of Sicily,
in which illand he was born earl) in the 1 5th century ; left
a work on the duties and privileges of the office he held,
which was afterwards publifhed : " Conilitutiones et regu-
lata jurifdiftionis Regii protomedicatus Sicilian elucidata,
fcripta" Haller fays, circa A. 1429, edlta Panormi, 1564,
4to. a I Phlllippo Ingraffia.

Alexander Noel, or NaTalis, a Dominican friar,
and one of the moft laborious writers of the 17th centurj-,
was born at Rouen, in Normandy, in 1639. Having been
admitted into the order of Dominican friars, in 1653', he
went to purfue his ftudies in philofophy and divinity, at the
great convent in Paris ; and was appointed, at the comple-
tion of his ftudies, to teach philofophy in the fame convent.
He continued in the exercife of this ofHce for 12 years;
and declining that of a preacher, he devoted himfelf entirely
to the ftudy of the fcriptures and ecclcfiaftical hiftor)', and
was created a doftor of the Sorbonne in 1675. By Colbert,
theminifter, with whofe efteem he was honoured, he was in-
troduced to his fon, who was afterwards archbilhop of Roan;
and in this connexion he enjoyed the advantage of thofe
conferences that were held in an affembly of perfons of the
moil diftinguilhed learning, formed by the minifter for the
improvement of his fon. Thefe conferences led him to con-
ceive the defign of writing an ecclcfiaftical hiftory. The tirft vo-
lume of this work, which he executed with great afliduity, and
which was intitled, " Selefta Hitloriae Ecclefiafticce capita,
etin Ipca ejufdem infignia Differtationes Hiftoricae, Chronolo-
gies, Dogmaticve," was publifhed in 1676. It confifts of 26
volumes in 8vo, the laft four of which were not pubhfhed till
1686. In the firft volume he gives a hiftory of the firft age
of the church, with an account of the perfecutions which it
fuffered, the fucceffion of popes, the herefies which arofe, and
the councils which condemned them, the writers in favour of
Chriftianity, and the kings and emperors who reigned during

the

ALE

the firft century. To tliia volume are annexed 2S valualilc
and much efteemcd diflcitations, upon fucli points as h;ne
been the iubjeiils of difpute in hilloiy, chronology, criticifm,
t)r doCbine. The liiliory of the fccoiid century was pub-
liflied in 1677 in two vohimes, and to it arc fubjoincd three
dilTcrtations againll M. Duiilc with regard to failing, lent,
confirmation, and the ufe of the fathers ; and another difler-
tation concerning the time of celebrating Eaiter ; and he alfo
treats of the verfion of the Septuagint, &c. &c. The third
century was publifliedin 1678 ; and in three diflertations he
has collected what relates to the life, manners, ordination,
fall, errors, and defenders of St. Cyprian. The hilloi-y of the
fourth century, compiled in three volumes, and containing
45 differtations, was printed at Paris in 1679. In the three
following years he publiflied his hiftory of the 5th, 6th,
7th, 8th, 9th and loth centuries ; and that of the i ith and
1 2th centuries iu 1683 ; and in thefe volumes there arefeve-
ral excellent diflfertations. His fentimentson the fubjedlsof
fome of thefe diflertations cxpofed him to the refentment of
the court of Rome, which ifliied out a decree againll his
writings in 1684. Neverthelefs, he publilhed in the fame
year, in three volumes, the hillory of the 1 3tli and 14th cen-
turies, in which he continued to defend the rights of kings
againll the pretenfions of that court, though he vindicates
thofe princes who employed fire and fword againll the Al-
bigenfes. He at lall completed this work in 1686, by pub-
liihing four volumes, containing the hillory of the 15th and
) 6th centuries. The hiftory of the Council of Trent occu-
pies the greateft part of the laft volume. Of this voluminous
work, containing many curious particulars, there have been
many editions. In 1689 he publiflied a work of the fame
kind upon the Old Teilament, in fix volumes in Bvo. which
extends from the creation of the world to the birth of
Chrift, and which period he has divided into fix ages. From
1678 to 1680 he alfo publifhed leveral other diflertations. In
1689 our author publilhed his " Theologia Dogmatica ct
Moralis fecundum Ordinem Catechifmi Concilii Tridenlini,
in quinque libros tributa," r. e. " Pofitivc and moral Divi-
nity, according to the order of the Catechifm of the Coun-
cil of Trent, in five books ;" printed at Paris in ten vo-
lumes in 8vo. and at Venice in 1698. But another volume
having been added in 1 701 , this work was printed at Paris, in
two volumes in folio, in 1703, with acolleftion of Latin let-
ters. He alfo pubUflied, in 1 704, Commentaries on the four
Gofpels ; in 17 10, upon St. Paul's and the feven Canonical
Epillles ; and he alfo wrote a Commentary upon the Prophets
Ifaiah, Jeremiah, and Baruch, which was never printed :
and he likewife publiflied feveral other treatifes, which we
fliall not recite. His apphcation, as we may naturally con-
ceive, was intenfe ; and towards the latter part of his life he
was afflifted with the lofs of his fight, which he bore with
great calmnefs and refignation. He died in 1724, in the
86th year of his age. His piety, humility, and dilinterefted-
nefs rendered him the objedt of general eileem. Gen. Dift.

Alexandfr, of Paris, a French poet, flouriflied in the
1 2th century, and was born at Bernai, in Normandy. He
removed to Paris, and became, in fome meafure, the founder
of French poetry. He adopted verfes of 1 2 fjllables, as bell
adapted to heroic fubjefts. His poem of " Alexander the
Great," was favourably received in the court of Phihp Au-
guthis : it is a fort of metrical verfion of a life of Alexander
then cuirent, intermixed w ith fafts alluding to the hillory of
France at that period. The fenfe of fome palfages is ftrong,
and the verfification harmonious. Some have fuppofed that
the name of Alexandrines, applied to fines of 12 fyllables,
has been taken from this work, in reference cither to its au-
thor or its objeft. Gen. Biog.

ALE

ALEXAsnER, DoM James, a BenediAine of the congrcr
gation of St. Maur, was a native of Orleans. He died ia
1734, at the age of 82 years, and left a treatife on " Ele-
mentary Clocks," in 8vo. Biog. Dicl.

Alf.xandkr, Nicholas, a Benediclinc of the congrega-
tion of St. Maur, was born at Paris, and died at an ad«
vanccd age, at St. Denys, in 1728. He is known by two
ufeful works, viz. " Ph) fie and Surgery for the Poor,"
Paris, i2Eno. 1738; containing a colleftion of fcleft and
cheap remedies for both internal and external ailments ; and
" A Botanical and Pharmaceutical Dictionary ;" in which
arc found the principal properties of fuch mineral, vegetable,
and animal fubllances as are ufed in medicine. He was de-
vout and charitable, and devoted his knowledge of medicine
and his property to the relief of the poor. Biog. DiA.

Alexander de Saint Elpidio, fo called from a town
in Umbria, general of the Auguftine hermits, and arclibifliop
of Ravenna, lived at the beginning of the fourteenth century.
He was the author of a treatife " On the Jurifdiftion of the
Empire and the Authority of the Pope ;" written at the
requeftof John XXII. and printed at Rimini, in 1624. Cave
H. L. tom. ii. Append, p. 16.

Alexander, William, an eminent poet and ftatctman,
the fon of Andrew Alexander of Menllrie in Scotland, was
born in 15S0: Having finiflicd his education, he travelled as
tutor, or rather companion, to the Duke of Argyle ; and
upon his return he lived in retirement, and finiflied his poetical
complaint of an unfuccefsful addrefs to his firfl miftrefs,
which he entitled, "Aurora." Having amufed himfelf fer
fome time with amorous verfes, he removed to the court of
King James VI. where he fuilained the charaftcr of a pri-
vate, but learned and accompHflied gentleman. In this more
public fituation he found leifure for exercifing his poetical
talents ; and he now direfted them to grave and moral fub-
jedls, with a view to the direftion of princes and rulers, in a
feries of tragedies, formed upon the Greek and Roman mo-
dels, at lead in their chorufles between the afts. One of
thefe, on the ftoiy of Darius, was publiflied at Edinburgh
in 1603. This tragedy, with three others, t/'c. Crocfus, the
Alexandraean, and Julius Caefar, were publiflied in 1607, un-
der the title of " The Monarchick Tragedies." Our author
wrote fome other poems of a political nature ; particularly
his " Parjcnefis" to prince Henr)', communicating important
and ufeful leflbns to an heir of royalty. He alfo wrote a fup-
plement to complete the third part of Sir Philip Sidney's
Romance, which was publiflied in 1613, when the author
was fworn one of the gentlemen-ufliers of the prefence to
Prince Charles. In 1614 he printed a poem, intitled,
" Dooms-day ;" and in this year he was knighjed by Iving
James, and made mailer of the requefts. At this time he com-
menced his political career ; and, having projefttd the feltle-
ment of a colony at Nova Scotia, iu America, he obtained a
grant of that country, by his Majefty's royal deed, in 162 i.
King Charles, on his acceflion, encouraged the fclieme, and
Sir W. Alexander publiflied a pamphlet, reciting the advan-
tages whicli would accrue from it to the nation. The author
was made lieutenant of Nova Scotia ; and an order of knights
baronet was founded in Scotland in the firfl year of the king's
reign, whofe aid was appropriated to this fettlement, on condi-
tion that each fliouldhave a portion of land affigned him in the
new plantaticni. Sir William had alio the privilege of coining
fmall copper-money. The defign, however, failed ; Sir Wil-
liam fold the whole country to the French for 5 or 6000I.
and in the conduft of the^vhole tranfaftion he incurred fome
degree of reproach. King Charles, however, continued to
favour him ; and convinced of his talents and fidelity, made
hiai fecretary of Hate for Scotland in 1626 ; and in 1630, a

4 L 2 peer

ALE

prrr of tIntTiiiii;<luin, by the title cf Vlfcoiinl Stirling. In
M'lT, Ik- was rniktl to tlic dignity of Earl of Stirling-, at hi*
Majelly's coronation, in the paluce of HoIyrood-houk-.He
difehHrgcd the ottke cf fecrctar)' uf .late with great reputa-
tion till his death, in 1640. About tlirce years before liis death
was publiflicd a iiewcditioii of his poems, '.-iz. "The FoiirMo-
narchiek. Tragedies," "Dooms-day," " Tiie Parxnefis," and
" Jonathan," an heroie poem, which was now lirft piiblillicd.
The ftyle and vcdifieation, particularly of the plays, are
ponfhed, and the plans, as far as the fiibjccts arc eoneerned,
improved. The author's tragedies and other poems were
veil received at the time of their firll publication. King
James called the author liis " Pliilofopiiical Poet ;" and
Michael Drayton commends them ; calls the author " My
Alexander," and wilhes to be known as the friend of a
writer, " wliofe mufe was like his mind :" and John Da-
vies of Hereford, in a book of epigrams, publilhed about the
year 1 6 1 1 , pi-aifes the tragedies of the author; and fays,
" that Alexander the Great had not gained more glory with
his fword than this Alexander iiad gained b)- his pen." Mr.
Addifon, after perullng the feveral works of the author, tef-
tirttd his approbation of them, by faying, " That he had read
them over with thegreatell fatisfaction." " They compofc,"
fays a biographer of unqueiliouable judgment, " a very re-
fpe<Aable portion of the literature of that age ; though their
gravity and prolixity are not much fuited to the talte of the
prefent." it does not appear that his plays were ever aAed.
■ riiey are rather dramatic poems for perutal in the clofet.
Biog. Brit. Gen. Biog.

Alexander Neckam, orNsquAM, an eminent Engliih
writer of the 12th and 13th centuries, was born at St. Al-
bau's, in Hertford fhire, and purluedhis lUidies, with fuccefs-
ful affiduity, in the univerlities of Italy and France. At Paris
he was eileemed a prodigy of genius and learning ; and
applauded as an excellent philofopher, a profound divine,
and a good rhetorician and poet, confidering the age in
which he lived. His fchool at Paris, where he read lec-
tures in 1180, was thronged with fcholars. About the
year 1 1 86 he returned to England ; and, having become a
canon-regular of the order of St. Auguftin, he was made
abbot of Exeter in 1215, and died in 1227. His epitaph,
written after the old monkilh manner, in Latin rhyme, is as
follow^ :

" Eclipfm patitur fapientia, Sol fepelitur ;
Cui C par unus, minus eflet ficbile fanus :
Vir bene difc:etus, et in omni more facetus,
Didlus erat Nequam, vitam duxit tameii xquara."

Tlie feufe is this : —

" Learning's eclips'd, the Sun himfilf 's obfeur'd ;
Our lofs vfere lefs, had he left one fuperior :
Accomplifhed was his mind, his manners plcafmg,
And though his name was ill, his life was good,"

He wrote feveral works, which are preferved in MS. in the
libraries of England and other countries ; fuch as " Coni-
mentaria fuper quatuor Evangelia ;" " Expofitio fuper Ec-
clefiaften ;" " Expofilio fuper Cantica ;" " Elucidarinm
Bibhothecx," in which are fome exprefuons inconfiftent
with the doctrine of tranfubftanlialioa ; " I^audes divina
Sapisntise," which is the fame witli the work, " De Na-
turis rerum ;" and contains, amongit a variety of other
matter, a large account of the three cities moft celebrated
for learn ng, Athens, Rome, and Paris. Gen. Dic^. Cave.
H. L. torn. ii. p. 286.

Alexandkr 1. king of Scotland, was the fon of Mal-
eulm m. and fucceeded his brother Edgar in 1107. His

ALE

cTinra(fter was dirtinguifhed by a degree of vigour and in-.pe-
tuofity, which gave hini the appellation of " the fierce ;"
and which, though previoudy concealed by his piety and de-
votion, diicvivered themfelves on his acceflion to the throne.
His condutt both iji the northern andfoutliern parts of the
kingdom was fo fevere, tliat he awcdtlie infurgcnts into fub-
mifhon ; but a confpiracy was at length tormed againft hi»
life, and the traitors, who were engaged in the execution of
it, obtained adniitlion into his bcd-chambtr at night, whilll
he lodged at a calUe in tiie Carfe of Gowrie. Alexander,
after having killed fix of them, made his efcape. Having
reduced Ins own kingdom to order, he vifited his brother-in-
law Heurv I. of England, and aflliled him in terminating a
difference between him and the Wcllh. He doled his reign
in enabling and enforcing civil and eecleiiaftical regulations,
ditd a bachelor in the 17th year of it, and was fucceeded by
his younger brother, David. Mod. Un. Hili. vol. xli.
p. 45.

ALr.xAND>;R n. king of Scotland, fucceeded his father
William the Lion, in 12 14, in his 16th year. His attempt!
to recover the pofieflion of Northumberland was retaliated
by a deftruftive expedition into Scotland, conducted by John,
king of England. Whilft John was thus employed, Alex-
ander reduced Northumberland ; and, being forced to dlf-
continue his purfuit of the Englifh king, who was burning
the towns, ravaging the countiy, and advancing towards the
capital, he entered England by the way of Carhile, which
he took and fortified, and proceeded as far as Richmond, in
Yorklhire, retaliating upon the adherents of John leverities
fimilar to thofe which his own fubjeftshad fuffered. But his
progrefs was impeded, and he was compelled to return
through Wcftmoreland to his own kingdom.

In 1 22 1, he married the princefs Joan, eldeft filler of
Heniy III. of England, who contributed to preferve peace
between the two kingdoms. After her death in 1239, they
were again embroiled ; but by the mediation of the carl of
Cornwall, Henry's brother, and the archbilhop of York,
they were again reconciled. Alexander, in his voyage to
quell fome commotions that were excited in Argylelliire, fell
iick, and being put on (liore on an ifland called Kernercy, oa
that coaft, died, in the 5 ill year of liis age, and 35th of his
reign. His fucceffor was his fon by his lecond. queen, the
daughter of Egelrand de Coury, one of the moll powerful
of the French nobility. Mod. Un. Hift. vol. xh. p. 77.

Alexander HI. king of Scotland, was fon ol the pre-
ceding, and fucceeded his father at the age of nine years, in
1249. Flis marriage with Margaret, the daughter of Henry
HI. of England, was foon after foleir.nizcd in the prefence
of the two courts at York. On this occafion Alexander
paid homage to Henry for his Englifn pofl'cfGons ; and, on
being preilcd to perform his homage for the crown of Scot-
land, he declined it. Alexandtr, upon his return to Scot-
land, found that the Cummins, a family of very great influ-
ejice, had formed a ilrong party againll his Euglilh connec-
tions, under the plea that Scotland was never any better than
a province of England ; and both the king and queen were
committed to clofe cuttody in the caltle of Edinburgh, where
they were debarred from feeing any company, or alTociating
with each other, and proliibited from all concern in the go-
vernment. When Henry heard of their fituation, he deter-
mined to relieve them, and for this purpofe affembled his mi-
litary tenants at York, and marched to the borders ; and by
his emilfaries, whom he difpatched to the cattle of Edin-
burgh, releafed the royal pair, and afterwards dilpofiefled
the uliirpers. The king then afliimed the exercile ol the
regal power ; and, as foon as he was of age, pardoned the
Cunimms acd their adherents, upon their fubmitting to his

authority.

ALE

authority. Hovever, in 1263, Hr.quin, kin^ of Norway,
appeaixj on the coafl with a iK'tt of 1 60 i'aips, to make
good his pvcteiifions to the Wcllcru Iflaiid;; ; and, difcm-
barkiiig- histroups, made himf«lf malUr of the callle of Ayr,
and advanced into the country. Alexander, having affein-
bled an army, met him at a place called Largs ; and, after a
long and douhthil contelt, the Scots army wai vidorions.
Of the Norwegians, 1 6,000 are faid to have periflied in the
field, and the Sects loH 50CO. The flilps of Hacjuin were
fo much wrecked the day after the bailie, that he could
loarcely procure a vefftl to carry him and a few friends to tiic
Orkneys, where he foon after died of grief. His fon and
fucceffor, Magnus, concluded a treaty with Alexander; and,
in conlideration of his receiving icco marks of hlver in two
years, and an annual payment of 100 marks for ever after,
renounced all claim to thofe illands. As a further cement of
friendlhip, Margaret, Alt3:ander*s daughter, was betrothed
to Eric, the fon and heir of Magnus, in 1256, Alexander
and his queen repaired to the Englilh court, where they \>'erc
lumptuoully entertained ; and when the queen was delivered,
they both returned to their own kingdom. During the war
between Henry and his baronj, Alexander affilled him with
5000 men, and preferved the northern fortretTts againft; all
their attempts. Upon the acccflion of Edward I. to the
throne of England, Alexander, with his family, was prefent
at his coronation,and loon after paid him homage for hisEng-
hfh eftates. In the parliament, held at Weftminllerin 1282,
Alexander attended as the firil peer of England. In 1283
he loil his fon Alexander, in the 20th year of his age ; and
his death was foon followed by that of hisiiiler, the queen of
Norway, who left an only daughter.

Alexandcrjhavingnofurvivingiffuebefulesthisinfantpvinccfr.,
was urged by the nubility and the Hates of the kingdom to
marry ; and in compliance with this requeft, he was married
to loletta, daughter to the Count of Dreux in France. This
excellent prince was foon after killed, whilll he was hunting,
by his horle's rulhing down a high precipice, A. D. 1285,
in the 45th year of his age, and the 37th of his reign. He
was fucceeded by Margaret, his grand-daughter, and heir of
his crown, who did not long furvive him. Scotland was now
in a very critical ftate. Edward I. was acquiring an influ-
ence in the kingdom, which no other Englifli monarch ever
poffefled, and revived the claim of iovereignty, to which his
father Henr)- had never pretended. The death of Alexan-
der was, tlierefore, much regretted ; and the fervices he had
performed to the kingdom demanded a tribute of refpeCt to
his memor)-. He had introduced many excellent regulations
of government ; he had divided the kingdom into p-arts, in
each of which he occafionaHy refided, with a view of pre-
ferving the pubhc peace, and for the purpofe of more ealuy
adminiilering julliee to all ranks of people ; and he had
greatly contributed to diminifh the burdens of the feudal
lyftem, and to reftrain the licence and oppreffions of the no-
bility. The death of Alexander III. forms a remarkable
jera in the Scotliflt hiftory. Mod. Un. Hift. vol. xli.
p. 79, &c.

Alexander, king of Poland, was a younger fon of Cafi-
mlr, and as duke of Lithuania, elefted frorxi motives of po-
licy to fucceed Albert in 1501. The archbifhop of Gnefna
hefitnted for fome time in affilling at his coronation ; and
abfolutely refufed to concur in the ceremony for his queen,
the princefs of Mufcovy, becaufe (he adhered to the doc-
trines of the Greek church. This indignity was refenttd by
her father, who, in confequence of it, laid fiege to Smo-
lendio, but, upon the amval of Alexander, relinquifhed the
enterprile, and concluded a truce for fix years. The fatigue
of this expedition fo much affected Alexander, that he fell

ALE

into a chronic diforder, which only terminated with his life.
During his ilinefs, the Moldavians and Tartars made an ir-
ruption into Lithuania ; and Alexander was carried in a lit-
ter, at the head of his army, to oppofe tliem. The two ar-
mies met near Wilna, and aft^r a f.vere contell, in wliich
20,000 Tartars fell, the Poles were viflorious. Alexander
received the news of this victory whilil he was dving ; and,
making figns to exprefs his gratitude, he exi)ircd in 1506, at
the age of 45, after a reign of live years in Poland, and 14
in Lithuania. In his itature he was (hort and robull ; his
vifage was long, his eyes fparkling, and his carriage majeflic.
His genius was heavy, his taciturnity very remarkable, but
his fentiments were generous and humane. He was a great
patron of the liberal arts, and jjrofufe in his grants under this
character, a!id particularly to muficians ; fo tliat his donations
were revoked, and a law was palfed, called Statutuni Alex-
andrinuni, which prohibited the king from difpoling uf the
revenue without the eonfent of the fcnate or diet. Mod.
Un. Hilt. vol. XXX. p. 410.

Alexander Netskoi, orNicFSKY, grand duke of Ruf-
Ca, both a faint and hero of that country, was born in 1218,
and dillinguiflied by his ftrength and courage, and by the
vigour of his characlcr. He was betimes infpircd with a
palllon for conqueil by the inceflant wars in which his father
Varoflauf was engaged with tlie Tartars and Mongulls.
Upon the death of Feodor, his elder brother, he became fole
viceroy of Novogorod. He married a princefs of the pro-
vince of Polotzk ; and for the purpofe of defending his go-
vernment againit the attacks of tlie Tfchudes or Eithonians,
he drew a line of forts along the river Shelonia, which falls
into the Ilmen lake. While Yaroflauf was engaged with the
Tartars in 1239, a combined army of Swedes, Danes, and
knights of the Teutonic Order, formed an expedition againft
Novogorod, and landed from their lliips on the banks of the
NeiBl. Alexander, after receiving a haught) embafTy, de-
termined to riHi the event of a battle. Having implored the
affiftance of heaven in the prefcnce of his people, he prepared
for an engagement. The attack was begun at fix in the
morning, and the two armies were elofely engaged during
the whole day. When night put an end to the contefl, the
field of battle was covered with the bodies of the llain.
This battle, in which Alexander is faid to have wounded
with his own fword the king of the northern nations, is em-
bcllifiied with a variety of fictions ; but the event of it was
highly honourable to the courage and fnccef;. of the young
prince'. From the river Neva, near which the battle was
fought, he obtained the furname of Nevlkoi. The remainder
of his life was employed in exertions of valour and attivity
againfl the invaders of his country. He defeated the Tartars
in feveral contefts. In 1245 he raifed the fiege of Novogo-
rod, and gained a viftory over the Germans, Danes, and
Tfchudes, on the borders of the Peipus lake. After his fa-
ther's death he paid a vifit to the Tartar khan, who acknow-
ledgcd, that though he had heard much to his praife, he far
exceeded every thing that had been reported concerning him.
In 1252, upon his return from a fecond vifit to the khan, he
afcended the throne as grand prince of Vladimir. With a
very confiderable force he now undertook an expedition
againft Sweden, and coming off victorious, he fo far con-
formed to the then fubllfting praftice of war, as to ra-
vage all the countries which he had captured, and retiimed
to Ruiiia with a multitude of prifoners, and heaps of fpoil.
On oecafion of a difference \\hich happened between tlie
RufTians, and particularly the inhabitants of Novogorod, and
the Tartars, with refpeft to the humiliating and burdenfome
tribute which was exafted by the latter, Alexander, in
125S, attempted to pacify the difconteiitcd, and to induce

then

t

A L t:

(horn to fubinit, without rcriftnnce, to a fupcrioi* power. In
order to givo cffcil to liis conciliatory endoRvours, lie took
tlie national payment on liinifelf, and thus acquired the com-
M.iCLiicy of the Novogorodians as well as of the Tartars. But
jileontcnts continuing to prevail, and refilbnce having arifen
to a degree fo alarming in fcvcral places, that the Tartarian
coUefiors were mafTacred ; the Tartars were exceedingly ex-
afpcratcd againll the RnfTians, and the Ruffian piinces were
commanded to appear before the khan. Alexander under-
took the hazardous buiinefs of attempting, by a pcrfonal m-
terview, to avert the khan's wrath on account of the mur-
der of his deputies. After a delay of twelve months he at
laft fuccceded, and obtained a promife that the khan woiJd
forgive what had happened, and forego his purpofe of
railmg an army ; and in his return home he died fuddenly at
Corodetz, in the year izOz, with circumftances that render
it extremely probable, that in the camp of the khan poifon
had been adminillered to him fliortly before his departure.
For his various and fignal fervlces, and afts of valour, which
in thofe idays were deemed miraculous, the grateful adinira-
tion of his countrymen raifed him to the rank of one ot the
national f;iints. Peter the Great, avaihng himfelf of the ve-
neration that was paid to the memory of this diilinguifhed
hero, founded, in 17 12, a monailery near his new city of
I'eterfburgh, on the fpot which was reported to have been
the fcene of Alexander's viclory ; and in 1723 he caufed the
bones of the great duke to be brought thither. This mo-
nailer)' has been gradually enlarged by feveral fovereigns
fiBce the time of Peter ; and the late emprefs has built a
magnificent church within its walls, and a fumptuous maufo-
knm for herfelf and her defcendants. The flirine of the
faint, which was caufed to be made by Ehzabeth, isof maffy
filver. The orderof knighthood of St. Alexander Nevflvoi was
inftituted by Peter the Great in 1722; but as he died before
the knights were appointed, this was done by Catherine I. in
June 1725. The badge of this order is a golden eight-
pointed ftar, enamelled with red, with the figure of St.
Alexander in armour on horfeback. At the four corners of
the crofs are as many gold fpread-eagles, crowned. A broad,
deep red, watered ribbon is worn over the left flioulder ; the
motto is in Ruffian charafters, fignifying, " For labour and
patriotifm." The feaft is heldon the 30th of Auguft. The
monarch and the knights attend mafs at Kazan church,
and go a pilgrimage on foot to the raonaftery of the faint, at
the diftance of three vcrfts, and attend mafs again before his
filver fiirine, and then return to the winter palace, where they
partake of a fumptuous dinner, under a difcharge of can-
non. In 1790 the number of knights amounted to 122.
Tooke's Life of Cath. II. vol. ii. p. 373. Cox's Travels
into Ruffia. >

ALEXANDERS, in Bo/atiy. See Smyrnium.

ALEXANDREA Mons, in ylnc'unt Geography, a moun-
tain of Myfia, on the fea-coaft, forming a part of Mount
Ida, where Paris pronounced judgment on the three god-
deffi:s. Strabo.

ALEX AND RETT A, now called Scanderoon by the
Turks, in Geography, is the port of Aleppo in Syria, and
fituated in the gulf of Ajazzo, near the fea coaft. N. lat.
36° 35' 10". E. long. 36° 20'. Its neareft diftance from
Aleppo, in a ftraight line, is between 60 and 70 miles; but
the ufual road for caravans, through Antioch, is computed to
be between 90 and 1 00 miles.

Ancient and modem travellers, from Moryfon and Teix-
eira to Volney, concur in reprefenting the wretclied condi-
tion of this village, which owes its exiftence, as the habita-
tion of human beings, to its being the port and road that
lead to Aleppo. lu this road veffels anchor on a folid bot«

ALE

torn, fo that their cables are not liable to chafe ; and from"
hence merchants convey their goods as fpeedily as poffible,
by means of their factors, to Aleppo and other places. In
winter this harbour is incommdded by a wind, called by the
French failors " Lc Raguier," which ruffies from the fnowy
fummita of the mountains, and forces the (l«ps to drag their
anchors feveral leagues ; and (hips are prevented by tempef-
tuous winds from entering the harbour for three or four
months. The road to Aleppo by the plain is alfo infefted
by curd robbers, who conceal themfelves in the caverns of
the adjacent rocks, and plunder the ftrongefl: caravans. Be-
fides, fuch is the fituation of this port, that it is environed on
three of its fides with a fenny plain, and on the fourth fide by
the fea. On the eaft fide, beyond the fen, is a high moun-
tain, which intercepts the rays of the fun, and the remote
mountains on the north fide have the fame effeiSl, fo that the
ftagnant waters and mephitic exhalations produce an epide-
mic diforder, which prevails from May to September, and
which is fatal to the inhabitants and to the crews of the
(hips during their ftay in this place. This diforder is an in-
termitting fever of the moft mahgnant kind, accompanied
with obllruftions of the liver, which terminate in a dropfy ;
and, at the time when this fever is mofl; prevalent, fhips have
frequently loR all their men in two months; and " the place,"
asMoiyfon (Travels, p. 250.) long ago obferved, " is infamous
for the deatii of Chriltians." Some years ago, fays Mr. Vol-
ney, the merchants of Aleppo, difgufted with the numerous
inconveniences of Alexandretta, withed to abandon that port,
and remove the trade to Latakia. They propofed to the
pacha of Tripoli to repair the harbour at their own expence,
on condition of his indemnifying them from all duties for ten
years. Regardlefs of any future advantages that might ac-
crue to his countiy from this plan, and of which he was not
likely to participate, their propofal was rejefted, and the Eu-
ropean faftors were obliged to remain at Scanderoon. The
only curiofity of the place, it is faid, that is (hewn for the
amufement of ftrangers, confifts of fix or feven marble mo-
numents, fent from England, on which is read the following

infcription : " Here hes , carried off in the flower of his

age by the fatal effefts of a contagious air." It is added,
that the languid and yellow afpeft, livid eyes, and dropfical
fymptoms of thofe who (hew thefe monuments, plainly indi-
cate that they are not likely long to efoape the fame fate. To
a village, however, called Beylan, fituate on a high hill, about
four leagues diitant, and abounding with frefh water and
excellent fruits, the inhabitants retire, and here they find no
inconfiderable rehef. The plain of Antioch, which lies at
fome dillance, is watered with a number of ftreams and ca-
nals, and abounds with moft of the neceffaries of life, parti-
cularly with cattle, which are driven there to fatten. This
port has a governor and fome few foldiers, and is defended
by an old caftle ; but as it is infufficient to refift any force,
it isfomewhat furprifing that the pirates, who fwarm on this
coaft, never attempt it. The aga has, for fome years paft,
applied the duties of the cullom-houfe at Alexandretta to his
own ule, and rendered himfelf almoil independent of the
pacha of Aleppo. In foimer times the carrier pigeon, Co-
lumha Tabellar'ui of Linnasus, was employed by the Engli(h
faftoiy to convey intelligence from Scanderoon of the arrival
of the company's fliips in that port. The praftice has been
difufed for many years; but Dr. RufFell (Hill. Aleppo,
vol. ii. p. 203.) informs us, that when it fubfifted, the pigeon
performed the journey in two hours and a half.

ALEXANDRIA, now called Scanderia, the ancient

capital city of Lower Egypt, was built by Alexander the

Great, in the year 332 before Chrift. It was fituated on

the Mediterranean between the Lake Mareotis and the beaU-

4 tiful

ALE

ALE

tifiil harbour formed by the Ifle of Pharos, about 1 2 miles weft
of the Canopic branch of the Nile, in N. lat. 31^ 10'. and
E. long. ^0° 19'. It is probable, fays a popular liiftorian, that
theoppofition andefTorto of the republic of Tyre, which gave
Alexander fo long and fo fevere a check in the career of his
viftories, led him to perceive the vaft rtfources of a mari-
time power, and fuggefted to him an idea of the immenfe
wealih which the Tyrians derived from their commerce, ef-
pecially that with the Eafl Indies. As foon, therefore, as
he had accomplifhed the dellruiStion of Tyre, and rednced
Egypt to fubjeftion, he formed the plan of rendering the em-
pire, which he defigned to eilablifli, the centre of commerce
as well as the feat of dominion. With this view he founded
a great city, which he honoured with his own name, near
one of the mouths of the river Nile, that by the Mediterra-
nean fea andtbe vicinity of the Arabian gulf, it might com-
mand the trade ot both the eaft and weft. He had no fooner
conceived the defign than he haftened to execute it. Ac-
cordingly he himfelf drew the plan of the intended city, and
fixed upon leveral places where the temples and public
fquares were to be ercfted. It is faid, that as there were no
inftruments at hand proper for this purpofe, a quantity of
meal was fcattered over the ground, and that thus the circuit
of the walls was marked out : and it is added that Ariitan-
der, the king's foothfayer, interpreted this new mode of de-
termining the Cte of the walls as a prefage of the abundance
.which would diftinguidi the city. The fituation of Alexan-
dria, it muft be allowed, was felefted with fueh difcernment,
that it foon became the chief commercial city in the world ;
and in this refpetl; the defign of its founder was fully accom-
.pliflied. Dtu^ing the fubfillence of the Grecian empii-e in
.Egypt and in the eaft, and amldft all the fucceflive revolu-
tions in thofe countries, through a period of about 1800
.years, from the time of the Ptolemies tothedifcovery of the
, navigation by the Cape of Good Hope, commerce, particu-
.larly that of the Eaft Indies, continued to flow in the chan-
. nel, which the fagacity and foreiight of Alexander had pre-
fcribed. Although fome part of the Indian commerce was
conducted by means of the river Oxus and the city of Sa-
Tnareand into the Cafpian fea, and thence by land to Trape-
.zond, and pafling to the Euxineand other neighbouring feas,
.centered in the city of Corinth; yet a confiderable part of it,
efpecially fuch as was carried on at the coaft of Malabar
and in the Perfian gulf, came up the Red Sea; and goods
which were landed at Elam, now Suez, were conveyed over
land to the Nile, and then by water to Alexandria.

This city, fays a modern traveller, was a league and a half
long by one-third in breadth, which made tho circumference
■ of its walls about four leagues. QiiintusCurtius (lib.iv. c. 8.
torn. i. p. 221.) makes them 80 ftadia, or a little more than
nine miles. According to Phny (H. N. lib. v. c. 10. torn. i.
p. 258.) they were 15 miles. Strabo (lib. xvii. torn. ii.
p. 1143.) makes the length of the city 30 ftadia, and the
breadth between feven and eight ftadia ; and Diodorus Siculus
(lib. xvii. torn. ii.p. 590. Ed.Wcfrel.)makes the circuit96ftadia,
or fomewhat more than 1 1 miles ; and he fays, that the city
■was peopled by 300,000 free iuliabitants, befides at leaft an
equal number of flaves. The Lake Mareotis bathed its walls

• on the fouth, and the MediteiTanean on the north. It was
interfefted lengthwife by ftraight parallel ftreets. This di-
reftion left a free pafTage to the northerly wind, wliich alone

• <!onvcys coolnefs and falubrity info Egypt. A ftreet two
thoufand feet wide began at the gate of the fea, ajid termi-

. nated at the gate of Canopus. It was decorated by magnifi-
cent houfes, by temples, and by pubhc buildings. In this
•extenfive range the eye was never tired with admiring the
marble, the porphyry, and the obeliUcs, which were dellined

at fome future day to cmbellifli Rome and Conflaiitinoplc.
This ftreet, the handfomeft in the univtrfe, was interfered
by another of the fame breadth, which formed a fquarc, at
their junftion, half a league in circumference. From the
middle of this great place the two gates were to be fcen at
once, and vcfTels arriving under full fall from the north and
from the fouth. A mole of a mile in length, called Hepta
Sladium, ftretched from the continent to tlie Ifle of Pliaros,
and divided the great harbour into two. That which is to the
nortlnvard prefei-ved thename of thefounder,andwascalltd the
GrcatPort. Adyke,drawn fromlhe iQand tothe rock onwhich
Pharos was built, fecurcd it from the wefterly winds. The
other was called Eunqflos, or the Safe Return. The former
is called at prefent the New, and is the port to which the
veftels of Europe refort; thelatter is the Old Harbour, and is
that to which thofe only fromTurkey are admitted: a bridge
that joins the mole to the city ferved for a conununication
between them. It was raifed on lofty pillars funk into the
fea, and left a free paffage for the ftiips. The palace, which
advanced beyond the promontory of Lochias, extended as far
as the dyke, and occupied more than a quarter (a third or
fourth, lays Strabo), of the city. Each of the Ptolemies
added to its magnificence. It contained within its inclofure
the mufeum, an afylum for learned men, groves and build-
ings worthy of royal majefty, and a temple where the body
of Alexander was depofited in a golden coffin. Perdiccas,
it is faid, undertook to convey the body of Alexander to the,
temple of Jupiter Ammon, agreeably to the will of that
prince ; but Ptolemy, fon of Lagus, carried it off, and
placed it in the palace of Alexandria. The infam.ous Seleu-
cus Cibyofaftes violated this monument, carried off the golden
coffin, and put a glafs one in its .place. In the great h.ar-
bour was the little ifland of Anti-Rhodes, where ftood a
theatre and a royal place of refidence. Within the harbour
ot Eunoftus was a fmaller one, called Kibotos, or Cibo-
tus, 'iq. d. the harbour of the arch, dug by the hand of
m.an, which communicated with the Lake Mareotis by a
canal. Between this canal and the palace was the admira-
ble temple of Serapis, and that of Neptune, near the great
place where the market was held. Alexandria extended like-
wife along the fouthern banks of the lake. Its eaftern part
prefented to view the Gymnafium, with its porticoes more
than 600 feet long, fupported by feveral rows of marble
plUarj. Without the gate of Canopus was a Ipacious circus
for the chariot races. Beyond that the fuburli of Nicopohs
ran along the fea (hore, and feemed a fccond Alexandria. A
fuperb amphitheatre was built there, with a race-ground, for
the celebration of the Qumquennalia, or feafts that were
celebrated every fifth year. Such is the defcription, fays Sa-
vary, (Letters on Egypt, vol. i. p. 29.) left us of Alexan-
dria by the ancients, and above all by Strabo.

This famous city, fecond only to Rome itfelf, was built
by Dinocratcs, a celebrated architect, who acquired great re-
putation by rebuilding the temple of Diana at Ephtfus,
which Heroftratus had burnt.

Alexandria owed much of its celebrity as well as of its
population to the Ptolemies. Ptolemy Soter, one of Alexan-
der's captains, who, after the death of this monarch, was
firft governor of Egypt, and afterwards afTumed the title of
king, made this city the place of his refidence, about 304
years before Chrift. This prince founded an academy,
called theMus.EUM, in which a fociety of learned men de-
voted themfelves to philofophlcal ftudies, and the improve-
ment of all the other fciences ; and he alfo gave them a li-
brary, which was prodigioufly increafed by his fuccefibrs.
He likewife induced the merchaius of Syria and Greece to
rcfide in tl)us,cify,.and to make it a. principal niait of their

commerce.

A I. E

commerce. Hi-, fon and fuocclTui-, Ptolcrr.v PhilaJtlplius,
puifuod tlio dcfigni of his father, and completed tlie tovcr
iif Pharos, broiiglit hitlicr the iir.ngc of the god t^erupis
from Pontvis, and ereiled the fainoiis temple of Serapion,
and improved the Alexandrian I'llraiy. He alfo conti-
nue^ the eAVAi.,projei£led and begun by Necos, and carried
on liy l);irlu;; Hvrtafpis, which was intended for joining the
Nile to the Red oca, and had the gloiy of complaing it.
Ptolemy Euergetes i:riitated the example of liis predeeeilors,
encouraged trade, and contributed to the wealth of Alexan-
dria, and tl;e profperity of tlie kingdom. But the afiluence
that was thus produced occalioned luxuiy and licentioufnefs,
fo that the voKiptuoufnefs if Alexandria became proverbial :
•' Nc Alexandrinis quidem permittcnda deliciis." Qiiinfti-
lian. I'or .nbout 300 years, from the commencement of the
reign of Ptolemy Soter to the death of Cleopatra, Alexan-
dria continued in fubjcftion to the Ptolemies ; but moft of
them devoted thenifelves to various kinds of indulgence
and pleafurc, became eflTcminatc and daftardly, and by
their example contributed to that corruption and relaxa-
tion, which prevailed among their fubjefts, and "iltimately
teiTTiinated in the ruin of this famuus city. Ptolemy Phyfcon,
in particular, was a monfler of vice and cruelty. About the
year 15. C. 136, he put to death or banifhcd moft of thofe
perfons who had been in favour with his brother Philometor,
and who had been employed diu-ing his reign, and per-
mitted his foreign troops to plunder and maffacre at difcre-
tion. Many of the inhabitants of Alexandria, terrified by
his favage conduct, and in order to avoid his cruelty, re-
tired into foreign counta^ and left the city almoft a defart.
Of thefe there wer^^^Htoiarians, philofophers, geometri-
pians, phylicians, mn^^R and other mailers in the libe-
ral fciences, who di-lKniinated the polite arts and general
fcience through Greece, Afia Minor, and the iflands, and
indeed to every place whither they fled. In order to fupply
the places of thefe fugitives, Ptolemy caufed proclama-
tions to be made in all the neighbouring countries, that
perfons of any nation, who were delirous of fettling at Alex-
andria, flionld receive fuitable encouragement. The propo-
fal was accepted by many, and the houfes and privileges
which belonged to the former inhabitants were affigned to
thefe new fettlers, and thus the city was repeopled. About
- this time Scipio Africanus the younger, and other Romans,
Were deputed on an embafty to Alexandria; and Juftin favs
of him, that whilll he vilited and confidcred with curiolity
the rarities of Alexandria, he was himfelf a fight to the
whole city ; " Dum infpieit urbem, ipfe fpeftaculo Alexan-
drinis fuit ;" fo different were his afpeft and manners from
thofe of the Alexandrians.. The new inhabitants, whom
Ptolemy had invited into the city, foon found rcafon to dif-
like their fituation, and to hate their new fovereign. Cruel
«nd timid as he was, lie determined to maffacre all the young
men of the city ; and for this purpofe he caufed the Gym-
nafuun, or place of exercife in which they were affembled, to
be invcikd by his foreign troops, and-put them all to thefword.
VVlicn Julius Ctcfar, B. C. 48, in his purfuit of Pompey,
■landed at Alexandria, he found the city in great commotion,
without law atid w ithout government. Having arbitrated
between Ptolemy XII. and Cleopatra, and decreed that they
ftiould reign jointly in Egypt, Pothinus inttigated the Alex-
andrians to refill the decree, and to concur in driving Ca;l'ar
out of the city. Accordingly hebrougiit 20,000 troops to
effeft his p\irpofe, but Csefar fupported the attack ; and in
order to prevent any injury from their fleet, to which they
next had recourfe, he caufed it to be fct on lire, and poffefTcd
himfelf of the tower of Pharos, which he garrifoncd. Some
©f the vclTcls that were on fire came fo near, that the flames

ALE

cauglit the houfes adjoining to the quay, and fpread througli
that quarter of the city, which was called Bnirhioti, and
confumed the library that was placed there, confilling of
400,000 volumes. In a decifive battle with the whole army
of Ptolemy, Caefar, affilled by a confiderable body of Jews, ob-
tained a complete viiSory. Ptolemy, in endeavouring to make
his efcape in a boat, was drowned in the Nile ; and Caefar
returned fo Alexandria, which, together with the whole of
Egypt ,fubmittcd to the viftor. Before he left this city, he con-
firmed all the privileges wliich the Jews enjoyed, in gratitude
to them for thciraffdlance, and ordered a column to be erefted,
in which thefe privileges were engraven, with the decree that
confiimcd them. The emperor Caligula was inclined to fa-
vour the Alexandrians, becaufe they manifeiled a readinefs
to cinifer divine honours on him ; and conceived the •'
horrid defign of maffacrjng the chief fenators and knights- of
Rome, A. D. 40, and then of abandoning the city, and of
fettling at Alexandria. At this time the Jews who inhabited
this city, and v.ho had continued to enjoy the privileges of
citizens, granted to them by Alexander, under the Ptolemies,
and who had obtained a confirmation of them from Julius
Cocfar,becanie obnoxious to the Alexandrians. Theirnumber,
as they occupied two parts in five of the city, and amounted
in the whole of Egypt to a million, and alfo the prerogatives
that diftinguifhed them, excited envy and jealoui'y, and their
fellow-citizens wanted only a pretence for deilroying them.
They had been for fome time rellrained from doing them
injury ; but under the g(>vernment of Flaccus, A. D. 40,
who permitted the ilatues of Ca?far to be fet up in the ora-
tories of the Jews, they were grievoufly oppreffed. He took
oecafion, in confequenee of lome dilTenfions and feditions
that occurred, to publifli a decree, by which, without offer*
ing them a hearing, they were declared ftrangers in Alexan-
dria ; he alfo reftritled them to one of the five diftrifts into
which the city was divided ; and their houfiss, which they-
were compelled to abandon, were plundered, whilft, defti-
tute of any fettled abode, they were obliged to wander
about the fields and the fea-fhore, without ihelter, pro-
perty, and even the means of fubfiftencc. Thofe who fell
into the hands' trf their enemies were tortured in the moft
cruel manner, and deilroyed by a lingering and painful
death. The ftreets, market-places, and theatres were de-
luged with blood ; neither fex nor age was diftinguifhed ;
and none, fays Philo (Leg. ad Caium) were fpared.
This writer afligns no other caufe for thefe barbarities
than the rage and fury of the Alexandrians. When
Flaccus was recalled, the Jews obtained fome refpite ; but
they were foon alarmed by the order of Caius to have his own
rtatue fet up in the temple of Jerufalem. In the mean while
they fent a deputation to the emperor, at the head of which
was Philo, to petition the reftoration of their citizcnfhip and
of their oratories. Before the objeft of their embaffy was
fettled, Caius died ; and Claudius declared in favour of the
Jews, whom he re-eftabliftied in the poffefRon of all the pri-
vileges they had enjoyed in Alexandna from the time of the
foundation of that city. When Adrian vifited Egypt,
A. D. 130, he exprefted a great diflike of the manners and
difpofitions of the Egyptians in general, and of thofe of the
inhabitants of Alexandria in particular. In a letter written
from thence, and addrefl'ed to the Conful Servian, he fays,
" the city of Alexandria is rich and powerful, with great-
trade, -which produces plenty. Nobody is idle there ; foiiie
blow glafs, others make paper ; many are employed about
linen and making of cloaths ; all have fome trade. All, whe-
ther Jews or Chriftians, acknowledge but one God, their
intereft. I wifli that this city, by its grandeur and riches,
the lirft of all Egypt, was furniflied with better inhabitants.
I Nothing

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ALE

KotTiing equals their ingratitude ; I have granted them every-
thing they could defire ; I have reftored their ancient privi-
leges ; I have given them new ones ; in conftquence of" this
they were grateful to me when prefr-nt ; but I had fcarcely
turned my back when they iufolently attacked my ion Verus,
and I believe you know what they i\ave faid of Antoninus,
&c. &c." For Nero the Alexandrians l)uilt batlu in the
city, when they expetted a vifit from him in his way to
Egypt ; and becaufe Cxcina Tufcns, the fon of his nurfe,
whom he had made prxfeCt of Egypt, prcfnmi.d to make ufe
of them, he wis coiuiemned to baniihmciit. To Alexandria
belon"-ed th_' honour of being the ilrll place where Vefpafian
was acknowledged and proclaimed, A. D. 69, and the em-
peror remained here whiUl his generals and armies were fight-
ing againll Vitellius ; and though he came hither for the
purpofe of llarving Italy, by preventing its fuppliea of fo-
rei'i^n corn, yet as foon as he heard of the death of Vitellius,
and that Home had fnbmitted, the bell ftiips of Alexandria
were immediately laden with corn, and ordered to fail for
their fupply. Whilll Vefpafian continued in this city, he
received ambalTadors from the Vologefes, who offered him
40,000 Parthian horfe ; but peace was then reRored to the
Roman empire. During his Hay in this place he was no
favourite with the Alexandrians. They were fond of pomp
and magniiicence, and Vefpafian loved iimplicity. They
had flattered themfelves with the hopes of receiving a gra-
tification, becaufe they liad been the iirll who acknow-
ledged him for emperor ; but on the contrary they were har-
rafl'ed with impofts, either new, or levied with uncommon ri-
gour. The Alexandrians revenged themfelves with fneers and
farcafms, calling him CybwfaSes, a name which they liad for-
merly given to one of their kings, who was fordidly avaricious ;
but heaven, if we credit fome Pagan writers, dillinguiflied
him by miracles. The emperor Severus, in his vilit to Egypt,
A. D. 202, granted the Alexandrians a council, the mem-
bers of which had the title and privileges of fenators, and
affilled in the adminiftration of public affairs, and thus miti-
gated the rigour of the defpotic government of the prajfeft
inftituted by Auguftus. He alfo changed feveral laws in
tlieir favour ; and they erected a column as a monument of
their gratitude, called by Abulfeda the PtlLir of Se-vcrus. It
has already appeared that the Alexandrians were inclined to
be farcaflic, and that they deferved the charaiter given to
them by Herodotus, who fays, that they loved to be merry at
the expence even of their princes. In the cafe of Caracalla,
whofe vanity they ridiculed, becaufe, though he was of fmall
ftature, deformed, and deftitute of evei y kind of military
merit, he had compared himfelf to Achilles and to Alexan-
der, their raillery was productive of very ferious confe-
quenccs. Wliilft the Alexandrians were preparing to re-
ceive him with joy and magnificence, when he vifited tlie
temple of Ser^pis, and the tomb of Alexander, he was medi-
tating cruel retaliation. In the midll of peace, and on the
flighteft provocation, he iffued his commands for a general
maffacre, A. D. 21;. From a fecure part of the temple of
Serapis, he viewed and direfted the fkuighter of many thou-
fand citizens, as well as ftrangers, without diHinguifliing
either the number or the crime of the fufTerers ; fince, as he
coolly informed the fenate, all the Alexandrians, thofe who
had perifhed and thofe who had efcaped, were alike guilty.
Dion. (lib. Ixxvii. p. 1307.) reprefents it as a cruel maflacre ;
Jierodian (lib. iv. p. 155.) fays, that it was alfo perfidious.
The maffacre was accompanied with the plunder both of
temples and houfes ; and all ftrangers, except merchants,
were driven from the city. The focieties of learned men,
who were maintained in the Mufa;um, were abolifhed ; and
^e different auarca'3 of tlie city were feparatcd fraai eacli
Vol. L

other by wilU add towers to prevent ail communication
between them. However, this defolation was but a tempo-
rary evil ; for Caracalla being foon after killed, Alexandria
recovered its fplcndourby its own rcfources, and foon became
again the feeond city of the empire. Under the reign of
Gallienus, Tlimilian, who had l)etn prxfetl of Egypt for
{om<; years, aifumed tiie Imperial purple, on occaiion of a
violent fedilion, which terminated in a ruinouo war. AU
communication between the diiTerent quarters of Alexan-
dria was cut off, and it was eafier, fays St. Dionyfius, to go
from one end of the world to the other than from Alexan-
dria to Alexandria. The itreets were filled with blood, the
dead bodies putrified, and, by their infertion, brought on
the plague. iEmilian, in vain, endeavcnired to appeafc the
people. 'I'hcy were cxafpcrated againll him, and attacked hint
wiili Hones and darts ; upon wliich,in order to avert the im-
minent danger that threatened him, he declared himfelf
emperor, 'i he foldiers and the people, happy in the prof-
peel of being rcfcued from the yoke of Gallienns, acknow-
ledged his fovercign authority. At length he was at-
tacked and defeated by Theodotus, the miniller of Gallie.
nus's vengeance. Upon this he retired to the Bruchium, a
quarter of Alexandria, and fullained a fiegci in which St-
Analtafius and St. Eufcbius, intimate friends, and afterwardf
bilhops of I.aodicea, were admired for their ingenious cha-
rity in comforting and relieving the unhappy bclieged, who
perifhed v/ith hunger. Anatolius was (luit up in Bruchium,
and Eufebius remained with the Romans. The former,
moved with compuflion to the wants and mifcry of tlie bc-
fieged, applied to the latter in order to obtain amnefty for
tiiofe who Ihould leave the garrifon and furrender them-
felves. Having fuceeedcd in his application, he immediately
propofed funendering the place, and making peace witli the
befiegers. The anfwer was, that no peace Ihould be made.
Anatolius then propofed, tliat all who were of no fervice
fliould leave the place in difguife, and they were kindly re-
ceived and feafonably fupplied by Eufebius. jEmilian wa»
afterwards taken by Theodotus and fent to Galhenus, who
ordered him to be Itranglcd in prifon. The various misfor-
tunes that befell Alexandria fo depopulated this great city,
tliat, after thefe calamities, the number of its inhabitanti,
from four to fourfcore years of age, was not equal to that
whicli had been ufually reckoned Ijefore of thofe who were
between 40 and 70. This difference was known by
the regifters that were kept for the gratuitous dillribu-
tion of corn. Eufebius, Eccl. Hill. vii. 21. Di'oelefian,
A. D. 296, marched againll Achilleus, who had ufurped
the government of Egypt ; and, having driven him to
Alexandria, befieged the city, cut off the aquedutts wliicli
conveyed the waters of tlie Nile into eveiy quarter of that
immenfe city, and rendering his camp impregnable to the {al-
lies of the befieged multitude, he puflied his reiterated at-
tacks with caution and vigour. After a fiege of eight
months, Alexandria, walled by the fword and by fire, im-
plored the clemency of the conqueror, but it experienced the
full extent of his fevcrity. IVIany thoufands of the citizens
perilhed in a proraifcuous {laughter, and there were few ob-
noxious perfons in Egypt, who efcaped a lentence either of
death, or at leatl of exile. Eutropius, ix. 24. Orofius (vii. 25.)
fays, that he gave up the city to be plundered. As an apo-
logy for the levtrity of this emperor, it has been alledged
that the feditions of Alexandria had often affetled the tran-
quillity and fubfillence of Rome itfelf, and that his fevcrity
was counterbalanced by fahitary regulations. In 302 he
eftablifhed, for the benefit of this city, a perpetual diltribu-
tion of corn. Conllantine, with a view of ellablifhing his new
city of CouH^uiUaoplc, diltributed every day 80,000 bufheU

4M; »*f

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•f com brought from Alexandria ; and lie employed the
Alexandrian fleet in viftualling New Rome, as it was called,
leaving to Old Rome only that of Africa. Socrat. ii. 13.
Alexandria fniTered in common with otlier places by the vio-
lent and deilr«aive earthquak... which fhook the grcateil part
of the Roman empire, July 2 ill, A. D. 365 ; and this city
ann\ially commemorated this fatal day when 50,000 perfons
had loft their hvcs in the inundation.

It was in Alexandria chiefly that the Grecian philofophy
vas entjr.ifted upon the (lock of ancient oriental wifdom.
The Egyptian method of teaching by allcgor>- was pecuharly
favourable to fucli an union : and we may well fuppofe that
when Alexander, in order to prefer^t by the arts of peace
that extenlive empire, which he had obtained bv the force of
arms, endeavoured to incorporate the cuftoms of the Greeks
with thofe of the Perfian, Indian, and other eaftcrn nations,
the opinions as well as the manners of this feeble and obfe-
(|uious race would, in a great mcafuie, be accommodated to
thole of their conquerors. This influence of the Grecian
upon the oriental philofophy continued long after the time
ot Alexander, and was one principal occafion of the confulion
of opinions which occurs in the hiitory of the Alexandrian
and ChritHan fchools. Alexander, when he built the city
of Alexandria, witli a determination to make it the feat of his
empire, and peopled it with emigrants from various countries,
opened a new mart of philofophy, which emulated the fame
of Athens itfelf. A general indulgence was granted to the
promifcuous crowd arfembled in this riling city, whether
Egyptians, Grecians, Jews, or others, to profeis their re-
fpeftive fyllems of philofophy without moleifation. The
confequencc was, that Egypt was foon filled with religious
and philofophieal fedaries of every kind ; and particularly,
that almoft evei-y Grecian feft found an advocate and pro-
felTor in Alexandria. The family of the Ptolemies, as we
have feen, who after Alexander obtained the government of
Egypt, from motives of policy, encouraged this new eftab-
litnment. Ptolemy Lagus, who had obtained the crown of
Egypt by nfurpation, was particularly careful to fecure the
interell of the Greeks in his favour, and with this view in-
vited people from every part of Greece to fettle in Egypt,
and removed the fchools of Athens to Alexandria. This en-
lightened prince fpared no pains to raife the literary, as well
as the civil, military, and commercial credit of his country.
Under the patronage firll of the Egj-ptian princes, and after-
wards of the Roman emperors, Alexandria long continued to
enjoy great celebrity as the feat of learning, and to fend
forth eminent philofophers of every fed to diftant countries.
It remained a fchool of learning, as well as a commercial em-
porium, till it was taken, as we fhall fee in the fequel of this
article, and plundered of its literary treafures by the Sara-
cens. Philofophy, during this period, fuffered a grievous
corruption from the attempt which was made by philofophers
of different feds and countries, Grecian, Egyptian, and
Oriental, who were aflcmbled in Alexandria, to frame, from
their different tenets, one general fyftem of opinions. The
refped which had long been univcrfally paid to the fchools
of Greece, and the honours with wliich they were now
adorned by the Egyptian princes, induced other wife men,
and even the Egyptian prielts and pliilofophers themfelves to
fubmit to this innovation. Hence arofe an heterogeneous
mafs of opinions, under the name of the "Ec^zctic philofophy,
and which has been the foundation of endlefs confufion, er-
ror and abfurdity, not only in the Alexandrian fchool, but
among Jews and Chrillians ; producing among the former
that fpecious kind of philofophy, which they called their
Cabbala, and among the latter innumerable coiTuptionsof
the Cbriilian faith. The Akxandiiun fchool 13 celebrated

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by Strabo (lib. xvii.)andby Ammianus (xxli. 6.) Brucket's
Hiftory of Philofophy, by Enfield, vol. i. p. 500.

At Alexandria there was, in a very early period of the
Chriftian xra,a Chriftian fchool of confiderable eminence. St.
Jerom fays,tlie fchool at Alexandria hadbeen in being from the
time of St. Mark. Pantinus, placed by Lardnerat the year
192, prefided in it. St. Clement of Alexandria fucceeded
Pantasnus in this fchool about the year 190; and he was fuc-
ceeded by Origen. Lardner's Works, vol. ii. p. 203. As
the extenfive commerce of Alexandria, and its proximity to
Paleftine, gave an eafy entrance to the new religion, it was
at the fchool of this city that the Chriftian theology appear*
to have aft'umed a regular and oriental form : and when
Adrian vifited Egypt, he found a church compofed of
Jews and Greeks, lufficiently important to attraft the notice
of that inquifitive prince. The theological fyftem of Plato was
introduced into both the philofophieal and Chriftian fchool*
of Alexandria ; and of courfe many of his fentiments and
expreffions Were blended with the opinions and language of the
profeflors and teachers of Chriftianity. See Platosism.

The city of Alexandria, which had maintained its repu-
tation for power and wealth, as well as for literature and ici-
enco, for nearly 1000 years, and which had been luccefllvely
held in fubjection by the Ptolemies, the Romans, and the
Greek emperors, was at length captured by the Saracens,
and in procefs of time totally ruined. In the year 638,
Amrou, the general of Omar, invaded Egypt ; and in the
following year he commenced the fiege of Alexandria. This
fiege is perhaps the moll arduous and important enterprife in
the annals of Saracen conquefts. The firft trading city in
the world was abundantly repleniflied with the means of fub-
fiftence and defence. Her numerous inhabitants fought for
the deareft of human rights, religion and property ; and the
enmity of the natives leemed to exclude them from the be-
nefit of peace and toleration. The fea was continually open ;
and if Heraclius had been awake to the pubhc diftrefs, frelh
armies of Romans and barbarians might have been poured
into the harbour, to fave the fecond capital of the empire.
A circumference of 10 miles would have fcatteredthe forces
of the Greeks, and favoured the ftratagems of an aftive
enemy ; but the two fides of an oblong fquare were covered
by the fea and the lake Mareotis, and each of the narrow
ends expofed a front of no more than 10 furlongs. The ef-
forts of the Arabs, however, were not inadequate to the dif-
ficulty of the attempt and the value of the prize. The faith,
ful natives devoted their labours to the fervice of Amrou ;
and in every attack his fword and banner glittered in the van
of the Moilems. The general, having been releafed from a
temporary captivity, into which his imprudent valour had be- "
trayed him, advanced towards the city doom.ed to dcftruc-
tion. At length, after a fiege of fourteen months, and the
lofs of 23,000 men, the Saracens prevailed ; the Greeks
embarked their difpirited and diminiftied numbers ; and the
ftandard of Mahomet was planted on the walls of the capital
of Egypt, Dec. 22, A. D. 640. " I have taken," faid
Amrou to the cahph, " the great city of the weft. It is
impolTible for me to enumerate the variety of its riches and
beauty ; I ftiall content myfelf with obferving, that it contains
4000 palaces, 4000 baths, 400 theatres or places of amufe-
ment, 12,000 fliops for the fale of vegetable foods, and
40,000 tributary Jews. The town has been fubdued by force
of arms, without treaty or capitulation, and the Modems are
impatient to feize the fruits of their vidory." According
to the Arabian hiftorians, Alexandria, at this time, confiited
of three cities, •u/':. Alenna, or the port, which included
Pharos and the adjacent parts ; Alexandria, properly fo
called, where the modern Scanderia Hands ; and NcLita, of
6 the

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A L E

t!ie Necropolis of Jofcplms and Strabo. The commander of
the Faithful, on this occafioii, rejetled the idea of pillage, and
diredled hia heutenant to refcrve the wealth and revenue of
Alexandria for the public fervice and the propagation of the
faith ; the inhabitants were ntinibercd ; a tribute was im-
pofed; the zeal and refeutnient of the Jacobites were curbed ;
and the Melchites, who fubmitted to the Arabian yoke,
were indulged in the obfcure but tranquil cxercife of their
worfhip. The intelligence of this difgraceful and calamitous
event affliftcd the declining health of the emperor, and Hera-
clius died of a dropfy about feven weeks after the lofs of
Alexandria. Under the minority of his grandfon, the cla-
mours of a people, deprived of their daily fuRenance, com-
pelled the By/.antine court toundertakc the recovci-)' of the
capital of Egypt. In the fpace ot four years the harbour
and fortifications of Alexandria were twice occupied by a
fleet and army of Romans. They were twice expelled by
the valour of Amrou. But the facility of the attempt, the
repetition of the infult, and the obllinaey of the relillance,
provolced him to fwear, that if a third time he drove the in-
fidels into the fea, he would render Alexandria as acceffible
on all fides as the houfe of a proiHtutc. Faithful to his pro-
mife, he difmantled feveral parts of the walls and towers, but
the people were fpared ; and the Mofch of Mercy was erefted
on the fpot where the viftorious general had flopped the
fury of his troops. For the fate of the library, fee Ale.^.\n-
DRIAN library.

Under the domination of the Arabs, Alexandria gradu-
ally lolt its fplendour. In the year 924 it was taken by the
Magrebians, two years after the dellruflion by iire of its
great chnieh, called by the Arabs Al Ka'ifaria, or Crfiirea,
which had been foi-niei4y a Pagan temple, erefted by queen
Cleopatra, in honour oi fiatvnn. The city was foon aban-
doned by the Magrebians, and in 928 the poffefTion of it
was again refumed. But when their fleet was afterwards
defeated by that of the Caliph, the Magrebian general,
ylbii! Ktifem, retired from Alexandria, leaving in it a gar-
rifon of 300 men, who with the remaining inhabitants were
removed by the Caliph's admiral, Thinaal, to an ifland
in the Nile called Ahouhtr. According to Eutychius,
more thsji 7.00,000 of the wretched inhabitants perifhcd
this year.

In the year S75 the old walls had been demolifhed ; its ex-
tent contrafted to half its ancient dimenfions, and thofe walls
were built which cxifl at the prefent day. This fecond
Alexandria, which may be called, fays Savary, that of the
Arabs, prefented by the difpofltion of its flreets the form
of a chequer. It had preferved a part of its public places
and of its monuments. Tiie Pharos fUll exifted ; and Alex-
andria in its decline flill prefented an air of grandeur and
magnificence tliat excited admiration.

Of the profperity and wealth of Alexandria, as the em-
porium of commerce, we may form an idea by this fingle
circumflance ; that, after the defeat of Zenobia, a fingle
mei chant of this citv, undertook to raife and pay an army
out of the profits of his trade. Such were its refources,
and the advantages derived from its commerce, that notv.ith-
flanding the tributes that were exafted from it by the Greeks
and Remans, and the oppreffions it fuffered from the Sara-
cens, it fiiceeffively recovered its profperity ; and even in
the C3th centiuy, its old mart began to revive, and its port
became again the center of commerce. But the dominion
of the Turks, and the difeover\' of the Cape of Good Hope,
in 1499, completed its ruin, and from that time it has fallen
into decay. 'J'he Alexandria of the Arabs was miferably
depopulated. Its large buildings fell into ruins, and under
a guvetament which difcouragcd even the appearance of

wealth, no pcrfon could venture to repair them ; and mfaa
habltatiuii'j were conftrutted, in lieu of them, on the lea
coafl.

The prefent flate of Alexandria affords a feenrofniag-
nifiecnt ruin and dei'olation. In the fpact of two leagues,
enclofed by walls, nothing is to be I'ceu but the remains of
pilaflers, of capitals, and of ubelilks, and whole mountains
of Hiattered cohiinns and monuments of ancient art heaped
upon one another, and accumulated to a greater height than
that of the houles. The famous tower of Pharos has been
long fince demoliOied, and a tquarc calUe, witliout taile,
ornament, or flrength, called Farillon, ereCled in its place.
The mole which joined the continent to the ifle of Pharo*
is enlarged, ami is now become a part of the main land. The
ifland of Anti- Rhodes is in the middle of the prefent town,
and is difcoverable only by an eminence covered with ruins.
The harbour Kibolos is choakcd up.' The canal which con-
veved the waters of lake Mareotis has diftppeared. This lake
ilfelf, through the negligence of the Turks in preferving the
canals which conveyed the waters of the Nile, is no longer
in exiftence, but is entirely occupied by thefandsof I.ybia.
The CANAL of Faouc, the only one which at prefent com-
municates with Alexandria, and without which that town
could not fubfilf, fince it has not a drop of freffi water, is
half filled witli imid and fand. Under tlie Roman empire,
and even under the domination of the Arabs, it was navi-
gable all the year, and fcrved for the conveyance of mer-
chandize. Its banks were Ihaded with date trees, covered
with vineyards, and adorned with countr)- houfes. At pre-
fent it has no water till about the end of Augufl, and its
fiipply is hardly fnfficicnt to fill the cifterns of the town.
The fields adjoining to it are dcferted ; the groves and gar-
dens that furrounded the ancient city have difappeared, and
without the walls there are only a few feattered trees, fome
fycamores and fig-trees, fome date and caper trees, and kali,
that hide the burning fands, which would be otlierwife in-
fuppoitable to the fight. Neverthelefs, even/ trace of ancient
magnificence is not obliterated. Some parts of the old walls
are yet flanding ; and they are flanked with large towers, at
the diilance of about 200 paces from each other, and with
fmaller intermediate ones. Below are magnificent cafematcs,
which may ferve for galleries in which to walk. In the
lower part of the towers is a large fquarc hall, whofe rocff
is fupported by thick columns of Thebaic fhme ; and above
this are feveral rooms, over which are platforms more than 20
paces fquare. The refervolrs, vaulted with much art, and
extending under the whole town, are almofl entire at the
end of 2000 years. Of C-efar's palace there remain only a
few porphyry pillars, and the front, which is almofl eiitirc,
and appears veiy beautiful. The palace of Cleopatra was
built upon the walls facing the port, having a galler)' on the
outfide, fupported by feveral fine columns. Towards the
eailern part of the palace are two obehflcs, vulgarly called
Cleopatra's Needles. They are of Thebaic ftone, and co-
vered with hieroglyphics ; one is overturned, broken, ami
lying under the fand ; the other is on it5 pedefUl. Thcfe
two obclifks, each of them of a fingle ftune, are abinit 60
feet high, by fevcn feet ftjuare at the bale. Towards the
gate of Rofctta are live columns of marble, on the place for-
merly occupied by the porticoes of the Gymnahunu The
reil of the colonnade, the defign of which was difcoverable
100 years ago by Maillet, has been fiuce delhoyed by the
barbarifm of the Turks. Pompey^s pillar, and the Calacumbs,
at half a league diftant to the fouihward of the town, flill
engage the attention of travellers. The canal of the Nile,
already mentioned, is about 70 paces from Porr.j-cy's piUar ;
and on the top of the hill is a t,ower, in whiv^h * ceotincl i*-
4 M 2 placcdi

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placed, who gives notice, \)y a flag, of t>ie (hips tlr.it are
coming into port. From this hill may bs fecii the fta, the
whole sxttiit of the city, and the parts in its vicinity. On
the fca-coall there is a large bafon, cut out of the rock that
forms the ihore, having on its fiJes two beautiful fah)ons
that arc hewn out by the chifcl with benches acrofs them.
A canal of a zijj-zag form, for l!ie purpofe of {lopping the
progrefs of the land by its diiferent windings, conveys into
them the water of the fca, pure and tranfparei^t ao cryllal.
The water rifes a little above the waiil, when a perfon is
fiated on the Hone bench, and the feet reft on a line faiid.
The waves of tiie fca da(h againft the ruck and foam in the
canal. The fwell enters, raifes you up, and leaves you ;
and thus altcri;ately entering and retiring, furnifhes a conilant
fupply of frefn water, and a coolnefs, which is grateful and
delicious under a burning )ky. This place is vidgarly cnlitd
the £>t:h of Cleopatra ; and forae ruins indicate its having
been formerly ornamented.

The modern j^Iexiindria is built near the brink of the fea
on a kind of pcninfula, fituate between the two ports above-
mentioned. The new port, afTigned to Europeans, is clogged
up witli fand, wliich renders the entrance into it both diffi-
cult and dangerous, and in ftormy weather endangers th«
bilging of the (liips ; and the bottom is rocky, fo that the
cablesfoon chafe and part ; and thus vcifels are driven againtl
one another, and arc fonietimes loft. An inftance ot this
kind happened in March 1773, when more than 40 veflels
were dalhed to pieces on the mole by a north-weft gale. Si-
milar accidents have alfo happened at different times ; and
under the Turkilh government, which, as it is faid, ruins
the labours of paft ages and deftroys the hopes of future
time, no provifion is hkely to be made for preventing their
occurring again. Tile other port, or the Eunoftus of the
ancients, to tlie weftward of the Pharos, is called the port
of Africa ; it is iiuich larger than the former, and lies im-
mediately under part of the town of Alexandria. It has
ir.uch deep water, thougii many Ihips are continually thvow-
ing their ballaft into it ; and without doubt it will be at
length filled up and thus joined to the continent. Chriftian
Y^ffcis are not fufFered to enter this port; and the only reafon
is, leaft the Moorifti women fhould be feen taking the air in
the evening at open windows, and this has been thought
fufiicient to induce Chriftian powers to fubmit to the reftraint,
and to overbalance the conftant lofs of (hips, property and
men. The houfes at Alexandria, like thofe of the Levant,
have flat terrace roofs ; they have no windows, and the
apertures which fupply their place are alnioft entirely oh-
llrucltd by a wooden lattice projefling, of various forms,
and fo clofe, that the light can hardly force a palTage. In
thofe countries, more than any where elfe, fueh inventions,
whicii transform a manfion into a prifon, are rtAjealoiiJies,
as Sonnini calls them, or window-bhnds. Narrow and awk-
wardly difpofed ftreets are without pavement, as the city is
without pohce ; no public edifice, no private building arrcfts
the eye of the traveller ; and on the fuppofition that the
fragments of the old city had not attrafted his attention, he
woylci find no objcft in the prcfent town that could fupply
matter for a moment's thought. Turks, Arabians, Bar-
barefques, Cophts, Chriftians of Syria, and Jews, conftitute
a population which, according to Sonnini, may be eftimated
at 5000, as far as an eftimation can be made in a country
where no regifter of any thing is kept. Commerce attra£ls
thither befides, from all the countries of the eaft, fti-angers
whoferefidenceis very tranfient. This motley aftemblage of
perfons of different nations, jealous of and almoftalwayshoftile
to each otcer, would prefent to the eye of the obftrver a

A L E

fingular mixture of cuftoms, manners and drefs, if a rcfor^
of thieves and robbers could repay the trouble of obfervation.
The prefent Alexandrians are, like their predeceftors ii>
fonner times, chargeable with a pronenefs to fedition, whicji
is awed and reftramed by the feverity of their government.
The Britilh and French nations carrj' on a conhderable com-
merce with Alexandria, and have each a conlul refiding
there. Some Venetian (hips aUo fail thither yearly, luidcr
tlie colours and proteftion of France. The iabjeCls of tliofe
kiiigdoms who have noconful here are fubjccted to a tax by
tlie Grand Seignior ; but tlie Jews indemnify themfelves fop
this difadvantage, bv felling tlieir commodities cheaper than
other foreigners can afford to do ; and they are alfo favoured
by the farmers of the revenues, who know that the Jews
have it in their power to lefTcn the quantity of merchandize
that comes into their port, for the period of two years,
which is the duration uf their farm. The language fpoken
at Alexandria is the Arabic ; but nioft of the Alexandrians,
and tliufe in particular whom commerce leads into an inter-
courfe with the merchants of Europe, fpcak likewife the
Italian. The morefca or lingua franca, which is a compound.
of bad Italian, Spaiii(h and Arabic, is likewife fpoken in
this place. The guveniment of Alexandria is like that of
other places in Egypt ; and is conducted by an aga, what
has under him a kadi and fub-baflia, all nominated by the
chief bafha. It has a fmall garrifon of foldiers, part of
W'hich are Janizaries and AlTafls ; who are haughty and in-
folent, not only to ftrangers but to the mercantile and in-
duftrious pait of the people. Thefc* are lodged in tlie
farillons or caftles that guard the port, where the aga or
governor that commands them alfo refides. But though the
Pharos, according to eftablilhed regulations, ought to bs
garnioned by 500 janizaries, it has never half that number,
and not moi-ethan four cannons for its defei>ce. The whole
of the fortifications might eafilv be beat down by a (Ingle
frigate ; but a foreign army would experience great difficulty
in maintaining pofTeffion of Alexandria for want of water j
as the city has not any befides that which is condufted by
canals into their refervoirs at the time of the overflowing of
tlie Nile ; fo that it would be neceffary to conquer the whole
country, or at leail thofe parts that lie on the banks of the
river. Alexandria was taken by aflault on the fourth of
July, 1798, by the French atmy, under the command of
Bonaparte, the prefent prime conful of France ; after putting-
to flight the Arabs and Mamalukes w-ho defended it, and
killing about joo of them. The troops, that were left in
poffefiion of the town, when the army began its march
acrofs the Defert, having been forbidden, under penalty of
death, from entering the houfes or mofques of the Turks, o&
committing any violence on their perfons, or thofe of their
families, built huts of palm-branches without the city, to
(hclter themfelves from the fun. The men of feience, who
accompanied the army, were lodged in the houfes of the few
Europeans refident at Alexandria, but a dozen of them
were crowde<l together in one chamber, under the heat of a
torrid climate. Miferably fupphed both with food and
water, molefted with the ftings of infefts, and fuiTounded
with filth and wretchednefs, tliey at the fame time contem-
plated in a city, once renowned for indufti-y, commerce and
activity, nothing but ruins, barbarifm and poverty ; ftupid-
looking citizens, with long pipes, indolently fitting in the
public places, half ftarved and naked children, and the forms
of bare-footed women, in blue ferge gowns, and black ituff
veils, flying the approach, or turning away with precipitation,
whenever they met a Frenchman. The French beheld every
where menumeiits of antiquity, but every where mifplaced ;

pillar*

ALE

pillars of granite, iiifcribed with Eg)-ptian hieroglyphics,
ftreweJ the ftreets, or divided hy the faw, ftrvtd fur their
holds and benches ; marble and porphyry bafcs and capitals,
baths and catacombs, were found in ruins, with nothing
entire but a bath of black granite, deftined for the nnifeum
pf Paris; the p. liar of Ponipcy, and the obeliik of Cleo-
patra, wliich were yet in good prefervation. When the
blockade of the port by the Engliili fleet, after the famous
battle of Abcuh'tr, cut off the communication with Rofetta,
and tiie fupply of water was thin; impeded, Bonaparte caufed
the canal which led from Rhamania to Alexandria, acrofs a
dcfert of 40 miles, to be cleanftd ; by which means not
only this city received a larger fupply of water and pro-
vifions, but the artillery was conveyed more expeditioully
and conveniently by water to the general depofit at Gifa,
than it could have been by land. Bonaparte alfo drew plans
fir tlie better defence of the port of Alexandria and the city
i.r Cairo ; he alio formed a great eftabliihment for the me-
chanical arts; and witli the concurrence ot the Icientific men
who attended him formed a national academy, called the
IssTiTUTE. In the year ibloi, Alexandria was taken by
tlie Englifli army, under the command of General Hutchin-
fon, the news of which was announced foon after the pre-
liminaries of peace between England and France were figned,
by the relpeftive agents of the two countries; by one article
of which Egypt is to be delivered up to tlie Sublime
Ottoman Porte. Alexandria is iituated in N. lat. 31° 11'
20". E. long. 30° 16' 30'. Nautical Almanac. According
to Bruce (Travels, vol. i. p. 16.) N. lat. 31° ii'32". E.
long. 30° 17' 30". Anc. and Mod. Un. Hill. RoUin'sAnc.
Hill. Savary's Letters on Egypt, vol. i. letters. Sonnini's
Travels through Upper and Lower Egypt. Gibbon's De-
cline, &c. of the Rom. Emp.

Alexandria was alfo a name given to feveral other
cities ; i;/s. a city of Arachofia, on the river Arachotus,
the Alexandropolis of Ifidore (Stephanus), and by fome
thought to be the modern Cabu! ; — another of GedroCa,
both built by order of Alexander the Great; (Pliny, H. N.
lib. vi. c. 23.) — A third of Aria, near the lake Arius, ac-
cording to Ptolemy; but according to Pliny (lib. vi. c. 23.)
on the river Arius, built by Alexander, who fettled a colony
of Macedonians there. (Strabo, lib. xv. Ammianus lib. 22.)
—A fourth in Badlriana, fo called, fays Pliny, (lib. vi. c. 23.)

from its builder A fifth, an inland town of Carmania,

built alfo by Alexander, and mentioned by Pliny, Ptolemy

5(nd Ammianus A iixth, in the country of the Daha;, in

Sogdiana, (Ifidorus Characenus.) — A feventh, in Lidia, at
the confluence of the Acefmes and Indus, (Arrian, lib. v.
c. 15.) — An eighth, built by Alexander the Great, between
Iffus and the Straits which lead from Cihcia into Syria,
called alfo Aleiandretta, and now Scandcroon. — A
ninth, in Margiana, which was built by Alexander, and re-
built, after it was demohfhcd by the barbarians, by Antio-
chus, the fon of Seleucus, and called Antiochia of Syria,
and alfo Seleucia, watered by the river Mergus ; 70 ftadia
in circuit, according to Pliny (lib. vi. c. 16.); who adds, that,
after the defeat of CrafTus, Orodes conveyed the captives to
this place. — A tenth of the Oxiana, in Sogdiana, built by
Alexander on tlie Oxus, near tlie confines of Baftria, (Pliny
lib. vi. c. 16.) — An eleventh, built by Alexander, at the
foot of Mount Paropamifus, wliieh was called Caucafus,
(Phny, lib. vi. c. 23.). — A twelfth, in Troas, called alfo
Troas and Antigonia, ordered to be erefted by Alexander,
in commemoration of Troy, which had long ceafed to exilh
Antigonus, one of his heutenants, laid the foundations of
it, aud^ave his natne to Uie city ; but the niune of Alex-

ALE

anderwas reftorcd by Lyfimachus, who a.^'terwa.'-dspofn.nVd,
embellilhcd and extended it. Having palled under the do-
minion of the Romans, it became, under Augulbis, one of
die handfomell cities of the ealt. Under Adrian, Hcrodes
Atticns conllriifted a fuperb aquedudt, fome icw traces of
which are Hill to be ften. The walls of the city, of tlie
houfes, of the temples, and of other monuments, are built
of a hard (lielly Hone. Tlie marble of Paros and that of
Marmora are common here, and alfo ftvcral forts of granite.
Near the rivulet to the fouth of the city arc two fprin.ra
of mineral waters.refortedto by theTiirks and Greeks.which
are recommended for diforders of the (Icin, the Icprofy, and
fyphilis. The harbour is of narrow extent, and almoll clioaked
up with fand. Hillory does not mention the epoch in whicll
this city was defcroyed. It had no exillence when the Turks
ellabhdied themfelyes in this country. The environs prefent
a fruitful foil, forming a plain, in wjiich the -velam oak grows
in abundance, and without culture. The ruins of this city
are fix leagues to the fouth of CapcSigxum. Olivier'sTiavels,

&c. vol. ii. p. 46 A thirteentii Alexandria, built by

Alexander on the Jaxartes, bounding his victories towards
Scythia.— A fifteenth in Adiabene, mentioned by Pliny, and
asHaidouin fuggeils.defigncd to perpetuate the remembrance

of the defeat of Darius A fixteenth on the northern coaft

of the illand of Cyprus, fouth of the promontory' of Cal-
linufa — A feventeentli in Palefline, on the river Scham, to
the fouth of Tyre, near the fea.

Alexandria, or Allesandrf A, fm-nanicd Delia Pwlia.,
becaufe the inhabitants ufe ftubble for fuel inllead of wood,
or becaufe the Germans contemptuoufly called it Pakans,
or a fortrefs of ilraw, a city of Italy, in the diftrift of Akx-
andrin or AleflV.ndrino, belonging to the duchy of Milan,
has a caftle, and is fituated in a mardiy country, on the river
Tenaro. It was built in honour of pope Alexander III. in.
1 170, and is faid to have 12000 inhabitants. By this pope
it was made a bifhoprie, fuffragan of Milan,witli feveral pri-
vileges annexed to it. The citadel is llrong, but the forti-
fications are mean. It was ceded to the duke of Savoy in
1703 ; taken by prince Eugene, after three days' ficge, in
1706, by the French in 1745, and retaken by the king of
Sardinia, to whom it belongs by the treaty of Utrecht, in
1 746. It is 38 miles eaH of Turin, and ^ 7 foiith-fouth-weft
of Milan. N. lat. 44° 48'. E. long. 8° '39'.

Alexandria, a tewn of Ncuf RuiTia, in the government
of Ekatarinoflaf, on the confines of Poland, 70 miles well
of Ekatarinoflaf, and 150 foiith-wcll of Kiow. N. lat. 48°
25'. E. long. 32=54'.

Alexandria or Alexandrow, a town of Poland, in
the palatinate of Volhynia, upon the river Horin, jc miles
eaft-north-eail of Lucko.

ALEXANDRiA,atownlliip inGraftoncounty,N.Hampfliirt,
inAinerica, containing 298 inhabitants; incorporated in 1782.

Alexandria, a tewnfliip in Hunterdon county. New
Jerfey, containing 1503 inhabitants, including 40 flaves.

Alexandria, a fmall town in Huntingdon county, Penn-
fylvania, on the Frankllown branch of Juniatta river, 192
iniles north-well of Philadelphia.

Alexandria, formerly called Belha-ven, a city of Vir-
ginia, fituate on the fouthern bank of the Patowmac river,
in I'aiifax county, about five miles fouth-wcll from the Fe-
deral city, and 290 from the fea ; N. lat. 38° 45'. W. long,
77° 10'. Its fituation is lofty and pleafant, and the (IreetS
are laid out upon the plan of Philadelphia. It contains 400
houfes, well built, and 2748 inhabitants. It bids fair, from
the advantages of its fituation, to be one of the raoll thriving
commercial places on the continent.

Al.£XANI)RlAt

ALE

Alexandria, Patriarch of, in Ecchjiajlical ir^Qary. See
Patriarch.

ALEXANDRIAN, in a particular renfc-, is applied to
sjll tliofe who profclftd or taught the fciciicts in the fchool
of Alexandria.

Thus, Clemens is called yflfxnndrinus, or the Alexandrian,
tluHigh fomc fay lie was born at Athens : the fame epithet
is applied to Apioii, born at Oafis; and to Ariftarchus, by
• birth a Samolhratian. The chief Alexandrian philofoplu-rs
were Euclid, the famous geometer, the two ancient allrono-
mers, Ariftillus and Timocharis, EratoiUicnes, Apollonius
•Pergxus,Conon, Hipparcluis, Cttfibius, Heron, Polfidonius,
Pappus, Thcon, Hypathia the daughter of Tlieon, i^tolemy ;
and Philoponusand Didymus, the lafl mathematicians of this
fchool. To thefe we may add Ammonius, Plotinus, Origen,
Porphyrj-, Jamblichus, Sopater, Maxiinus and Dcxippuj.

ALfXASDRiAN is more particularly underllood ot a col-
lege of priells, confecratcd to the fervice of Alexander Se-
verus, after his deification.

AuKXANDRiAN- 6'o/>v, is E manufcript, oonfiftiug of four
volumes, in a large quarto, or ratiier a folio fize; which
contains tlie whole Bible in Greek, including the Old and
New Teftament, with the Apocr)'pha, and fome fmallcr
pieces, but not quite complete. This manufcript is now
prefened in the Britifli Mufeum, where it was depofited in
175-5. It was fent as a prefent to King Cliarles I. from
Cyrillus linearis, a native of Crete, and patriarch of Con-
llantinople, by Sir Thomas Rowe, anibaffador from England
to the Grand Seignior, in the year 1628. Cyrillus brought
it with him from Alexandria, where, probably, it w.is w-rit-
ten. In a fchedule annexed to it, he gives this accijunt ;
that it was written, as tradition informed them, by Thecla,
a noble Egyptian ladv, about thirteen hundred years ago,
a little after the council of Nice. He adds, that the name
of Thecla, at the end of the book, was erafed ; but that this
was the cafe with other books of the Chrillians, after Chrif-
tianity was extinguifhed in Egypt by the Maliometans : and
that recent tradition records the fact of the laceration and
crafure of Thecla's name. The proprietor of this manu-
Icript, before it came into the hands of Cyrillus Lucaris,
had written an Arabic fubfcription, exprcffing that this book
\yas faid to have been written with the pen of Thecla the
martyr. Various difputcs have arifen with regard to the
place \vhence it was brought, and where it was written, to
,jts antiquity, and of courle to its real yalue. Some critics
have bellowed upon it the highell commendation, whilft it
has been equally depreciated by others. Of its moil ftrenu-
ous advcrfaries, Wetftein feems to have been the principal.
The place from which it was fent to England was, witiiout
doubt, Alexandria, and hence it has been called Cock:: Akx-
andrinvs. As to the place where it was written, there is a
confiderable difference of opinion. Matthxus Muttis, who
■was a contemporary, friend and deacon of Cyrillus, and who
afterwartis inllrufted in the Greek language Jolm Rudolph
Wetftein, uncle of the celebrated editor of the Greek Teila-
ment, bears tellimony, in a letter, written to Martin Bogdan,
a phy fician in Bern, dated January 1 4, 1 664, that it had been
brought from one of the 22 monafteries in Mount Athos,
which the Turks never deftroyed, but allowed to continue
upon the payment of tribute. Woide endeavours to weaken
the evidence of Mnitis, and to render the teftimony of the
elder Wetilein fufpicious: but Spohn, in his edition of the
«' Notitia Codicis Alexandrini," p. 10 — 13, (hews, that the
objeftions of Woide are ungrounded. Allow ing their reality,
\\t cannot infer, that Cyrillus found this manufcript in Alex-
andria. Before he went to Alexandria he fpent fome time
<.n Mount Athos, the repofitory and manufaftory of manu-

A L E

fcripts of the New Teftament, whence a great number have
been brought into the V.'eft of Europe, ar.d a ilill greater
nmnber has been fent to Mofcow. It is therefore probable,
independently of the evidence of Muttis, that Cyrillus pro-
cured it there either by purchafe or by prefent, took it with '
him to Alexandria, and V.rought it thence on his return to
Conftantinople. But the queftion recurs, where was thii
copy written ? The Arabic fubfcription above cited clearly
proves, that it had been in Egypt, at fome period or other,
before it fell into the hands of Cyrillus. This fubfcription
fliews that it once beh)nged to an Egyptian, or that during
fome time it was preferved in Egypt, where Arabic has been '
fpoken fince the feventh centur)-. Befides, it is well known
that a great number of manufcripts of the Greek Bible have
been written in Egypt. Woide has alfo pointed out a re-
markable coincidence between the Cod. Alex, and the writ-
ings of the Copts. Michaelis alledges another c-ircumflance
as a probable argument of its having been written in Egypt.
In Ezekicl xxvii. iS. both in the Hebrew and Greek text,
the Tyiians are faid to have fetched their wine from Chel-
bon, or, according to Bochart, Chalybon. But as Chaly-
bon, though celebrated for its wine, was unknown to the
writer of this manufcript ; he has altered it by a fanciful con-
jefture to cuo/ ;/. ;)^'/Sfiv, wine from Hebron. This alteration
was probably made by an Egyptian copyift, bccaufe Egypt
was fomierly fupplied with wine from Hebron. The fub-*
fcription, before mentioned, afcribes the writing of it to
Thecla, an Egyptian lady of high rank, who could not
have been, as Michaelis fuppofes, the niartyrefs Thecla,
placed in the time of St. Paul : but Woide replies, that
a diftinftion muil be made between Thecla martyr and
Thecla proto-martyr. With regard to thefe lubferiptions
we may obferve, with a leariied writer (Marfti), that the true
ilate of the cafe appears to be as follows : " Some centuries
after the Codex Alexandrinus had been written, and the
Greek fubferiptions, and perhjips thofe other parts where it
is more defetlive already loft, it fell into the hands of a Chrif-
tian inhabitant of Egypt, who not finding the ufual Greek
fubfcription of the copyift, added in Arabic, his native lan-
guage, the tradition either true or falfe, which had been pre-
ferved in the family or families to which the manufcript had
belonged, " Mcmorant hunc codicem fcriptum efle calamo
Thecls martyris." In the 17th century, when oral tradi-
tion refpefting tliis manufcript had probably ceafed, it be-
came the property of Cyrillus Lucaris ; but whether in
Alexandria, or Mount Athos, is of no importance to the
prefent inquiry. On examining the manutcript he finds,
that the Greek fubfcription is loll, but that there is a tradi-
tion recorded in Arabic by a former proprietor, which fimply
related that it was written by one Thecla a martyrefs, which
is what he means by " memoria et traditio recens." Taking
therefore upon truit, that one Thecla the martyrefs was really
the copyift, he confuks the annals of the church to difeover in
whatage and country a perfon of this name and charafter exiil-
ed, finds that an Egyptian lady of rank, called Thecla, fuffered
martyrdom between tlie-time of lioldiirg the council ofNicKa
and the clofe of the fourth century; and concludes, without
further ceremony, that the was the vei-y identical copyiil.
Not fatisfied with this dlfcovery, he attempts to account for
the lofsof the Greek fubfcription, and afcribes it to the ma-
lice of the Saracens ; being weak enough to believe that the
enemies of C'lriiiianity would exert their vengeance on the
name of a poor tranfcrlbcr, and leave the four foho volumes
themfclves unhurt." The learned Woide, who has him-
felf tranfcribed and publlftied this manufcript, and muil
be better acquainted v-ith it than any other perfon,
afferts, that it was written by two different copyifts;

for

ALE

for he has obfervcd a difference in the ink, and which is of
greater moment, even in the ftrokrs of tlie letters. TJie
conjeclure of Oudiii, adopted by Wctftein, that the manii-
fcript was written by an Acoemet is, in the judgment of
Michaelis, worthy ot attention, (See Acoemet.'e) nnd he
adds, that this conjtdure does not contradift the account
thatThecla was the copyiil, fmce there were not only monks
but nuns of tl\is order.

The antiquity of this manufcript has been alfo the fubjeft
of controveriy. Grabe and Schulxe tliink that it might
have been written before the end of the fourtli century,
which, lays Michaelis, is the very utmoll period that tan be
allowed, becaufe it contains the epilllcs of Athanasius.
Oudin places it in the tenth century. Wctftein refers it to
the tiftli, and fuppofes that it was one of the manufcripts
coUetted at Alexandria in 615, for th>: Syrlac vcrfion. Dr.
Semler refers it to the fcventh centui-)'. Montfaucon (Pa-
Iseug. Grsc. i. p. 185.) is of opinion, that neither the Cod.
Alex, nor any Greek manufcript, can be faid with great
probibility to be much prior to the fixth ccntvuy. Mi-
chaehs apprehends, that this manufcript was written after
Arabic was become the native language of the Egyptians,
that is, one, or rather two centuries iilter Alexandria was
taken by the Saracens, which happened in the year 640, be-
caufe the tranfcriber frequently confounds M and B, which
is often done in the Arabic : and he concludes, that it is not
jinore ancient than the eighth century. ^Voidc, after a great
dilplay of learning, with which he examines the evidence for
the antiquity of the Cod. Alex, concludes, that it was writ-
ten between the middle and the end of the fourth century.
It cannot be allowed a greater antiquity, becaufe it has not
only the iitXoi or vctpaXaix majora, but the xi^xAxix minora,
or Ammoniau lettions, accompanied with the references to
the canons of Eufebius. Woide's arguments have been ob-
jefted to by Spohn, in p. 42 — 109, of his edition of the
" Notitia Codicis Alexandrini." Some of the principal ar-
guments advanced by thofe who refer this manufcript to the
fourth or fifth centuries are the following : the cpilUes of
St. Paul are not divided into chapters like the Goi'pels, though
this diviliou took place fo early as 396, when to each chap-
ter was prefixed a fuperfcription. The Cod. Alex, has the
epillles of Clement of Rome ; but thefe were forbidden to
be read in the churches, by the council of Laodicea, in 364,
and that of Carthage, in 419. Hence Schulze has inferred,
that it was written before the year 364 ; and he produces a
new argument for its antiquity, deduced from the lall of the
14 hymns found in it after the plalms, which is fupcrfcribed
vjAioi fwSivo.;, and is called the grand doxology ; for this hymn
has not the claufe ayio-; o G':o;, a^io, ta-^v^oi, ^'lio; a-Occyxtoc,
iMnmv »)pa,-, which was ufed between the years 434 and 446 ;
and therefore the manufcript muft have been written before
this time. Wetilein thinks that it muft; have been written be-
fore the time of Jerom, becaufe the Greek text of this manu-
fcript was altered from the old Italic. He adds, that the tran-
fcriber was ignorant that the Arabs were called Hagarents,
becaufe he has written, i Chron. v. 20, ayopaioi for Ayafaiot.
Others alledge that ayofatOi is a mere erratum ; becaufe
Ayafxi{,!9 occurs in the preceding verfe, Ayaprt; in l Chron.
xxvii. 31, and Ayapwoi in Pf. Ixxxii. 7. Thelc arguments,
fays Michaelis, afford no certainty, becaufe the Cod. Alex,
muft have been copied from a ftill m.ore ancient manuicnpt ;
and if this were faithfully copied, the arguments apply rather
to this than to the Alexandrian manufcript itfelf. It is the
hand-writing alone, or the formation of the letters, with the
want of accents, which can lead to any probable decifion.
'I'he arguments alledged to prove that it is not fo ancient as
the fo'irth. century, are fuch as thefe.- X>r, ticrnltr thinks,

ALE

that the epiftic of Athanafius, on the value and excellency of
the Pfalms, would hardly have been prefixed to them during
his life. But it o\ight to be recolleifted, that Athanafius had
many warm and ftrenuous adxocates. From this epiftic
Oudin has attempted to deduce an argument, that the manu-
fcript was written in the tenth century. This cpiftle, he
fays, is fpurious, and could not have been forged during the
hfe of Athanafius, and the tenth century was fertile in fpurious
productions. Again, the Virgin Mary, in the fuperfcription
of the Song of the Bleffed Virgin, is ftiled OioMo;, a name which
Wctftein fays betrays the fifth century. Further, from the
probable corijefture, tluit this manufcript was written by one
of the order of the Acocmeta;, Oudin concludes againft it?
anti(piity ; but Wctftein contents hinifelf with afferting, that
it could not have been written before the fifth century, be-
caufe Alexander, who founded tliis order, lived about the
year 420. From this ftatement, purfucd more at large, Mi-
chaelis deduces a reafon for paying lefs adoration to the
Cod. Alex, than many eminent critics have done, and for
the preference tiuit is due, in many refpeds, to ancient ver-
fions, before any finglc manufcript, becaufe the antiquity of
the foiTuer, which is in general greater than that of the latter,
can be determined with more precifion.

As to tlie value of this manufcript, it has been differently
appreciated by different writers. Wctftein, though he de-
notes it by A, the firft letter of the alphabet, is no great ad-
mirer of it, nor does Michaelis eftimate it highly, either on •
account of its internal excellence or the value of its readings.
The principal charge which has been produced againft the
Alexandrian manufcript, and which has been ftrongly urged
by Wetftein, is its having been altered from the Latin vcr-
fion. It is incredible, fays Michaelis, who once agreed in
opinion with \Vetftein, but found occafion to alter his fcn-
tnnents, that a tranfcriber who lived in Egypt, fi-.ould have
altered the Greek text from a Latin verfion, becaufe Egypt
belonged to the Greek diocefe, and Latin was not under-
ftood there. On this fubjeil Woide has eminentl) difplaycd
his critical abilities, and ably defended the Greek manu-
fcripts in general, and the Codex Alexandrinus in particular,
from the charge of having been corrupted from the Latin.
Griefbach concurs with Woide, in his " Symbols Critics, "
vol. i.p. no — 117; and both have contributed to confirm
Micliaelis in his new opinion. If this manufcript has been
corrupted from a veifion, it is more reafonable to lufpefl the
Coptic, the verfion of the countiy, in which it was written.
Between this manufcript and both the Coptic and Syriac
verfions, there is a remarkable coincidence. Griefbach has
obferved, that this manufcript follows three different edi-
tions : the Byzantine in the Gofpels, where its readings are •
of the leaft vidue ; the Weftcni edition in the Afts of the
Apoftles, and the Cathohc Epiftlcs, which form the middle
divifion of this manufcript, and the Alexandrine in the F.piftles
of St. Paul. The tranfcriber, if this affertion be true, muft
have copied the three parts of the Greek Teftament from
three difterent manufcripts, of three different editions. It
is obfcrvablc, that the readings of the Cod. Alex, coin-
cide very frequently, not only with the Coptic and the old
Syriac, but with the new Syriac and the Ethiopic ; and this
circumftance favours the hypothefis, that this manufcript
was written in Egypt, becaui'e the new Syriac vcrfion having
been collated with Egyptian manufcripts of the Greek Tef-
tament, and the Ethiopic verfion being taken immediately
from them, have neceflarily the readings of the Alexandrine
edition.

This manufcript, as we have already obferved, conuils of
four volumes : the three firft of which contain the Old Tef-
tumtnt, the fourth the New Teftament, together with the

firft

ALE

firll F-plftle of Clement to the Corinllilani, and a fragment
of tin. Iccoiiil. In tlie New Tcllameut there is wanting the
beginning as far as Matt. xxv. 6. « wjjitpii,; ifx'l"' ; liktwiie
fi-om John vi. 50, to viii. 52. and from 2 Cor. iv. i;;, to xii.
7. The Pfahns arc preceded by the epilUe of Athanafuis
to Marcclhnns, and folloued by a catuloffue, containing tliofe
r.'liich are to be iifed in prayer for each honr, both of the
dav and of the night ; alio by 14 hymns, partly apocryphal,
partly biblical, the eleventh of which is an iiymn in praifc of
the Virgin Mar\', entitled rrfxrtvx^ Mafi»,- rm Ssotohs: the
hypothefes Eufebii are annexed to the Pfalms, and his ca-
noncs to the Gofpcls. This nianufcript has neither accents
nor marks of afpiration ; it is written with capital, ot as they
arc called, uncial lettei-s; and there are no inteivaU between
the words, bnt the fcnfc of a palFage is fometimes terminated
bv a point, and fometimes by a vacant fpace. Although
abbreviations are not very numerous,yct this manulcript abbre-
viates XiifZifro;,SxlSi\^ioi, iKrui, i<rfa,n\,Kv;io.:, fiW.f, "rrxlr.f, ^pavof,
rrt'i^yx, r%v(oi, a-Jir,}, Mil;, Xi^'"^ > ''"'■1 '^ '•''^ •'^f" other marks
of abbreviation. Dr. fiemler fuppofes, that the more ancient
mamifcripts from which the Cod. Alex, was copied, had a
mnch greater number ; from a falfe method of dccyphering
which marks, he explains many crroi-s committed by the co-
pyift of the latter. See his Note 33 to WetlUin's Prolego-
mena. Of thefc abbreviations, and the points annexed to
certain letters, which before appeared iininteliigihle ; and of
the large initial letters, which are fometimes placed in a very
extraordinary manner ; and of other particnlars, a full ac-
count may be feeu in Woide's Preface, who has given a veiy
accurate defcription of the manufcript in general. No ma-
nulcript has been more frequently and more accurately col-
lated; and it was fuppofed, that the lall extnifts, made by
Wetllein, would have rendered future labotirs of this kind
fuperfluous; but Woide informs us, that Wetftein is
chargeable with feveral omiflions and errors, and has admit-
ted into his coUeClion of readings the miftakes of Mill. We
are now in pofieffion of a perfeft impreflion of this manu-
fcript, accompanied with fo complete and fo critical a col-
lection of various readings, as is hardly to be expetled from
the edition of any other manufcript. Dr. Woide publifhed
it in 1786, with types caft for the purpofe, line for line,
without intervals between the words, as in the manufcript
itftlf : the copy is fo perfect a refemblance of the original,
that it may fupply its place : its title is " Novum Tefta-
mentum Grarcum Codice MS. Alexandrino qui Londini
in Bibhotheca Mufei Britanniei afTervatur defcriptum." It
is a very fplendid folio, and the preface of the learned edi-
tor contains an accurate defcription of the manufcript, with
an exaft lift of all its various readings, that takes up no lefs
than 89 pages, and each reading is accompanied with a re-
mark, in which is given an account of what his predeceffors,
Junius, Walton, Fell, Mill, Grabe, and Wetftein, had per-
formed or neglefted. Thofe who are deiirous of further in-
formation concerning this manufcript, may confult the Pro-
legomena of Mill, Grabe, Wetftein, and Woide. See alfo
Michaelis's Introduftion to the New Teftament, by Marfli,
vol. ii. part i. p. 186 — 209. part ii. p. 648 — 660.

Alexandrian Library, called by Livy «' Elegantice re-
gum cuncque egregium opus," was hrft founded by Ptolemy
ijoter, for the ufe of the Academy, or Society of learned
men, which he had founded at Alexandria. Befide the
books which he procured, his fon Ptolemy Phibdclphus
added many more, and left in this library at his death a hun-
dred thoufand volumes ; and the fucceeding princes of this
race enlarged it rtill more, till at length the books lodged in
H amounted to the number of feven hundred thoufand vo-
Jiiinet The method by wbicb they are iaid to have collefted

ALE

thefc book; was this : they feized all the books that wer*
brought by the Greeks, or'other foreigners, into Egypt, and
feut them' to the Academy, or Mufeum, where they were
tranfcribed by perfons employed for that purpofe. The
tranfcripts were then delivered to the proprietors, and the
originals laid up in the library. Ptolemy Euergetes, for in-
ftance, borrowed of the Athenians the works of Sophocles,
Euripides and yEfchylus, and mily returned them the copies,
which he caufed to be tranfcribed in as beautiful a manner
as pofuble ; the originals he retained for his own library; pre-
fentingthc Athenians with 15 talent,, for the exchange, that
is, with thre- thoufand pounds ilerling and upwards. As
the Mufeum was at firft in the quarter of the city called
Bruchion, the library was placed there ; but when th.e num-
ber of books amounted to four hundred thoufand volumes,^
another library, within the Serapeum, was erefted by way of
fiipplemcnt to it, and on that account called the daughter
of the former. The books lodged in this increaled to the
number of three hundred thoufand volumes ; and thefe two
made up the number of feven hundred thoufand volutries, of
which the royal libraries of the Ptolemies were faid to con,
fift. In the'war which Julius Caefar waged with the inha-
bitants of Alexandria, the library of Bruchion was acci-
dentally, but unfortunately, burnt. But the library in Se-
rapeum ftiU remained, and tliere Cleopatra depofited the two
hundred thoufand volumes of the Pergamean library, with
which (lie was prefented by Marc Antony. Thefe, an4
othei-3 added to them from time to time, rendered the new
library of Alexandria more numerous and coniiderable than
the former ; and though it was plundered more than once
during the revolutions which happened in the Roman em-
pire, yet it was as frequently fupplied with the fame number
of books, and continued for many ages to be of great fame
and ufe, till it was burnt by the Saracens in the 642d year of
the Chrirtian aera. Abulpharagius, in his hiftoiy of the
lotli dynafty, gives the following account of this cataftrophe.
John Philoponus, furnamed the Grammarian, a famous Pe-
ripatetic philofopher, being at Alexandria when the city vi-as
taken by the Saracens, was admitted to familiar intercourfc
with Amrou, the Arabian general, and prefumed to folieit
a gift, ineftimable in his opinion, but conteirptible in that of
the barbarians ; and this was the royal library. Amrou was
inclined to gratify his wifli, but his rigid integrity fcrupled
to alienate the leaft objedt without the confent of the Ca-
liph. He accordingly wrote to Omar, whofe well known
anfwer was diftated by the ignorance of a fanatic. " If
thefe writings of the Greeks agree with the Koran, or book
of God, they are ufelefs, and need not be prefcrved ; if they
difagree, they are pernicious, and ought to be deftroyed."
The fentence of deftruftion was executed with blind obe-
dience : the volumes of paper or parchment were diftributed
to the four thoufand baths of the city ; and fuch was their
number, that fix months were barely fufficient for the con-
fumption of this precious fuel. Since the dynatties of
Abulpharagius have been given to the world in a Latin ver-
fion, this tale, as Mr. Gibbon (Hill. vol. ix. p. 440.) calls it,
has been repeatedly tranfcribed ; and every fcholar, with
pious indignation, has deplored the irreparable wreck of the
learning, the arts, and the genius of antiquity. " For my
own part," fays this Hittorian, adopting the fcepticifm of
Renaudot (Hill. Alex. Patriarch, p. 1 70.) " I am ftrongly
tempted to deny both the faft and the confequences; the
faft is indeed marvellous." " Read and wonder!" fays the
Hiftorian himfelf ; and the folitary report of a ftrangcr who
wrote at the end of fix hundred years in the confines of Me-
dia, is overbalanced by the filence of two annalifts of a more
early <Jate, both Chriftians, both natives of Egypt? and the

£aa%

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A L E

iriofl ancient of wKom, tlic patriartli Eiitycliius, lias amply
cJc'fcribed the coiKjucil of iVlcxaiidria. I'nit tliis curious
anecdote will be vainly fought in the annals of Eutythius,
and the Saracenic hiilory of Elmacin. The filencc of Abul-
feda, Murtadi, and a crowd of Mollcms, is Icfs conclufivc
from their ignorance of Chrillian literature. The rigid fen-
tence of Omar is repugnant to the found and orthodox jire-
cept ot the Mahometan cafuiils : they exprefsly dccLiri. , tiiat
the religious books of the Jews and Cluillians, whicli arc
acquired by the riglit of war, fliotdd never be comniitted to
the flames; and that the works of profane fcience, hillo-
rians or poets, phylicians or philofophers, may be lawfully
applied to tlie ufe of the faithful." See Reland de Jure Mi-
litari Mohammedanorum, in the third volume of DifTertalions,
p. 37. The reafon for not burning the religious books of
the Jews or Chriftians, is derived from the rcfpeft that is due
to the name of God. It (hould be confidered, however, that
the pofitive evidence of an hiftorian, of unqueftionable credit
as Abulpharagius, cannot be fet aiide by an argument merely
negative. Mr. G. acknowledges, that " a mere dcftruftive
zeal may perhaps be attributed to the J!i/} fucceflbrs of Ma-
homet." His references to A. Gellius (Nofles Attica, 1. vi.
c. 17.) Ammian. Marcell. (1. xxii. c. 16.) and Orofius (1. vi.
c. 15.), as fpeaking of the Alexandrian libraries in xhe pajl
tenfe, are foreign from the purpofe ; for thefe writers only
refer to the deitruftion of books at Alexandria in the time
of Julius Ccefar ; after which, large libraries nuift have been
continually accumulating, during the long period in which
the fchools of philofophy flourifhed in that city. Bruckcr's
Hift. Philof. by Enfield, vol. ii. p. 22S. On the fubjeft of
this article, fee Ammian. Marcellin. 1. xxii. c. 16. p. z(t6.
Ed. Gronov. Dion. Caff. 1. xlii. 38. tom.i. p. 327. Ed. llei-
mari. Plutarch in Jul. Ca;f. Oper. torn. i. p. 73 1. Tertullian
in Apolog. c. 18. p. 18. ed. Rigalt. Eufcb. in chron. Gel-
lius, I. vi. c. 17. Ifidor. Orig. 1. vi. c. 3. Orolii, Hift.
1. vi. c. 15. p. 42 I. Ed. Havcrc. Plut. in Anton, op. vol. i.
p. 943. Newton's Difc. on the Prophecies — Works vol. vii.
p. 357. 8vo. Anc. Un. Hift. vol. viii. p. 166.

ALEXANDRIN,in GeograpL-y, a fmall diftrid of Italy,
in the duchy of Milan, in the environs of Alexandria
della Piiglia, to which it owes its name.

Alf.xandrin, or Alfxandrian, in Poetry, the name
of a kind of verfe, which confills of twelve, or of twelve
and thirteen fyllabks, alternately ; the reft, or paufe, being
always on the llxth fyllable.

It is faid to have taken its name from a poem on the
life of Alexander, entitled, the Alexandriad ; written, or
at leaft tranflated into this kind of verfe by fome French
poets ; though others will have it fo denominated from one
of tlie tranflators, Alexander Paris.

This verfe is thought by lome very proper in the epopea,
and the more lublime kinds of poetry ; for which reafon it
is alfo called Heroic Verfe.

It anfwers in our language to the hexameters in the
Greek and Latin ; though, according to fome, it rather
anfwers to the fciiarii ot the ancient tragic poets Chap-
man's tranflation of Homer confills wholly of Alexan-
drians.

The advantages of the Alexandrian verfe, are its keep-
ing the rhimes from coming fo near, and confecjuently hin-
dering them from being lo much perceived. To tliis may
be added, that coming nearer to the nature of profe, it is
fitter for theatrical dialogue, and fupplies the office of the
ancient iambics better than anv other verfe in rhime.

ALEXANDRINUS, Julio s, in Biography, born at
Trent, in the early part of the 1 6th century, was phyfician

Vox,.. L

to the emperor Charles V ., and afterwards to M.iximillan IT.
by whom he was highly ellccmed. He alfo acquired reputa-
tion as a poet, particularly for liia Pacdotrophia, a poem,
publiftied at Zurich, 1559, 8vo.

His medical works, wiiich are numerous, and principally
compiled from the ancients, or written in defence of thf
doftrine of Galen, are of little value. For their titles fee
Eloy's Didlionaire Pliftorique de la Medicine. He died at
Trent, his native citv, in the year 1590, aged 84 years,
and was honoured with the following epitaph :

Cxfaribus fi quis multos inferviit annos,
Acceptus inagnis principibufque fuit,
Te, Juh, vatem poffum medicumque fateri,
Doftrina in cujus gratia taiita fuit.

ALEX AND ROV, in Geography, a town of Kuban
Tartar)', in the Ruflian government of Caucafus, 16 Icaguci
weft north-weft of Ekaterinograd.

Ai.EXANDROv, a town of RufTia in the government of
Vladimir, 16 leagues weft of Mofcow. N. lat. 55° 45'. E.
long. 38- 44'.

ALEXANDROVSKAIA, a fortrefs of RufTia in the
government of Ekaterinofiaf, 36 leagues north-eaft of
Cherfon. N. lat. 47° 35'. E. long. 35° 14'. This is alfo
the name of another fortrefs in the fame government, 2'i
leagues north-weft of Cherfon.

ALEXICACUS, compounded of aXi^x, I Jrlve arvay,
and Kc/.-Mj, e-vil, is fomething that prcferves the body from
harm or milchicf, and alexicacus amounts to much the fame
with alexiterial.

Alexicacus, in Aniiqutly, was an attribute of Neptune,
whom the tunny fifliers ufed to invoke under this appel-
lation, that their nets might be prcfervcd from the |i?ic;;
or swoRD-fiHi, which ufed to tear them, and prevent the
aftiftance which it was pretended the dolphins ufed to give
the tunnies on this occalion. It was alfo an epithet of
Hercules, as the defender of men.

ALEXINTA, in Geography, a town of European
Turkey in Servia, fix leagues north north-eaft of NilTa.

ALEXIPHARMIC, in Metlicive, expreft'es that pro-
perty which a remedy, either fimple or compound, hath to
refift or deftroy eveiy thing of a poifonous or malignant na-
ture. The word is derived from a^E^a, arceo, I expel,
and ^y-jp-axov, pioifon.

The ancients had a notion, that there was poiftm in all
malignant difcafes, and in the generality of thofe whofc
caufe was unknown. Whence alexipharmic became a deno-
mination for all remedies and antidotes againft malignant
difcafes, and for amulets.

The ftudy of poifons and antidotes appeared at an early
period among the phyficians of Greece and Rome, and
continued as long as the Greek phyfic lafted ; and heiice
has arifen the number of .antidotes and theriacas fo fre-
quently mentioned by thofe ancient writers. But tlicir
compofitions for the correftion of poifons were equally in-
judicious and unfucceisful. Modern phyficians, and parti-
cularly the Galenills, adopting the ideas of the ancients,
have transferred them from the cafe of poifuns taken into the
body, to that of noxious powers arifiiig from contagion, or
in any other way. The cure of the diteafes proceeding
from thcfc, they have, therefore, attempted by the correc-
tion or expuHion of the morbific matter, and ihey have ad-
miniilered medicines for this Jurpoie, under the titles of
alexiphaiTiiics and alexiterials.

Alexiterial, cardiac, antidote, alcxipharmic, and counter-
4 N poifon.

I

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iolfon, arf all terms i.t-arly of the f:ime ri^iufication ; and
x< arc thcriaciis, upon the fuppolition of their btiiig fitted to
expel till- puifun ui uniinais.

Aleicipharir.ics are ouliniiiily divided into fuch as are ge-
neral ; and thofc more particular, fiijipofcd only to combat

fomc particular difoafc lint this diiition is ioundcd more

on fpeciilation than cxpciiciice.

Alexipharniic medicines, in general, are aromatic and pun-
gent to the taile — Among the rell, it is true, there art lome
acid plants and juices ; but thefe arc only reckoned in the
niimhcr, on account of their ufc in niaUgnant and colliqua-
tive fevers.

Alexipharmics chiefly aft by exciting or increafing a
diaphorclls, or pcrfpiration ; or by fuppoiting the vigorous
motion of the heart and arteries, which is always diminiflied
in malignant difeafes unattended by inflammation. In this
latter ftr.fc wine may be rjcl.oned among the principal alexi-
phnmiics. Thefe medicines are alfo elteemed pvefervatives
againft malignant and pelUleiitiiJ fevers : but they are to
be ufed with caution.

It is dangerous to adminiller alexipharmics to young
people of plethoric habits, without previous evacuations ;
and CelUis advifes only to promote a fweat, when the marks
of one approaching are evident.

Alexipharmics are decifled proper correftors of opium,
when it produces fickncfs, nanfcas, &c. They are alio fer-
viceable in thofe difeafes which proceed from external cold,
and obllruded perfpirati(ni ; as catarrhs, rheumatifms,
fluxes, coughs, and glandular tymours. Alexipharmics
make a large clafs of medicines ; but the principal ones arc
thefe: i. Of the animal kingdom, hartfiiorn, bezoars, and
the bones and teeth of different animals. 2. Of the vege-
table kingdom, the leaves and flowers of all the aromatic
plants, cfpecially fuch as are umbelliferous. 3. Of the nii-
ueral kingdom, the different preparations of antimony, the
dulcified Ipirit of vitriol, together with alcoliol in all its
forms and combinations. It does not appear, fays Dr. Cul-
len, that the medicines given under the titles of alexiphar-
mics and alcxiterials are in any refpecl fuited to expel mor-
bific matter. So far as they are adapted to this purpofe,
the)' are diaphoretics or fudorifics, and ihould be cautioufly
ufed. The terms, therefore, he thinks, fliould be expunged
from the writings on the Materia Medica ; for, though the
medicines may be ufeful, yet wlien they are tviven under the
falfe idea which the terms imply, they may lead to an er-
roneous practice. CuUen's Mat. Med. vol. i. p. 165.

ALEXIPPUS, in Biography, one of the phyficians to
Alexander the Great, and in high eileem, as riutarch in-
forms us, with that prince.

ALEXIS, MlCKAELOWITZ, or MiKHULOVlTCH, in

Biography and Hijlory, czar of Ruffia, fucceeded l:is fatlier
Michael Theodoroviich in l6.).6, at the age of i j years.
He was immediately crowned by the direft:Dn of Morofof,
who b;came his prime miniilcr, and engroffed to hlmfelf
tile whjle power of government. In older the more effec-
tual to fecure his infiueiice with the czar, he married him
to one of the daughters of a nobleman of fmall fortune,
attached to his interell, and took the fitter for his own
wi.*c. Although Morofcf was in fome refpefts an ufeful
rainifter, by his attention to the army, by ftrengthtning the
frontiers againil Poland and Sweden, and by ereding nianu-
faftories for arms, none of thefe fervices were fufficient to
comjjcnfate the oppreifion which the people fufFered under
his adminirtration. Thtfe grirvances at length, viz. in
1 648, produced an ir.furreftion at Mofcow, and the people
dtraandcd juftice againil Moiofuf and Lis confederates.

A L F,

Two of their principal opprellors were put to death, and
the miniilcr efea;)ed merely by the interceflion of the czar
hiiufclf. About this time appeared an impollor, the fon of
a linen draper of Wologda, who under various pretences
laid claim to the throne. Neither the Swedis nor the
Poles, whom he endeavoured to intereil in his caiife, af-
forded him any fupport ; and after a ihort courfe of extra-
vagance and proHigaey, he fell irito the hands of the Ruf-
fians, who, after in vain attempting to obtain from him a cou-
fcffion by torture, put him to a cruel death. When thefe
tumults were appealed, Alexis alTumed the government, and
exhibited promiliiig tokens of cr.pacity and vigour. Hav-
in" fettled a difpute between Rulfia and Sweden by an
embafiy to qui;en Chrillina, he direclcd his attention to
Poland, and offered to employ his army in fubduirg the
Colfacks, on condition of their conferring upon him the
vacant crown. But the interell of France prevailing in
favour of Calimir, the brother of Uladillaus their late king,
Alexis declared war againil the Poles, and afiilled by the
Coffacks, fucceeded in recovering Smolenllcow.'Wilna, Kiow,
and the province of Czernichow, which had been ceded to the
Ruffians by the late peace. Poland being at this time, \-i%,
in 1656, invaded by Gullavus, king of Sweden, with a
formidable army, Alexis made a truce with that kingdom ;
and as the Swedes had appropriated to thcmfelves the
duchy of Lithuania, vvhicli the czar looked upon as his
conquetl, he marched his army into Carelia, Ingria and Li-
vonia. At length, however, he thought it ad\ liable, in
165S, to conclude a three years tmce with Sweden; which,
in i66r, was confirmed into a peace by the treaty of Car-
dis. By this treaty it was agreed, that, difregarding all
that had pafTed between the two powers, every thing fhould
remain as it had been fettled by the treaty of peace made at
Stolbova in 1617. The war of Alexis with Poland ter-
minated r.-,ore honourably for Ruffia. An arraiftice for 13
years, agreed upon at AndrulTof in Lithuania was the fore-
runner of a complete paciiication, which was effcded in
1686, and which reflorcd to the empire Smolenlko, Seve-
ria, Czernichow, and Kiow. The king of Poland hkewlfe
relinquiilied the fupremacy he had hitherto aiferted over
the Coflacks to the czar ; and thefe people became now a
protefted relative of the Ruffian empire. Notwithlland-
ing this favourable iflue of the czar's contefl with the
Poles, a formidable domeflic rebellion obflruftcd the opera-
tion of the plans which he was purfuiug for the good of
his country. This was occafioned, in 1669, by Stenko
(Stephen) Radzin, whofe brother had been hanged by
(nder of Dolgoruchi, the Ruffian commander ; and as he
had thus infringed upon the hberty of the CofTacks, they
made this a pretence for arming againil their fovereign>
though there is reafon to believe that ambition was the
ruling principle of Radzin. Whatever was the motive, a
civil war was the confequcnce, which w-as carried on with
various fuccefs, and equal cruelty on both ikies. Radzin
gained poffeflion of Albachan, and being joined by a multi-
tude of peafants, who murdered their lords, his army at
one time amounted to 200,000 men. This rebellion was
not fupprelled till the year 1671, when Radzin was betray-
ed into the hand of the czar, and executed. The affairs
of Poland, and the nieafures which Alexis had taken for
making hiinfelf proteiStor of the Coliacks, produced a
mifunderttaiiding between the Grand Seignior and the czar,
which terminated in actual hoilllities. Alexis endeavoured
to engage all the Chriftian potentates in his difpute, and to
form a league againil the Turks ; and with this view he
feat ambaffadors to leveral of tlicm, and one to Rome, who

rcfufcd

ALE

rcfufoJ to degrade liimfclf by kiffing the pope's tOe. He
returned with fa.r promii'es, and no other fiiccour. Alexis
joined with the Poles, and the Tnrkilh conquefts were Hop-
ped by the gieat commander Sobielky. At the vacancy of
the crown of Poland, he propofed his fon for kin;;, and to
unite that kingdom with his own ; but the cledtors pre-
ferred Sobielky. Jealnufies arofe in the progrefs of the
war with the Turks between Ruffia and Poland, and they

ALE

Alfxis, a famous ftatuary, mentioned by Pliny, N". H.
torn. ii. p. 649.

Alexis, a Greek comic poet, uncle to Menander, vho
flouridied in the time of Alexander the Great, about 363
years before the Chrillian jlira. Fragments of this poet
may be found in " VetuftifTimorum Grxeorum Bucolita
Gnomica," &c. Crifpin, 1570, i6to.

Alexis, William, a benedittine monk, in the abbey
terminated in the conqueft of the whole Ukraine by the of Lyra, was living in 1500, and has lelt feveral pieces of
Poles. Alexis did not live to fue the end of this war ; poetry-, which were eftecmed in their time. The principal
for his death happened in 1676, at the early age of 46 ; and are "Four Chants-Royaux," 4to. " Le Pafle-tems dc
it is fuppofed tliat befell a vidim to the empyrieal reme- tout hommeset dc toute femmcs," Paris, 4to. and 8vo., tranf-
dies of an old Polifli woman, in whom he repufed greater latcd from a work uf Innocent III. and dtlcribing the mi-
confidence than in his phyficians. Alexis had claims of feries of man, fiom the cradle to the grave. " Le grand
various kinds on the efteem and gratitude of h!:; country, blafon des fa'ili'es amours," l6to. and 410. ; a Dialogue on
He not only rellored, by his fucccfsful wars with Poland, the evils occaiioned by love. Biog. Dift.
the provinces that had been wrefted from' the empire, and Alexis, a Pi.^'monlrfr; was born of a noble family, and
laid a foundation for a fovcrcignty over the Colfaeks, but by his early application acquired the knowledge of the
he was equally attentive to the internal improvement of the Latin, Greek, Hebrew, Chaldee, Arabic, and other Ian-
country. He caufed an epitome of feveral fciences to be guages. Alexis is fuppofed to be a feigned name ; and the
tranflated into the Ruffian language, and took pleafure in real name of this author, who wrote in the beginning of the
perufmg it : he colletled the laws of the various provinces i6th centur\-, is apprelunded to be Hieronymus Rulcellui ;
of his empire into one body, and by the advice of the no- and he is faid to have died in 1565. It has been generally
bility, clergy, and burghers, made laudable attempts in le- afl'erted, though it he not RricUy true, that he was the firlt
giflatlon : he introduced feveral new nranufaftures, pnrticu- perfon who mentioned Ultramarine. His receipt, how-
larly thofe of filk and linen, and encouraged the trade of the ever, has been followed fince that time as the beft and mod
country : he added two fuburbs to Mofeow, and built feve- certain. His work " De Secretis," funiilhes materials fur
ral market towns, which he peopled with Poles and Lithu- the technological hillory of inventions. It was printed for
anians : he brought feveral large defarts into a Hate of cul- the firll time at Milan, in 1557 ; though Beckman appre-
ture and population, by fettling in them theprifoners taken bends that the firll edition ir.ull have been of an older date. A
in war; he formed a defign, executed by his fon Peter, of French tranflation was printed at Antwerp in 1557. " The
maintaining fleets in the Cafpian and Euxine feas, and of Secrets of Alexis," London, 1558, is mentioned by Ames
making the Ruffians acquainted with the art of conllrud- in his " Typographical Antiquities," p. 296. Wecker, a
ing (liips, and with maritime commerce : he received am- phyfician at Colmar, tranflated this hook into Latin, and
baffadors from Perfia, China, and Afia ; and was the firil enlarged it with additions, under the title of " De .Secretis
czar who maintained a clofe correfpondenee with the prin- Libri xvii." The firil edition, according to Flaller, was
fipal European powers. The milduefs of his government printed at Bafle, in 1559, 8vo. Many editions of it have
allured Germans, Dutch, Italians, and about 30CO Seotf- finee appeared. The laft, by Zwinger, was publilhed at
men into Ruffia. By augmenting the power of the crown Bafle in 1753. Alexis, it is faid, urged by a curiofity to
he prepared for the general improvement of a country, like be acquainted with the fecrets of nature, collefted as much
RulTia, pofTefftd by a powerful and barbarous ariftocracy. as he could during his travels for 57 years, and valued him-
He inftituted a private chamber for the trial of offences felf on concealing them ; but when he was 82 years of age,
againft himfelf, and though he proceeded cautioufly in his he faw a poor man, whofe diforder proved fatal, becaufe he
(examination, he executed julliee with rigour on the guilty, had not difcovered an effeftual remedy, of which he was pof-
and generally in a private manner. With fmall revenues, feffed ; upon which his confcieiice fo troubled him, that he

he neverthelefs contrived, by oeconomy and prudence, to
maintain a large army and a magnificent court, and left his
trcafury rich. Alexis had formed many ufetul projefts ;
but death prematurely carried him off in the 47th year of

became a hermit ; and in his folitary retirement, arranged
his fecrets in an order fit for publication. Gen. Dift. Beck-
man's Hift. Inventions, vol. ii. p. 351.

Alexis, in Eiuomology, a fpecies of Papilio Phlcjiit,

his age. Under him the RufTian empire made fome pro- with ecaudated brown wings, and a csrulean band under the

grefs in civilization ; and he traced out a variety of impor- pollerior; found in India.

tant plans which his fon Peter the Gi'eat improved and ALEXITERIAL, in Medinne, a term of the fame
executed. import with alexipharnilc ; but chiefly applied to the milk-
Alexis loved his people, and was a father to them; he water of that name, and remedies againil the poitonous bites
ftudied their happinefs, and raade his government as eafy of animals.

to them as poffible. He loved juflice and peace ; and, But it is faid by fome authors that alexiterials diiTer

though valiant, never made war but when he could not from alcxijiharmics : thus, alexipharmics fignify medicine?

avoid it. He endeavoured, in the progrefs of his reign, to againil poifons taken internally ; whereas alcxiterials are

repair the ills which his favourites and minilters had ocea- remedies againft the poifons of venomous animals inflifted

fioned in his youth, and at the commeMcement of it, by abuf- externally.

ing his confidence. Upon the whole, he was one of the ALEXIUS I. Comnksus, in Bh^raphy and Hyicry,

greateft princes of his time. By his firil wife he had two emperor of the Eafl, was the fon of John Comnemis, the

ions and four daughters ; and by his fecond wife Natalia, brother of the emperor Ifaac, aiid born at Conilantinoplc,

the daughter of "Nari(l<in, a captain of liudars, one fon, A. D. IC48. He \\-as endowed by nature with the choiccft

in. Peter, 'who fucceeded him, and one daughter. Mod. gifts both of mind and bodv ; thtfe .were cultivated by a

Un. Hill. vol. xxxi. p. ^24 — ^62. Tookt's Hiilory of liberal education, and excrcifed in the fchool of obedience

Ruffia, vol, li. p. 14 — 30. 4 N

nd

ALE

ALE

•nd advcrfity. Alexius, and Ifaac, his elder brother, diftin-
giiilbed thci'iifclvcs in tliewaragainft the Turks, and adhered
fit

On this occafion Alexius offered his fervices to Nicephorus
Botaniates, the fucceffor of Michael ; and with a

to the

ire.

poifon, which public nimour imputed to his wife, or to
Greek emperor, Alexius, who had trembled for his emp
iiremperor Michael DucasT fll he exchanged the empire and now rejoiced in his deliverance. The Normans ^vithdrew
a mo^?rtic habit and the title of archbiOiop of Ephefus. their forces from Greece, and tranqu.lhty wa^^rellored. . h.s

noble

fraukntfs addrtffcd him : " Prince, my duty rendered me
your enemy ; the decrees of God and the people have made
me vour fubjech Judge of my future loyalty by my pall
oppofition." His fidelity and valour, as well as his humanity,
were fufficicntly evinced by his viflorious exploits agamft
the three rebels, Urfcl, Br\-ennius and Bafilarius, who dif-
lurbeJ the peace of the empire. But his refufal to march
agaiiift the fourth rebel, the huniand of his filler, cancelled
the merit and the nitmor)- of his pail fervices ; and the two
brothers, driven into rebellion and fupported by the army,
fucceeded in depofing Bot;uuatcs. Uiiac, though the elder
brother, was the fir'll to inveft Alexius with the name and
ciilVns of royalty ; and being fainted emperor by the army,
he marched imiiKdiately againil Conllaiitinople, which he
took and plundered ; and the fleet was induced by the in-
fluence of George Pala;ologus, to declare in his favour.
Botoniates refigned the empire, and Alexius, without further
conteft, afccndcd the throne, A. D. loSl. Having com-
penfated for the plunder of the churches and monalleries at
Conllantiuople, by eveiy penance compatible with the pof-
fedion of the empire, lie prepared for reftraining the con-
quells of the Turks, who had feized on feveral provinces,
and threatened to fubvcit the empire. The Turks, howeytr,
made overtures of peace, which were accepted by Alexius,
in coafequence of the hoflililies that were meditated againil
him in the well by Robert Guifcard, duke of Puglia and
Calabria. Robert, having landed at Buthrotum, in Epirus,

war was fucceeded by another with the Scythians, who
paffing the Danube, laid walle a great part of Thrace, and
were guilty of many horrid cnielties. The generals of
Alexius, who were firll employed in oppofing them, fuf-
tained feveral defeats ; but they were at length completely
fubdued, with a very general fiaughter, by the emperor
himfelf. His next attention was engaged by the Turks, and
a"-ain by the Scythians ; but Alexius, having terminated his
coiitefts with both thefe enemies by a peace, returned to
Conllantinople ; where he was informed, that the Weftern
Chrillians were making great preparations for the recovery
of the Holy Land, at that time poffefled by the Turks and
Saracens. At the council of Placentia, held March, A.D.
1095, the ambaffadors of Alexius appeared to plead the
diitrefs of their fovereigu and the danger of Conftantinople,
which was divided only by a nan-ow fea from the victorious
Turks, the common enemies of the Chrillian name ; and
the relief of Conftantinople was included in the larger and
more diftant projeft of the deliverance of Jerufalcm. I'he
emperor's ambafladors had folicited a moderate fuccour, per-
haps of 10,000 foldicrs ; but when the Crufaders arrived,
A. D. 1096, he was aftonifiied by their number, and fluc-
tuated between hope and fear, between timidity and courage.
His condutl was irrefolute and ambiguous, and he has been
charged by the Latin writers, with the bafeft treachery.
His gifts and promifes, however, infenfibly foothed the fierce
fpirit of the Weftern ftrangers ; and as aChriftian warrior,
he rekindled their zeal for the profecution of their holy
enterprize, which he engaged to fecond with his troops and

and having advanced to Dyrrachium or Durazzo, which was treafures. By his flcill and dihgence, Alexius prevented the

defended by a garrifon under the command of George Pa
lacologus, was tliere met by Alexius with a large army. In
a general aftion, which he commenced againft the advice of
hij wifeft captains, 061. 18, A.D. 1081, he fuftained a
defeat, which was attended with great lofs, and followed by
the furrenderof Durazzo, Feb. 8, A.D. 1082. Alexius
was affiduous in raifing new levies, and in order to obtain
neceffary fupplies, he prefumed, in a manner very offenfive
to the ecclefiaftics, to borrow the fuperfluous oniaments of
the churches. He alfo formed an alliance with Henry, em-
peror of Germany, who invaded Calabria, and whofe pro-
grefs demanded the hafty return of Robert. Bohemund,
the fon of Robert, was appointed his lieutenant in the eaft ;
but after reducing feveral places in Iltyricum, he was con-
ilrained, by a mutiny in the army, to repair to his father in
Italy. In October, A.D. 1084, Robert refumed the defign
of his callem conquefts, and made a fecond expedition into
Greece. Alexius, apprehending an attack, had obtained
a very confiderable fuccour to his naval forces from the re-
public of Venice. By the union of the Greeks and Vene-
tians, the Adriatic was covered with an hoftile fleet ; but
by the vigilance of Robert and the concunence of favourable
eircuniftances, the Norman troops were fafely difembarked
on the coaft of Epirus. The dominion of the fea was dif-
puted in three engagements, in light of the ifland of Corfu ;
in the two former, the fl:ill and numbers of the allies were
fuperior ; but in the third, the Normans obtained a final and
complete viftory. On this occafion, Anna Comnena, the
daughter of Alexius, and the writer of his hfe, deplores the
lofs of 13,000 of his fubjefts or allies. But in the ifle of
Cephalonia, the projefts of Robert were fatally blafted by

union of any two confederate armies, at the fame moment,
under the walls of Conftantinople ; and he contented himfelf,
either from pride or prudence, with extorting from the
French princes an oath of honour and fidelity, and a folemn
promife, that they would either reftore, or hold, their Afiatic
conquefts, as the humble and loyal vaflals of the Roman
empire. Nice was the firft objeft of attack on the part of
the Crufaders, and the means of conqueft were fuppUed by
the prudence and induftry of Alexius ; he guarded with
jealous vigilance this important conqueft, and the city was
dehvered up to his lieutenant. When the crufaders after-
wards took pofleffion of Antioch, they elefled Bohemond
prince of that metropolis, aUedging that Alexius had vio-
lated his agreement, and under various pretences, declined
affording them the leaft afliftance. The coiifequtnce of this
appointment was a war between Bohemond and Alexius,
who fitted out a powerful fleet, which obtained a complete
viftory over that of the Crufaders, near Rhodes. He alfo re-
took Laodicea, which Bohemond had appropriated to himfelf,
as prince of Antioch. Alexius, by his endeavours to ftopf
the progrefs of the Chriftian princes in the Eaft, incenfed
the pope and the people to fuch a degree, that they con-
fidered him as an enemy to the Chriftian name, and fupplied
Bohemond with large fuccours to oppofe him. Bohemord,
thus aided, laid fiege to Durazzo ; but the place held out
tin the war was concluded by a negotiation. A.'exius, dif-
engaged from this conteft, marched in perfon againft the
Turks, who renewed their incurfions as far as Nice, and de-
feated them with great fiaughter. They returned, however,
the next year, and being difpirited by fucceffive defeats, they
fued for peace and obtained it. The remaining part of the

an epidemical difeafe ; and he himfelf, in the 70th year of life of Alexius was devoted to the purpofe of healing the
kis age, expired in his tent ; not without the fufpicion of divifions, which at that time rent th-e Greek church. After

a long

ALE

along reign of 37 years, Alexins died, A. D. iii3, and
was fucceedcd in the empire by his Ion John Comnemis.

or the charatler of this emperor the Greek and Latin
writers have given a very different account. In the biography
of his daughter, the celebrated Anna Comnena, it is loit in
a vatrue conllelhtion of virtues, and the perpetual (train of
panegyric and apolirry awakens our jealoufy to quedion tlie
veracity of the hiilorian and the merit of the hero. On the
other lunid, the Latin writers, who have written thehiftoiy
of tlie holy war, reprefenthim as a monllcr of pcrfidv. The
circumllances of the times in which he lived, whilft they
afford a dilplay of his pohtieal wifdom and niilitai-y valour,
funiidi fome apology for the difTimulation and artifice to
which he occafionally recurred. To his relations and friends
he was grateful and liberal ; and to his enemies tolerant and
forgiving. 7Vt tlie head of his armies he was bold in aftion,
flciltul in ftratagem, patient of fatig\ie, ready to improve his
advantages, and capable of riling from his defeats with in-
exhiuftible vigour. The difcipline of the army was revived,
and a new generation of men and foldiers was created by the
example and precepts of their leader. In his intereourfe
with the Latins, lie was patient and artful; and he contrived
with fuperior policy to balance the interells and pafiions of
the champions of the firil Crufade. In a long reign of 37
years, he luhdued and pardoned the envy of his equals ; the
laws of public and private order were reflored ; the arts of
wealth and fcience were cultivated ; the limits of the empire
in Europe and Afia were enlarged ; and the Comnenian
fceptre was tranfmitted to his children of the third and
fourth generation. Yet the difRculties of the times betrayed
fome dcfefts in his charafler ; and have cxpofed his memory
to fome iuft or ungenerous reproach. His happinefs was
interrupted, and his health was impaired by public cares ;
the patience of Conflantinople was fatigued by the length
and feverity of his reign ; and before he expired, he had lod
the love and reverence of his fnbjefts. Although he had
applied the riches of the church to the fervice of the ftate,
and thus incurred the difpleafure of the clergy ; yet they
applauded his theological learning and ardent zeal for the
orthodox faith, which he defended with his tongue, his pen,
and his fword. His charafter was degraded by the fuper-
ftition of the Greeks ; and whilll he founded an hofpital for
the poor and infirm, he ordered the execution of an heretic,
who was burnt alive in the fquare of St. Sophia. The fm-
cerity of his moral and religious virtues was fufpefted by his
intimate affociates. In his lail hours, when he was prefTed
by his wife Irene to alter the fuceeffion, he raifed his head,
and breathed a pious ejaculation on the vanity of the world.
The indignant reply of the emprefs, fays a popular hiftorian,
may be infcribed as an epitaph upon his tomb : " You die,
as you have lived — an hypocrite." Anc. Un. Hill. vol. xv.
p. 136 — 151. Gibbon's HilL vol. ix. p. 83, &c. vol. x.
p. 294^ vol. xi. p. 45, ?<.c.

Alexius II. fucceeded his father Manuel, as emperor
of the Eall, in 1180, at the age of 12 years. His mother
Maria, a princcfs of Antioch, alfumed the government
during the minority of her fon, and his education was ne-
glefted, that (lie might retain her abfolute authority. During
this period, Andronicus, who had long afpired to the
empire, attempted to attain the objeft of his ambition. Hav-
ing, notwithftanding the profligacy of his charafter, gained
a confiderable degree of popularity, he was declared pro-
teftor of the empire during the minority of Alexius ; and
when he had caufed the young prince to be iolemnly crowned,
he contrived to be chofen his colleague in the empire. Not-
withftanding a iolemn oath, that he accepted the dignity

ALE

merely for the purpofe of protefting the young cmjjeror and
fiipporting his authority, he foon taiifed him to be mur-
dered ; and ftrangling him with a bow-llring, terminated his
life in the third year of his reign, and 15th of his age. Anc.
Un. H'll. vol. XV. p. 157 — i6o.

Alexius III. Angelus, obtained the empire of the
Eall, A.D. 1195, by the exclufion of his brother Ifaac
Angelus, whom he threw into prifon and deprived of fight.
Indolent and devoted to pleafure, he committed the conduft
of public affairs to his wife Euplirofyne, who opprefl'i. .1 the
people,and fold the chief offices of flate to the highefl liidder.
In 1202 he releafed his brother Ifaac, and called iiis fon
Alexius, who was then about I 2 years of age, to the court,
and treated him as his child. But the young prince, aided
by his filler Irene, wife to Philip, emperor of Germany,
efcaped from Conllantinoplc, and landed fafe in Sicily.
Philip, by means of his ambafl'adors, engaged the French
and Venetians in his fupport. A treaty for this purpofe
having been concludrd between them and Alexias, the army
of thefe united powers embarked fin- Corfu, w hich was the
place of rendezvous ; and proceeded to Conflantiriople.
Upon their approach the ufnrper efcaped ; and in 1203 the
young prince was afTociated with his father Ifaac in the
empire, and crowned with extniordinai-y pomp and folemnity.
The ufnrper, who had fled to Zagora, a city of Thrace, at
the foot of mount Hi^mus, after various adventures, fell
into the hands of his fon-in-law, Theodore Lafearis, againft
whom he had inftigated the Turks, who put out his eyes,
and (hut him up in a prifon at Nice, in Afia, where he died
fome years after. Anc. Un. Hi(l. vol. xv. p. 195 — 168 —
173. Gibbon's Hift. vol. i. p. 185, Sec.

Alexius IV., the fon of Ifaac Angelus, was crowned
affociate with his father in the empire in 1 203. The price
of his refcue and advancement to the throne involved him
in difficulties that were infuperable. This was no lefs than
the fubmiffion of the Eaflern empire to the pope, the
fuccour of the Holy Land, and a contribution, as foon as
he was invelled with the crown, of 200 thoufand marks of
filver. After his accclTion to the throne, he prevailed on
the Marquis of Montferrat, at the price of 1600 pounds of •
gold, to lead him with an army round the provinces of Eu-
rope ; but upon his return, as his father was dcfpifed on
account of his infirmities, he was hated as an apoflate, who
had renounced the manners and religion of his country. His
fecret covenant with the Latins was divulged or fufpecSled.
The people, and efpceially the clergy, were devoutly at-
tached to their faith and fuperftition ; and every convent,
and every fhop, refounded with the danger of the church
and the tyranny of the pope. Whilft complaints were mut-
tered aigainft tiic emperor and his government, and quarrels
were fomented between the Greeks andLalins, Conflantinople
was vifittd with a calamity which might be juflly imputed
to the zeal and indiferction of tlie Flemifh pilgrims. A
conflagration fpread, during eight days and nights, above a
league in front, from the harbour to the Propontis, over the
molt populous regions of the city. By this outrage the
name of the Latins became flill more unpopular. Upon
the return of Alexius, his youthful mind hefitated between
gratitude and patriotifm, between the fear of his fubjefts
and that of his allies. By his feeble and (luAuating conduft
he loit the ellecm and confidence of both ; and whilll he
invited the Marquis, of Montfeirat to occupy the palace, he
ftiffcrcd the nobles to confpire, and the people to arm, for
the deliverance of their countr)'. The Latins, regardlefs of
his critical fituation, repeated and enforced their demands,
and reminded the emperor, with menace and infult, of his

own

A L E

oi\'n engagements and of their ferviccs. The threats of the
l.aliiii cuiicurrccl with the ihffhtibfaflion of the Grctks in
exciting a tumult among tlic people ; of which a prince of
the houfe of Ducas, iurnumed Moiir/.oufle, perridioafly
avjlled liimfclf to caufe a vacancy of the throne. Alexius,
hurried hy the arts of this falfe friend into a prifon, was
fcizcd, dripped and loaded witii chuir.s ; and, after lading
fnme days the bittemefs of death, he was poifoncd, or
ftrangled, or beaten witli chihs, A. D. 12C4. The emperor
Ifaac Angelus foon followed his fon to the grave ; if, indeed,
he furvived his death. Anc. Un. Hift. vol. xv. p. 168.
Gibbon's Hift. vol. xi. p. 225.

Ale^cius V. Di'CAs, funiamed MoiirzauJIi!, on account
of the clofe junction of his black and Ihaggy eye-brows, was,
according to Ducange, fecond coufni of young Alexius,
whom he betraved and dethroned, and fucceeded to the em-
pire on his death. The people having advanced him to the
throne, he found it necefiary to prepare for the defeiice of
the metropolis of the empire. The princcs of the Cnifade
renewed their claims, and pitying tlie fate of Alexius, the
late emperor, to which, indeed, they themfelves had con-
tributed, refolved to revenge his death. Accordingly they
muilcred all their forces in Afia, croflTed the Straits, fnd
clofely bcfieged the Imperial city, both by fea and h'.nd.
Mourzoufle, who was a man of warlike valour and expe-
rience, made a vigorous defence ; but in a notlurnal aiTault,
he was overpowered ; the city was taken and pluade ,•''.. and
the capture of it was attended with a dreadful (laughter.
The emperor made his efcape in the night with Euphri,fyi:e,
the wife of the late ufurper Alexius Angelus, and her
daughter Eudoxia, for w'hofe fake he had abandoned his
kwful wife. This happened, A. D. 1204. Mourz.nifle
fought an afylum in the camp of his father Alexius in
Thrace, and was at firft received with fmiles and honours ;
but as the wicked can never love, and (hould rarely truft,
their fello-.v-criminals, he was feized in the h ith, deprived of
his eyes, ftripped of his troops and treafures, and turned
out to wander an objeft of horror and contempt to thofe
who with more propriety could hate, and with more juflice
could punidi, the alTainn of the emperor Ifaac and his fon.
As he was privately pafiingover into Afia, he was feized by
the Latins of Conftantinople, and condemned, after an open
trial, for the murder of young Alexius, to an ignominious
death. His judges, having debafed the mode of his exe-
cution, refolved, that he fhould afcend the Theodofian
column, a pillar of white marble, 147 feet high, and be caft
down headlong from its fummit, and dafhed in pieces on the
pavement, in the prefence of a great multitude of fpeilators.
Anc. Un. Hid. vol. xv. p. 169. Gibbon's Hid. vol. xi. p.
225, 2J2, &c.

ALEYN, Charles, an elegant hidorical poet, in the
reign of king Charles I., was educated at Sidney college,
Cambridge, and afterwards fettled as ufher in a grammar
fchool in London. In i6j!i he publiflied two poems, en-
titled, " The Battailes of Crefl'ey and Poidtiers, under the
fortunes and valour of king Edward III. of that name, and his
fonne Edward, prince of Wales, named the Black." Having
left the fchool in which he was uiher, \\c. was domeftic tutor
to the fon of Sir Edward Sherburne, afterwards clerk of the
ordnance and commidary general of the artillery to king
Charles, at the battle of Edgehill. In this fituation he
wrote another elaborate poem, in honour of king Henry VII,
and that important battle which gained him the crown of
Encrland. This poem was publidicd in 163S, and entitled,
" The hiftorie of that wife and fortunate priuee Henrie, of
that name the fcventh, king of England ; with that famed

A L F

battaile, fought between the faid king Henrie and Richard
III., named crook-back, upon Redraore, near Boiworth."
He died about the year 1 640 ; before which time he pub-
liflied a tranflation, " The Hidor}' of Eurialus and Lucrc-
tia," from a dory found among the Latin epidles of
./Eneas Svlvius. Biog. Brit.

ALE'/ONNE, in Ccop-aphy. See Alesonnk.

ALFABUCELIS, in ^Indent Geogmphy, a place of
Italy, adigned by Ptolemy to the Marli.

ALEACAR, in Geography, a town of Spain, five miles
north-eaft of Grenada.

ALEANDEGA da Fe, a fmalldidria of Portugal, iu
the province of Traz-oz Montes, cor.taining 15 paridies.

ALFANDIGA, the name of the cudom-houfe at
Liibon.

ALFAQJ^ES, among the Spanidi Morifcoes, were the
clergy, or ihofe who indructed them in the Mahometan
fa th. The alfaques difi'ered fi-om the Morabites, who aa-
fwered to monks, or religious, among Chriftians.

ALF.^QUES, or Alfacqj, in Geography, a fea-port
town of Spain, in the province of Catalonia, on the coad
of the Mediten-anean, fituate on an ifland of the fame
name at the mouth of the Ebro, three leagues fouth of
Tortofa.

ALFAQUES, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of
Tunis.

AL-FARABI, or Abu Nasr, in Biography, a native
of Balch Farab, a town of Afia Minor, called by the Turks
Otrar, was a celebrated philofopher of the fchool of Bagdad,
and flourillied in the loth century. His parents were opulent,
but he preferred the ftudy of philofophy to the acquifition
or poffeffion of affluence. He dudied mathematics and me-
dicine, but chiefly excelled in logic. Such were his talents
and learning, that great men and princes were emulous to
confer upon him honours and emoluments. But Al-Farabi
declined every offer of this kind, and preferred, either
through his love of philofophy or from a natural gloominefs
of temper, folitude, and an abdemious life. During
winter, he condantly flept on draw, his countenance was
always forrowful, and he found confolation in nothing but
philofophy. Lamenting the imperfection and vanity of
human life, and dreading intercourfe witli the world as de-
dructive of innocence, he employed his time in dudy, and
devoted his whole attention to the perufal of the writings of
Ariftotle. He wrote 60 didinft treatifes on the Aridotelian
philofophy, which were popular and much read among the
Arabians, and alfo among the Jews. Many of his books
were tranflated from Ambic into Hebrew. The fubjefts
on which he principally treated were logic, mctaphyfics,
and phyfics. Among his writings on the lalt of thefe fubjefts
are mentioned treatiles on optics and adronomy. Abulf.
Dyn. ix. p. 208. Pococke, p. 372. Fabric. Bib. Gr. vol.
xiii. p. 265. Brucker's Hid. Philof. by Enfield, vol. ii.

P- 239-

ALFARO, in Geographv, a town of Spain, in the pro-
vince of Old Cadile, on the fouth fide of the Ebro, and on
the borders of Navarre, nine miles north-wed of Tudela.

ALFAS, fmall idands of the Red Sea, over againd the
wed fide of Ambia Felix. They are only inhabited occa-
fionally by the Moors, who come thither from other idands
for the fake of the pearl fiihery. N. lat. 17° 10'. E. long.

45° 44'-

ALFATERNA, \n Ancient Geography. SeeNoCERA.

ALFAYATES, in Geography, a town of Portugal, in the

province of Beira, fituate on an eminence, near the confines

of Spain, is walled and guarded, but contains only one

I paridi.

A L F

parifli, and iiTiout 500 iiihubitants : diflant lyo miles noitli-
caft from l.ifbon. N. lat. 40' 9'. W. long;. 5" 42'.

ALFDOUCH, a nann; gm-n by tlic Aloors to a fort of
vermicelli, wiiicii tliL-y make of flour and water, and which
they are very fond of in their entertainments.

ALFECCA, or Ai,KiiTA, in y/J/ronomy, a name given
to the ftar commonlv called liichla coron<c.

ALFEIZERAO, in Gco\!,mph-j, a town of Portngal,
in Eili-emadura, i;i a fmuU place lying on the fea, and eouuiins
about 700 inhabit mts.

ALFELD, a town of Germany, in the circle of Lower
Saxony, and bidiopric of Hddelhcnn, htnnte on the Leine,
30 miles foiith of Hanover, and 15 fouth of Hddtlheuii.

Alfeld, a town of Geimany, in the circle of the Lower
Rhine, fonr miles north of Neidenau.

ALFEI-DHA, a mountain of Perfia, in the province of
Kirman, 13 leagues foutli of Sirgian.

ALFENUS, Varus, in B'wgrapky-, a Roman Civilian,
was a native of Cremona, and a difciple of Servius Snipitius.
He flourilhcd about the year of Rome, 754, or the full of
the Chrillian sra. Horace mentions him as a perfon who
had been brought up in the mechanical occupation of a
fhoemaker, or, as others lay, a barber ; and who had quitted
this humble ilatiun for a profeihon in which he had acquired
reputation.

Alfenus vafer, omni

Abje:'ilo inftrumentoartis, claufaque taberna,

Sutor erat ; fapiens operis lie optimus omnis

Eft opifex, lie rex folus." Sat. lib. i. fat. iii. v. 130.

" Shuffling Alfen, though he loft his awl.

And threw away his laft, and (hut his itall,

And broke his threads, yet was a cobler ftill :

Thus eveiy tradefman, if he hath but ficill,

Is wife, and therefore only king." Creech.

Ammianus Marcellinus refers to Alfenus, (lib. xxx. c. 4. p.
458. ed. Gronov.) as a perfon whofe authority was held in high
eftiraation in matters of law. Aulus Gellius alio, citing his
works, (hb. vi. c. 5.) fpcaks of the. author as a dihgent
inquirer into antiquities ; " Renim Antiquarum non incu-
riofus." He wrote 40 books of Digefts, which are men-
tioned in the index of the Pandetts, and feveral books of
Collections. Paulus, the Civilian, made an abridgment of
bis works. Some fay that he \ras a conful, and an old
Schohaft on Horace fays, that he was buried at the public
expcnce. If this be the ciife, Alfenus, without enriching
himfelf by his profelfion, had acquired an honell reputation,
and exhibits an encouraging example to thofe who pofTels
talents, for rifmg from a lower fphcre of life to eminence by
profcffional merit. Gen. Diet.

ALFERE, in Geography, a town of Arabia, 24leagucs
fouth of Medina.

ALFET, in Ancient CuJJoms, fignificd a large caldron,
Avhich contained boiling water, in which a peilon accufed
plunged his hand and arm as far as the elbow, by way of
trial or purgation.

ALFIDENA, in Geography, a town of Naples, in the
pro.inceof Abruzzo Citra, 15 miles fouth-fouth-taft of Sul-
mor.a ; famous in the war of the Samnites.

ALFONSUS, in Biography. Sitt Alphon'sus.

ALFORD, Michael, an Englifn Jefuit, was born in
Lo. Ion, in 1587, and entered into the fociety in 1607.
Having ftudied theology and phllofophy in Spain, and at
Louvaia, and having relided fome years at Rome, he returned
to England, where he was arrefted, but afterwards relealed.

A L F

From that time lie remained in England for 30 vears a's a
raillionary from the ioeiety. He <lied at St. t)mcr's, in l^^^2,
and left two treatifesin ecclclialUcal liiilory, -d/'z. " Britar.nia
ilhilhata," printed at Antwerp, l64i,in4to. ; and " An •
nales Eccleiiallici Britannorum," printed alio at Antwerp.
Gen. Biog.

Ai. roRD, in Geography, a town of England, in the county
of I^incoln, about fix miles fiom the lea, 23^ north of
Bollon, and 140; north of London. It has a market on
Tuefday, and tv>'o fairs on Whil-Tuefday and Nov. H, for
cattle and ftieep. It has a fpring, which contains a purging
i.ilt, and has been recommended in the fcnrvy, jaundice,
and other glandular obllrut\ions, andalfo in diforders of the
kidneys and bladder. N. lat. 53*^ 30. E. long, o" 15'.

Alkord, a townfliip of America, in Berfcdiire county,
in the Mail'achufets, containing 577 inhabitants, 14J miles
well: from Bofton.

ALFORDSTOWN, a fmall town in Moor county,
North Carolina.

ALFRAGAN, Ahmed Eem Kotheir Al Fargasi,
or, as others calls him, Mohammed Ebs Ki tir Al For-
GANi, in Biography, a celebrated Arabian aftronomer, was
born at Fergan, in Sogdiana, now Samarcand, andflouriihed
in the beginning of the ninth century, under the Caliphate
of Al-Manion. His work in Arabic, entitled, " The Ele-
ments of Aftronomv," cuniifts of 30 chapters or feftions,
and is formed upon the principles of Ptolemy, whom the
author often cites. Of this work we iiave a I^atin tranflation
by Johannes Hifpahenfis, in the 12th century, printed at
Ferrara, in 1493, and at Nuremberg, in 1537, with a pre-
face by MelanCthon ; another by James Chrillman, from the
Hebrew veriioii ot James Anloli, at Frankfort, in 1590, to
which the editor added an ample commentary, in wliicli he
compares the calendars of the Romans, F.gvpiians, Perfians,
Syrians, and Hebrews, and ihews the correfpondence of
their years ; and a third, which is the bell, by Golius,
with the Arabic text and valuable notes on the firft nine
chapters, printed in 1669, at Amiltrdam, in 4to., after the
death of the editor, which he did not live to iiniih. Mod.
Un. Hirt. vol. ii. p. 202. Hniton's Mat. Dic^. vol. i.
p. 63.

ALFRED, or .Alfred the Great, in Biography, the glory
of our Saxon monarchs, was the youngell fon of Ethelx.olf,
king of the Weft Saxons, and was born at Wannating,
fuppofed to be Wantage, in Berkfliire, in the year 849.
Ethelwolf, being a man of great piety, fcnt Alfred to Rome-,
when but five years of age, to receive confirmation, fomc
fay regal unClion, from the hand of pope Leo the Tenth ;
who, on performing the facred rite, lliled him his fon, and
foretold, it is faid, his future grcatnefs.

His three elder brothers, Ethclbald, Ethelbeit, and Ethel-
red, having regularly fuccetded to the throne, and died
after fnort reigns, Alfred afi'uraed the fovereignty, and was
crowned at Wincheller, 111871. He had given early and
manilcll proofs of courage and ability ; though his inclina-
tions are known to have rather difpofed him to the calm
pleafures of literature, than the tumult of war. But fcarcely
had he time to attend his brother to the grave, ere he found
occafion to fight for the crown to which he had hicceeded ;
for the Danes had poured innumerable multitudes into the
ifland ; and in that very year eight battles were fought be-
tween them and the Saxons. The ftrenglhcf the latter was
almofl wafted, while that ol the former was conllantly re-
newed, after every lofs, by frelh (hoals of their countrymen.
At length a bloody engagement took place at Wilton, in
Vv'iltiliire J where, though the king was defeated with fome

kjfs,

A L F

A L F

lofj, yet fo great was tlic dread iu which the Danes ftooJ
of ^yiVcd's military fame, tliat tliey mnde a ticaty with him,
and retired from his dominions into tliole of the king of Mer-
cia. Soon after, huwcver,thcy broke their faith; fur, meeting
on tlic road to Mercia a body of Enghlh horfe, advancing
in an miprepared manner, as they rched on tiie late treaty
of jieace, they flew the greater number of them, and took
podtllion of Exeter. The king prefently marched againll
them witli what forces he co\iId collect, and belkged them
there. At this junclnre Alfred's fleet engaged a numerous
one of the enemy, funk many, and difperled the rell ; which,
attempting to gain fome of the Englilh ports, were driven
on the coalls and wholly loft. The Danes now again fued
for peace, and gave hollages ; but in 877, having obtained
new reinforcements, tliey entered Wiltfliire in fuch numbers,
•iiid fo wearied out the Saxons, that the latter could no longer
be perliiaded to make head againll them. Some retreated
iiito Wales ; others fubinitted to the ufui-pers ; and Alfred
himfelf found it ncccflary to be governed by cireumftances.
He, therefore, atTumcda dilguife, the moft likely to conceal
hmi ; not giving up either his hopes or his courage ; but
waiting for a proper opportunity to recover his throne, and
Jtftorc to their liberties his forely opprefled people.

Having properly diipofed of his family, and fettled a
mode of communication with his tried and faithful friends,
he engaged himfelf in the fervice of his own neat-herd, to
take the care of his cows. Affcr and other ancient writers
relate, as a proof how completely Alfred was difguifed, that
one day the good woman of the houfe fet a cake before the
lire to bake, wiiere the king was bufily employed in trimming
his bow and arrows ; on coming back, and tinding it burnt,
through neglecl of turning it in her abi'encc, which (lie
fuppolcd he would have done, (he chid him very feverely
for his inattention ; and told him, that though he could not
turn the cake, flie knew he was ready enough to eat it. We
find, however, that Alfred foon left this liation ; and with
his wife and fome of his moft valued friends, found a fafe
retreat in the ide of jEthelingey (Athelney), in Somerfet-
Ihire, which was fecurtd by vail morafles around it, and ac-
cefTible only by one very oblcure pafTage. The following
lloiy, which we receive from William of Malniefbury, has
been cited to Ihew the extremities to whieli this moil illuf-
trious monarch was now reduced. A pilgrim came to his
callle and requefted alms. The queen informed Alfred,
that they had only one fmall loaf remaining, which was in-
Infiicicnt for themfelves and tiieir friends, who were gone
abroad in quell of filh and other food, though with fmall
hopes of fuccefs. " Give the poor man one half of the loaf,"
faid the king : " he that could feed jooo men with five
loaves and two lilhes can certainly make that half of the
loaf fuffice for more than our nccefllties." The man was
relieved accordingly ; and the king's benevolence was recom-
penfed by the early arrival of his people with an unexpetledly
ample ftore of frefh provifions. [iV beautiful painting from
this fubjed, by Mr. Weft, was prefcnted by the venerable
Alderman Boydell fome years fmce to theftationers company;
in the court -room of whofe hall it ftill remains an honourable
fpecimen of the artift's talents, and a lafting memento,
among many others, of the liberality of the donor.]

When the king had been about a year in this retreat, being
informed that fome of his fubjeds, under the brave Odun,
Earl of Devonlhire, had routed a great army of the Danes,
killed their chiefs, and taken their magical ilandard, he
ilfued letters, giving notice where he was, and inviting his
nobility to come and confult with him. I5efore they came
jto a final determination, however, Alfi-ed, difguifed as an

itinerant harper, drolled into the enemy's camp ; w':;re,
without fiifpieion, he was admitted not only to the tenm of
the common foldiers, but even into thofe of the chief Daiiilh
commauderi. Having examined every thing with great ac-
curacy, he retired again to /Ethelingcy, and hnnmoned with
all privacy his faithful fubjects to meet him in arms at Brex-
ton, in the forell of Selwood, in Wiltlhirc. They obeyed
the fuminons ; and, fired with the hopes of liberty, fell upon
the Danes with incredible alacrity, at a moment when the
latter had not the leaft fufpicion of a foe, and imagined Al-
fred to be a mere fugitive from them.

The attack was made at iEthendunc, now EJdington.
Thofe of the enemy who elcaped from this battle pofieffed
themfelves of a neighbouring caftle, or fort, almofl ruined,
which they fortified immediately, and in which they were
quickly beiieged by the victorious Saxons; but, after a long
and clufe fiege, the Danes were forced to fuiTender at dil-
cretion. Alfred, however, treated them like a merciful
prince, giving up to fuch of them as fliould embrace the
Chriftian religion, the whole kingdom of the Eall Angles,
on condition that they fliould oblige the reft of their coun-
trymen to quit the illand, and prevent, as far as they were
able, the landing of any more foreigners. For the per-
formance of thefe articles he took hoftages ; and when, in
purfuance of the treaty, Guthrum, the Danidi chief, came,
with thirty of his chief officers, to Alfred, to be baptized,
the king anfwered for him at the font, gave him the name
of jEthelftan, and adopted him for a fon. His friends and
himfelf were nobly entertained for twelve days, and then^
difmilTed with royal prefents.

One advantage the Saxons derived from thefe Danes turn-
ing Chriftians ; which was, that now they kept their oaths,
and removed into the country which had been afiigned to
them, where they quietly fettled themfelves.

In 884 a new ivvarm of Danes landed in Kent, and laid
fiege to Rochefter ; but the inhabitants boldly defended the
place till the king, reaching them with an anny, compelled
^the enemy to raife the fiege, and return once more to France.

Alfred, having now fome leifuie, refolved to repair, re-
fortify, and repeople the ancient city of London, which he
had lately recovered from the Danes ; and meant to keep as
a frontier. Accordingly, he placed a garrifon in it, and
made ^thered governor thereof, whom he had created Eail
of Mercia, and to whom he gave his daughter jEthelfieda
in marriage.

After fome years of reft, however, Alfred was again
called into the field ; for the Danes, being foundly beaten
in the weft of France, in 893, came with a fleet of 250 fail on
the eall coaft of Kent, and, landing, fixed themfelves at
Appledore. Shortly after came another fleet up the Thames,
conlifting of 80 veflcls, and, having landed the foldiers, built
a fort at Middleton, now Milton. Alfred drew together a
confiderable army; but, before he marched toward the enemy,
compelled the Danes fettled in Efl'cx and Northumberland,
to give him hoftages for their good behaviour. He then
moved toward the invaders, and prudently pitched his camp
on a Ipot between the enemy's two armies, thereby preventing
their junction. A great body, however, moved into Eflex,
and thence, croffing the river, came into Surr}-, at Farnham;
in which county, the king's forces met and defeated them.

Amid thele contefts, the Danes of Northumberland, in
breach of their oath, and notwithftanding the hoftages
which they had given, equipped two fleets, one of 100, the
other of 40 veffels, and came to Exeter, which place they
befieged. Alfred left not a moment in oppofing this new
enemy. Having left fome forces at London to make head-'
6 againft

ALT

agaiiifl Haftings (H;icft(;n), and the other Danes, lie maixlicd
fudJeiily to the Weft ; and, falling on tht rebels before they
were aware, piirfued them to their (hips with great flaiighter.
The enemy, failinj' ,next to Suflcx, began to phinder the
country near Chiciiefter ; hut the order which Alfred had
every where eftabliflied fulTiced here, witlmut his prefcnce,
for the defence of the place ; and the rebels-, meeting with
a new rcpulfe, in which many of them were killed, and fome
of their Ihips taken, were olHged again to put to fea. They
now failed to join Haflings, the Daiiifli chief, at Bcamfleet, in
Efrex,who, thus [lrcngthencd,and encouraged by the abfence
of the king, ravaged all the lands lielonging to Alfred in
INIercia. The troops which the king had left in London for
the fecurity of that place, now, in turn, took their advan-
tage of the abfence of the Danifli chief on ids incurfions in
tlie Mercian diftrift, fuddenly attacked Beainfleet, and car-
ried the place by ftorm, in which they found Haftings's wife
and his two for.'?, who had been lately baptized. Thel'e
they made prifoners, and ient to Alfred; who, with a grcat-
r.efs of foul unparallelled in thofe times, returned them
to HalHngs, witii this meifage, " I make no war upon
women and chriftians." HalHngs, returning from his p;l-
lag'ng expedition, gave up all for loll, and once more
fued tor peace ; which Alfred, with his ufual clemency,
granted, on his giving frefli hoftages for his fidelity in time
to come.

Before Alfred had time to recruit himfelf, another Danifh
leader, whofe name was Laf, came with a great army out of
Northumberland, and dellroycd all before him. Having
invaded North Wales, plundering or dellroying every thing,
this army divided itfelf, one body returning to Northumber-
land, the other marching into Efl'ex, and taking poflclhon
of a fmall ifland called Merefeg (Merfey ). Here, however,
they did not long remain ; for, having parted, fome failed
up the river Thames, and others up the Lea-Road ; where,
drawing up their ibips, they built a fort not far from Lon-
don, which proved a great reilraint upon the citizens, who
went in a body and attacked it, but were repulfed with great
lofs. This obliged the king, when harvcft-time came, to
encamp with a body of troops in the neighbourhood of the
city, in order to cover the reapers from the incurfions of tiic
Danes. Riding one day by the fide of the river Lea, a
thought ftruck him, that by narrowing the channel and
cutting fome trendies, and thus turning the courfe of the
ilream, he might render the Danifh (hips ufelefs, by leaving
them on dry ground. This was promptly executed ; the
pagans, ftruck with altonifhment and difmay, quitted their
ihips and camp, and fled to Quatford, where thev were
finally broken and iabdued. Such of the Danilh (hips as
could be got off, the Londoners carried into their own road ;
the rell they burnt and deftroyed.

The Danes, ever unquiet, in a (hort time began again to
invade the territories of the Weft Saxons, both by land and
£ea ; but their chief enterprifes were in the way of piracy,
under the command of Sigefert, a Northumbrian, who, well
acquainted with Alfred's naval preparations, had framed
veflels of a new conftruftion, higher, larger, and Iwifter
than the Englifh ; but the king, improving on his invention,
caufed a number of gallies to be built with all poflible ex-
pedition, of ftill greater bulk, fwifter in failing, and loftier
rlian thofe of the Danes, fome of them carrying 60 rowcra.
^V'ith thefe, falHng upon the enemy while they were exer-
cifing their ravages in the Weft, he took twenty of their
fiiips ; and, having tried all the prifoners at Winchefter, he
giiee judgmcvu that they fcould be hanjjed as piratical mur-

VOL. 1.

A L F

derers and enemies of the human nee. The well-timed f?-
veiitv of this execution, together with the excellent pollurc
of defence every where eftal)li(hed, reftored complete tran.
quillity in Englar.d for the three remaining years of Alfred'*
roign, which he chiefly employed in cftablifhing and rcgu.
lating his government for the iecurity of hiniieli and his
fucctilbrs, and the eafe and benefit of the people at large.

" His mighty genius (fays Sir \^'. Blacklloiic) prompted
him to undertake a moll great and ncccfiary work, whidi
he is faid to have executed in as mafterly a manner.
No lefs than to new-model the conftitutiou ; to re-build
it on a plan that (hould endure for ages ; and out of
its old difcorjant materials, which were heaped \ipoii
each other iu a vaft and rude irregularity, to form
one uniform and wcU-connefted whole. This he cf-
feded, by r-duc!ng the whole kingdom under one regular
and giadual lubordination of government, wherein each man
was anfwerable to his immediate fHperior for his own con-
dudl and that of his neareil neighbours : for to him we owe
that raafter-piece of iudici.il polity, the fubdivifion of Eng-
land into tithings and hundreds, if not into counties ; all
under the influence and aduiiniftration of one fupreme ma-
giftrate, the king : in whom, as in a general refervoir, all
tiie executive autliority of the law was lodged, and iiom
whom juftiee was difperfed to every part of the nation by
diftinct, yet communicating, duc\s and channels ; which
wife inftitulion has been preferved for near a tlioufand years
unchanged, from Alfred's to the prtfent time. He alio,
like another Theodoiius, colleAed the various cuftoms that
he found difperfed in the kingdom, and reduced and digeiled
them into one uniform fyftem or code of laws, in his 80m-
bcc, or liba' jud'.djlis. This he compiled for the ufe of the
court-baron, hundred and county-court, the court-leet, and
fnerilf's tourn ; tribunals which he ellabh(hed for •the trial
of all caufes civil and criminal, in the very diftricls wherein
the complaint arofe : all of them fubjedi, however, to be
infpefted, controlled, and kept within the bounds of the uni-
verfiJ or common law, by the king's own courts ; which
were then itinerant, being kept in the king's palace, and re-
moving with his houfehold in thofe royal progreiTes which
he continuallymade from one endof the kingdom to the other.
The Danifh invafion and conqucft, which introduced new
foreign cuftoms, was a fevere blow to this noble fabric : but
a plan, fo excellently concerted, could never be long thrown
afide. So that, upon the expulfion of thefe intruders, the
Englifh returned to their ancient law ; retaining, however,
fome few of the cuftoms of their late vifitants ; which went
under the name of Dane-Lage : as the code compiled by
Alfred was called the Weli-Saxon-Lage ; and the local
conftitutions of the ancient kingdom of Mercia, which ob-
tained in the counties neareil to Wales, and probably
abounded with many Britidi cuftoms, were called the Mer-
cen-Lage. And thefe three laws were, about the begin-
ning of the eleventh century, in ufe in different counties of
the realm : the provincial polity of counties, and their fub-
divifions, having never been altered or difcontinued through
all the (liocks and mutatiuns of government, from the time
of its firft iuftitution ; though tlie laws and cuftoms there-
in ufed, have often (uffered conhdernble changes.''

Than Alfred, no man could be a more abfolute monarch ;
for, befides that he was the legal inheritor of the crown, he
had won it by his fword, having fought 56 fet battles by
fea and land (eight of them in one year), and enlarged his
dominions beyond what anv of his anccftors poffefTed. But,
thoUjih thus abfolute, he foon fltewed, that hedefired not to
4 O cilablidi

A L F

eftablifh a tyranny, nor to infrinpre the lllicrtics of hi-s peoplf,
for the welfare of wlioin he prorcd his concern by the mea-
fiires which he took to promote it. To him (as we liavc
laewn from Bl.ickftonc) wc owe many of thofe advantages
vhieh render our conilitution dear to us; but, above all, we
owe to him, as it lias been commonly fiippofcd, the trial by
jury (lee JuRv) ; and it is obvious to remark, what a fpnit
of mercy difeovei-s itfelf throughout all his lawf, aid h< w
preat a re<^ard is paid to the lives of liis people ; for in them
recourfe u not had to bloodfhedding for ever)- minute offence :
a particular well worthy of notice and imitation !

" So ftran^'e and fudden a change (fays Sir John Spclman)
did Alfred's inditutions produce in the kingdom, that
wliereas before there was no travelling without arms, there
was foon not only fafe palfagc, but all places became fo
lecnre, that when the king (for experiment's fake) caufed
golden bracelets to be hung up in the crofs-ways, they
lecmed to deride the patlenger, for no man duril lay his
hands on them. Virgins miglit fafely travel any where
alone. Nay, faith hjgulphus, if one left his money all
night in the highway, he might come the next morning, and
be fure to find it whole and untouched."

This glorious monarch fcemed deligned by providence for
the period in which he hved, whether we view him in a mi-
litary or a civil capacity, to refcue from total ruin a nation
on the brink of dellniction, aiTailed from without by power-
ful enemies, and within by floth, ignorance, and the want
of almoll every virtue. He wa? not deficient in any qualifi-
cation that might render him beloved by his fubjefts, and
di-eaded by his enemies. Though of a weak bodily confti-
tution, his mind was aftive, vigorous, and enterpriling, and
fitted to animate every branch of good government. He it
wa* who firft taught us to defend ourfelves by a naval force,
now the glory of our country and the terror of the world !
His pubhc virtues (fays Mr. Wife) were worthy of the imi-
tation of princes, and his private life was not ftained with
any vice ; he was a tender hulband and parent, the friend
and companion of men of letters, lesrned himfelf, affable,
generous, and, to conclude the whole, eminently pious.
He erefted public fehools in different parts of tlie kingdom ;
founded, or at lead repaired, the univerfity of Oxford, gave
preferment to none but fuch as had made fome proficiency in
knowledge ; and having thus reigned upwards of 28 years,
the dehght of his own fubjcft-i, and the admiration of all
Europe, he died the 28th October, A. D. 900, as fome
killorians Rate; but the variations are many between this and
the following year.

That fo great and good a prince (hould not have had his
aftions recorded by any one among the learned of his own
fuhjedls muil appear furprifing. This talk, however, was
left to be performed by a ftranger (Affer), taken as it were
from among his enemies, a people whofe hatred to the
Saxon name was notorious ; for fuch at that time were the
Welfh. This hillorian has not, perhaps, written with the
tlegance of more modern times ; yet his life of Alfred is
certainly far above what could be expected from the rudtnefs
of the age in which he lived. His dtfcriptions are nervous
and fpinted ; and he conveys to us an image of the moll
perfect and accomplilhed monaich tliat ever graced the
Englilh throne.

It has been obferved of Alfred, that, had he not been a
king, he would have been eminently diltinguilhcd as a gram-
marian, a rhetorician, a philofopher, an hillorian, a mufician,
and architeiS. Of his original writings and tranflationj the
following account has been collefted ;

ALT

I. The firft bonk, mentioned by Bale, is " Brevian'um
quoddam col!ccT;um ex legibns Trojanonim, lib. i. A bre-
viary collefted out of the laws of the Trojans, Greeks,
Britons, Saxons, and Danes, in one book." Leland faw
this book in the Saxon tongue, at ChrMl-church in Hamp-
fl)n-e. Comment, de fcript. p. 150. — 2. " Vifi-faxonum
leges, lib. i. The laws of the Weft-Saxons in one book."
Pitts tells us, that it is in Bene't college library, at Cam-
bridge.— 3. " Inilituta qitid.'.m, lib. i. Certain Inflitutes."
This is mentioned by Pitts, and feems to be tiie fecond ca-
pitulation with Guthrum. Brompt. chr. col. 819. — 4.
" Contra judices iniquos, lib. i. An inveftive againft unjuft
judges, in one book." — 5. " Afta magiftratuum fuorum,
hb. i. A(its of his magiftratcs, in one book." This is
fuppofed to be the book of judgments mentioned byKorne;
and was, in all probability, a kind of reports, intended for

the ufe of fucceeding ages 6. " Regum fortune varix,

hb. i. The various fortunes of kings, in one book." — 7.
" Difta fapientum, lib. i. The fayings of wife men, in one
book." — S. " ParaboljE et fales, lib. i. Parables and
pleafant fayings, in one book." — 9. " Collectiones chro-
nicorum ; CoUeftions of chronicles." — to. " Epillola; ad
Wulfsigium epifcopum. Epiftles to bifhop Wulf'-'g, in-
one book." — 1 1. " Manuale ineditationum. A Manual of
meditations."

As to his tranflations, they were thefe : 12. " Dlalogns
D. Gregorii. A Dialogue of St. Gregory." — 13. " Paf-
torale ejufdem Gregorii. Tiie Paftoral of Gregory." —
14. " Hormeftam Pauli Orofii, lib. i." Of this work an
Englilh trandation was publifhed by Mr. Barrington iii
1772, with TElfred's Anglo-Saxon. — 15. " Boetius De
Confolatione, lib. v. Boetius's CoTifolations of philofophy,
in five books." Dr. Plot tells us, king jElfred tranllated
it at Woodftock, as he found in a MS. in the Cotton li-
brary. Nat. Hifl. of Oxfordihire, chap. x. fee. 118. — l6t
" AiTerii fententia:, lib. i. The fayings of Afferius, in one
book." — 17. " Martians Leges, lib. i. The laws of queen
Martia, widow of Guithehnus, in one book." — 18. " Mal-
mutinx Leges, hb. i. The laws of Malmutius, in one
book." — 19. " Gefta Anglorum Beds, lib. v. Tlie Deeds
of the Englifli, in five books, by Bede :" a copy of which
is in the public library at Cambridge, with the following
diftich. (Spelman's Life of jEIfred, p. 21 1.)

Hiftoricus quondam fecit me Beda latinum,
.Alfred rex Saxo tranftulit ille prius.

20. " iEfopi fabulte. iEfop's fables :" which he is fald
to have tranflatcd from the Greek both into Latin and
Saxon. — 21. " PfiJteriuni Davidicum, hb. i. David's Pfal-
ter, in one book." This was the laft work that the king at-
tempted, death furprifing him before he had finilhed it ; it
was however completed by another hand, and publilhed at
London in 1640, in quarto, by Sir John Spelman.

Befides all thefe, Mahneihury mentions his tranflating
many Latin authors ; and the old hiftory of Ely aflerts,
that he tranflated the Old and New Teftaments. Malmfb.
De Geft. Reg. Ang. p. 45. Hill. Elien. lib. ii.

The foregoing article has been chiefly compiled from

Biog. Brit. — Hume, — Blaekftone Spelman. — And Wile's

Annales .(Elfrcdi Magni.

Alfrkd, an Englilh bifhop, was a monk of Malmef-
biry, of the order of St. Bennet, and preferred to the
fee of Exeter. He flourifhed in the loth centur)-, and
was one of the mofl learned men of his time. He
wrote a treatifc, " De Naturis Rtrum.;" " The Life

of

A I. G

A L G

of Adelirus," and " The Hirtory of his own Abbfv."
liiog. Dia.

Alfred, of BciH-rh-y, an ancient liiiloiian, wrote Jils
•' Annales," puhlifliiJ by Hcarne, between the years 114S
and I I JO, and bonowod his acconnt of ihc IJiitidi kings
from Geoffroy of Monmoutli. 15iog. l)i<ft.

ALFRETON, in Gfography, a fmall market town of
England, in the county of Derby, is faid to have Ijccn
founded by king Alfred. It has a confiderable corn market
on Friday. It is 15 miles north of Derby, and 141^ north
of London.

AIjFTER, a boioiigh, citadel ami feignory in the elec-
torate of Cologn and prefefturate of Bonn, belonging to
the counts of Salm-Reifierfcheid.

AI^GA, in Natural H'ljiory, a fjiecles of millepora, with
thin femieircidar lamina?, forming horizontal leaves ; the
millepora lichenoides of Solander and lilhs, found, of a red,
purple, yellow and whitilh colour, on the fliores of Corn-
wall.

ALGj'E, in Botany, an order or divifion of the cryplo-
gamia clafs of plants. — It is one of the fcven families or na-
tural tribes into which the vegetable kingdom is dillributed
in the Philofoph'ia Botanica of Linnsus ; the 57th order of
\\\i fragments of a natural method ; and the fecond genus of
the feftion marhin aut JIuviatUii, in the clafs afpermx vulgo
lial'itx of Tournefort.

The plants belonging to tliis order arc defcribed as having
their root, leaf, and item entire, or all one. The whole of
the fea weeds and various other aquatic plants are compre-
hended under this divilion.

From tlieir admitting of little diftinftion of root, leaf, or
ftem, and the parts of their flowers being equally incapable
•of defcription, the genera are diftinguilhed by the filnation
of what is fuppofed to be the flowers or feeds, or by the re-
fcmblance which the whole plant bears to fome other fub-
ftance.

The parts of fruftification are either found in fauccrs or
tubercles, as in lichens ; in hollow bladders,as in \\\efucl ; or dif-
perfcd through the whole fubftance of the plants, as in the
uhs. The fubftance of the plants has much variety ; it is
ilelh-like or leather-like, membranaceous or fibrous, jelly-like
cr horn-like, or it has the refemblance of a calcareous earthy
matter.

Mr. Valley has lately (hewn that fome of the plants
that belong to this older pofl'efs a high degree of irrita-
bility.— Withering's Arrangement of Britifh Plants, vol. i.
p. 369.

Lamarck diftributes the alga; into three feftions : the firft
comprehends all thofe plants, whofe fruftification is not ap-
parent or feems doubtful. Thefe commonly live in water,
or upon moill bodies, and are membranous, gelatinous, or
filamentous. To this feilion he refers the byfli, confer\-a,
iilya, tremclla and varec. The plants of the fecond fcclion
are diftinguilhed by their apparent fructification, although
it be little known, and they are formed of parts which have
no particular and fenfible opening or explofion at any deter-
mined period ; their fubftance is ordinarily cruftaceous or
coriaceous. They include the taftella, ceratofperma and
lichen. The third Jeftion comprehends plants, which have
their fruiftification very apparent, and diftinguilhed by con-
iiituent parts which open at a certain period of maturity for
the efcape of the fecundating duft or feeds. Thefe plants
are more herbaceous, as to both their fubftance and their
colour, than thofe of the other two fee'^ions, and are more
nearly related to the moffes from which they do not effen-
lially differ. Their flowers are often contained in articulated

ar,d ver)' elaftie filaments. To this fc<!\ion are referred the
riceia, blafia, anthoceros, targiona, hepatica, and junger-
maiina. In the Linna-an fylltm the algas arc divided into
two claflcs, fix. the terrcjlra and aqu.uica:. The former
include the anthoceros, blafia, riceia, lichen, and byiTus ; and
the latter ate the ulva, fucus, and conferva. The frutlifi-
cation of the alga;, and particularly of thofe called aquaticz,
is denomiiiatcd by a judicious bi.tanift, the cpprohriiim lota-
nuorum. See obfer.ations on this order of plants by Dr.
Goodenough and Mr. Woodward in the Liinrian Traiif-
ac^ions, vol. iit, j). 84, &c.

Al.G,v, in ylmhiit Geography, au inland city of the
ifland of Eubcca, called by Strabo, the Eiiboic Alg;e, and
aho ./Eges, to diftinguilh it from two other cities of that
name, one in Achaia, near tlie river Gratis, the other in
jEolis. He conceives, that from this place, in which was a
temple of Neptune, the .(EGEAN Sea derived its name. S«c

Alg«, a port of Italy, which Antonine places three
miles from Centumcellar.

ALGAGLIOLA, a fea-port town of Corfica, defended
by a caftle, fituated upon a rock, was almoft deftroyed by
the mal-contents in 173 1, but foon afterwards rebuilt. N.
lat. 42° 20'. E. long. 9° 4j'.

ALGAIRA, or Aliara, in Geography, a river of Spain,
joins the Gabriel, before its conflux with the Xucar.

ALGALA, or Algalie, in Surgery, the Arabian name
of a hollow curved inftrumciit employed for drawing off the
urine, or fearching for a ftone, by introducing it into the
bladder. The more common appellation of this tube is
Cathetkr or Sound, which fee.

ALGARDI, Alessandro, in Biography, an eminent
artift, both as a iculptoi and architca, was born at Ilologna
in IJ98, and became adifciple of Julius Ga:far Gonventi, un-
der whofe iiiftruftion he acquired a reputatii^n in fculpture
little inferior to that of Michael Angelo Biionaroti. He aUi>
frequented the fchool of the Garaccii, where he probably
learned the art ol engraving ; his ftyle, refembling that of
Augoftino Caracci, being ilight and free, and liis execution
with the graver bold and open. Having ftudied at Mantua
and Venice, he vifited Rome in 1625, and became ac-
quainted with Domenichino, by whom he was recommended
to the ilatuary work of the chapel Bandini, which he was
painting. For fonie years he was chiefly employed in re-
pairing antiques and modclhu.g for goldfmiths ; but his ta-
lents and reputation procured him luperior work. Among
his performances may be recounted a ftatiic of St. Philip de
Neri, in the iacrifty of the fathers of the oratory at Rome;
his group of tlie decollation of St. Paul for the Barnabite
church at Bologna, and the tomb of Leo. XI- at St. Peter's.
One of his capital performances was a bas-relief in this ca-
thedral, reprefenting the ftory of Attila, 32 feet by 18,
which was the laboui' ot four years, and which gained him
univerlal applaufe, with the honour of knighthood and
the golden crofs. His bronze figure of Innocent XI. \i
reckoned the fineft of the flatues of the popes in Rome.
A crucifix likewifc, called, by way of diltinftion, Al?
gardi's crucifix, has been much celebrated, and often copied
by many of the principal artifts. He was afllduous and quick
in execution, but becoming corpulent and infirm, he was
under a neceffity of recumng to the affiftanee of his puplli,
of wiiom he formed an eminent fchool. He died in 1654,
at the age of 52 years. His difpofition was lively, his con-
verfation plcafaut, and his manners irreproaclwble. He lived
in celibacy, and left his property to his filler. His works,
which are held in hij^h cltimation, though the air of his heads
402 is

A L G

is ihr'.iijht to hi artificial and ilviclicd, and he is forrrwliat
ol' a manntrill in tlic folds of his Urapirits, arc thicfly
at Ri nic and the lu-i^'hbouriiig villas. Two plates, fuppolcd
to be his, arc " C'hrill upon the Crofs," a large upright
plate, and " the Deliverance of the Souh from I'urgator)-,"
u fmall oval. Stmtt. Ge:i. Hiog.

ALGAROTH, Paiutltrof, in Chrniiflry, is a white oxyd
of ai'.titr.oiij", procured by addhig pnre water to the butter or
oxyinuriatc of a-itimony, whereby the metallic oxyd is preci-
pitated. This, when thoroughly edulcorated and dried,
fortni the powder of algaroth, and is a very perteft oxyd
of antimony. It was lirll applied, a* an internal medicine,
bv Al^aroiii, an Italian phyiician. It is not now to be
found in the later pharmaeopirias of the l>ondon ecUege,
but if it were of any advantage to incrtafe the iiuniber of
antiinonial medicines, it might dcferve notice from the
eafc with which it is prepared, and the apparent uniformity
of its compofitiou. It is retained by the Edinburgh phar-
niacopccia, and in fcvenil parts of the continent as the balls
of the emetic tartar, or tartarized antimony. See An •
T I M n s Y , mur'mie and tartnte of.

ALGAROT TI.I'r ANCi s,inZ?;5fn7/4i','^asbornatPadua
in 171 2, and fMiKhid his lliidies in the univeriiiy of Bologna.
He conimcneed his travels at an early period, and in his vilit to
lingland aequircil a prcdiledtion for the Newtonian philofo-
pliy, which led him to write his " Newtoniariifnio par le
Dame ;" or, " Newtonianifni for the Ladies," dated at Pa-
rin in 1736. Tliis popular work is formed upon the model
of Fontenclle's " Plurality of Worlds," and is equally in-
llruetive and amufing. At Berlin ^Algarotti was kind!}'' re-
ceived by Frederick, king of Pniflia, who conferred upon him
the knigiithood of the order of Merit, the title of count, and
the poll of chamberlain. By Stanidaus", king of Poland,
who admitted iiim into his court, he was appointed a privy-
counfellor. His character was that of a man of letters, a
philofopher, and one of the firllconnoiHeursin Europe in the
arts of mufic, painting, fculpture, and architefture. He
contributed much to the improvement of the Italian opera,
and wrote verfes in his own language replete with fentiment
and imagery. An ailbciate at Berlin reprclents him, fome-
what in the ftyle of fatire, " as fuU of wit, affedlation, and
felf-love ; a Frenchman in genius, an Italian in charafter,
difagreeable in foclcty, often expofed to royal witticifms, and
receiving them as tokens of favour." After his return to
Italy he died at Pifa, May 24, 1764. The maufoleum which
I'.e trcfted for himfclf indicates both his tatle and his vanity.
The epitaph for his tomb was written by himielf ; " Hie
jacet Algarottus, fed non omnis." A colleflion of his
works, in Italian, was publiihed at Leghorn in 1765, in
four volumes, 8vo. They confill of his dialogues on the
philofophy of Ncr.ton, of elfays on the firre arts and on
commerce, of dillertations on fubjefts of language, of hifto-
rical difquifitions, and of milcellanies, literary and pliilofo-
phical. An edition of them, in French, was publiihed at
Berlin in 1772, in eight vols. 8vo. ; and they have been alfo
tranflatcd into Englifli and other languages. They difplay
genius and profound refleftion, but are thought by com-
petent judges deficient with refpeft to nature and finiplieity»
He deligned and engraved, for his amufersent, feveral plates
of heads in groups, one of which, containing 13, in the an-
ticptc ftyle, is dated Feb. 15, 1744. Nouv. Ditt. Hilh
Strutt.

ALGARVA, in Gtngraphy, the moft fouthern province,
anciently a kingdom of Portugal, is bounded on the fouth
and weft by the ocean, and hence formerly called Cuiieus or
wedge, on the eail by Andalufia, from which it is feparated

A L G

by the Gundiana, nnd on the north by a ridge of hills, called
bcrra de Algarve a:cd Si.rra dc Monchique, wliicli di\idcs it
from Alentejo. The greatell length of this province is
about 00 miles, and its greatell breadth is about 2S. The
citv of Lagos is properly the chief town of Algarva, though
Tavira is now the refidcnce of the governor, and Faro pof-
felfes the greatell part of its trade. Aeeurding to the lalt
enumeration in 1780, this fniall kingdom contained 93,472
inhabitants, of whom 6521 were Inilbaiulnien, and 5575 la-
bourers. It lies clofe to the fea, and is well cullivated ; but
this cultivation does not extend more than two leagues in.
land, beyond which are delert hills. Corn is not grown in
fuffieient quantitv for the conlumption ; the oil that is pro-
duced here i.; reckoned the bell in Portugal, and exported.
The wine is white, and good. I'igs conllitute the piincipal
produce of Algarva, and it alfo abounds with almonds, parti-
cularly about Tavira, which are exported. This is the only
province of Portugal from which dried figs are exported.
Oranges are alio cultivated, cipecially in the vicinity of
Monehique and Faro ; and thefe, together with oranges
and Spanifh reeds (aruiido tfuiiax), are exported from Faro
to England. Algarva, it is faid, is the only countrv,
Greece excepted, where Caprification is praftifed ; for
there are fome varieties of figs, which are veiy excellent,
that fall to the gi-ound immature, uulefs thev arc punttured
by the gnats. The common people live principally on filh,
and are very poor, becaule the province, though capable of
great cultivation, is fhamefully neglciited. A quantity of
tunny-filhis taken on the coaft, and particularly in the neigh-
bourhood of Lagos and Cape St. Vincent, and falted in May
and June ; the colour of it rtfembles that of fmoked beef;
and a llorehoufc for it is opened at Lifbon, where it is found
to fupply the place of cod. The inhabitants, in general,
are lefs refined and polite than the other Portuguefe, but
they are celebrated through the country for their wit and
fhrewdnefs. They are alio confidered as the bell mariners
in Portugal ; and on this account many of them emigrate,
and moll of the boatmen at Lifbon come from this pro-
vince. The mountains that feparate this province from
Alentejo, rife in height as they approach the north, and
confifl of argillaceous flate and fand-ftone. They are arid
and barren, and only bear the ciihis ladaniferus, with two
other kinds ol ciihis. The province is for the moll part
furroundcd by lime-llone mountains, which exhibit few, if
any, traces of cultivation. Olive-trees and fig-trees, and alfo
the ca ob-tree (cernlotiia Jlliqua) grow abundantly in the
corn-fields, and afford a plcafant ihade. The fan palm (cba-
marcps alj/ira oi Limiasus) is very plentihil throughout the
whole of this province ; and its fan-fhaped leaves are iifed
tor making the baflcets in which figs are packed. Link's
Travels through Portugal, p. 432, &c. «

ALGAS, a river of Spain, which runs into the Mata- f
rana, near Nonafpe, in Aragon.

ALGATRANE, a fort of pitch found in the bay
formed by the point of the Cape of St. Helena, on the
fouth of the Ifle of Plata.

ALGAU. See Algow. ||

ALGAVAREIA, the language anciently fpoken by T'
the Morefcoes of Spain, which was a fort of Arabic, and
was conttadlftinguifhed from the yl/jcmina.

ALGAZEL, in Bio^ra/>hy, zlezrned Arabian, about the
beginning of the I 2th century, was a native of Tos, or Tus,
m Afia, and celebrated among the Mahometan theologians
for his numerous treatifes in defence of the Mahometan reli-
gion, againft the Jews and Chriflians ; particularly for his
** Dcmor.flratioB of Illaroifm," and his " Treatife on the

Unity

A L G

A L G

Unity of God." But he was fufpecSed of hcrefy, and one
of liis ]iieces, entitled, " the Rtfurreftion of tlic Law of
Science," was condemned after liis dectafe, bctaiife it ccn-
fured iome of the indiil.';cnces of the Iflamitic law ; and if
any copy of it was foiuid within the Saiaceii empire, it was
ordered to be burned. He alfo wrote a treatife " On the
Opinions of Plsilofophers ;" and another, entitled, " The
l^cflruction of Philoiophers." After living in great fplen-
donr as a public preceptor at Bagdat, he diibibuted his
riches among the poor, allumed ll\e habit of a hermit, and
retired to Mecca. From Mecca he travelled into Syria
and Egypt, and (laying fome time at Cairo, and after-
wards at Alexandria, he returned to Bagdat, where he
died. Pococke Spec. Hid. ;\rab. p. 371. Ilerbelot,
p. ^6z. Leo Afr, c. 12. Brnekcr's Hift. Phil, by En-
field, V. ii. p. 243.

Ai-GAZici., in Zoology. See Antilope.

ALGEBRA, a general method of refolving mathemati-
cal problems, by means of equations : or, it is a method of
computation by fyrabols, which have been invented for ex-
preffing the quantities that are the objects of tliis fcicnce, and
alio their mutual rcUitiou and dependence. Thefe quantities
might probably, in the infancy of the fcience, be denoted by
their names at full length ; thele, bcl^g found inconvenient,
were fucceeded by abbreviations, or by their meie initials.
And, at length, certain letters of the alphabet were adopted
as general reprefentatlons of all quantities ; other fymbols or
figns were introduced to prevent circumlocution, and to fa-
cihtate the comparifon of various quantities with one an-
other ; and, in confequcnce of the ufe of letters or fpeeies,
and other general fymbols, or indeterminate quantities, al-
gebra obtained the appellation of fpcc'wus, liicral, and un'i-

I'Hrfal ARITHMETIC.

The ter]T>, algebra., is of Arabic original ; but its etymo-
logy has been varioudy affigned by different writers. Among
the Arabians, from whom it was immediately tranfmitted to
us, this fcience was denominated al-giabr almocatuhih ; and
as giabara fignifies to rcjlore, and kabala to compare or to op-
fofe, the nouns formed from thefe words, with the prefix al,
denote the fcience of rejlttution and comparifon, or nfolution
and equation ; and thus underftood, they exprefs its nature
with fufficient prectfion. Accordingly, Lucas de Burgo,
tlie fird European author on algebra, calls it the ru/e of rc-
Jloration and cppo/lllo-n. Others, however, have derived it
from Gebtr, either the name of a celebrated mathematician,
to whom they aferlbe the invention ot the fcience ; or from
the v/ord gcbcr, which forms, with the particle al, tlie appel-
lation algc'lra, fignifving, according to Golius, in his Arabic
lexicon, a reduction of broken numbers or fractions to inte-
gers. Herbelot fays, that gcher or gibr is never ufed by the
Arabs for algebra, without adding the word mokahelah ; but
Dr. RuITjU ("Hilf. Aleppo, v.ii. 107. )obferves, that, at Alep-
po, and alfo in books, rt/G/Z^r is ufed fometimes alone, as well
as in conjunftiuu with mohabelah. This fcience has been dif-
tinguiflied by other names, b;fides algebra. Lucas de Burgo
calls it V arte magiore, or the greater art, by way of contra-
diftindlion to common arithmetic, which is denominated I'arte
minorc, or tlie lefer art. The Italians called it resrcla de la

coja, or ret; cofa with them fignifying

or thing, and

being ufed in the fame fenfe with radix, or root ; whence
proceeded the terms rule of cofs, and coffic numbers, denot-
ing the root, fquare, cube and other powers. Other Italian
and Latin vvnters have called algebra regula rei et cenftis, or
the rule of the root and iquare; ce:</'.is being ufed feir im-
provement, or the fquare. By a corruption of ceiifus were
formed zenzus, for the fquare, and the term zenzic applied

to the fquare root. Hence alfo the charaAers "C,, 3, l^,
deduced from the letters r, z, c, became the lyjiboi.* uf
res, ZWCI/J-, ar.d cuius; or, in our mode of cxprdfion, I'le
root, fquare and cube; jufl as R and >^' , formed from /?,
/•, arc with us the figns of radicality, Waiiis's Algebra,
c. i. p. 3.

Some authors have defined algebra, as the art of refolving
nuithcmatlcal problems; but this is rather the idea of An.\-
LYSis, or the analytic art in general, than of algebra, which
is only a particular branch of it. Algebra, duly confidered,
confilts of two parts, vi%. the method of calculating magni-
tudes or quantities, reprefeiited by letters or other charac-
ters, and the mode of applying thefe calculations to the fo-«
lutie.n of problems. \\'hen algebra is applied to the folution
ot problems, all the quantities that are involved in the prob-
lem are exprefTed by letters, and all the conditions that fervc
to denote their mutual relation, and by which they are com-
pared with one another, are fignlfied by their aiiproprlatc
characters, and they are thus thrown into one or more equa-
tions, as the cafe requires : this is called fy.ithcfis, or comi)0-
fition. When tills has been dune, the unknown quantity is
difengaged by a variety of analytical operations from thofe
that are known, and brought to ftand alone on one fide of
the equation, whilll the known quantities are on the other
fide; and thus its value is inveHlgated and obtained. This
procefs is called analyfis or refoliitlon : and hence algebra is
a fpeeies of the analytic art, and is called the modern analyfis,
in contradillindion to the ancient analyfis, which chiefly re-
garded geometry and its application.

The origin of algebra, like that cf other faiences of ancient
date and gradual progrefs, is not eafily afcertained. The
molt ancient treatiie on that part of analytics, which is pro-
perly called algebra, now extant, is that of Diophantus, a
Greek author of Alexandria, who flouriihed about the year
of our Lord 350, and who wrote 13 books, though only fix
" Arithmeticorum," of them are prefervcd, which were
printed together with a fingle imperfetl book on multangu-
lar numbers, in a Latin trandation by Xylander, in 15 7 J,
and afterwards in Greek and Latin, with a Comment, in
1 62 1 and 1670, by Gafpar Bachet, and M. Fermat. Tolofje,
fol. Thele books do not contain a treatife on the elementary
parts of algebra, but merely colleftions of fome dltfiiult quef-
tions relating to fquare and cube luunbers, and other curious
properties of numbers, with their folutlons. In his prefatory
remarks, addrefltd to oneDionyUus, forwhofe ufcDlophautua
probably wrote, he recites trie names and generation of the
powers, the fquare, cube, 4th, 5th, 6th, &c. \vhich he calls
dyuamls, cubus, dynamodinamis, dynamocubns, cubocubus,
according to the fum of the indices of the powers, and he
marks thofe powers with the Greek initials ; and he ex-
preffes the unknown quantity by ajiS/^c,-, or the number,
fimply marking it in the folutions by the final or, and denot-
ing the monades, or indefinite unit, by ^''. In his refcarchcs
on the multljilication and divlfion of fimple fpeeies, he (hews
what powers they produce, and obferves that minus (/.<i4-if)
multiplied by minus, produces plus (i«rap|.v), and that minus
multiplied by plus produces minus : the mark which he ufes
for minus is \ or the 4- inverted and curtailed ; but he has
no mark for plus, exprelFmg it by a word or conjunftlve co-
pulative. Suppofing his reader acqnainte<! with the common
operations, viz. addition, fubtraftion, multlphcaliou and di-
vifion of compound fpeeies, he proceeds to remark on the
preparation of the equations that arc deduced from the
quellions, which we call reduilion of equations, by collect-
ing like quantities together, adding quantities that are minus,
and fubtrafting thofe that are plus, called by the moderns

tranfpoiition.

A L G

tninfpofition, fo ss to bring the equation to fimple tci-ms,
and then dcprcfling it to ;> lower degree by equal divifion,
wlien the powers of tlic unknown quantity are in cvciytcmi:
Vkliich preparation or reduCtlcn of the complex equation, b<|-
iwf; made, or reduced to what we call a final equation, this
author proceeds no further, but merely fays, \vl\at the root,
or rf. ignola, is, without giving any rules for finding it, or for
the refolution of equations ; thus intimating, that rules for
this purpofe were to be found in fome other work, either of
his own or of fome other pcrfon. The chief excellence of
Diophantus's coUeclion of quciliona, which feems to be a
feries of exercifes for rules wliich had been elfewhere given,
is the neat mode of fubllitution or notation, which being
once made, the reduction to the final equation is ealy and ob-
vious. This work indicates much accurate knowledge of
the fcience of algebra, in fome of its mod abftrufe parts.
But as the author reduces all his notations to a fimple equa-
tion, or a fimple quadratic, it docs not appear how far his
knowledge extended to the refolution of compound or aiFccl-
cd equations.

Algebra, however, feems not to have been wholly unknown
to the ancient mathematicians, long before the age of Dio-
phantus. We obferve the traces and efFedls of it in many
places, though it feems as if they had intentionally concealed
It. Something of it appears in Euclid, or at Icall in Theon
upon Euclid, who obferves that Plato had begun to teach
it. And there are other inftances of it in Pappus, and more
in Archimedes and ApoUonius. But it fhould be obferved,
that the analyfis ufcd by thefe authors is rather geometrical
than algebraical ; this appears from the examples of it that
occur in their works ; and therefore, Diop'iantus is the hrtt
and only author among the Greeks, who has treated profeff-
«dly of algebra. Our knowledge of the fcience w as derived,
not from DiopliantUJ, but from the Moors or Arabians ; but
whether the Greek's or Arabians v.eif the inventors of it has
bten a fubjedt of diipute. It is probable^ however, that it
»as much more ancient than Diuphantus, hecauft his trea-
tife feems to refer to works fimilar and prior to his own.
Abulfaiagius, an Arabic hiltorian, in one phue afeiibes the
ir.vention, or rather the arrangement of the principles and
rules of the fcience, to Diophaiitus ; and from him we learn
that the Arithmetic of Diophantus was tranflated into Arabic
by Mahomet Ben-Yahya Baziani : but in another place he
feems to alcribe it to Mahomet Ben Mufa, who is faid to
have lived about the year 850 or 900, and who was the iirft
of the Arabs by whom this Icience was cultivated. Cardan
attributes the invention of it to this Arabian, and apprehends
that he obtained the appellation of Geber from this art. Sec
Bib. .'\rab. ct Hifp.tom. i. p. 370. cited by Rufrelinhis Hift.
of Aleppo, vol. ii. p. 409. Stcvinus is of opinion that this
fcience, and otlier parts of mathematics, were much more
ancient among the Orientals, than any learning they derived
from the Greeks. Dr. Walhs adopts the femiments of thofe
wlio think that the Arabs derived this fcience, as well as the
knowledge of numeral figures, from the Perfians, and origi-
nally by their means from the Indians ; and he alledges, as a
prefumptive evidence of their not having derived it from the
Greeks, that the name they give it, viz. al-guibr iv'al-moio-
laln, feems to liave no affinity with any Greek name. We
may here add, that fome veftiges of algebraical calcula-
tion have been dilcovered among the Brahmins ; particularly
rules for the folution of certain arithmetical queftions, with
which it would fcem that nothing but algebra could have
furniihed them. Afiatic Refearchcs, voL ii. p. 468. note.
4.S7, 495. But wherever algebra was invented or firll cul-
tivated, the fcience, and alfo the name of it, wiere tranfmittcd

A L G

to Europe, and particularly to Spain, by the Arabians or S.v
racens, about the year 1100, or fomewhat fooner. Italy
feems to have taken the lead in the cultivation of this fcience,
after its introdudion into Europe : and I.ucas Paciolus, or
Lucas de I'uigo, a minorite I'rancifcan friar, was the firft
author on the fubjeft, who wrote feveral treatifes in the
years 1476, 1481, 1470, 1487, and 1509; but his principal
work, entitled, " Summa Arithmcticx et Geometnx, Pro-
portionumque et Proportionalitatum," was publilhed in Ita-
lian at Venice, in 1494, and again in 1523. In tins work he
mentions fevci-al writers, and particularly i^eonardus Pifanus,
placed bv VoiTius about the year 1400, or a little fooner, and
faid to be thefirft of the moderns who wrote of algebra, from
whom he derived his knowledge of thofe fciences ; and from
the treatife of Leonard, not now extant, the contents of that
«f Lucas were chiefly collefted. The age of Leonard of
Pifa has been ufually fixed to the end of the 14th century.
But it now appears by a manufcript of this algebraill, difco-
vered in a library of Italy, by M. Targioni Tozzeti, and
communicated to M. Coffali, a canon regular of Parma, that
he lived two centuries before this period, or at the com-
mencement of the 13th ccntuiy : and of courfe that Italy
is indebted to him for its firll knowledge of algebra. His
pro.per name was Bonacci, and he was a merchant, who
traded in the fea ports of Africa, and the Levant. Being
ambitious of obtaining an acquaintance with the fciences that
flouriflicd araongll the Arabs, and particularly that of al-
gebra, he travelled into their country. Accordingly his
arithmetic was publirtiyd in i2C2,and a new enlarged edition
of it appeared in 1228. At this time, however, algebra was
not a part of arithmetic, but was dillinguilhed from it by the
title of " Ars Magna," or " Arte Maggiore." From the
manufcript above-mentioned it appears, according to Col-,
fall's account of it, that Leonard had penetrated deeply into
the fecrets of the algebraic analyfis ; that he was particu-
larly acquainted with the analyfis of problems finiilar in
kind to thofe of Diophantus, and with the refolution of
equations of the fecond degree ; and that he had written a
treatife, entitled " De' Numeri Qjradrati," which is not ex-
tant, but which ColFali has rellored from fome fragments of
Lucas del Burgo. This I.eonard, therefore, mull not be
confounded with another called Camillus Leonardus of Pcfa-
ro, author, as it is faid, of a book entitled, " Liber defideratun
canonum aequatorii motuum ccelellium fine calculo, &c."
Pifaur. 1496, 4to. Montucla HilL Math. torn. ii. p. 716.
This Leonard of Pifa made long voyages into Arabia and
other eaftern countries, in order to gain the knowledge of the
mathematics. Montucla (torn. i. p. 536.) mentions two
other perfons who previouily to this diicovery were thought
to have preceded I^eonard in this department of fcience, viz.
Paul dell'Abaco, who lived towards the end of the 14th cen-
tury, and who is fuppofed by Ximenes, to have been the firll
perlon in Italy who ufed algebiaic equations ; and alfo Prof-
docimo Belmando, or Beldomando, of Padua, who was fup-
pofed to have fhared with Leonard the honour of introducing
into Italy the knowledge of algebra. His book, entitled, "Dell
Algorithmo," was printed in 1483, but dated at the begin-
ning of the 15th century. Lucas informs us,, that algebra
came originally from the Arabs, and never mentions Dio-
phantus ; from which circumihmce it has been infeired that
this Greek author was not then known in Europe. From
the book of Lucas de Burgo, we learn, that the knowledge
of the Europeans in his time, or about the year 1500, ex-
tended no further than to quadratic equations, of which they
ufed only the pofitive roots ; that they admitted only one
unknow 11 quantity ; that they had no marks er figns for
3 either

I

I

A L G

eitlier quantities or operations, excepting fomc ftw abbre-
viations of the words or names ; and that ti)c art was merely
cni]jloyed in rcfolving ccrta:n numeral problcnis. If the
fcicace had b'cn carried further in Africa than qujidratic
equations, which was probably the cafe, as we may inter
from an Arabic manufcrlpt, faid to be on cubic equations,
dcpofited in the librai-)' of the univerfity of I .eyden, by War-
ner, the Europeans had at this period obtaii^.d only an im-
erfcfl knowh.dge of it. The publication of the works of
Aicas dc Burgo promoted the Ihidy, and extended the
knowledge of algebra; fo tlrat about the y:ar 1505, Scipio
I'cnxus, profellor of mathematics at Bonoiiia, in Italy, dif-
covcred the firft rule for rcfolving one cafe of a compound
cubic equation. The next Italian, who dillinguifhed him-
fclf by the cultivation and improvement of algebra, was ilie-
ronymns Cardanus, of Bononia, who publiilied nine books
of his arithmetical writings, in 1539, in Latin, at Milan,
wliere he praetifed phyllc, and read leClmes on mathematics;
a'ld in 1545, a tenth book, containing the whole doctrine of
cubic equations. Cardan dcnomuiates algebra, after I^ncas
<]e Burgo and others, " Ars Magna quam vulgo Cofliim
vocant," or " Regulx Algebraicae," and afcribes the in-
vention of it, on the authority of Leonard of Pifa, to Ma-
homet, the fon of Mofe», an Arabian. He adds, that this
fnppofrd inventor left four rules or cafes, which perhaps
onl) included quadratic equations ; that afterwards three de-
rivatives were added by an unknown author, fuppoftd by
fome to have been Lucas Paeiolus, and afterwa'ds three
other derivatives for tlie cube and lixth power, by another
unknown author ; all which were refolved like quadratics;
that then Scipio Ferreus, about 1505, found out tlit rule
for the cafe " cubum et rerum nuraero a:qualium," or, as it
is now written, x' -\- l/x = c, which he reprefents as a thing
admirable; that the fame difcovery was made in 1535, by
Tartalea, who, aft^ earned intreaties, difclofed it to him
(Cardan); and that he aud his former pupil, Lewis Fer-
rari, much augmented and extended the cafes ; and tl(at
all the demonltrations of the rules arc his own, except
three of Mahomet for quadratics, and two of Ferrari for
cubics.

To Cardan's treatife on cubic equations is annexed, " Li-
bellus de Aliza Regula," or the Algebraic Logiftics, in
which he treats of fome of the more abflrufe parts of arith-
metic and algebra, efpecially cubic equations, with many
additional attempts for the folution of the irreducible cafe,
x' = 3x -f- c.

From a minute and accurate detail of the contents of Car-
dan's treatife, given by Dr. Hutton, it appears, that the im-
provements in algebra, communicated by this author, are as
follow. To the rules furniihed-by Tartalea for rcfolving thefe
three cafes of cubic equations, vi-z, x' -f- /'.v = r, x^ = i.\'-^c,
and .v' + t = ix ; he has added rules for all forms and varie-
ties of cubic equations, dcmonftratiug thefe rules geo-
metrically, and fully difculfrng almoil all forts of trans-
formations of eq\iations in a manner before unknown. Car-
dan alfo appears to have been well acquainted with all the
If al roots of equations, both pofitive and negative, or, as he
calls them, true and tiftitious, both of which he occafionally
ul'cd. He has alfo fhewn that the even roots of pofitive
quanlities are either politive or negative ; that the odd roots
cf negative quantities are real and negative ; but that the
even roots of them are impoffible, or nothing as to common
life. He alfo well knew the number and nature of the roots
of an equation, partly from the figns of the terms, and partly
from the magnitude and relation of the co-efitcicnts. He
aifg knew that the number of pofitive roots is equal to the

A L C

number of chang'es of the figns of the terms ; that the co-
elTicient of the 2d term of the equal on is the difference be-
tween the pofitive and negative rods ; that when tlie fecoiid
term is wanting, the fum of tile negative roots is equal to tiie
fum of the pofitive roots ; how to compofc equations that
fliall have given roots ; that changing the figns of the even
terms changes the figns of all the roots ; that the number of
roots failed in pairsj or that the impolfible roots, as they are
now called, were always in pairs ; to cliange the equation
friiTii one form to another, by taking away any term from it ;
and to increafe or dimiiiilh the loots by a given quantity. It
appears alio, thatCardanhad arulefor extrafting thecnbe root
of fuch binomials as admit of extraction ; that he often ufed
the literal notation a, It, c, il, &c. ; that he gave a rule for
biquadratic equations, luiting all their cafes; and that, in the
invelligation of that rule, he made ufe of an affumed indeter-
minate quantity, and aitcrwards found its value by the ar-
bitrary alTumption of a relation between the terms ; that he
applied algebra to the rcfolutlon of geometrical problems ;
and that he was well acquainted with the difficulty of the ir-
reducible cafe, and that he devoted much time and attention
to the folution of it ; and that, though he did not completely
fucceed, he laid down rules for many patticular forms of it,
aud ihewed how to approximate very nearly to the root in
all cafes whatever,

Tartalea, or Tartaglia, of Brefcia, was a contemporaiy of
Cardan, and publilhed his book of algebra, entitled, " Que-.
fiti e Invenzioni diverfe," in 1546, at Venice, whtTe he re-
fided as public lecturer in mathematics. This work was de-
dicated to Henry VIII. of England, and confifts of nine
books, the lalt of which contains all tliofe queftions that re-
late to arithmetic and algebra. Thefe queftions comprehend
exercifes of fimple and quadratic equations, with eompleit
calculations of radical quantities, evincing the ikill of the au-
thor in the fcience of algebra. He retained the notation or
forms of expredion ufed by Luca> de Burgn, calhng the ift-
power of the unknown quantity " cofa," the 2d power
" cenfa," the third " cubo," &c. ; and he cxpreflcd ths
names of all the operations in words, without any contraction?,
except the initial \\. for root, or radicalitv. What is moil
remarkable in this collection of queftions is the difcovery of
the rules for cubic equations, together with the various cir-
cumllances that attended it. 1'he firit two of thefe were
difcovered by Tartalea in 1530, -viz. thofe for .v'-|-a.\' = ..-,
and x^ = ax' -\- c : and the rules for the other two eafe^,
1']%. x^-\-bx := c, and .v^ = bx -j- c, were difcovered, in 1535,
at Venice. Under queftion 31, we have an account of the
correfpondence between Tartalea and Cardan on the fubjeft
of cubic equations, and on the manner in which Cardan drew
from him his difcoverics relating to them ; for a more parti-
cular account of wliich, fee the biographical article Car-
dan. Tartalea publifhed at Venice, in 1 556, &c. a very-
large work, in folio, on aritiimetic, geometry, and algebra ;
the latter of which is impcrfeft, and extended no farther
than quadratic equations, his death having prevented his
completion of it.

The contemporaries of Tartalea and Cardan were Michad
Stifelius and Scheubelius. The"Aritl!metiea Integra" of Sti-
felius was printed atNorimbergin 15^4, and is, favs Dr. Hut-
ton, an excellent treatife on arithmetic and aigibra. The
invention of the fcience is afcribed by this author to Geber,
an Arabian aflronomer. The improvements of Stifelius and
other Germans beyond thofe of tlie Italians, recited in C-ar.
dan's book of 1539, were" as follow. He introduced the
charafters ■\-, — , y/, for plus, minus, and root, or radix ;
and the initials ?-, Zi rf j 3 3>/i» &e-. for the powers i, i.

A L G

3, 4, 5, J:c. He treated all the higher orders of quadratics by
the 1.11111: ijeni-i-al rule. He introduced the iiuincial expo-
nents of the powers, - 3, - *#- I, O, i, 2, 3, &c. both
polUivc and iug:itive, as far a|ffntegial numbers, but not
fiMt^ional ones; calLd them by tlut nanie exponens,, expo-
nent ; and taught the ul'c uf cxpo.ieiits in the opera-
tions of powers : and he uf'ed the hieral notation A, 13,
C, D, &c. for fo many diifcrciit unknown and general

quantities.

|ohn Scheubclius, profcfTor of mathematics at Tubingen,
in Germany, publiihcd feveral tieatilcs on arithmttic and al-
gebra. Trom one of them, entitled, " Algebroe compcn-
diofa facihfqne Dekiiptio, qua dcpromuntiir magna Aiith-
metices miracul.i," pniiled at Paris in 1552, which Dr.
Hutton has analyfed, it appears, that he was the firll mo-
dern algebraiftwhomcntioiicd Diophantus, to whom writers,
as he fays, afcri!)e this art ; that his chaiaCkrs and opera-
tions are much the fame with thofe of Stifclius, but that he
iifcd 6^ for I or the o power ; and prctixts the numeral co-
cfikieiits. He treats merely of two orders ot equations, i<n.
iimple and quadratic equations, though, he fays, they may
be of infinite degrees ; and he ufes for the fquare root ^ :, for
the cube root w v'' :, and v^/ :, for the 4th root. He gives the
four fundamental rules in the arithmetic of finds ; in fquar-
ing the fum or difl^rcnce of the fuids he fcts the root to the
whole compound ; and this root, called by Cardan, "radix uiii-
vcrfalis," he denominates "radix coUccti:" but when they may
be reduced to acommon fuid, he unites them into one number.
He proceeds in a fimilar manner with cubic finds and 4th
roots. He remarks the different kinds of binomial and refi-
diial furds, correfponding to the feveral inational lines in
the loth book of Euclid's Elements ; and gives the follow-
ing general rule for extracting the root of any binomial or
rcfidual a + b, in which one or both parts are luids, and a
the greater quantity, -ciz. that the fquare root of it is

^la + -ya--b--_^ Ja-^a-

which he ilUiftrates
2 — 2 •

by examples. As he takes no notice of cubic equations, it
is probable that though they were known in Italy he had
not heard of them in Germany.

Robert Recorde, in England, publiflied the firft part of
liis aritlimetic in 1552, and the fecond part in 1557, under
the title of " The Whetllone of Witte, which is the fe-
conde parte of Arithmetike ; containing the Extraction of
Rootes, the Coffike Pradife, with the Rule of Equation ;
and the Woikes of Surde Numbers." What is princi-
pally new in this work comprehends the extraftion of the
roots of compound algebraic quantities, the uie of the
terms binomial and refidual, and the ule of =:, as the fign
of equality.

The Algebra of Pelctarius was printed at Paris in 410. in
155S, under this title, " Jacobi Pcletarii Cenoniani, de Oc-
culta Parte Numerornm, quam Algebram vocant. Lib. duo."
This work, containing an account of rational and irrational
or furd quantities, is an ingenious treatiie on thofe parts of
the fcience that were then known, cubic equations excepted ;
and the difcoveries or improvements of the author are the
following, vix. that the root of an equation is one of the di-
vifors of the abfolute term ; that trinomials may be reduced
to fimple tenns by multiplying them by compound faftors ;
and that a feries both of fquare and cube numbers may be
cjnllrui^ed by addition only, that is, by adding fucceflively
their feveral orders of differences.

Peter Ramus wrote his Arithmetic and Algebra about
the year 1560. He exprefles the powers by /, q, c, b
J, Uie initials of latus, quadratus, cubus, and biquadra-

A L G

tus ; and he treats only of fimplc and quadratfc equations.
In 1567, PetcT Nonius, or Nunez, a Portuguefe, puh-
lifhed his Algebra in Spaniih, though he informs us in
an cpiftle, dated 1564, that it had then been written
30 yiars before in Poituguefe. He proceeds no fur-
ther than quadratic equations. The Algebra of Raphael
Bombelli wris publiflied ;'t Bologna, in 1579, in the Itahan
language, but was written fome time before, as the dedica-
tion bears the date of 1572. Among other writers on this
fcience he particularly mentions Diophantus, whofe Greek
work had been found in the V.itit ^n hl;iary ; and he adds,
that he and Antc^iio Maria Pa/.7,i Ivegjnarro, profellbr of ma-
thematics at Rome, lu'.d tranflated five out of the fix books
which were then extant ; and that tiiey had found in the
faid work frequent citations of the Indian authors. Hence,
thty inferred, that this fcience was known among the In-
dians before the Arabians became acquainted with it. Such
references, if they aftually exiiled, would ferve to detennine
the controverfy relating to the origin of tfiis fcience ; but
they do not now remain in the work, nor are they mentioned
by any other writer. In his work pombelli has very well
explained the rules and methods of former writers ; but, ck-
cept the trifeftion of angles by means of a cubic equation,
and his mode of notation, he has not introduced any new in-
vention or improvement. In this notation he ufes the initial
R for root, with q or c after it for quadratic or cubic, &c.
root ; p for plus, and m for minus. He calls the unknown
quantity tanto, and marks it thus I ; the 2d power 2, its

cube 3, and the higheft powers 4, 5, &c. denoting all the

powers, which he denominates dignita, or dignity, by their
exponents fet over the common eharafter ■^. Chrillopher
Clavius, who follows Stifehus and Schubelius in his notation
and method, without fcarcely any variation, wrote his Alge-
bra about the year 1580, which was publiCied at Orleans in
1608. iSimon Stevinus, of Bruges, publilhed his Algebra
foon after his Arithmetic, which appeared in 1585 ; and both
were printed in an edition of his works in 1634, with notes
and additions by Albert Girard. The pecuhar inventions
contained in this ingenious and original work are as foUow.
The author invented a new charafter,'Diz, a fmall circle O for
the unknown quantity ; and he alio improved the notation of
powers by numeral indices, firft applied to integral expo-
nents by Stifelius, which Stevinus inclofed within a circle, thus,

©' (i)» ©' CD' ^"' ""^ ^^^ °' '^'' ^^' 3"^' ^'^' P°^^''s of
the quantity O; and he further extended them to fradlional

and all other forts of exponents ; fo that (\), (!}, QV &c.
are the fquare, cube, 4th roots, &c. and (f) is the cube root
of the fquare, and (7) is the fquare root of the cube. Sec.
Stevinus alfo extended the ufe and notation of co-efficients,
making them to comprehend fraftions, radicals, and all forts
of numbers. He diftinguiilied a quantity of feveral terms
by the general appellation of a multinomial ; and denoted all
iiomials whatever by particular names, expreffing the number
of their terms as binomial, trinomial, quadrinomial, S:c. He
alfo propofed one general method for a numeral reiolution
of all equations whatever.

About the fame time with Stevinus appeared Francis
Vieta, who contributed more to the improvement of alge-
braic equations than any former author. His algebraical
works were written about the year 1600; fome of them
were not publiflied till after his death in 1603 ; and all his
mathematical works were colleftedby Francis Schooten, and
printed in 1646 in folio. The two books, which contain his
thief improvements in algebra, are iutitled " De .£quationum
I Recogiiitione,

A L G

^ccogn't!one, et Emen;latione ;" and were not' publidied
till the ye.ir 1615, hy vVlexander AndeiTon, an inreniotis
Scotfnian, with Tarioiis corrcftions and additions. Vieta^s
improvements compvcheiid the following particulars. He firll
introduci-d the general ufe of the letters of liie al])hiibet to de-
note indefinite given qiiantities. Accordingly he expicfl'es un-
k.;o\vn qnantities by the vowels A, E, I, O, U, Y, and the
known ones by the confonants B, C, D, &c. Tie alio invented
many terms and forms of expredion which are in prefent
ufe ; as co-efileient, afRrniative and negative, pure and nd-
feC^ed or aflefted, unciie, homogcneum adleelionis, homo-
geneum comparationis, and the line or vinculum over com-
pound quaritilies, thus A -}- B : And his method of arrange-
inent is to pl.Ace the homogcneum comparationis, or ahfolute
known term on the right-hand fide alone, and all the terms
that contain the unknown quantity, with their proper figns,
on the other fide. He iomewhat improved the rules and
modes of reduction for cubic and other equations ; he (hewed
how to change the root of an equation in a given propor-
tion ; he deduced the cubic and bicpiadratic, &c. equations
from quadratics, not in Harriot's way by compoiUiou, but
by fquaring and othei-wife nuiltiplying certain parts of the
quadratic ; and as fome quadratic equations have two roots,
the cubic and other equations railed from tliem will alio have
two roots and no more. In this way Vieta perceived the relation
which the two roots bear to the co-efficients of the two lowell
terms of cubic and other equations, when they have only
tliree terms, namely, by comparing them with ijmilar equa-
tions thus raifed from quadratics ; and, -vice verj'ii, what the
roots are in tenns of fucli co-efficients. He alfo made fome
obfervations on the limits of the two roots of certain equa-
tions ; he ftatcd the general relation between the roots of
certain equations and the co-efficients of the terms, when the
terms are alternately plus and minus, and none of them are
wanting, or the roots all pofuive. He extra<5led the rootg of
affefted equations by a method of approximation fimilar to
that for pure powers ; and moreover, he gave the conilruc-
tion of certain equations, and exhibited their roots by
means of angular feftions.

In the Hiilory of Algebra, Albert Girard, an ingenious
Dutch or Flemilh mathematician, already mentioned, as the
editor of Stevinus's arithmetic, who died about the year
1633, deferves particular notice, on account of his work, en-
titled, " Invention Nouvelle en I'Algcbre, tant pour la So-
lution des Equations, que pour recoignolire le 1, ombre des
Solutions qu'elles regoivent, avec plulieures cl.:)fcs qui font
necelTiiires al a perfection de cefte divine Science ;" printed at
Amfterdam in 1629, 4to. From an analyfis of this work,»it
appears that Girard was the firit peifon who undcrftood the
general doftrine of the formation t)f the co-efficients of the
powers from the funis of the roots, and their produfts, &c.
He was alfo the firll: who underflood the »iie of negative
roots in the folation of geometrical problems ; who fpoke of
the imaginary roots, and underftood that every equation
might have as many roots real and imaginary, and no more,
as there are units in the index of the higheil power, and
who applied the denomination of quaiililia lefs than nothing
to the negative : and he was the firll; perfon who difeovered
the rules for fumming the powers of the roots of any equation.

The next perfon who claims particular notice in the hif-
toiy of this fcience is Thomas Harriot, wdio died at the age
of 60 years in 1 62 1 , and vvhofe Algebra was publilhed by his
friend Walter Warner, in 163 1. The book is a folio vo-
lume, and entitled, " Artis Analytics Praxis, ad ^qua-
tiones Algcbraicas nova, exjiedita, et gene;-ali methodo, re-
folveridas ;" a work, fays Dr. Hutton, in all parts of it.

Vol. I.

A L G

fliewing mai'ks of gi-eat genius and originality, and the firfl
inllance of the niodcrji form of algebra in which it has ever
fince appeared. On the lotmdation laid by Harriot, lays
Dr. Wailis (Aljj(br;i, p. 126.) Des Cartes, without naminij
him, hath briilt the j-rreateft part, if not the whole, of Lu
algebra or geometiy ; witliout which, as he adds, " that
whole luperilniitureof DeaCaites ( [ doubt) had never been."
A fummai-y of Harriot's improvements is as follou-s : He
introduced tiie uniform ufe of the fmall letters <7, /;, r, ci, &c.
expreffing the unknown quaritities by the vowels a, e, &c.
and the known ones by the confonants b. c, (i,f, &c. join-
ing them together in the form of a word to reprcfen* ihc
prodnOvt of any number of tliefe literal quantities ; and i)rc-
fixingthe numeral co-efficient, feparated from the quantity con-
nctted with it bv a point, thus 5. bbc. For a root, he placed
the index of the root after the radical mark ^, as \''3), for
the cube root. He alfo introduced the charafters y and Z.
for greater and lefs ; and in the reduClion of equations, lie
ananged the operations in feparate fteps or lines, felting the
explanations in the margin on the left hand, for each line.
In thefe rcfpefts he introduced and ellabliflied the form of
algebra as it now exills. He alfo fliewed the univerfal ge-
neration of all the conipouird or afTedled equations, by the
continual multiplication of fo many limple ones, or binomial
roots ; tlius pkiinly exhibiting to the eye all the circumllances
of tlie nature, niyileiy and number of tlic routs of equations,
with the compofition and relations of tlie co-efficients of the
terms ; from whicii many of the moll important properties
have been fuice deduced. He alfo improved the numeral exc-
gelis, or extrafiijnof the roots of all equations, by clear and
explicit rules and methods, drawn from the foregoing gene-
ration orcompofition of atiecled cq.iations of all degrees.

Oughtred, contemporary with Harriot, was born about
the ye.ar 1573, and died in 1660. His " Clavis"
was publilbed in 1631. In this work he chiefly follow*
Victa, in the notation by the capitals A, B, C, D, &c. and in
the defignation ofprojutls, powers and roots, with lomcfew
variations. To him we owe the feparation of decimals front
the integers after this manner, 21I — 56, and having the de-
cimals annexed without a denominator. In algebraical mul-
tiplitatlon Oughtred either joins the letters in a word, or con-
nects them by the fign X , introducing for the firll time thi»
character of multiplication ; thus, A X A, or A A, or A y;
but he omits the vinculum of Vieta. He alfo introduces
many ufeful contractions in the multiplication and divifion of
decimals ; fuch as that of inverting the multiplier for reduc-
ing the number of decimals, and abridging the work, that of
omitting one figure at a time, of the divifor, and that of di-
viding by the factors of a number inftcad of the number
itfelf, and many others^ He Rates proprirlion thus,
7.9 :: 28.36; and denotes continued proportion by -jt-.
With rcfpeA to the genefis and analyfis of powers he fol-
lows Vieta ; and he furnlfhes a table of the powers of the bi-
nomial A -f-E as far as the loth power, with all their teitiiS
and co-efficients, or ur.cicc, an cxpreffion which he adopts
from Vieta. He gives particular directions for the reduction
of equations, correfponding to their vai-ious forms: he ufcs
the letter » after ^/, for univerfal, inftcad of the vinculum
of Vieta : and he obfcrvej, that the figns of all the terms of
the powers of A-|-E are pofitive, a.idthofc of A — E alter-
nately pofitive and negative. He fubjoins many propcrliea
of triangles and other geometrical figures, and the firll in-
llance of applying algebra to geometry, fo as to inveftigate
new geometrical properties ; and after the algebraical refo-
lution of each problem, he commonly deduces and gives a
geometrical conltrutlion adapted to it. He gives alfo- a goixi
3, P trasi

A L G

trafk on angular fertions ; and concUuies the work -\viih the
uiimei^l rdolutloii uf affccttJ equations, in thf manner of
Viita, but more t\iil;i.it.

1» 1637 Dos Caitcs lirtt piibliftieil liis geometry, wliicli
may be conliJtrtd as an ap^jlicatioo of algi bra to geometry,
a;id not as a ftpanite trcittift oii cither of liicfe fcieiices. As
Dr. Wallis has manifellcd too great a degri-e of partiality to
our touiitryman Han lot, and afe-ribed to him difcovtrits which
had been made by Victa and others ; and as liombelli and
M. dt Gua, in the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences lor
1741, cited i'l ihe lall edition of the Encycloptdie, have de-
viated far into the other extreme, in unduly extolling the dif-
rcoveries of Victa, and thofe of Des Cartes, to the prejudice
of Harriot, we ihall avail ourfelvcs of the analyfis of Dr.
Hutton in giving a particular account of the improvements
and inventions of Des Cartes, that our readers may be able
to form their own judgment in this controverfy. Mon-
tucia indeed feems to liave given an im])artial account
of tile elifcoveries both of Harriot and Des Cartes, in-
termixed with reflections, which fome may think lefs
candid than they ought to have been, on our illuftrious coun-
tr)-man Dr. Wallis. Hid. des Mathem, torn. ii. p. 106 —
186. This excellent hidorian of the mathematical fcicuces
acknowledges, that Des Cartes might poffibly have been in-
di.btcdto Harriot, though lie thinksil very probable that the
principal difcoveries of his geometiy were anterior to the
date of the work of the Englilh analyft. It ouglit however
to be recoUeited, that the work of Harriot was pofthumous,
that he lived to the age of 60, and that his difcoveries, at a
period when the fpirit of enquiry was excited, might have
been communicated to men of Icience, between wliom an in-
tercourfe fubfilled, long before he died. Moiitiicla, by way
of balancing the account between Des Carles and Harriot,
or rather between Wallis and the partial advocates of Des
Cartes, intimates, that if Des Cartes was indebted to Harriot,
the latter was under no lefs important obligations to Vieta,
vhofe works were publilhed before the year 1 600. To
ftrengthen the prefumption that this might have been the
cafe, he alledges, on the authority of Sherburii, the tranfla-
tor of Manilius, that Vieta had for fome time employed an
Engli(h fecretary, or amaiiuenlis, whofe name was Nathaniel
Torporlev : and as this Torporley was frequently in familiar
uitercourfc with Harriot at the table of the Duke of Nor-
thumberland, he fuggells the probability of his having com-
municated the ideas and manufcripls of Vieta, of which he
was the depofitar)' to Harriot.

The geometry of Des Cartes (Apud Opera, torn. iii.
Francof. ad Moeiuim, 1695, 410.) confifts of three books.
The firfl is entitled, " De Problematibus, qux conftrui pof-
funt, adhibendo tantum rectas lineas et circulos." In this
book the author flievvs how to accommodate arithmetical
computation to geometrical operations. For this purpofe
he affumes a line to reprefent unity, and then, by means of
proportionals, teaches the method of multiplying, dividing,
and extracting of roots by lines. He proceeds to explain his
mode of notation, which is not diflerent from that of other
authors. AITuming a and h for two quantities, their fum is
(xpreffed by a -f- />, their difference by a — b, their produft

by ab, their quotient by -j- , the fquare of a by aa or a', its
b

cube by a', &c. the fquare root of a' -\- b' by ^/^i 1 p

and the cube root by ^yc — a^ — b^-j-ab/), &c. He then
fhews, as Stifclius had done, that there muft be as many equa-
tions as there are unknown lines or quantities, and that all
of them mull be reduced to one final equation, by exteiini-

A L G

nating all the unknown letters except ojie ; fo that the final
equation u ill appear in the following forms, the character 50
being fubilituted for =: or equality, and the highell term or
power being on one iide of the equation, and the other term*
with theii proper figns on the other lidc ;

« 30 b, or,

z' x> — /72 -}- b', or,

K^ X -f- fls'-f- A z — c', or,

%*x -\- az.'-\-b'z' -cz -J- fl\ &c.
Having defined plane problems, or fuch as can be re-
folved by right lines and circles, defcribed on a plane fuper-
ficies, and having in the final equation only the 2d power of
the unknown quantity, he conllructs fuch equations or qua-
dratics by means of the circle, and tluis geometrically invcf-
tigates the pofitive root or roots. But if the lines, by which
the roots arc determined, neitlier cut nortoucli, he obferves
that the equation in this cafe has no pofflble root, or that the
problem is impoffible. This book clofes with the algcbrai-
cal folution of the celebrated problem, confidered bv the an-
cients, which is that of finding a point, or the lociis of all
the points, from which if a line be drawn to meet any num-
ber of given lines in given angles, the product of tlie fes:-
ments of fome of them ihall have a given ratio to that of the
reft.

The fecond book is entitled, " De Natura Linearum Ciir-
varum." This is the firft treatife of tlie kind on curve lines
produceil by the moderns. The nature of the curve is here
expreffed by an equation, containing two unknown or
variable lines, and others that are known or conltant, as

ex V

j' >3 fy f 1- ay — ac. See Curve. We have in this

book a difcovery of importance, as it is the firft ftep towards
the arithmetic of infinites; and that is the metliod of tan-
gents, or of drawing a line perpendicular to a curve at any
point, which is an ingenious application of the general form
of an equation, generated in the method of Harriot, that has
two equal roots, to the equation of the curve. See Tan-
gent.

Thethird book, entitled, "DeConftruftione Problematum
Solidorum, et Solida excedentium," commences with remarks
on the nature and roots of ecjuations ; and the author ob-
ferves, that they liave as many roots as dimenfions ; and he
ftiews, after Harriot, that they may be obtained by multi-
plying a certain number of fimple binomial equations toge-
ther, as .\- — 2 » o, .V — 3 » o, and x — 4 x> o, which pro-
duce x' — C)xx -j- 26.V — 24 » o, in which equation x has
three dimenfions, andalfo three values, ij;e. 2, 3, and 4. He
here remarks, that fome equations have their roots fo/ff, or,
as he expreffes it, lefs than nothing, called by us negative,
and thefe he contradiftinguifties to thofe that are true or po-
fitive, which Cardan had before done. E. G. L.et .x-f-jjoo
be multiplied by x' — gxx -f- 26.V — 24 » o, and we Ihall
have .V — 4.v^ — 19.V.V -f- io6.v — 120 30 o, in which equa-
tion three roots, -viz. 2, 3, and 4 are true, and one, -viz. 5,
ftilfe. From the generation or compofition of equations by
multiplication Des Cartes naturally deduces their rcfolu-
tion, depreffion, or decompofition, by dividing them by the
binomial factors which compofed them ; and hence he ob-
ferves, that this divifor is one of the binomial roots, and that
there can be no more roots than dimenfions, or than fuch as
form with the unknown quantity .v binomials that will ex-
aftly divide the equation, as Harriot had before {hewn. Our
author adverts to other properties, moft of which had been
noticed before; e.^. that equations may have as many true roots
as the terms have changes of the figns -l-and — , and as many
I falie

A L G

A L G

falfe onfs ns faccefTions of the fame figiis ; which hail before
been paitly flicwii by Cardan and V'icta from tlie relation of
the co-efficients niid their fitjns, and more fully by Harriot.
Hence Ues Cartes was led to adopt Cardan's method of
changing the true roots to falfe, and the falfc to true, by
merely changing the figns of the even terms. He then di-
redls his attention to other rcdudlions or tranfnuitations
taught by Cardan, Vieta, and Harriot ; fuch as increafmg
ordiminilhing the roots by any quantity, taking away thefe-
cond term, and altering the roots in any pioportion, and thus
extricating the equation from fraftions and radical;;. Having
obfervtd (p. 76.) that the roots of equations, both true and
falfe, may be cither real or imaginary, which imaginary roots
were firll noticed by Albert Girard, as in the equation
«' — 6xx 4" I J*' — 10 » o, that has only one real root,
Wz. 2 ; he proceeds to the depreffion of a cubic equation to
a quadratic or plane problem, &c. that it maybe conftrucled
by the circle, by dividing it by one of the binomial faftors,
which, in Harriot's method, compofe the equation. As Pe-
letarius had fliewn that the fimple root is one of the divifors
of the known term of the equation, and Harriot had ob-
ferved that this term is the continual produft of all the
roots ; Des Cartes tries all the fimple divifors of that term,
till he finds one of them, which coiincfted with the unknown
quantity .x by + or — , will exaftly divide the equation : and
the fame procefs ferves for higher powers than the cube. But
when a divifor cannot be found in this way, in order to de-
prefs a biquadratic equation into a cubic one, he gives a new
rule for diffolving it into two quadratics, by means of a cu-
bic equation, in the following manner (p. 79, &c.) : Let
the given biquadratic equation be -\- x^ * .J>xx . gx . r x> o ;

ip. -i-X)

And fuppofe it com- 1 + •■^■•■*-' ~ J'*' 4" iyj

pofed of thefe two \

others, uiz. I -j- xx -{-yx •}- iyy . \p . -!— » o :

L 2y

in which two quadratic equations the fign of Ip mud be the

fame with the fign of^ in the given equation ; and in the

firil of them, having— j-.y, the fign of — ^ muft be the fame

with that of ^or-j-; and in the fecond quadratic, having -|-v.y,
its fign mull be — ; and -vice verf,i. Then find the root

-^-:^ — of the following cubic equation, viz. y'' . 2py^ -j-

_ HV ~ ?? X' Oj in which the fign of 2/1 is the fame with that

4'".
of ^ in the given biquadratic, but the fign of ^r contrary' to

that of r in the fame equation ; and the value ofj', deduced
hence, and fubllituted for it in the two quadratic equations,
and their two pairs of roots being taken, thefe will be the
four roots of the propofed biquadratic. E. G. Let the bi-
quadratic be .V' * — 4V.V — 8.V + 35 30 o, for which mull be
fubllituted y'' — 8)'' — 124v_v — 64 30 o ; becaufe the quan-
tity called p being in this cafe — 4, — Sj' mull be fublli-

+ 16
tuted for .2/v'> and r being -|" 35' .vv> <"■ ~ '^4.)'J'>

muft be fubllituted for i^ 17

-4''

be — 64. And fo of others. In the fame manner, fays
Des Cartes, may equations of the 6th power be reduced to
thofe of the 5th, and thofe of the Sith power to thole of the
7th, &c. The invclligation of this rule is not given by Des
Cartes ; but it has been evidently done by affuming indcter-
mlnate quantities after the manner of Ferrari and Cardan, as
co-effieients of the terms of the two quadratie equations, and
after multiplying the two together, determining tlicir values
by comparing the rcfulting terms with thofe of the propofed

140
and q being 8, — qq will

biquadratic equation. Des Cartes, after thefe rcduolions,
in order to limijlily and deprels the equations as much ab pof.
fible, proceeds to give tliVconllrnclion of folid and other
higher pniblems, or of cubre; and iiigher equations by means
of parabolas and circles ; obferving, that tlie falfe roots are
denoted by the ordinates to the paiabola lying on the con-
trary fide of the axis to the true roots: and he cUfes the book
witli illulli-ating thefe conllruftions by various problems
concerning the tiifeftion of an angle, and the invclligation
of two or four mean proportionals.

Of the improvements contained in this work, it is ob-
ferved by Dr. Hutton, that Des Cartes, with a view to the
more eafy application of equations to the conllrudtion of
problems, mentions many pai ticulars concerning the nature
and redtiftion of equations, and ftates them in his own lan-
guage and manner, which is ufually more clear and explicit
than that of others, and frequently accompanied with his
own improvements. Here he chiefly followed Cardan,
Vieta, and Harriot, and efpecially the lall ; explaining fome
of their rules and difcoveries more dillinftly, and with fome
little variation in the notation, in which he puts the firlt
letters of the alphabet for known, and the latter letters
for unknown quantities, a ' for a a a, &c. and 30 for =.
But Herigone had two years before ufed the fame numeral
exponents. Des Cartes explained or improved moil parts of
the reduftion of equations, in their various tranfmutations,
the number and nature of their roots, true and falfe, real
and imaginary, as he calls them, or as they are denominated by
Girard, involved ; and alfo the depreffion of equations to lower
degrees. His inventions and dilcoveries comprehend the appli-
cation of algebra to the geometry of curve lines, theconlliuc-
tion of equations of the higher orders, and a rule forrefolving
biquadratic equations by means of a cubic and two qua-
dratics.

Fermat, who publirtud Diophantus's arithmetic with
valuable notes, was a contemporaiy of Des Cartes, and
alio a competitor for fome of his moll valuable dif-
coveries. This ingenious mathematician, before the pub-
lication ol Des Cartes's geometry, had applied al-
gebra to curve lines, exprefled them by an algebraic
equation, and by them conftrucled equations of the 3d and
4tli orders ; and he had alfo difcovered a method of tan-
gents, and a method de maximis et minimis, approaching
very nearly to the inethod of fluxions or increments, in the
manner of treating the problems as well as in the algebraic
notation and procefs. Fermat was alio diflinguilhtd by his
knowledge of the Diophantine problems.

At the period to which we have now rcfen-ed, algebra
had acquired a regular and permanent form ; and from this
time the wiiters on the whole, or detached parts of this
fcience, became (o numerous, that the limits of this article
will fcareely admit our reoiting their names and publica-
tions, and much lets doing jullice to the improvements
which this branch of mathematical fcience derived from
their performances. In the courfe of our biographical ar-
ticles, and on other occafions, we lliall endeavour to fupply
the defefts of the prefent curfory notice.

The geometry of Des Cartes engaged the attention of feveral
mathematicians in Holland, when it waspubhihed ; and alfo
in France :md England. Francis Sehootrn, profeflor of ma-
tliematics at Lcyden, was one of the firll cultivators of the
new geometiy ; and in 1649 he publillied a tranflation of
Des Cartes's geonntry, from tlie French into Latin, with his
own commentary and notes by M. de Beaune. In 1659,
appeared an eiilargeii edition in two volumes, with fevend
additional pieces by De Beaune, Hudde, Van Hcuract, De
Witt, with fome tracts by Schooten the editor. Rabuel,
a jefuit, publiflRd an elaborate commcntai'v on the fame
4 1' 2 work i

A L G

work ; which vns enriched with notes by James Bemouilli,
anJ printed ;it Bnlil. Huygciis alfi> Jirn^li.d his attention
to the algebraic analylis, and his inventions arc cited by
Schootcn, who was his pupil.< Shilius, canon of Liege,
publiihcd in 1659, " Mefolahum, feu dua; medix propor-
tionales per CircuUira et EUiplin, vel Hypcrbolain, infinitis
B.jJii eihibiue," a acv.' edition of whicli appeared in 1668,
containing much vjJuablc matter relating both to algebra
and geomitr)-.

Bnt brfrtie the time of Dcs Cartes, as well as after the
p\iblic.itinii of his gcoinetry, algcbia engaged the atten-
tion of ;r..itheinatieians. In 1619 feveral pieces of Van
Collen, or Cen'en, were tranllated from Dnlch into Latin,
and publiihed at Leyden, by W. Snell ; one of which is a
p::it:vnl:irtrcatirc on Surds. In 1621, Bachet publilhed an
edition i f Dioj li mtns with notes, and Fcrmat's edition,
with additions, appeared in 1670. The fame author pub-
lilhed, in 1624, a trealife of mathematical recreations under
the title of " ProWemea plaifans et deleftables." Heri-
gone, in 1634, ptibliihed at Paris tlie tirll courfe of mathe-
matics, in 5 vols. Svo ; containing a treatlfe on algebra, and
bearing, fays Hctton, evident marks of originality and in-
genuity, in which he ufes the notation by fmall letters, in-
troduced three years before by Harriot ; he alfo exprefies
flushy +, minui by :/) , and | for equality, with other abbre-
viations. In his notation of powers and roots, he annexes
to the letter the numeral exponents. Cavalerius, in 1635,
publiflied his " Indivifibles," and introduced a new xra in
analytical feience and new modes of c<imputation. He
was followed in 1 640 by Roberval, whofe improvements in
analytics were publilhed in the early volumes of the me-
moirs of the Academy of Sciences, by De Billy, who
publifhedin 1643, " Nova Geometric clavis Algebra," and
in 1670, " Dioj)hantus redivivus ;" and by Renaldine,
■who, in 1665, publiflied in 410, " Opus Mathematicum,"
both ancient and modern, with mathematical refulution and
coinpofitipn, enlarged and republiflied in folio, in 1662,
1667, and 1682, under the title of " Ars analytica Mathe-
matum, in trcs partes dillributa, &c." This author ufes
the parenthcfes (a' + ^V ^^ a vinciJum. In 1655, Dr.
Wallis publilhed his " Arithmetica Infinitorum," which
greatly improved the Indivifibles of Cavalerius, and led the
way to infinite feries, the binomial theorem, and the me-
thod of fluxions. -The " Algebra Rhonii, (or Rahnii)
Gcrmanicc," was publiflied in 1659, and tranflated into
Engliflt in 1668, by Mr. Thomas Brancker, with altera-
tions and additions, by Dr. John Pell, v.-ho ufed a pecuhar
method of regiftenng the ftcps of an algebraic procefs by
means of marks and abbreviations in the margin, explain-
ing each line or Hep, as Harriot had before done in words
at length. HemeUng was alfo the author of a German
work, refolving 600 queftions, pubUfhed in 1684. Mr.
Kinckhuyfen, in 1661, pubhflied a treatife of algebra in
Dutch, which Sir Ifaac Newton, when profcflbr of mathe-
matics at Cambiidge, ufed and improved, and which he de-
ligned to republidi, with his method of fluxions and infinite
feries, but was prevented by the accidental burning of fome
of his papers. In 1667 Jacob Fergufon publilhed his
" Labyrinthus Algebra"," in 410, Dutch; and in 1679,
De Graaf gave a courfe of mathematics, in the fame lan-
guage and fize. In 1665 or 1666, Sir Ifaac Newton made
fcveral of his moft valuable difcoveries, though they were
not publilhed till a later period ; fuch as the binomial the-
orem, the method of fluxions and infinite feries, the quadra-
ture, reftification, &c. of curves, the invcftigation of the
roots of all forts of equations, buth numeral and literal,
in infinite converging feries, the_ reverCoa of fejics, &c.

A L G

M. Freniclc, in r666, communicated feveral trafls concern-
ing combinations, magic fquares, trixmgular number;, &c.
which were printed in the early volumes of the Memoirs of
the Academy of Sciences. In 166S, Mereator publiflitd
his " Logarithmoteehnia," in which he gives the quadra-
ture of the hyperbola, by means of an infinite feries of al-
gebraic terms, found by dividing a fimple algebraic quan-
tity by a compound one ; which operation was now firll
made public, though Newton had before expanded all forts
of compound algebraic quantities into infinite feries. The
demonftration ot Mcrcator's quadrature of the hyperbola
by ihe fame feries, was publilhed in this year, by James
Gregory, in his " Exercitationes Geometries ;" and in
the fame year Lord Brouncker publifiied in the Philofophi-
cal Tranfaftions, his quadrature of the hyperbola by an-
other infinite feries of fimple rational terms, of which he
had been in poffelHon fince the year 1657, when Dr. Wallis
announced it to the public. His feries for the quadrature
of the circle had been puliliflied by Wallis in his " Arith-
metica Infinitorum." In 1669, Dr. Barrow publiflied his
" Optical and Geometrical Leiitures," aboundir.g with
profound refearches on the dimenlions and properties of
curve lines, and containing his method of tangents, by a
mode of calculation fimilar to that of fluxions or incre-
ments, and little difl'ering from it, except in the notation.
In the J3lh ledlure, (p. 277. Stow's Edit.) the fubjedt of
which is equations, he adopts a new method of explaining
tlieir nature, diff^erent from that of Vieta, who illuftrates
it by the analogy of the terms, or that of Hairiot and Des
Cartes, by multiplying them into one another. His m.e-
thod of explaining them depends upon the defeription of
hnes adapted to each ; and thus he inveftigates the nature
and number of their roots, and the hmits of their magni-
tudes, coulidering the fubjeft as a branch of the maxima
and minima.

The " Elements of Algebra" were pubhihed by John
Kerfey in 1675, in 2 vol. folio, containing the illullration
of the feience and of the nature of equations, the explicn-
tion of Diophantus's problems, and many additions con-
cerning mathematical compofition and refolution, from
Ghctaldus. This work, fays Hutton, is very ample and
complete. The firft part appeared in 1673, ^'"^ ''^^ f<^'
cond in 1674. In 1675 Prellet publilhed his " Nouveaux
Elemens des Mathematiques," to which the author, with a
prefumption hardly excufable, has prefixed a dedication of
the work to God Almighty. In 1677 Leibnitz difcovered
his " Methodus Differentialis," or made a variation in
Newton's fluxions or extended Barrow's method, of which
he gave the firft inftance in the Leipfic acts for 1684. See
Fluxions. In the fame afts for 1682, he communicated
an improvement of infinite feries, and a fimple feries for
the quadrature of the circle. An amplification of Wallis's
arithmetic of infinites was publiflied in folio, in 1682, by
Ifmael Bulliald, entitled, " Opus novum ad Aiithnieticani
Infinitorum." Tchirnhaufen, in 1683, communicated a
memoir in the Leipfic afts, propofing the extraction of th*;
roots of all equations in a general way ; but his method
did not fucceed. Baker's " Clavis Geometrica Cathohc.',
Geometrical Key, or Gate of Equations unlocked," wis
publifiied in Latin and Englifli in 1684. This was an im-
provement of Des Cartes's conftruftion of all equations under
the 5th degree, by m.eans of a circle and paiabola for all
equations, any diameter being ufed inftead of the axis of
the parabola. Dr. Wallis's " Treatife of Algebra, bot'i
Hifl:(»rical and Pradlical, fliewing the original, progrei-',
and advancement of it from time to time," Avas publiflv.d
in 1685, in folio. In 1687, Dr Halley communicated iii

6 il..'

A L G

the Philofopliical Tranfaftions tlie confti-u(!lioii of cubic and
biquadratic equations, by a parabola and circle, with im-
provements of the methods of Des Cartes, Baker, &c. ; and
alfo a memoir on the nvunbcr of the roots of equations,
with their limits and figns. M. RoTle, in 1690, publilhed
in 4to, " Traitc d'AIgebre ;" in 1699, " Une methode
pour refoudre les queilions iiidetermine'es ;" and in 1 704,
" Memoirs fur I'inverfe des Tangents," and fome other
pieces. Jofeph Raphfon, in 1690 publifhed his " Ana-
lyfis ^quationum Univerfalis," which is a general me-
thod of approximating to tlic roots of equations in num-
bers. His " Hillory of Fluxions" was publilhed in Eng-
lilh and Latin in 1715. Dechales publilhed his " Curlus
feu Mundus Mathematicus," in 4 vols, folio, in 1690.
About the year 1691, &c. De Laguy publiHied many
pieces on the refolution of equations in numbers ; and in
1693 appeared a little volume, entitled, " Synopfis Alge-
braica, opus poilhumum Joluuinis Alexar.dri." An inge-
nious tratt on the numeral extraction of all roots, without
any previous reduction, was communicated in the Philofo-
yhical TraufaClion, by Dr. Halley in 1694. This traCt is
annexed to fome editions of Newton's Univerfal Arith-
metic. Craig publifhed, in 1694, in 410, his treatile, " Dc
fig. curvil. quadraturis et loeis gcometricis," in which he
propofed new tormulse for the conlhuttion of equations :
and this method was improved by Herman in 1737, in
Mem. of Peterlburgh. Mr. John Ward of Chcfter, pub-
hflied in 1C95, " A Compendium of Algebra ;" and in
1 706, the tirft edition of " The Young Mathematician's
Guide," which has been much ufed. In 1696 the " Ana-
lyfe des Infmimcnt Petits," of the Marquis de I'Hopital,
was pubhihed, and a poilhumous treatife by the fame au-
thor, entitled, " Traitc Analytique des SeClions Coniques,
ct le Conllruftion des lieux Geometriques," was publiflied
in 1707. Mr. Ab. DcmoivTe, in 1697, and fueceeding
years, furnillied the Philofophical Tranfaftions with various
papers, containing improvements in algebra: in 1697, a
method of raifmg an infinite multinomial to any power, or
extratting any root of the fame; in 1698, the extraftion
of the root of an infinite equation; in 1707, an analvtical
fohition of certain equations of the 3d, 5th, 7th, &c. de-
grees ; in 1722, of algebraic fraftions, and recurring leries ;
in 173B, the reduftion of radicals into more fimple forms ;
and in 1730 he publilhed " Mifcellanea Analyticade Serie-
bus et Qviadraturis," containing great improvements in
feries, &e. Mr. Richard Sank publilhed, in 4to, " A new
Treatife of Algebra, applied to numei'al queftions, and
geometry ; with a converging feries for all manner of ad-
fe£led equations," which feries is Raphfon's method of
approximation, which had been lately publilhed. In 1698
Hugo d'Omer publiflied his " Analyfis Geometrica, &c."
in which, by combining the algebraic analyfis of the mo-
derns with that of the ancients, he ixfolved in an elegant and
fimple manner may' curious problems. In 1699 Hyac.ChriliO-
pher pubhihed at Naples, in 4I0. a tract, entitled, " De
Conftruftione Equationum." Ozanam's algebra, contain-
ing the Diopbantine analyfis, was publifhed in 1702, his
mathematical didtlonary in 1691, and his courfe of niathe-
tics, in 5 vols. 8vo, in 1693. In 1705, Dr. Harris, the
author of the " Lexicon Technicum," publifhed a fmall
piece on algebra and fluxions. M. Guitnec publiflied, in
1705, his " Apphcation de I'Algcbre a la Gconietiie," in
4to. In 1706, Mr. Jones publiflied his " Synopfis Pal-
mariorum Mathcfeos," which is an ufeful compendium of
the m.athcmatical feiences ; and in 171 1, he publillied in
4to, a coUeftion of Sir Ifaac Newton's papers, entitled,
" AnAlyfis per quantitatum feries, fiuxioncs, ac differcn-

A L G

tias ; cum cnumerationc lincarum tertii ordinis." Tlie firfl
edition of Newton's " Aritlimetiea Univerfalis, five de
Compofitione et Refolutione Ariihmctica llbcr," was I'ub-
lifluxi by Wlullon in 1707; and many editions have been
publilhed fince. It is of courfe included in Horfley'u
edition of Newton's works. This treatife was the text
book of the author at Cambridge ; and though not de-
figned for publication, it contains many vei")' confidcrabic
improvements in analytics ; particularly in the nature and
tranfmutation of equations ; the limits of their roots ; the
number of impofTible roots ; the invention of divifors, both
furd and rational ; the relolution of problems, arithmetical
and geometrical ; the linear confirudtion of equations ; llic
approximation to the roots of all equations, S:c. Com-
mentaries have been publilhed on this work for the aihll-
ancc of beginners, by S'Gnivefande, Callilion, Wilder, &c.
']"he " Analyfe Deniontree" of Reyneau, was publillied In
4to. in 1708, and in 1 71.1, "La Science du Caleiil,"
and reprinted with additions in 1736, under the title of
" Ufagc de I'Analyfe," &c. In 1709 an Englifh tranfia-
tion of Alexander's algebra was publiflied, with an appen-
dix, by Humphry Ditton. in I 7 15, Dr. Brooke Taylor
publillied his valuable work, entitled, " Methodus Incre-
mentorum ;" and in the Philofophical Traufaclions for 1718-
an improvement of the method of approximating to the
roots of equations in numbers. M. Nicole, in 1717, com.-
mur.icated, in the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences, a
traft on the calculation of finite differences, and in fol-
lowing years various other trafts on the fame fubjeft, and
alfo on the refolution of equations of the third degree, and
on the irreducible cafe in cubic equations. Ronay nc, in 1717,
publillied a treatife on algebra ; and in the fame year Mr.
James Stirling publilhed a work of improvement on analy-
tics, entitled, " Lineas tertii Ordinis;" and in 1730, "Me-
thodus Difierentialis ; five traiStatus de funimatione et inter-
polatione ferierum infinitarum ;" witli great improvements
on infinite feries. Maclaurin, in 1726 and 1729, gave, in
the Philofophical Tnmfadtions, trafts on the imaginary roots
of equations, and afterwards hi'i " Algebra," was publilhed
from his poilhumous papers, with its application to curve-
lines. S'Ciravefande's algebra, with a commentary on
Newton's Un. Aritlim. appeared in 1727 ; and in 1728
Mr. Campbell communicated, in the Philofophical Tranf.
an ingenious paper on the number of impolSble roots of
equations, and tiie papers of Maclaurin and Campbell v. ere
annexed to Gravefande's edition of the " Arithm. Univ." at
Lcyden in 1732. Lecchi, a Jefuit, publitlKd the "Arithm.
Un." with an imperfeft commentai-)-, in 3 vols. 8vo. iii
1752. Wolfius's algebra was publifhed in 1732, in his
" Elementa Mathefeos Univerfs." in 5 vols. 4to. Mr.
John Kirkby's arithmetic and algebra were pubhflied iiv
1735, and in 1 748 his doClrine of ultlm.ators. Several im-
provements in feries, and other parts of algebra, are con-
tained in Mr. Thomas Simpfon's " EfTays," publiflied in
1740, in his " Diflertations," 1743, ^"'^ '" '''^ trafts, 1757;
and alfo in his " Algebra," firll printed in 1745, '""^ '"
his " Seleft Exercifes," in 17J2. In 1740, Saunderfon's
" Elements of Algebra," were publiflied in 2 vols. 4to.
M. de la Caillc, publiflied in 1741, " Lemons de Matlieii.a-
tiques ; 011 Elemens d'AIgebre et Geometric ;" and in the
fame year M. de Gua, in the Memoirs of the Academy of
Sciences, communicated two articles on the number of po-
fitive, negative, and iniaglnaiy roots of equations, witii an
hillorical account of the improvements in algebra, in wliich
he feverely cenfures Wallis for his partiality, whilH he
himfelfis, at leaft, equally faulty. M. Clairaut publifhed
liis " Elemens d'AIgebre," in 1746, in which he has many

improvements,

A L G

linprovfmfiiu, particularly with rcfcrcncf to the ineJucihle
ciilc m cubic- equations. A fifth edition of this valuable trta-
tife, with notes and additions uaspubliflu'd at Pans in 1797,
in 2 vols. A\a. He has alfo fcveral papors on analytics, in
the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences. In 1747, M.
I'ontaine gave, in the fame memoirs, a paper on the refolu-
tion of equations, and otiur papers in fubfcquent memoirs.
In 17+8, Maden-.oifelle M. G. Agnefi, pubhihed at Milan
in Itahan, " Analytical Intlitulions, in 2 vols. 410. M. Cal-
tilion, in 1761. pubhihed in 2 vols. 4to, Newton's Uni-
verfal Arithmetic, with an an>ple commentary. In T-'i.?,
Mr. Emerfon publiflied hi; " Increments," and in 1764 his
" Algebra." Mr. Landen publifticd his " Rcfidual Ana-
Kfis," in 17(>4. his " Mathematical Lucubrations," in
I'^iSj, and his " Maihematical Memoirs," in :78o. M.
liuler publiflied liis " Elements of Algebra," in the Ger-
man language in 1770, and in 1774, a French tranflation
was publilhed, by J. Bernouilli, with the analyfis of indeter-
minate problems, by M. de la Grange. An Englifh tranf-
Intion was pubU'.hed in 1797, in 2 vols. The memoirs of
lierlin and Peterlburgh abound with various improvements
on feries and other branches of analyfis by this celebrated
mathematician. Dr. Waring, late of Cambridge, has com-
municated feveral valuable papers to the Philofophical Tranf-
actions, and many of his improvements, arc contained in his
fepai-ate publications, particularly the " Meditationes AU
gcbi-aicsE," publilhed in 1770; the " Prbprietates Alge-
braicarum Curvarum," in 1772 ; and the " Meditationes
Analyticae," in 1776. The firft of thefe publications dc-
fcrvci particular notice. The firil chapter treats of the
transformation of algebraical equations into others, of which
the roots have given algebraical relation to the roots of the
given equatitms. The limits and number of impoffible and
affirmative and negative roots of algebraical equations are the
fubjeds of the fecond chapter. The third chapter compre-
hends the inveftigation of the roots of equations or irrational
quantities, which have given relations to one another, the
rcfolution of equations, &c. ccc. The fourth chapter is
principally converfant concerning more algebraical cq\iations
and their reduftion to one ; and the fifth chapter trcits of
rational and integral values of the unknown quantities of given
tquations. Francis Maferes, Efq. claims honourable mention,
not only as an original writer, who has contributed to the ex-
plication and improvement of fome of the moil abllruieand
yet moft mtcrelling branches of algebra and analyfis, but
on account of the labour and expence which he has bellowed
on the publication of the " Scriptores Logarithmici," in
three vols., 410., 1791, 1796? containing many curious and
uftful tradts, which are thus prtfcrved from being loft, and
many valuable pnpers of his own on the binomial theorem,
ftries, &c. After this detail, for which we are in a con-
fider.ible degree indebted to the relearch of Montucla and
Llr. Hutton, manv authors who have, in feparate treatiles
or in occafional elTays, contribute.d to the improvement of
algebra in generSl, or fome particular branches of it, or wlio
have publilhed treatifes on the Icience, ftill remain unno-
ticed ; and we mull content ourfelvcs with merely mentioning
Francifcus Cahgarius, Rudolphus, Adam Gigas or Rifeu,
butio, R. Wentworth, Ant. Maria Floridus, I.a/arus
Schonerus, Bernard Salignac, Leonard, Digges, and Ro-
bert Norman, in the i6th century, Chrillopher Clavius, in
160S, Georgius Hcnefchius, in 1609, Seballian Kurt/.,
C'oignet, Laloubere, Degraave, Mefcher, the BernouiUis,
Malbranche, Wehs, Dodlon, Manfredi, Regnault, Rown-
ing, Hammond, Lorgna, Hellins, de la Grange, de la
Place, Bcrtrand, Kuhnius, Hales, Malkelyne, Viuce, Wood,
Manning, Frend, Bonnycaftle, Sec. &c. &c.

A L G

/Ihelra is a peculiar kind of Aritiimftic, which takes
the quantity fought, whether it be a number, or a line, or
any other quantity as if it were granted ; and by means of
one or more quantities given, proceeds by a train of de-
dutlion, till the quantity at firll only fuppofed to be known,
or at leall fome power of it, is found to be equal to fome
quantity or quantities which arc known, and confequently
itfclf is known.

Algebi-a is of two kinds, numeral and literal.

Algebra, numeral, or vulgar, is that which is chiefly con-
cerned in the refolution of arithmetical queftions. In this,
the quantity fought is reprefented by fome letter or charatler ;
but all the given quantities are exprefi'ed by numbers. Such
is the algebra of the more ancient authors, as Diophantus,
Paciolus, Stifelius, &c. This is thought by fome to have
been an introduftion to the art of keeping merchants' ac-
counts by double entry.

Algebra fpecimis I or literal, or the nciv algebra, is that in
which all the quantities, known and unknown, are exprefled
or reprefented by their fpecies, or letters of the alphabet.
There are inftanccs of this method from Cardan and others
about his time ; but it was more generally introduced and
ufed by Vieta. Dr. Wallis (Algebra, p. 66.) apprehends,
that the name of fpecious arithmeticappliedto algebra is given
to it with a reference to the fenfe in which the Civilians ufe
the word fpecies. Thus, they ufe the names Titius, Sem-
pronius, Caius, and the hke, to reprefent indefinitely any
perfon in fuch circumftances ; and cafes fo propounded, they
call fpecies. Vieta, accuftomed to the language of the
civil law, gave, as Wallis fuppofes, the name of fpecies to
the letters A, B, C, &c. which he ufed to reprefent inde-
finitely any number or quantity, fo circumftanccd as the
occafion required.

This mode of expreffion frees the memory and imagina-
tion from that ftrefs or effort, which is required to keep fe-
veral matters, neceffary for the difcovery of the truth in-
velligated, prefent to the mind ; for which reafon this art
may be properly denominated metaphyfical geometry. Spe-
cious algebra is not- like the numeral, confined to certain
kinds of problems ; but ferves univerfally for the inveftigation
or invention of theorems, as well as the folution and demon-
ftration of all kinds of problems, both arithmetical and
geometrical. 1'he letters ufed in algebra do each of them
fcparately reprefent cither lines or numbers, as the problem
is either arithmetical or geometrical ; and together, they
reprefent planes, folids, and powers more or lefs high, as
the letters are in a greater or lefs number. For inftance, if
there be two letters, a b, they reprefent a reftangle, whofe
two fides are exprefted, one by the letter a, and the other
by i ; fo that by their mutual multiplication they produce
the plane a b. Where the fame letter is repeated twice,
as a a, they denote a fquare. Three letters a b e, repre-
fent a folid or a reclangular parallelepiped, whofe three
dimenfions are exprellVd by the three letters a b c ; the
length by a, the breadth by b, and the depth by f ; fo that
by their mutual multiplication, they produce the fohd
a b c.

As the multiplication of dimenfions is exprefled by the mul-
tiplication of letters, and as the number of thefe may be fo
great as to become incommodious, the method is only to write
down the root, and on the right hand to write the index of the
power, that is, the number of letters of which the quantity
to be exprefled confills ; as a', a', a*, &c. the laft of which
fignifies as much as a multiplied four times into itfelf ; and
fo of the reft. But as it is necefl'ary, before any progrefs
can be made in the fcience of algebra, to underftand the
method of notation, we (hall here give a general view of it.

In

A L G

A L G

In algebra, as \vc have already ilattd, evjry quantity,
whether it be known or given, or unknown or required, is
ufually reprtfentcd by fomc letter of the alphabet ; and the
given quantities are commonly denoted by the initial letters,
<7, i, c, d, kc. and the unknown ones by the final letters,
V, w, X, y. Thefe quantities are connected together by
ccitain figns or fymbols, which fcrve to (licw ihcir mutual
relation, and at the fame time to finiplify the fv ienee and to
reduce its operations into a lefs compafs. Accordingly the
fign -|- /'^"■' "'■ """■'■, fignifies that the quantity, to wliich it
is prefixed, is to be added, and it is called a pofitive or affir-
mative quantity. Thus, a -^ 1/ exprtfTes the fuin of the two
quantities a and /', fo that if a were 5, and /, 3, a -j- *
would be 5 + 3, or S. If a quantity have no fign, -\- plus
is underftood, and the quantity is affirmative or pofitive.
The fign — , nilnus or lefs, denotes that the quantity which
it precedes is to be fubtracled, and it is called a negative
qiiantity. Thus a ~ b exprefle'; the difference uf u and L :
fo that a being 5, and h, 3, « — i or 5 — 3 would be equal
to 2. If more quantities than two were connefttdby thel'e
figns, the fum of thofe with the fign — mull be fubiradlcd
from the fum of tho(e: with the fign -j-. Thus, a — I -\-
c — </reprefents the quantity which would remain, when c
and d are taken from a and v. So that if a were 7, b, 6,
c, 5, and <7, 3, rt + i — r — r/ or 7 + 6 — 5 — 3, or 1 3 —
8, would be equal to 5. If two quantities are coimecled
by the fign m , as a v: b, this mode of expreffion rcprcfents
the difference of a and b, when it is nol known which of
them is the greatefl. -

The fign X fignifies that the quantities between wliich it
ftands are to be multiplied together, or it i-eprcfcnts their
produft. Thus, a X b exprcffes the produ^S of a and b ;

a X b X c denotes the produft of a, b, and c ; ^ -]- b x c
denotes the produft of the compound quantity a -{■ b h\ the

fimple quantity c ; and a -^ b -\- c x a — b + r x a -\- b
reprefents the produft ofthe three compoundquantities,multi-
plied continuallyinto one another; fo that if ;! were y, 1^,4, and

C, 3, then wotild a -{• b -\- c X a — b -{■ c x a + c be
I2X 4 X 8, or 384. The line conue(5ling the fimple quan-
titiei and forming a compound one, placed over them, is
called a vinculum. Qiiantities that are joined together
without any intermediate fign form a product ; thus a bh
the fame with a X b, and ale the fame with a X b X c.
When a quantity is multiphed into itfelf, or raifed to any
pow-er, the ufual mode of exprefPion is to draw a line over
the quantity and to place the number denoting the power at
the end of it, which number is called the index or exponent.

Thus,

a -\- by denotes the fame as a -f- i x a + ^ or fe-
cond power, or fqnare, oi a -\- b confidered as one quan-
tity ; and a -\- t\ denotes the fame asrt+i5x a + b x

a + b, or the third power, or cube, oi a + b. In exprcf-
fing the powers of quantities reprcfented by fingle letters,
the line over the top is ufually omitted ; thus, a' is the fame
as a a or fl X a, and P the fame a^ b b b or b X b X b, and
a' b', the fame as a a b b b ov a X a X b X b X b. The full
point . and the word into, are fometimes ufed inllead of x , as

Thus,

fion ; thus, a -^ /) n b, denotes that a i is to be divided by
a + b. But the divifion of algebraic quantities is molt
commonly eNiirelfed by placing the divifor under the divi-
dend with a line between thtm, likea vulgar fradftion. Thus,

-reprefents the quantity arifing by dividing c by b, or the

a + b

quotient, and

a + c

reprefents the quotient of a + b di

/I

b + be

would be

J^

the fign of multiplication.

a + b . a +

and

a -\- b into a ■{■ c, fignify the fame thing as a + i X a + f,

cr the produft of « + 3 by a + c.

The fign — is the fign of divifion, as it denotes that the
quantity preceding it is to be divided by the fucceedlng
quantity. Thus, c-— b fignifies that c is to be divided by

i ; and a -\- b ~ a + c, that a + b is to be divided by

« + f . The mark ) is fometimes ufed as a note of divi-

\ldcd bv a + c. Quantities thus exprefTed are called alge-
braic friiftions. See Fraction.

The fign V^exprelTes the fquare root of any quantity to
which it is prefixed ; thus V 25 fignifies the fquare root of
25 or 5, becaufe 5 X 5 is 25 ; and V a i denotes the fquare
rootufai;and j ab + i ^ denotes the fquare root of

V 7i

— '■ , or of the quantity arifing from the divifion of

//

(lb + be by J; but s'Tb +'b e, which has the feparating

J
line drawn under v'~ fignifies that the fquare root 0/
ab + be is to be /// taken, and afterwards divided by J ;
fo that if a were 2, /., C, c, 4, and d, 9, -^ a b ■^- b e would

d

be iS or-; but

.9. 9

which is 2.

The fign ^/ with a figure over it is ufed to exprcfs the
cubic or biquadratic root, &c. of any quantity ; thus y^' C4
reprefents the cube root of 64 or 4, becaafe 4 x 4 X 4 is
64 ; and \/ ba + c d the cube root of a b + e d. In like
manner y/TS denotes the biquadratic root of 16, or 2,
becaufe 2x2x2x2 is 1 6, and y^/ai + c d denotes
the biquadratic root o{ ab + e d ; and fo of others. Quan-
tities thus expreffed are called radical qtiantities, or Surds ;
of which thofe, confifting of one terra only, as v'' " and
^ a b, are called fimple furds ; and thofe confiding of fevenJ

terms, or numbers, as v''''"~^and ■\/a- — b--\-hc, are de-
nominated compound furds. Another commodious method
of expreiring ra<!ie:il quantities is that which denotes the
root by a \ulgar fraftlon, placed at the end of a hue drawn
over the quantity given. In this notation, the fquare root

is expreffed bv , the cube root by - , the biquadratic ^oot

■ ^ 3

by ~, &c. Thus a 1^ expreffcs the fame quantity with

a/ a /. e. the fqiiarc root of a, and a' + a /-Inhefameas

^ / a^ + ab, 1. e. the cube root of .i' + a b ; a!id a I -• dt-
notes the cube root of the fquare of a or the fquare ofthe cube
root of a ; and a + s;!* the feventh power of the biqua-
dratic root of a + s : and fo of others ; a' \i is a, a^\i
is a, 5(c. When the root of a quantity reprefented by a
fimple letter is to be expreffed, the line over it may be
omitted; fo that ai fignifies the fame as a |:, and bl the fame

asTjj or \/'^- Quantities that have no radical fign (^/)
or index annexed to them, arc called rational quantities.
The fign =, called the fign of equality, fignifiti that

the

A L G

A L G

tlif quantities between whieh it occiii-s are equal. Thus
2 + ; = 5, flitfws that 2 more 3 is equal to 5 ; and .v = (/
— h ilunvs tliat X is equal to the difference of a and b.
The mark : : ligniHes that the quantities between which

fined by an algebraical equation. Thefe arealfo called g«).
metrical lines, or carves, in contradilUndlion.to mechanical
or tranfecndental ones. See Curvf..

ALGE15RAIST, a perfon ikilled in algebra.
h [hmara;; pmportional. A^ aCb: : c : d denotes that a ALGEDO,ia5«,j.r^,from.Y,, afupprelTed gonorrhoea,
i. in the fame proportion to b, as c is to d; or that if « be attended wth pa.n n. the gen.tal and urmary organ, T us
•^ ' ...,,-• naniefeld.>ini)ccurs,except Hioldauthors. tjccUoNORRHOhA.

ALGEDYM Zand, tn Geo^rjphy, is the name of aeon-
fiderable chain of mountains in Independent Tartaiy, which
ftretches from the river Yaik or Ural, towards the Altaian

twice, three or four times, &c. as great as b, c will be twice,
thrite, or four times, &c. as great as <L

Whenanyquaiitity i5tobeta!:enm<irethan once, the number
which fliews how niany times it is to be taken muft be pre-
ll\ed ; thus 5 a denotes that the quantity is to be taken ;
times, and 3 if reprefents three times he, and 7 ^<j' + b'
denotes that ^' a' + b' is to be taken 7 times, &c. The
■numbers thus prciked are called eo-efficicnts ; and if a
•Quantity have no co-eflicient, unit is underllood, and it is to
be taken only once.

Similar orl'ike quantities are thofe that are cxprcfTcd bythc
fame letters under the fame powers, or which dilTer oidy in
their co-efficients ; thus, 3*1:, 5 3 c, and %bc, are Tile
Quantities, and fo are the radicals 2^/3 + c and 7^/3 + c.

a a

T3nt unViJce qnantitios are tliofe whieh are exprelTed by dif-
ferent letters, or by the fame letters with different powers,
as 2 a i, 5 rt b^y and 3 a' b.

When a quantity is expreffed by a fingle letter, or by fe-
-veral fmgle letters multiplied together, without any intcr-
■vening fign, as a, or 2 a I, it is called ^.fimple quantity.
But the quantity which conliftsof two or more fuch fimple
quantities, connedted by the figns + or — , is called a com-
foimJ quantity ; thus, a—ltib + S"^'^ is a compound
quantity ; and the iimple quantities a, zah, ^ a b c, are
called its terms or members. If a compound quantity confifl
of two terms, it is called a binomial ; of 3 terms a trinomial,
of 4 tenns, a quadrinomial. Sec. of many terms, a miil/i/10-
viial. If one of the terms of a binomial be negative, the
quantity is called a refidual quantity. The reciprocal oi any
quantity is that quantity inverted, or unity divided by it ;

thus — is the reciprocal of _, and — is the reciprocal of

b a a

^. The letters by whieh any finiple quantity is expreffed
may be ranged at pleafure, and yet retain the lame fignifi-
cation ; thus ti b and b a are the fame quantity, the produft of
a and b being the fame with that of b by a. I'he feveral
terms of which any compound quantity confifts may be dll-
pofed in any order at pleafure, provided they retain their
proper figns. Thus, a — zab + ^a'b may be written
a -^^ ^ a' b — Z a b, or — z a b ■{■ a + ^ a- b, for all thefe
reprcfent the fame thing-or the quantity which remains, when
from the fum of a and 5 a" b the quantity z ab\s dedufted.

For the method of performing the feve-ral operations in
algebra, fee Addition, Subtraction, Multiplica-
tion, Division, Fraction, Involution, Evolution,
Equation, Series and Surd. See alfo Application
of yllgebra to Geometry, Binomial Theorem, Construc-
tion of Equations, and Reduction of Equations.

Algebra has been alfo applied to the confideration and
calculus of infinites ; and from this application of it a new
and extenfive branch of fcience has arifen, called the
doctrine of Fluxions, or Analysis of Injinites, or the
Calculws Dijf.rentittlis. For an account of the rife and
progrefs of Algebra, as well as other branches of mathe-
■niatics, fee the laft. and moll improved euition of Montucla's
Hift. des Mathem. 2 vols. 410., Paris, 1794.

ALGEBRAICAL, fomcthing that relates to algebra.

Thus we fay, algebraical chai-adlers, or fymbols, curves,
folutions, &c. An algebraical curve, is a curve, wherein
the relation of the ablciffes to the femioi dinates may be de-

range.

ALGEMISI, or ALGEM.r/EN, a fmall town of
Valencia, in Spain, not far from the river Xucar, near
which grow quantities of Pita, as it is called, or Ame-
rican aloes, agav^, of which the people make cordage,
and the Catalans fpin it of a fuiTicient tinenefs for making-
lace ; it is fix leagues fouth of Valencia, and five north-
north-weft of Gandia.

ALGENEB, or Algenib, in Jfironwiy, a fixed ftar
of the fecond magnitude, on the right fide of Perseus. -

ALGEO, or Carbon, in Geogri^)hy, a river of European
Turkey, which runs into the fea, eight miles w^elt-fouth-well:
of Olimpia, a town in the Morea.

ALGERANCA i/land, one of the Canaries, in the
North Atlantic Octan. N. lat. 29=' 23'. W. long. 15^ 58'.

ALGERI, or Aloher, a fniall peopled city of Sar-
dinia, fitiiatcd near a bay on the Weilem coaft. It is a
bifhop's fee, and has a coral-fifiiery. It is 79 miles north-
well of Cagliari. The bay of Algeri is fpacious and affords
good anchorage ; it is formed by the fouth point of Cape
della Caccia on the north, and by a point of land on the
fouth. N. lat. 40° 31'. E. lung. S-- 30'.

ALGEZIRA, orALGERizA, a fea-port town of Spain,
in the proviace of Andaluiia, on the Straits of Gibraltar, and 5
miles weft from it. The Moors entered Spain by this town
in 713, and were difpoffefTed of it in 1344. It is faid to have
been the firll tovi'n in wliich cannon were ufed. The word
Algezira in Arabic fignifies an ifland, and as the harbour is
formed by two illands, it has been called in the plural number
Algeziras. It was alfo called Old Gibraltar, 'i'he har-
bour is now decayed, and the town lies in ruins N. lat. 36°
5'. W. long. 5° 20'.

Algezira, or Alzora, is alfo a town of Spain, in the
province of Valencia, fituate on a fmall illand on the river
Xucar, 20 miles fouth of Valencia. Tliough the town is
fmall, its iiiken trade has been extenfive.

ALGEZLTR, a fmall town of Portugal, in the province
of Algarve, at the n;outh of a fmall river near the Atlantic
Ocean, 17 miles north-weft of Lagos. It contains about
800 inhabitants.

ALGHEMI, acounti-y of Africa, on the Slave coaft.
ALGHISI, Thomas, in Biography. The father of
this writer, who was a furgeon of eminence, at Florence,
took care to imbue his mind early with the principles of his
art. His inftrudor in anatomy was the celebrated I^aurentius
Bellinus. At a proper age he was made furgeon to the
hofpital at Florence, where applying himlelf particularly to
the operation of lithotomy, which he performed with An-
gular facility and fuccefs, he acquired confiderable reputation.
In 1703, he was made doftor in medicine at Padua. In
1707, he publidied a treatife on lithotomy, in 4to., written
in ItaUan, which contains, Haller fays. Bib. Chir. vol. i.
p. 5S0., feveral original obfervations, the fruits of his owa
experience. Exftat etiam, he adds, hujus Authoris, De
Mumia jEgyptia involuta perpulchra epillola ad Valif-
neiium. He died September 17 13, being only 44 years of
age, in confequeuce of the amputation of his left hand,
which had been wounded by the burfting of a tufil.

ALGIABARII

A L G

A L G

ALGIABARII, a Mahometan fecft of prededinarlans,
whcr* attiibute all the aftions of men, good or evil, to the

agency or influence of God. *

The Alffiabaiii iland oppofed to the Alkadarii.

ALG113ARR0TA, or Aljubarrota, in Geography,
a fmall town of Portncval, in Ellremadina, containing two
pariflics and 1600 inhabitants. Kins^ John I. obtained in
this place a viftory over the Caftillans in 1385.

AI^GIDUM, in ^m'utit Geography, a town of I-alinm
cr Italy, between Prenefte to the north-eafl, and Alba to
the fouth-welt:, near the mountains. It belonged to ihe
yEqui, according to Dionyfius Hal. (lib.xi. lorn. i. p. 672.
td. Oxon.), and Livy, (lib. iii. c. 3S. torn. i. p. 6^3. ed.
Burman.) and liad a temple of Diana on tl>e top of a hii-h
runintain, called by the lame name. This temple was in
Greek denominated Arteniilia, and hence tlie mountain was
called by the fame name. It has been fnppofed tliat Al^n-
dimi or Algiihis was derived from gelhliiSy cold or freczin<r,
on acco\mt of the (juality of its air. Horace refers to this
mountain, (lib. i. od. 21.) " Qiixcunque aut gelido pronilnet

Algido," — and (lib. iii. od. 23.) " Q^x nivali pafeilur

Algido," Jtc.

ALGIERS, in Geography, a kingdom of Africa, com-
prehends part of the ancient Mauritania, partieuhuly
that which was called Mauritania CTfarienfis, and the an-
cient Numidia, and forms one of the moll confiderable dif-
tricls of that part of Africa which lies on the northern coaft,
and which in later ages has been denominated Barbary.
The country derives its name from its metropolis, called by
the Turks Algezair, Al Jezair, or Al Jezirah, in Arabic,
fignifying the IJIarid, becaufe there was an iiland before the
city, to which it hath been fince joined by a mole. The
extent of this kingdom has been varioufly affigned by dif-
ferent writers. Sanfon, who marks its boundaries by the
rivers Mullooiah or Malva, and the Zaine, gives it a length
from eaft to weft of 900 miles, De La Croix, 720, Luyls,
reckoning 48^ miles for one degree of longitude, 6^0; but
if with Dr. Shaw, we make tlie bouiidaiy of Algiers to the
well the Trara mountains, which feparate it from the do-
minions of the emperor of Morocco, or Twunt, which lies
40 miles to the eailward of the Mullooiah, and that to the
eaft the river Zaine, formerly called Tufea, it will be found
to extend 460 miles, or from o" 1 6'. W. long, to 9° 1 6'. E.
longitude. The breadth of Algiers is very unequal in dif-
ferent parts ; for near Tlemfan it is not more than 40 miles,
from the Sahara to the fea-coall ; near the fonrces of the
rivers Sigg and ShtlifT, it is about 60 miles, and thij, in the
vveftern part, inay be taken at a medium for tlie extent of v.'hat
the Arabs call Tell, or land proper for tillage. But to the
eaft of Algiers, its breadth is much more confiderable ; par-
ticularly in the meridians of Boujeiah or Bugia, and Bona,
where it extends above 100 miles, efpecially under that of
Jigeri or Gigeri, in lat. 36° ^^' to Luolajah, fuuate among
the mountains of Atlas, in lat. 44° 50'. The Algerine do-
minions beyond the Tell, or more advanced parts of Atlas,
are very precarious and not eafdy defined, fo that the' nor-
thern ikirts of the Sahara, or Defert, feem to be the proper
boundaiies on that fide. Accordingly, Algiers may be con-
fidered, in general, as bounded on the north by the Medi-
teiTanean, on the eaft by the river Zaine, which divides it
from Tunis, on the' weft by the Mullooiah, or by Twunt,
and the mountains of Trara, which feparate it from Mo-
rocco, and on the fouth by the Sahara, or Numidian defert.
If we take the medium difference of latitude to be 2° 30',
and the difference of longitude to be 9° 30', the fuperficial
extent of the v^holc kingdom would amount to about 42 18,
Vol. I.

or according to a more accurate aflronomical calculation of
M. Von Zach, 4262 geographical fquarc miles.

This kingdom lias been divided by geographers info
many provinces, according to the fevcral royalties into which
it was cantoned, at different periods, before and after llic
time of the Turkiftt conquclls. At prefent it contains, ac-
cording to Shaw, three principal diviiions, vh.. the province
of Tlemsan to the well, called by others Tremecen, and
Mascara ; that of Titeri or Titterie to the fouth ; and
that of CoNSTANTiNA to the eaft ; to which fome have
added, as a diftinft province, (he terriloiT of the city of
Algiers. The weftern province comprehends the towns of
Oran, MusTvGASNiM, Tlemsas Or Trcmeccn, Mas-
cara, Shf.rshi-ll, Tennis, bcfides fcveral other more
inconfiderabic places. In this province, coafling from the
Trara mountains, we meet with Twunt, Cape Hone,
Tackumbreet, at the mouth of tht river Tafna, the iiland
of AcRA or Harlligoone, &c. I'he principal rivers arc the
Malva, Salt -river, I'afna, Sigg, Hebrah, Maffafraiijand Shc-
lifT. The mountains are Atlas and Trara. See Mascara. The
fouthein province has no towns along the coaft ; but in the
interior of the country the two chief towns are Belida and
Medea ; the mountains are branches of the Atlas, the Boo-
jereah, the Anwall mountains on the river Yiffer, and thofe
of Jurjnraand Fcli'/.la ; and the rivers are the Harateh, Ha-
maefe, Regya, Budwowe, Corfoe, Merdafs, and the Vilfcr,
of wliich the lall is tlie moll cimfiderable. See Titeri.

The caftern province, called tiie I^evantine government,
is the largell and rieheft. See Constantina.

The territory of Algiers is principally dillinguifhed by its
caiiital, the metropolis of tiic kingdom. Within about half
a mile to the north-t.ift of the city commences the plain of
Mettijiah, called by Abulfcda Bledeah Kibc'-ih, /'. e. a i-aji
cnuiitryi which ilretches 50 Englifli miles in length and 20
in breadth, as far as the branch of mount Atlas, at the foot
of which lies the town of Belida. This plain is better cul-
tivated than the other diftrifls of the kingdom. It is wa-
tered by fevcral fprings and rivulets ; ■particularly by the
Maftafran, which at its entrance into the lea is a very con-
iiderable river, and little inferior to the Sheliff, the Shiffa,
and the Harateh. The country feats and Mafharcas, as
they call the farms of tlie principal inhabitants of Algiers,
are found in thefe plains ; and it is chiefly from them that
the metropolis is fuppUed with provillons. I lax, alhenna,
roots, potherbs, rice, fru-.t, and grain of all kuids, are pro-
duced here to Inch perfeftion, that the Mettijiah may be
juftlv reckoned the garden of the whole kingdom. For the
nature of the foil, productions, inhabitants, population,
government, commerce, &c. of the kingdom in general, we
refer to the fequel of this article.

After the expulfion of the Greeks from Africa by the
Saracens, towards the clofe of the feventh centuiy, (fci:
Africa), the country was divided into a number of fmall
kingdoms and ftates, under chiefs of their own nation and
choice. This government continued till the year 1051, wlun
they were expelled by Abubeker ben Omar, or as the Spa-
niards call him, Abul Texetien, an Arab of theZinhagian
tribe, with the affiftance of fome powerful Manibouts ; the
conqueror aflumed the title of Amiral Mimiiiin, or chief of
the faithful, and his fubjedls were denouiiiiated Morabites,
and corruptly Almoravides. Texefien, having fuceeeded in
driving the Arab tyrants out of Numidia and Libya, and ail
the weftern parts, reduoed under hl.s dominion the whole
province of Tingitania. He was fuceeeded by his foil Joftph,
who laid the foundation of the city of Morocco, wliich he
intended for the capital of his empire ; but whilft he was
4 Q_ building

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btiilJingr ilijs city, he deputed an embafTy to the Zcacti who
inhabited Treiiieccn, uiid>.T a pretence of reclaiining them
to tilt true faith ; but the Zeiicti anembkd in liollile array
at Ainaf or Anifa, their capital, and iiaadid the dominions
of Jofepli witli an anny of jo.oco men. Tlie Zeneti, rc-
fifted by the ir.habltanls of Fez, wliofc fiiccour they expelled,
were overpowered by Jofeph, fo t!iat about a niillioii of per-
fons arc reckoned to liave loll their hves in tiiis eonteft, and
their country was depopulated ; but afterwaids rcpeopled by
a colony from Fez, who fettled there under the protection
of their reigning kings. Jofepli direded his next attack
Pgainll the inhabitants of Fez, whom he fubdned and made
tributaries, and extended his comjuells along the Mediter-
ranean. He alfo purfued lome Arabian cheyks, who had
not fubmitted to !iim, into tlieir retreats, in the dcfirts of
Libya, and totally fuhdued them. The empire of the Mo-
rabites, which was thus ellablilhed, and which proniiled
permanence, was neveithelefs of no long duration. This
race was again expelled in the l2th century by Moha-
vcdin, or Al Mohedi, a Marabout, who dethroned Bra-
.Iiara Ali, the lall emperor of the Zinhagian dynafty.
This ufurper and his fucceffor, denominated themfclves
Mohavedins, and they were afterwards called Mohavades,
Mohrdci and Almohedug. However, they were extir-
pated by Abdulac, governor of Fez ; and he was again
ilripped of liis new conquells by the (lierifFs of Hafcen,
the defeeiidants of the Arabian princes of the loth cen-
tur)'. AVilh a view of feeuring his new dominions, he di-
vided Barbary i.ito feveial fmall kingdoms or provinces,
afligning to each a feparate chief. On this occafion Algiers
-vas divided between four of their native princes ; one of
whom had Tremecen, and the other tJirce had Tenez, Al-
giers proper, and Bujeya, and thus thefe four cities became
the capitals of four diilinCt kingdoms. For fome centuries
thefe monarchs continued in mutual peace and amity ; but
difputes arofe among them ; and Abu'l-fariz, prince of
Tenez, declared war againll the king of Tremecen. In a
little while he became mafler of both Tremecen and Bujeya.
At his death he divided his kingdom between his three fons-,
one of whom had Tenez, another Jigcri, and the third,
whofe name was Abdalaniz, had Bujeyah. This lad at-
tacked the king of Tremecen, and having fucceedcd againil
liira, the Algermes, who had been his tributaries, transferred
their fubjection and tribute to the conqueror, by which
means he became fo powerful, that if the Spaniards had not
interfered, he would have made himfelf mailer of the whole
of Barbarj-. Their inteqjofition, however, checked his
progrefs, and prc>duced a fignal change in the afpeft of his
affairs. In 1505 cardinal Ximencs, prime minifter of Fer-
dinand v., king of Aragon, fent thither the count of Na-
varre with a powerful army and fleet, principally with a view
of reftraining the depredations of the Moors, who had been
baniflied from Spain about 12 years before ; and fuch was
his fuccefs that he foon became mafter of Oran, Bujeyah,
and other confiderable places. The Algerines were alanr.ed ;
and fought the fuccour of Selim Eutemi, a warlike Arabian
prince, who poffeffed the fertile lenitory of Mettijiah. He
inarched to their alTillance ; but Lis co-operation was ineffec-
tual ; and the Spaniards, having landed a confiderable num-
ber of forces near Algiers, reduced this capital to fubjeftioiij
and compelled it to become tributary to Spain. They alfo
erected a ftrong fort on the fmall ifland oppofite to the city^
and thus prevented the Algerine Corfairs from failing Into
or out of that harbour. On the death of Ferdinand in
1 5 16, the Algerines made an effort for recovering their li-
jbertj; and they invited Barbaiofla, who was then on a

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cruitc with a fqiudron of gallies, to r-.OTift them !n throwin*
oil" the Spanifii yoke, promifing him a gratuity correfponding
to a fervicc fo important. The bold and adventurous Cor-
fair gladly accepted the invitation ; and leaving hir. bVother
riayradin with the fleet, and having diipatched 18 gallies
and 13 barks to the alTiftance of the Algerines, he hallcncd
his march to them bv land. At the head of 8co Turks,
3000 Jigelltes, and 2000 Moorifli volunteers, he diretled his
courfe, not to Algiers, which needed his immediate pro-
tcclion and afTiftanee, but to Sherlhel, wlure Haffan, ano-
ther Corfair, had fettled. Having obliged him to furrei;der
under a perfidious promife of friendfliip, he cauled his head
to be cut ofi", feized on his fliips, and compelled the Turks
who had been his adherents, to follow him in his new expe-
dition. Thus reinforced he approached Algiers ; and was
conducted into the city by prince Eutemi and the people
witli acclamation and triumph. Lodged in one of the nobleil
apartments of the prince's palace, and treated with every
pofiible token of refpeift by the deluded inhabitants, Bar-
barofla conceived the deHgn of afluraing the fovereignty ;
but dreading oppofition on the part of the people, who »vere
irritated by the unreftrained licentioufnefs and infolence of
his troops, he determined to faciUtate his advancement to
the throne by the murder of the prince, and then to be pro-
claimed king of Algiers by his own foldiers. The mealure
was no fooner projefted than it was accomplifned. As he
was a guell in the palace of Eutemi, he talily found an op-
portunity of ftrangling him, and of thus removing the chief
obllaele to his attainment of the fovereignty. The people
fufpeClcd him, but they dared neithei- topunifii him nor even
to complain of his conduct. Many of them, apprehending
meafures of furtlier violence and ilaughter, abandoned the
city and country ; and thofe who remained endeavoured to
fecure themlclves in their houfes, fo that the pirate and his
followers were left complete mailers. At their requefl: he
afcended the throne, and was proclaimed with great pomp.
The Turks and Moors, who attended the procedlon, ex-
claimed as he paraded the ilreets on horfcback ; " Long live
Aruch Barbaroffa, the invincible king of Algiers, the chofen
of God to deliver the people from the oppreffion of the
Chriftiaiis, and pour dcftruftion on all that ihall oppofe or
refufe to obey him as their lawful fovereign." The Al-
gerines foon experienced the evils they had apprehended.
Barbaroffa exercifed his fovereignty In the mofi. dcfpotic and
cruel manner ; and his Turkilh foldiers condutled them-
felves with a degree of infolence and licentioufnefs, which
rendered it dangerous for women and children of either fex
to appear in the Ilreets. The people were fpeedily drahied
and impoverlflied by the taxes that were levied upon them,
and yet none could venture to remonftrate or even to com-
plain of the wretched condition to which the)' were reduced.
The Algerine chiefs perceiving the exafperated temper ol
the people, and obferving that Barbaroffa had alienated the
affeftions of the warlike Arabs by his rapacious exaclionn,
and that he had difijanded the greateft part of his Moorifli
troops, availed themfelves of thefe circumftances to make a
.bold attempt for regaining their liberty. A plot was formed ;
and a day was appointed for afTaiTinating Barbaroffa and his
Turks. But the fufpicious and watchful tyrant difcovered
Jthe whole defign, andcaufed the heads of 20 of the prin-
cipal leaders of the confpiracy to be cut off at the door
of the mofque into which they had entered at the hour
of prayer, and their bodies to be thrown o\it on the dung-
hills. He alfo confifcated their eilates, and laid a heavy
fine on others of their accomplices. This dreadful exe-
cution fo terrified the Algerines, that they never en-
6 gaged

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srged in any fimllar atiempt againft him or his fuc-
cciibrs.

The young Aralilan prince, the fon of Euteiri, was at
this time under the protccHon of the Marquis de Gomarez
at Oran. Eager to revenge the wrongs which his family
liad fuffered, he propofed to the Marquis a ven- practicahle
plan for putting the city of Algiers into the pod'cllion of the
Spanilh monarch, and this fchcme was laid before Cardinal
Ximenes. The Cardinal approved it, and fent a fleet, with
10,000 forces, to drive liarbaroffa and the Turks out of
Algiers, and to rellore young Selim Eutemi. Init the fleet
was difperfcd by a ilorm ; many of the Spaniards were
drowned ; and thofe who efcaped to (hore, were either killed
by the Turks or made (laves. The Algerines, in concurrence
with the Arabians and Moors, made their next application
to Hamidel Abdes, king ot Tene/, and requefted his aid
againil Barbaroflfa and his adherents. This prince cnnfented,
on condition that the kingdom of Algiers Ihoiild be fettled
upon him and his delcendants. When he entered the Al-
gerinc dominions at the head of 10,000 Moors, he was
joincJ -W- the Arabians of the whole country. Barbarof-
la, however, with 1000 Tm-kilh mulciueteers ar.d 500
Cranada Moors, defeated this numerous army ; purfued
Hamidel to the gates of his capital, took the place, and ob-
liged the inhabitants to acknowledge hnu ior their fovereign.
BarbaixiiTa, having taken pofTcnion of Tenez, received an
embaffy from the inhabitants of Tremecen ; who, dilTatisiied
with the reigning prmce, becaufe he had dethroned his
nephew, requefted liis aififtance to difpoffefs the ufurper, and
offered him the fovereignty. The invitation was readily ac-
cepted. BarbarofTa obliged the king of Tremecen, after a
fevere engagem.ent, to retire to his capital, where he was
inftantiy beheaded by his fubjetls, and the conqueror re-
ceived a frefh invitation to take pofleiTion of the kingdom.
\Vhen BarbarofTa, thus invelled with new power, began to
tyrannize over his fubjefts, the Tremecenians were exafpe-
rated ; and repenting of their having invited fuch a tyrant
to their afliftance, they deliberated on the beil means for
expelling him, and reiloring their lawful prince. Their
deiign, however, was difcovcred, and many of the con-
fpirators were cruelly maflaered. The prince had fort imately
made his efcape to Oran, and put himfelf under the pro-
teftion of the Marquis of (jomarez, who fent immediate
advice of his fituation to Ciiarles V., lately arrived in Spain
with a powerful fleet and anr.y. This politic monarch fore-
feeing the advantage that was likely to redound to hnn from
placing the prince of Tremecen on the throne, ordered for
him a fuccour of 10,000 men, under the command of Go-
marez or Comares, the governor of Oran. This army, in
its march, was joined by prince Sehm, and a great number
of Arabs and Moors from the adjacent countrie?. 'Iheir
firil enterprize was the attack of Calau, an important for-
treis fituated between Tremecen and Algiers. This place,
after a vigorous defence, was compeU<;>d to furrender, and
after a fevere plunder, dehvered into the hands of the king
of Tremecen. Barbarolfa, fearing a revolt on the pait of
his own fubjefts, and difappointed in his expeftations of
affiflance from the king of Fez, kept clofe in his capital.
But upon the approach of the enemy he marched out of
Tremecen, and determined to force his way through the
hoilile army which was preparing to lay fiegeto the city, to
the field. He was advifed, however, by his council to return
and to fortify himfelf in the city ; but the inliabitants re-
fufed him entrance, and he was therefore under a necelfity of
retiring into the citadel, and of there waiting for an oppor-
tunity to tfcape. Here lie defended himfelf valiantly, and

made fevcral fnccefsful failles during a long ficge ; but ap-
preiienfive of famine from the failure of his provifions, he
took the advantage of a fubterrancoiis pallagc, througii
which he privately conveyed himfelf and his treafure. His
flight was difcovered and he was purfued ; but ordering a
confiderable quantity of his money, jewels, and plate to be
feattered in the way, he hoped by this llratagcm to divert
the attention of his purfuers. The artifice failed ; for the
Spanifh general obliged the army to march on, till at length
they overtook the fugitive on the banks of the rivi.r Haexdn,
about tiglit leagues from Tremecen. A bloody engage-
ment enfued ; but the Turks were overpowered by numbers ;
they were all inalfacred hy the Spaniards, and BarbaroflTa,
among the reft, in the 44th year of his age. This defeat
oceafioned great confteraatlon at Algiers. The Turks to
whom the defence of the city was committed were much
alarmed ; and ihcy foon agreed, as the bcft meafure for pre-
venting a revolt, to caufe Hayradin, the brother of Baiv
baroffa, to be proclaimed king of Algiers, and high ad-
miral of the fea. In order to lecure himfelf from an infur-
redlion, which his tyrannical and oppreffive conduft had
given him reafon to appreiiend, he difpatehed an anibaffador
with magnificent prefents to Selim I. then emperor of Con-
ftanlinojile, to notify the death of his brother, and to make
him an offer of fubmitting the kingdom to his protection,
and to pay him an annual tribute in return for his afliftance.
The Sultan v/as pleafed with tills propofa! ; received Hay-
radin, called alfo BarbarofTa, under his proteftion, and ap-
pointed him his bafhaw or viceroy over the kingdom of
Algiers. Thus powerfully protected and aided with troops,
he prepared for executing two grand projefts which he had
for fome time in contemplation. The firil was the deftruc-
tion of the Spanilh fort, which was a great nuifancc to his
metropolis ; and the other was to render Algiers a commo-
dious harbour by building a mele from thence to the ifland,
in order to fhelter them from the weather and the north fea,
as well as from the guns of the Spanifli fort, to avoid which
the Ihips were obliged to lie about a mile weft of the town,
where the anchorage was \mfafe. Having fucceedcd in
taking the Spanifh fort, he employed no lefs than 30,000
Chrillian flaves in the accomplishment of his fecoiid projefl,
fo that his llrong mole for the accommodation and fecurily
of his fhips was completed in lefs than three years. 'Jrlie
execution of thcfe two impo'-tant prt)jc£ls added fo nmch
ftrength and wealth not only to the city but to the kingdom,
that Hayradin became an objecl of tciror, not only to the
Moors and Arabians, but to the maritime Chriillan powers,
and more particularly to the Spaniards. The Sultan, cither
grateful for the fervices performed by Hayradin, or jealous
of his power, advanced him to the dignity of captain bafliaw
of the emjiire, and appointed f-lalTan, or Hafccn Aga, a
SardlnLin renegado, to fuececd him as bafliaw of Algiers.
The depredations of HafTau on the coafts of Italy and of
Spain rouzed the refentmcnt of pope Paul HI. and of the
emperor Charles V. The pope publlftied a bull, with a
plenriry abfolution of all I'uis, and the promife of the crown
of martyrdom, to all who ihould fall in battle againft the in-
fidels of Barbary ; and the emperor equipped a powerful
fleet, which he determined to conimand in perfon, in order
to fubduc them. Accordingly Charles, with a fleet of 120
fliips and 20 gallies, and 30,000 chofeu troops, accompanied
by a great number of noblemen and gentlemen, who ferved
at their own expcnee as volunteers, from motives of religion
and glory, fet fall towards the end of Summer in 1541, and
after a tedious and perilous voyage from Majorca to Africa,
appeared on the coaft of Algiers. The fleet anchored at

4 Q_ 2 cape

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«»pc Mctafiii ; atout two finall leagues to tl\c end of Al-
tifij, and the army landed without oppofitiou. Huffaii's
lorce, which ganilbncd tlic city, amounted only to about
Soo Turks and five or f.ooo Moors, without tire arms, poorly
dilciplincd and accoutred. As Charles's army drew near the
city, the inhabitants were much alarmed ; but when Hafl'an
was fummoned to luiTcndcr, he returned, as lonie fay, an am-
Im'^'uous, and accoi-ding to others, a fierce and haughty
anfwer. On the Iccond day, however, after the emperor's
landing, tlic clouds began to gathei-, and the heavens pre-
fenttd a very thivaleniug afpedt. In the evening the rant
fell, and the ftoi-m i-agcil with violence through the whole
iiin-ht, fo that the foldien who had neither tents nor {lielter,
were much incommoded. '^I'he ground alfo became lo
wet, and the camp was fo much overflowed with water, that
they could neither lie down, nor Hand without finking to
t%t: ankles in the mud. Their matches alio were extinguidied,
and their powder fo moiftened, that their muHcets were ufc-
Icls. Halliin perceived their diilrefs, and availing himfclf of
it, Mied out with his foldiers to attack them. In this
fituation the whole army, with the emperor himfelf in perfon,
was obliged to advance to fupport the difpirited and retreat-
ing troops, who were livft engaged, before the enemy could
be repuUed ; and they at length, after fpreading general
conllernation, and killing a great number of men, retired in
n-ood order. The hurricane, however, which ftill continued,
produced a more dreadful difaftcr. The emperor's fliips, on
which depended t!ie iafety and fubfiftence of his whole army,
were driven from their anchors ; fome of them daflied againii;
each other, fome were beat to pieces upon the rocks, many
were forced alhore, and not a few were funk in the waves.
In lefs than an hour, 15 fliips of war and 140 tranfports
with 80CO men perillied ; and fuch of tlie unhappy crews as
efcaped the fuiy of the fea, were murdered without mercy
by the Arabs, as foon as they reached the laud. The em-
peror ftood in filent anguifli and allonidunent, beholding this
fatal event, which at once blafted all his hopes of fucccfs,
and buried in tlie deep the vaft itores which he had provided,
both for annoying the enemy and for fublilling his own
troops. At lall the ftomi abated, and afforded fome hopes
that the fliips, which had efcaped, might fave the army from
perilliing by famine, and tranfport tliem back to Europe.
The approach of evening, however, difappointed thefc ex-
pctlations ; the fea was covered with darknefs ; and it was
inipofiible for the officers aboard the fliips that had outlived
the ilorra to fend any intelligence to their companions who
were afliore ; thus they remained during the night in all the
ano-uilh of fufpenee and uncertainty. Next day, a boat
difpatclied by Doria, the admiral, againfl; whofe advice this
expedition had been undertaken, reached land, with infor-
m.ation, that having weathered out the fl:orm, to which,
during 50 years' knowledge of the fea, he had never feeu
any eqiral in fiercenefs and iiorror, he had found it necefl"ary
to bear away with his fliattercd fliips to cape Mctafuz. He
advifcd the emperor, as the face of the flcy was IHU lowering
arid tempeiluous, to march with all fpeed to that place,
where the troops could reimbark with greater eafe. Me-
tafuz was three days' march from the emperor's camp ; his
provifions were confumed ; and his followers, exhaufted with
fatigue, and difpirited with a fucccflion of hardfliips, were
in no condition to encounter new toils. But no alternative
remained ; they were ordered infi;antly to march ; fome of
them could fcarcely fuflain the weight of their arms ; others,
fpent with the toil of forcing their way through deep and
almoft impaffabls roads, funk down and died ; many perlflied
by famine, as the whole army fubfifled chiefly on roots and

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berries, or the flefh of horfcs, killed by the emperor'*
order and dlllributed amonp- the feveral battalions ; many
were drowned in brooks, fwolu by the exccfllve rain, which,
in palling them, thev were obliged to wade up to the chin ;
and not a few were killed by the enemy, who, during the
Tivatell part of their retreat, alarmed, hardifcd :ind annoyed
them night and day. At lall they arrived at Metafuz ; and
here they were fupplicd with plenty of provilion, and cheered
with tiic profpect of fufety. When the forces were em-
barked, a new llonii arofe, which by its fury fcattered the
fleet, and obliged tliens, feparately, to make towards lucii
ports in Spain or Italy as they could firll reach. The em-
peror himfclf, after eicaping great danger, and being forced
into the port of Bugia, in Africa, where he was obliged by
contrary winds to remain feveral weeks, arrived at latt in
Spain in a very diilrefled condition.

HalTan, the bafliaw of Algiers, after this fignal deliver-
ance, undertook an expedition againlt Muley Hammed, jb
king of Tremecen, who had iubmitted to Charles V.,- in jH
order to be reftored to his kingdom ; but this prince pur- '
chafed peace for a large fum of money, and became his tri-
butarjr. Soon after this expedition Haflau died in the 66th
year of his age, and was fucceedcd by Haji, who was com-
pelled to furrender his dignity, much refpeiled as he was by
the Algerines, to Haflan, the fon of Hayradin, the brother
of Barbarofla, whom Sultan Solyman had been prevailed
upon to appoint bafliaw of Algiers. HalFan was engaged
in various enterprifes againlt Tremecen, which was at lengtli
taken and plundered by the Algerines ; and the head of
Abdallah, the youngefl: fon of the Sheriff, who had been
killed in a previous engagement, was put into an iron cage,
and placed on the principal gate of the city, called Bah
A/.oun, where it continued till the year 157,^. During an
interval of peace, Haffan ercfted fome public edifices at
Algiers, and performed other ufeful aCts both at Algiers and
in his alcaydefliip of Tenez, which rendered his government
popular, and his death an occafion of regret. His fucceffor
was Salha Rais, the fifth bafliaw of Algiers, and the firll of
Arabian extract, that ever governed the Algerines. Of this
bafliaw, who was much refpefted, and who died in the 70th
year of his age, it is faid, that he was fteady in all his refo-
lutions and fuccefsful in all his enterprifes. From Metafuz,
where he died, his body was removed to Algiers and buried
among thebaftiaws, his prcdeceffors, in a fepulchre near the
fea-fide, over which his unfortunate fucceffor, Haffan Corfo,
caufed a handfome dome to be ereiited. Corfo, who was
advanced to the dignity of bafliaw by the intereft of the
Janizaries, was difplaced in four months by Tekelli, a
principal Turk of tfie grand Siguier's court. He was at
firll oppofed by the Algerines, but at lall they were under
a neceffity of fubmitting to him. One of the firll aiSts of
Ills government was to condemn Corfo, who welcomed him
on his arrival, and peaceably furrepdered his dignitv, to the
chinhun, or hook ; a dreadful punilhment, on which he hung
by the ribs three whole days, and expired in the moll exqui-
fite torture. Alifardo, governor of Bugia, who was rec-
koned immenfely rich, alfo fell a facrifice to the inexorable
Tekelli, who, after infliiling the cruel tortures of baftina-
doing, burning and fcarifying him, in order to obtain a
difcovery of his wealth, ordered him to be impaled alive.
This att of cruelty and the ignominious punifiiment of Corfo,
raifed a general refentmcnt among the Janizaries. Yufef,
govenior of Tremecen, determined likcwife to revenge his
death ; and at a time when the plague raged furioufly at
Algiers, and Tekelli had removed to an old demolifhcd town
near the fea, about five miles weftward, he fecrelly and

fpeedily

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fpcedlly marclied to the place of his vctu'cment, bi-forc Te-
kcUi had any apprchcnluin of Iiiidefigii. Tcktlli flfd, and
was clofdy piul'ucd by Yufcf, who at length overtook liim
and pierced him fevcra! times with his javelin, till he expired.
This aftion was highly applauded by all the Janizaries ; and
upon YufePs entering into Algiers, he was received with
wniverfal acclamation, as their deliverer from the tyranny of
Tekelli, who fella juft facrifice to his avarice and crnelty, in
th.e yoth year of his age and third month of his viceroylliip.
Yiifef was imaiiimoudy chofcii bafliaw of Algiers, but foon
died, to the great grief of the Algerines, by whom he was
b\iricd in the fame grave with the unfortunate Haflan Corfo.
The new viceroy appointed by the Porte was HalTan, the
fon of Hayradia, who had been difplaced by Selha Rais, at
the inftigation of Rattan, and who had now the good fortune
to be reilored to his Algerine government. His hrlt enter-
prile was direfted againft Tremccen, in which he was de-
feated with great lofs. The next year proved more glorious
to the Algerines, who encountered the Spaniards in their
expedition againft Moftagan, under- the command of the
brave count d'Alcandela. The caufe of this defeat was the
count's excefs of valour, or rather his precipitance, in en-
gaging the enemy before he received the fupply of troops
that were deftined to this fervice ; and the coni'cquence was
the lofs of his ov>'n life, the total rout of his army, and the
captivity of above 12,000 Spaniards, among whom was
the fon of the count, and many other noblemen and
gentlemen.

Haffan, after this victory, returned to Algiers, laden
with laurels and fpoils. His next expedition was direfted
agaiiift Abdalazis, prince of the Beni Abbas, who inhabited
the mountains, and who had difcontinued to pay the ufual
tribute to the Algerine Ihite. Having for this piu'pofe col-
lefted a Inrge army, he commenced the war, which was foon
terminated by the death of Abdalazis, in confequcnce of a
muflcet-ball, which penetrated his breaft. About this time
the Marfilian merchants beg:ui, with the permiiTion of
HalTan, to built a fort 9n thcfe coafts, at a fmall diftance
from Calle, where the French have fince fettled ; but the
fort was in a few years demolifhed by the Algerine forces,
under pretence that the French had bought all the com, and
caufed a famine in their kingdom.

Haflan, having married the king of Cuco's daughter,
permitted the fubjefts of this pi-ince to purchafe ammimition
at Algiers ; and this traffic gave fuch offence, that the Ja-
nizaries made an infurredlion, feized on the bafliaw and fome
other officers, and fent them in irons to Conftantino])le, ac-
cufing Haffan to the Porte of having a defign to make him-
felf king of Algiers. Upon their arrival, they vindicated
their conduft to the fatisfaftion of the Porte, and were fet
at liberty ; but a new viceroy was fent to Algiers. The
name of this balhaw was Ahamed, or Achmet ; he was a
favourite of the Sultan, and iufatiably avaricious ; and had
bought his dignity with a view to the emoluments that were
likely t^o accrue from it. He enjoyed it, however, only four
months ; and Haffan was reftored. Such was the joy of
the Algerines on his return, that even the women appeared
on the terraces and balconies to welcome him. Having
collefted a very numerous and powerful army and fleet, he
fet out on his expedition againft Marfa al Qulbbir ; intend-
ing, after the reduflion of this place, to attempt that of
Auran or Oran. This city was commanded by the count
d'Alcandela, who fucceeded his father ; and the former by
his brother Don Martin de Cordova, who had obtained his
liberty at an immenfe fum, and now made a moll gallant de-
fence againfl the Turks. Haffan, after having made fevcral

vigorous attacks both by fea and land, and fuTcriiig feveral
repulfes, very fatal to his troops, was oblige<l to retire pre-
oipitately from the fiege by the approach of the Gcnocfc •
admiral Doria, who was advancing with a po\vcrftil fiiccour
from Genoa, Naples and Sicily. This ChriHian armada
having milTed its aim of intercepting the Algerine gallics,
bore away tor Pennon de Vclez, hoping to drive thcin out
of that harbour, but it was fhamefnlly repulfcd by a few
Turks that were then in garrifon and compelled to fail away
with no fmall lofs and ignominy. The lofs of this jihec m
the courfe of the next year was much regretted by the Al-
gerines and their bafliaw, and alio by Sultan Sulvman.
Haiian was dilplac-d by Mahanied bafliaw, the fon of 'Stlh.i
Rais ; and departed for Conltanlinople, where, three year.*
after, vi:r.. in 1570, he died in the 50th year of his age.
Mahamed, upon his firft arrival, performed feveral public-
fpiritcd ads, which attached to him the love of all the Al-
gerines. Whilft he was confulting how to advance tine
Algerine power and wealth, a Spanifh adventurer, named
Gaicon, was meditating a defign againft him. This was no-
thing lefs than to lurprife the whole piratical navy in the bay,
and to fet all the fliips on fh-e in the dead of the night. For
this puqiofe he i)btained the pcrmillion of king Piiilip IJ.
and a fupply of all neceffaiT vedels and materials. Having
advanced to the Mole-gate, and difpcrfed his men with their
hre-works, the garrifon, during the delay of the execution
of his plot, was alarmed, and Gafcon was under a necefTitv
of fecuring himfelf by flight ; but being purfued and over-
taken, he was brought back to Algiers; and the bafliaw or-
dered a gibbet of confidei-able height to be ercfted on th^
fpot where he landed, on which he was hoilted, and hung
by the feet, that he might die in the moft cxquiilte torture (
and as an infult on his matter, the king's commifTion was
fattened to his toes. Soon after he was iufpcnded, a ftrong
reprefentation was made in his favour, and in a little while
the bafliaw ordered him to be taken down. This lenity of
the battiaw occalioned great mumiurs among the people ;
and the unhappy Gafcon was ordered to be hoiftcd up by a
pully to the top of the execution wall and let down agaiu
upon the chinhun or hook, which occafioned his inilant
death ; and his body was hung up in ten-orem. This unfuc-
ccfsful projeft of Gafcon has procured for hiin a place
among the Spanifli martyrs. Mahamed, after enjoying his
government for about 14 months, was removed in order to
make way for the acceffion of the Corfair Hali Fartaz, or
Scald-head, commonly known by the name of Ochali, who
was appointed his fucceftcir by the Ottoman court. Ochali
arrived at Algiers in 1586, when the war againft the revolted
Morefcoes in Granada was at its height. Being folicitcd to
aflill them againft the Spaniards, he confentcd that fome icw
perfons fhould go tothis fervice as volunteers, but he declined
taking any oftenfible and adtive part in it. In the firil year
of his government, he laid the foundation of the fortrcf*
called Bebal-weyd Cattle. Next year he totally reduced the
kingdom of Tunis, which was then under the protedion of
Spain, to the obedience of the Ottoman f nipire. Having
continued a whole year at Tunis, lie left llie place, and
afTigned the office of his viceroy to a Sardinian rcnegado,
named Ramadan Sardo, v.-lio became afterwards bafliaw of
Algiers. This pcrfon railed himfelf from the condition of
a flave to this dignity, by his fuperior underftanding and good
conduft. He became matter of the Arabic and Turkiih
language; read and wrote well ; and having followed traf^c
for foine time, he was adopted, on account of his gooil
qualities, by Hali bafliaw, w1k> appointed him his deputy go-
vernor ill the city of Fez ; and in coafequence of the ap-
7 plication

A L G

plication of the Algerincs in his favour to tlie Sdlton, he
\v IS appointed balhaw of Algiers. In 1577, after governing
Algiers little more than three years, he was forced to rclign
his office to HaOan Vencdic bafhaw, a Venetian rencgado.
During the wiiole government of Ramadan, it was conducted
with fo much jufticc and equity, that a fingle complaint was
not uttered againft it. The conduA of his fucceflbr was
very dih'erent ; his adminillration was fo oppreiTive, tliat
complaints being prefeiTed againft him to the Torte, he was
recalled, after being in office three years and a qviarter ; and
a new bafliaw, Jaffer A^a, an Hungarian rencgado, ap-
pointed in his room, A. D. 1580. At the commencement
of his g-overnmcnt, Algiers was reduced to the grcatell mi-
fery by^a famine, fo that Scco Arabians and Moors are laid
to have died in the llreets fi>r want in fix weeks, chiefly
th'ough the avarice of Jailer's prcdeceflor, who quitted his
adminillration with immenfe wealth nmidfl the execrations of
the people. Jaffer was of a generous difpofition, and did
everv thing in his power to relievo and mitigate the diftrefs
of the country- ; he alfo exercifed ftrift juflice againft thofe
who abufed the power wn'th which they were entrufted. A
plot, however, was formed againft him ; bat the execution
of it was prevented by forac of the principal officers of the
janizaries to whom it was propofed : who declared, that
they would prefer being cut in pieces to the ignominy of
pr ving trailoi-s to the .Sultan, and his worthy Jaffer Aga.
By the inconftaney of the Ottoman court Jaffer was dil-
placed, and the infamous Haffan reftored to the dignity of
bafliaw. He clofed his life at Conftantinople by poifon,
adminiftcred to him by the renegado Cigala, who fucceeded
him in the poft of captain baihaw. The new balhaw of
Algiers was Memmi Arnaud, an Albanian. This officer
exhibited fignal proofs of his great capacity and ftrict juftice ;
and gave much fatisfaftion, not only to the Algerines, but
to thofe Chriftian merchants who traded with them. During
his adminiftraticn, A. D. 1585, Morat Rais ventured to fail
tlirough the Straits of Gibraltar into the Atlantic, and
thence to the Canaries, and h» was the firft of the Barbary
Corfairs who engaged in an expedition of this kind. After
a government of tv/o years, ^lemmi was fucceeded in 1586
by the rapacious Achmed, who purchafed the vicei-oylhip
of Algiers for a large fv.m, and exercifed his government by
violent extortions. His fucccifor Hidir gained the office by
the fame means, and condufted it in a manner lo haughty
and tyrannical, that the Algerines were made very happy by
his recall in 1592 ; but fuch was his intercll with the Porte,
that after a ftiort interval he was nominated baftiaw a fecond
time, to the great concern and mortification of the Algerines.
Mnftapha fucceeded in difplacing this arbitrary and rapacious
tyrant, and fecurcd the affectionate attachment of the people
by his courteoufnefs and generofity ; though nothing remark-
able happened, during his adminiilrntion, excepting tliat he
repaired the mole, fortifications, and other public buildings.

At the beginning of the 17th century the Algerines
Complamed to the Porte in very ftrong terms of remonilrance
of ttie oppreffive couduft of the Turkifh viceroys, and in
confequence of this remonftrance obtained leave to chufe
their own Deys. They engaged, that the ufual tribute
(hould be faithfully tranfmitted to the Porte ; to acknow-
ledge the grand Signior fen- their fovereign ; to be ready
on all occaiions to affift hun with their forces and ftiip-
pmg ; to pay a due refpeft to his bifhaws, and to
maintain them in a manner fuitable to their dignity ; pro-
vided that the government of Algiers fliould be wholly
committed to the direftion of theDcyand his douwan. The
great douwan proceeded to the election of a Dey from their
own body, and to enaft a variety of laws and regulations

AL G

for the better maintenance of this new form of govemmenf .
7'his centur)-, however, opened with a frcfh attempt of the
Spaniards on the capital of this kingdom, under the conduft
of the famous John Andrew Doria, but the event of it, in
confequence of adverfe winds, VN'as unfuccefsful. The Al-
gerines, in order to counteratl: thefe renewed attempts, de-
termined to direft their attention to the improvement of
tlieir navy ; and in 161 6 they had fo far fucceeded, that it
confiftcd of 40 fail of ihips, of between 200 and 400 tons,
divided into two fquadrons ; one of 18 fail lay before the
port of Malaga, and the other, wiihout the Straits, at the
cape of Santa Maria, between I-ifbon and Seville, where they
attacked all Chriftian ihips, without diftinftion, that came
in their way, and rendered themfelves fonnidable to all the
maritime ftates of Chriftendom. The French were the fivd
who dared lo refent this contemptuous breach of treaty ;
and M. Beaulicu was fent with ?. fleet of 50 fail of men of
war and gallies agxinft the Algerines; but upon his departure,
they returned to their accuitomed depredalions on the Spa-
nirti eoafts, which, being bcft known by the expelled Mo-
I'elcocs, were expofed to all the barbarity and refentmcnt of
tliefe exafperated infidels. In 1620, in confequence of the
earneft folicitations of the Spanifh court, by means of Gon-
demar, an Englifh fquadron was fent into the Mediterranean,
under the conduct of Admiral Sir Robert Manfel. He di- —J
reded his courfe to the bay of Algiers, and attempted to jf}
fct fire to the fliipping in the harbour, but returned without
doing much damage. As foon as he retired, the Algeriiie
Corfiiirs put to lea, and made prize of about 40 good fhips
belonging to the fubjecls of the Englifh fovereign. With
all the European powers, except the Dutch, the Algerincs
were at open defiance : but to them they fent a propofal,
A. D. 1625, addreffcd to the prince of Orange, that if they-
would fit out 20 fail of fhips to be employed in the next
year againft the Spaniards, they would join them with 60
fail ; but the propofal was not accepted. In the next year
the Collogies, or Couiolies, /. e. the children of fuch Turks
as had been permitted to marry at Algiers, formed a con-
fpiracy, and fcized on the citadel of Algiers, and had very
nearly made themfelves mafters of that ftate. The plot was
difcovered, and the infurgents were defeated with great
flaughter. About two years after this confpiracy, the Al-
gerine ftate underwent a memorable change, by which they
became foon after able to fliake off the Ottoman yoke, and
to become an independent ftate imder their own Deys.

The occafionof this revolution was a truce for 25 years,
which Amurath IV. had concluded with the emperor Fer-
dinand II. This truce was univerfally difapproved by the
Larbary Corfairs ; and by none more than the Algermes,
who were become haughty and opulent in confequence of
their gainful depredations on the Chriftians for the laft three
years. They and their neighbours unanimoudy refolved, to
fet up for three independent ftates, and to conUder them-
felves as wholly unconcerned in any treaties which were
made by the Porte with any Chriftian power. Having
adopted this refolution, the Algerines began to make prizes
of feveral fhips belonging to powers at peace with the Otto-
man Porte, and even purfued fome of them to the port of
Rhodes and carried them off". They did the fame at Salamis,
in the ifle of Cypres, and at Alexandretta, they not only
feized a Dutch fhip and a polacre, but ventured on fhore,
plundered the magazines and vvarehoufes, and then fet them
on fire. They alio drove the I'Vench away from a new fort,
called the baftion of France, which Louis XIII. depending
on his league with the Turks, had erefted on their eoafts, A
inftead of that which had been formerly conftru£ted by the S
Mari'iliaus. The Porte confidered thefe depredations as open

inftaaces

i

A L C

inflance? of defiance to liis autlionty ; but ."5 li< r.a.', n.nch
occi'piod by the Penlan war and other dilliirbances in the
Halt, his grand vi/.irand courtiers were allowed to compound
with theic piraten, by fliarinij their fpoils. Havinjf, for
form fake, reprimanded and threatened them, they returned
an inloleiit reply, declaring that tiiev were the only bulwark
againll the Spaniards, who were the fwoni enemies of the
Moflcm imme, and that if they paid a punctilious regard to
every circumftancc that could procure peace or liberty to
trade with the Ottoman empire, they mull fct fire to all their
fliipping, and become mere camel-drivers in order to obtain a
fubiillence. Accordingly the Algeriues purfued their piiatical
cxcurfions at lea lor many years with impunity. Amongll
other enterprifes in which they engaged, they lurprifcd tlio
bailion of France upon their own coail, containing about 600
inhabitants, whom, with all ti\eir cfFeds and (liips, they carried
off to Algiers. In the courfe of the following year they fitted
out a fleet, with which they ranged the fcas and fei/ed all
the Chrillian ibipping that fell in their Way ; and thev even
meditated an attack upon Loretto, which would have proved
a great prize. But in this objecl they were prevented from
fucceedmgby contrary winds ; howevtr they made a defccnt
on Pnglia, in the kingdom of Naple;, where they made
captives of both fexes, and ileering towards Dalmatia, they
fcoured the Adriatic, and loading thomfelves with im-
menfe plunder, left tliofe coafts in the utinoll conllernation.
The Venetians, alarmed at their depredations, equipped a
powerful fleet of 28 fail, under the command of Admiral
Capello, who had orders to burn, fink, and take all the
Barbary corfairs, wherever lie found them. The Algerine
admiral was overtaken by this fleet ; and an obltir.ate conflift
cnfued, which terminated in the defeat of the Algcrines ;
but CapeUo was recalled, and the republic were under a ne-
ceffity of purchafing peace with the Porte, at the expence
of 500,000 ducats. The news of this defeat and lofs,
which were owing to the avarice of the Algerine admiral,
filled Algiers witii iiiexprefTible grief and confufion, and the
whole city was prejiaring for a general infurrection ; but it
was prevented by a proclamation of the bafhawanddouwan,
who expreisly prohibited all complaints under the feverell
penalties. Application was made to the Porte for an order,
that the Venetians, fettled in the Levant, (hould indemnify
them for tlie lofs they had fullained. Their requell; was re-
iedled, and they were under a necefUty of repairing their
lofles at their own charge. One of their corfairs loon landed
with a frefh fupply of 600 (laves of both fexes, which he
had brought fro.-u the coait of Jceland. In two years after
this difafter, the Algcrines appeared at fea with a llrongcr
and more numerous fleet than they had ever equipped before.
This fleet, confilling of 65 fail, befides other gallies and in-
ferior veficls, performed many exploits in diflercnt parts of
the Mediterranean, which our limits will not allow us to
recount. It is fuflicient to obferve, that the Algcrines be-
came quickly more powerful and more formidable than ever
to the European powers, and plundered the lubjeCts of
England, France jnid Holland. As for Spain, Portugal
and Italy, they determined never to make any peace with
them, as they were fworn enemies to the iSlaiiometan religion.
In this height of power and grandeur, v/hich the Algerine
ftate had attained, the Englilh, French and Dutch weie
glad to fecure peace with it at any rate. About the latter
end of the reign of Charlco 11. the Britith nation obtained
from the Algcrines that lalting alliance, which, v.ith fonie
renewals, additions, and alterations, hath fubliiled to this
day. The outrages committed by them on the coafts of
Provence and Langucdoc, induced Louis XIV. to equip a

A L G

coiifideiable fleet, and the command of it was alligned to thf
marquis l)u (^ucine, vice-;'dmi,al of France. Sailing to
their capital, he bombarded and cannonaded it with lucli
fury, that in a little time the whole town was in flames, aiirf
the terrified inhabitauts were preparing to leave the place ;
but the wind fuddenly changing, he was obliged to return
for Toulon. When the llorm lubfided, the douwan alTeu'.-
blcd and ordered a fleet of gallies and galliots to fail imme-
diately for the coulls of Provence, where they coinmittnl
dreadful ravages. The French ajiprifcd of tliis outrage,
fitted out a new amiament at Toulon and Marfeilles ; and
the Algcrines repaired their walls and fortified the town, iii
Older to be readv for their expefted attack. In May 1683,
the French fquadron cail anchor before Algiers, as it wai
determined to bombard tiietou-ii, and the execution of their
purpofc was attended with dreadful havoc. Upon this the
whole government of the town fued for peace ; but lome
delay having taken place with regard to the fuiTcndcr of
captives, holtilities were renewed ; and the greatcll part of
the city was reduced to afiies, and the fire burnt with fucli
vehemence, that the fea was enlightened by it to thedillance
of above two leagues. The Algerine commander, in the
midll of this Icene, caufed all tiie French who were in the
town to be crueliy butchered, and ordered their conful to be
failened alive to the mouth of a mortar, and (liot againll
their navy inllead uf a bomb. The French admiral, exaf-
perated by this unheard of inftance of inhumanity, did not
leave Algiers, till he had utterly dellroycd all their (hipping,
fortifications, buildings, and, indeed, almofl all the lower
part, and above two-thirds of the ujvpir part of the city.
After his departure the Algcrines ferioufly tliought of pro-
curing a peace with France ; and for this purpofe they de-
puted an amba{rador to fupplicate }):irdon for the murder
of the conful, which they attributed to the populace, and
to fue for peace. The fpcech of their envoy on this occa-
fion was a mafterly addrcfs. The rtfiilt of their fubmifTion.
■was a ratification of the peace at Paris in the courfe of the
following year : upon which the Dey and douwan proceed-
ed to repair the dreadful dilapidations which the metropolis
had fuffered. In 16S6, the Algerines concluded a treaty of
peace with England, which was renewed in the fecoiid year
of James II. and in the fecond year of King William's reign,
and again in the reign of George II. when all fonner trea-
ties with the Algcnue Republic were ratified. The only
remedy to which recmirfe has been had for the occafional
violations of this treaty has' been that of making reprifals,
inilanoes of which have freqiie;;tly occurred. Rut it was
not till after the capture of Gibraltar and Port Mahon, by
Sir George Rookc, that Great Britain could have a luf-
ficient check upon them to oblige them to the obfcnation of
treaties ; and iincc this period they have been accullomed to
pay a greater deference to the Englilh than to any other
European power. In the year 1708 the Algerines retook
from the Spaniards the city of Oi-an, and «'ere at great pains
to ilrengthen it with new fortifications ; but uotwithlland-
ing thcfe prccauljons, it \^■as retaken in 1 737. The year
1710 was fignally propitious to Algiers, upon feveral ac-
counts ; as, firil, the afTufunation of their worthkfs Dey
Ibraliim, furnamed the Madman ; zdly, the eleftion of the
brave Hali to the throne ; and, ^dly, the expuUlon of the
Turkifli bafliaw, the abolifiiment of that dignity by the cou-
rage and addrcfs of the new Dey, and the unijm of that of-
fice with that of the Dey. This introduced that fonn of
government which (lill I'ubfills in Algiers. Mod. Un. Hill,
vol. XV. p. I — 93. Robcrtfoir s Ilift. of Ch. V. p. 98 — lOO.
p. a39-.,8. ^^^

A L G

The Government cf the Algerines confifts of the Dey, who
iiiav be compared to tlic former Dutch Statkholders, and of
a iiuwarif or Cotr.uion Council. The Dcv is cliofen out
bt the army ; rach order, cvtu the moll inferior, having an
equil right and title to that dignity with the highell. Ewry
bold and afpiring foldier, however obfcure his origin, may
be coufidertd as the heir apparent to the throne ; nor does
he wait for his acccffioQ till tickncfs or old age fliall have rc-
n'.ovr.d the prtfent vuler, provided that he can protcft him-
filf by the fame fcyiretar v.hich he plunges into the bread
v( his prcdtecfror. Accordingly the fucccffion at Algiers
has been ufually vtiy rapid ; and Dr. Shaw obfervcs, that
fcarctly one in ten has had the good fortune to die in his
b«d ; and thole who have enjoyed their power for a longer
period, have fecurcd it, not fo much by the attachment and
good will of tlie people, as by their own fagacily in perceiv-
ing the firft tendency of an infurre(ftion ; and by their abi-
lity to check it by the death of the confpiiators before they
have had an opportitjiity for accomplifliing their defigns.
This faftious and difcontented luiniour has, however, in fomc
degree fubfidcd, and the power of the Dey is more perma-
nent than it ufed to be, though he is Hill liable to be de-
prived of it by unforefeen r.bellion, arifing from trivial cir-
cumilances, and unavoidable ad'adlnation. The whole body
of the mihtia is concerned in the clcdtion of a new Dey, and
tveiy perfon, however low his rank, claims a right of voting.
Every eleftion is of courfe generally attended with tumult,
and fometimes with ferious contefts and blooddicd. When
the choice is determined, the perfon elefted is faluted with
words which fignify, " God blcfs, or profpor you ;" and
he if; then invciled with the kaftan, orinfignia of fovcreignty,
whiUl the Cadi, or Chief Judge, addrefles hira with a con-
gratulatoiy fpeeeh, and an exhortation to govern with equity,
and to maintain the liberty, and promote the welfare of his
fabjefts. The tloiiiL'jn, or divan, at firft confilled of about
800 military officers, without v.'hofe eounfel and confent the
Dey could not act ; and on extraordinary occafions, all the
officers that rcfided at Algiers, amounting to above 1 500,
were fummoued to aflift. But fince the Deys have become
more powerful and independent, the douwan is principally
compofed of thirty yiah-bafhaws, with the mufti and cadi,
upon fome emergencies ; and upon the eledlion of a new
Dey, the whole foldier}-, as we have obferved, are allowed to
give their votes. Of late the douwan is little regarded ; it
is, indeed, formally convened, for the purpofe of fanftioning
ineafurea prcvioufiy concerted betwixt the Dey and his fa-
vourites ; fo that, in effecl, the whole power is lodged in one
perfon. The next officer in dignity and power to the Dey
is the Jga, a general of the Janizaries, who is one of the
oldeft officers of the army, and enjoys his poll for two
months, and is fuccceded by the chiali, or next fcnior officer,
or cldeil yiah-ba(haw. During thefe two months, the keys
of the metropolis are in his cullody ; all military orders are
iffued in his name, and the fentence of the Dey upon any fol-
dier that has offended, is executed in the court of his palace.
When he is dilplaced, he is confidered as //nizoul, or fuperan-
nuated, and receives his pay, and is occafionally fummoned
to alTiil with his advice, but not with his vote, at the grand
i-ouncil. The next officer to tlie aga is the fecretary of flate,
who regillers all public ads; and next to him are 24 or 30
fhia-balTiaws, or chief colonels, from wliom are commonly
thofen ambaffadors to foreign courts, or rnciTengers, to incul-
cate the orders of the Dey through the realm. Next to thefe
ar^ the bolluk-badiaws, or eldeil captains ; after them the ol-
dah-baihaws, or lieutenants, 400 in number ; and other mili-
tary officers are vakelards, or purveyors of the army, peys and
foulaks. The officers now enumerated, compofe the dou-

A L G

wan. The ilrcngth of this kingdom cotifiils of its land and
fea f(n-ces. Its ftrong cities are few, and it has fewer gar-
rifons, which are weakly fortified and guarded. Dr. Shaw,
in 1732, computed the whole force of Algiers to be 6,500
military Turks and Coloulits, 2,000 of whom were cxcufed
from duty, 1,000 employed in reheving garrilbns, and tl:c
rell affigntd to their cruizing vcli'tls, or forming the three
flying camps which, eve.ry fummer, attend the provincial
viceroys. To the Turkifh ti'oops may be added about 2, coo
zwowah, as the Moorilh horfe and foot are called. 1'he de-
ficiency of their army is fupplied by recruits colltfted by
their crulfing veffcls once in tive or fix years, in the Levant :
and thefe arc commonly fliepherds, outlaws, and perfons of
the lowcll condition. Befides thele, the Dey, on occafions
of emergency, enrols the cologlics, or coloulies, who are
the fons of fuch feldiers as have been permitted to marrj' at
Algiers ; but thefe are dangerous perfons, and are not much
encouraged, and when they are admitted into the army, they
are excluded from the honour of being Dey, aga of the Ja-
nizaries, and other confidcrable offices and employments.
The officers of the Algerii*e army are the aga or general, 30
chia-bafiiaws or colonels, Soo bolluk-bafhas or captains, and
about 400 oldah-badiaws or lieutenants : and thefe feveral
polls are attained, not by money or interell, but by feniority.
The pay of the army is very fniall, the youngeft foldier re-
ceiving only 406 afpers every two months, and the oldeft, or
thofe in full pay, no more than 5,800, of which 696 make
a dollar. The whole army, therefore, with I'egard to its de-
mands upon the government, maybe reduced to about 3,500,
fo that a fum, leis than 200,000 dollars, or betwixt 30 and
40,0001. of our money, will defray its expence. Befides the
pay, thofe chiahandboUuk-bafiiaws, that arc unmarried', have
each eight loaves of bread a day, and the oda-bafhaws aad
private foldiers, of the fame condition, have four ; each loaf
being about five ounces in weight, and three afpers in value.
In their battles or engagements, the ipahies or cavalry, are
of little fervice ? their principal dcptr.dance is en the in-
fantry. Their fighting is always at a dillance ; fm.all parties,
or platoons, contiiuially advancing in full career from the
main body ; and after they have difcharged their fire-arms,
or their javelins, they as fpeedily retreat, and make way fcr
others : and hence it happens, that if a few perfons are kill-
ed, the battle is called bloody.

The naval force of Algiers is more formidable than its
army. It commonly confiils of 20 fhips ; one of which be-
longs to the governm.ent, and is affigned to the admiral ;
but all the reil belong to private perfons. The Corfairs,
though they are not allowed any concern in the affairs of
flate, nor in the eleftion of the Dey, are held in great ef-
teem, on account of the prizes they continually bring ii;,
which are one main fource of the public revenue, and the
means of procuring them refpedl from the Chriftian powers-
for the fecnrity of their trade. The government claims an
eighth part of all the prizes, flaves, cargo and veflTel ; the
reft being divided amongft the proprietors and fhip's com-
pany. Paffengers are entitled to a (hare in their prizes. All
the officers of the (hips muft be either Turks or Coloulies ;
the Moors not being allowed to come upon th.e quarter-deck,
or into the gun-room, unlefs they are fent for : but' Chril'-
tian flaves are permitted to aft as fcamen or inferior officers,
and allowed a fiiare according to their abilities and beha-
viour. The Dey of Algiers pays no other revenue to the
Porte than a certain number of fine boys, or youths, and
fome other annual prefents. His own income is varioufiy
computed ; fome eftimating it at 40,000 ducats, whilil
otlitrs raii'e it to 400,000, and others to 600,000. Dr. Shaw
computes the yearly taxes of the whole kingdom at 300,000

dollars ;

A L G

daUars ; but he Aippofcs ihat the eighth part of tlic pii/.cs,
the eflcc\s of perfoiis who ilic without chilJicn, coiili ibutions
from the dillii<;\K, together with prcfcnts from foreigners,
fmes and opprefiloiis, may pioducc as much more.

Tiic commerce of Algiers is principally carriv.d on by
their corfairs or pirates, and with this view it is certainly the
iuterefl of the AJgeriucs to be at war with thofe nations that
trade in the Mediterranean ; bocaufe they have always foiiiid
that the balance of the captures made bv them was greatly
on their fide, both with regard to number and value ; and
without fuch a conftant fu])ply, their (late could not fupport
itlelt, or pi-eveiit the moil dangerous infurrections. On the
other hand, all the maritime powers in Europe willi to be
at peace with the Algerines. Nevcrth.elefs, free Chriftians,
Jews, native or foreign, Arabians and Moors, are permitted
to excrcife a free commerce both by fea and land, together
with other tnides and manufactures in filk, cotton, wool,
leathei", and other commodities. Thefe, however, are moflly
carried on by the Spaniards, that are fettled in this king-
dom, and efpecially near the metropolis. Carjitts alfo con-
ftitute a manufacture of this country, though inferior to
thofe of Turkey. There are alfo at Algiers looms for vel-
vet, taffaties, and other wrought filks, and a coarfe kind of
linen is alfo made in moft parts of the kingdom. Few of
their commodities or prududs are lent into fjreign markets ;
their oil, wax, hides, pulle ajid corji, being barely fufficient to
fupply the country- : although wliilll grain was in poflcffion
of the Algerines, the F.nghlh merchants Ibipped from theuce
fevcn or eight tliouland ton of wheat and barley ever)- year.
Their other exports eondll chiefly of ollrieh feathers, wax,
hides, wool, copper, rags, filk failles, embroidered handker-
chiefs, dates, and Chriilian (laves. Their imports conlift
chiefly of gold and filver Huffs, damaflcs, cloths, fpices, tin,
iron, plated brafs, lead, quickfdvcr, cordage,fail-cloth5, bul-
iets, linen, cochineal, tartar, alum, rice, fugar, foap, cotton,
raw or fpun, copperas, aloes, brazil and logwood, vermilion,
arfenic, gum, tar, fulphur, opium, anife and cummin feed,
maflic, farfaparilla, afpic, frankincenfe, galls, honey, paper,
combs, cards, dried fruits, and a variety of woollen Huffs.
But of thefe a fmall qiuntity is imported by the merchants,
though there is a conftant demand for them, on account of
heavy duties, frequent exactions, precarious payments, and
uncertam returns. Thev arc alfo fumirtied by the Englirti
«onful with powder, balls, bombs, fire-arms, cordage, and
other naval ftores ; as the countrj- furniflies no materials for
fhip-building.

The coin of Algiers is moftly foreign ; their own being
only of three kinds, viz. the barba ot copper, bearing the
arms of the country on both fides, fix of which were for-
merly wortli an afper, but now only half that value ; the
afpcr, or fqnare piece of filver, with Arabic charaftcrs on
each fide, 15 of which make a Spanifh rial, and 24 a dupta,
worth about a crown ; and gold coin of three forts, coined
xjnly at Tremecen, viz. the rupee, worth 35 afpcrs, the me-
dian^ 5O) and the zian or dian, 100. I'efidcs thefe, the
Turkiih fukanins of gold, worth about a ducat, the moti-
cales of Fez, worth about 22 pence, the Spanilh rials,
Frencti crowns, Hungarian ducats, and other European
money, are current among them ; but without any fixed
ftand:(rd. The, ellabliflied Ipeeies here is the patacachica,
•or pataea of afpers, an ideal fum like the Englllh pound,
worth always 232 afpers, the third part of a pataea gorda,
commonly of the weight of two and a-half piftolcs, which
weight is raifcd or lowered at the pleafnie of the Dey, or
accordmg to the exigence of the government. The filver
mint at Algiers is under tlie fuperintendence of the Jews,
for which they pay a yearly fum to the Dcy.

Vol. I.

A L G

The religion of the Algerines differs from that of the
Turks only in their adopting a greater variety of fupcifti-
tions. 'I'hey acknowledge the Koran as tlie rule of their
faith and piactiee, but are remifs in the oblcrvancc of it.
They have three principal oflicer;, who picfide in rcligioui
matters, vi-i. the Mufti, or High Prieil ; the Cadi, orChiet"
Judge in ecelefiailieal, and fomc other concerns, civil and mi-
litaiy, that are referred to liim, and the grand Marabout.
Thefe three ofhcers have their feats in the great douwan
next under the Dey, and on his right hand. The cadi is
obliged to attend at the court of jullice once or twice a day,
to hear and determine complaints. But afl^airs of moment
are fubmitted to the Dey, or, in his ablenee, to the trea-
furer, mafter of the horfe, or other principal officers of the
regency, who Jit in the gale of the palace, according to a
cuilom recognized in Scripture (Deut. xxii. 15. xxv. 7.
If. xxix. 21. Amos V. 10. Dan. ii. 49.) for that pui-pofe.
The caufe is thus quickly decided, and fentcnce executed in
lefs than an hour. In cafes of debt, the deljtor is ufually
detained in prifon till the bailiff fcizc his effects and fell them ;
after falc, it there be an overplus, it is returned to tlie pii-
foner ; if the amount falL (liort, he is releafed, and no further
demands are made upon him. The ballinado, wliich is in-
ilifted with fmall flicks about the fize of the finger, which
are brought in bundles to the place of punifhment, is the
punifhmcnt of fmall ofleiiders, and it is apj>lied to the bellv,
back, or foles of the feet, according to the nature of the
crime, or the plcafure of the judge, who likcwifc appointii
the number of llrokes to be given. For clipping or debaiing
the public coin, the old Egyptian punifhment of cutting off
the hands of the ti-anfgrefl'or is inflifted. When a Jew or
Chriftian flave, or fubjcti, is guilty of murder, or any other
capital crime, he is carried without the gates of the city, and
burnt ahve ; but the Moors and Arabs are either impaled for
the fame crime, or elfe they are hung up by the neck over the
battlements of the city walls, or elfe thrown upon the ching.
hurt, or hooks, that arc fixed over the walls below, where
fomctimes they break from one hook to another, and hang
in the moft exquifite torments, 30 or 40 hours. The Turks
are not publicly puniihed, but fent to the houfe of the Aga,
where, according to the quality of the offence, they are baf-
tinadoed or ftraiiglcd. \Vhen the women offend, they are
fent to fomc private houfe of correction ; and if the crime
be capital, as w hen they arc taken in adulter)', S:c. they arc
tied up in a fack, canied out to fea, and drowned. The
wcilcrn Moors ufe the barbarous punilliment of fawing the
body of the criminal in two. See Mattli. xxiv. 5 1. l.ukc xii.
46. Heb. xi. 37. For this purpofe they prepare two boards,
of a proper length and breadth, and having tied the cnminaj
between them, they proceed to the excculiou by beginning
at the head. A perfon of the firll rank in that country,
who had been ambaffador at the Britilli Court, was put t»
death in this maimer.

As to the population of Algiers, it is not eafily afccr-
tained ; but we may obferve in general, that it is much lefs
than in other countries of the fame extent, where arts,
fciences and iiidullry are not fo much rtftraintd. Tracts of
countiy are here uninhabited and uiicullivatcd ; not to add,
that defpotifm, want of commercial interconrfc in the inland
provinces, and the frequent ravages of the plague, contribute
to the diminution of the inhabitants. The (oil ol this coun-
try is generally fertile, and more efpecially towards the fea-
coalt and in the vallies. There are few forefls, but trafts of
thickets and brufhwood are more common. The moil woodr
part of the country, and that which fupplies the greateft
quantity of timber, is the diflriift about Bugia. Upon the
whole, the face of the country is mountainousj and in the
4 R cbaias

A L G

chains cf its mountains there are various minerals, particu-
larlj' k-ad and copp'-'r. The ftrtiHty of the foil dccrtafes in
appaiachiiig Sahara or the Defcrt, althoiigli in its borders,
and e\en in the Difcrt ititU", there are fume dlftrifts which
are eapable of cultivation, and which produce corn, figs and
dates. Thcfc rciors are inhabited by Nomadical tribes,
who, valu'ng themfelvcs on their independence, endure with
fo titudc and refignatioii, the inconveniences attending their
condition, and fcarce regret the want of tV fe advantages ar,d
comforts that pertain to a civilized ftate of fociety. The
cultivated parts of tliis country enjoy a wholcfomc and tem-
perate air j and the climate is dillinguiflicd by the equality
of its tcmpcratiire ; the liarometer indicating all the changes
cf the weather from 29, i to 30, 4, or'witliin the fpace of
1, 3 inch. The winds generally blow from the fea, or from
the well by the north to the call : thofe from the eafl ate
common at Algiers from May to September, and then the
weiberly winds "become the moll frequent. The foutherly
winds, which blow from the Sahara, are ufually hot and vio-
lent, but not frequent. When they blow for five or fix days
together in July and Augull, they are very fuflocating, and
the inhabitants fprinkle tlie floors of their rooms with water
or vinegar. The quantity of rain that annually fulls in Al-
giers is, at a medium, 27 or 28 inches ; but in this climate
little ov no niin falls in the fummtr feafon, and in mofl parts
of the Sahara they have no rain at all. The firfl rains fall
in September, and fonietimes a rr.onth later ; after v.'hith, or
about the middle of Oftober, wheat is fown and beans are
planted. Barley is fywn about the end of November. If
the latter raiiis fall, as ufual, in the midille of April, the
crop is deemed fecure ; and the harvell comes on in the end
of May cr beginning of June. The inhabitants cultivate,
not only wheat and barley, but rice, Indian corn, and a kind
of millet, called drah, which they prefer to barley in fatten-
ing their cattle, and which they are obliged to guard from
the depredation of birds, by a fcreaming noife continued
.lirough the whole day. Here they tread out their corn
after the primitive cuftoms of the Eall, by fpreat'ing the
(heaves open, and driving mules or horfts round about the
nedders or threlhing-floors. When the grain is trodden out,
they winnow it by throwing it up againil the wind with a
{hovel ; they then lodge it in tiie maltamores, or fubterraneous
magazines. Of the pulfe kiad, beans, lentils, kidney beans,
and the chich pea, are the m.oft abundant ; and of tlie roots,
herbs and fruits of the kitchen garden, they have a very con-
fiderable variety. For the zoology, ornithology, &c. of Al-
giers, fee B.'.RBARY.

The inhabitants of the Algerine flate are partly Turks,
partly Moors, and partly Chrillians and Jews. The Turks
liavebeen eftabllfhed fince the middle of the fixteenth century-;
they form the highcft rank in the country, and poflefs all the
offices and employments. According to the conilitution of
Algiers, no native can be a Turk ; he alone is regarded as a
genuine Turk, and entitled to the privileges of this clafs,
who is defcended from Mahometan parents, or born of a
Mahometan mother, in the dominions of the Grand Seig-
nior. The number of Turks at Algiers was formerly com-
puted to be from 14 to 16,000, but they are now reduced
to 9 or io,Goo; and they are reckoned, with regard to their
difpofition and charafter, ignorant, proud, indolent, vohip-
tuous, jealous and revengeful; but at the fame time faithful,
fmcere, courageous and tolerant. With ideas of fuperiority,
brought with them from their own country, and enlarged by
the privileges which are grant Qtl to them at Algiers, the
in;ane{l Tmk confiders himfclf far fupenor to the Moors,
C'hridians and Jews. Their principal enjoyment confifts in
eafe and inaftivity. BeCdcs the qualities we have already

A L G

mentioned, the Turks are noted for their avarice. It is there'-
fore proverbial, " Give a Turk money with one hand, and
he will permit Ills eyes to be plucked out by the other."
Neverlhelcfs, he is faithful to his engagements, and a flranger
to didimulatioji. With regard to thofe who do not protefs
their religion, they are generally compafSonate and tokrant ;
and inllanccs have occurred, in which Turks have exhorted
their Chridian flaves to the obfer\ance of the external rites
of Chridian wordiip : but they defpife and abhor apoflates
and renegadoef. As to their privileges, they pay no poll-
tax, and they have an exclufive title to all the chief offices
of the (late : they cannot be punilhed except by the exprefs
order of the Dey ; when condemned to die, they are
flrangled ; they purchafe the neceffaries of hfe at a lov,-er
price than others ; aiid from gardens and vineyards that are
rot enclofed by high walls, they may take as much fruit as
they can eat ; and tlieir teftimony, other circumliances being
equal, is always held in higher ellimation than that of the
Moors, Jews and Chrillians.

The clafs of perfons next in ranii and dignity to the
Turks, confifts of the Colohes or Coloris, who are the chil-
dren of Turks b)' women that are natives of Algiers. The
number of thefe, in the vicinity of the capital, is confider-
able, and they compofe fome of the richell and moft refpeft-
able families in the country. They form a middle clals be-
tween the Turks and Moors, and refemble the former in
courage, pride, jealoufy, and voluptuoufncfs, but are more
laborious and diligent ; and they partake of the perfidy and
diffimulation of the Moors, and alio of their propenfity to fu-
perflition. In coi'pcrcal ilrength and form they are not in-
ferior to the Turks ; and they belong to the moil intelligent
and cultivated part of the inhabitants of Algiers, fo that the
mofl expert artiils and artificers are of this clafs.

Under the general name of Moors, who conftitute another
divifion of Algerines, are comprehended the Moors, pro-
perly fo called, the Cabyles or Kabyles, mixed with Berbers
or Brebers, and feveral Arabian tribes. The Mocrs are very
diltinft from the Negroes, as their natural colour, unchanged
by the burning rays of the fun, is as white and beautiful as
that of the natives of the South of France, of Spain and
Italy. With reipeft to their moral charader, they are in-
ferior to the Turks. They are malicious, falfe, cowardly,
revengeful, fanatical, ignorant, fuperftitious, fraudulent, ava-
ricious, and among the lower clafles, thicvifh and rapacious.
But they arc more aftive than the Turks, and they have an
inclination for commerce and the mechanic aits. Thofe of
them who live in cities and engage in commerce, are more
polifhed and lefs odious in their difpofition and manners ;
fome of them are rich, and look down with contempt on
tlie Turks, though they foothe them and fecure their pa-
tronage by diffimulation and flattery. Of thefe fome are
addifted to ftudy, but their knowledge extends little beyond
the Koran and Hiftory. The lefs wealthy Moors are arti-
ficers, and fome of them mariners. In the lowefl clafs of
Moors, inhabiting the cities, are found the mofl abandoned
and profligate perfons, who cannot be reftrained from crimes
of every kind, except by a degree of ieverity approaching to
cruelty. The Bi scar is, however, form a fmall exception.
Of the Moors, who inhabit the country, few are wealthy ;
they are ignorant and rude, and ftrangers to thebcnefi-s and
p'eafurcs of fecial life. They retain the ancient cuftom of
dillinguilhing themfelves by families and tribes, which is loll
among thofe who live in towns. Some of them lead a wan-
dering hfe, and others gain a fubfiftence by cultivating the
land lor the richer among themfelvcs, or for the Turks, or
for the Colohes. Among the Moorifli tribes in the country
polygamy prevails, but this practice does not prevail in towns.

The

A L G

A L O

Tlie Moors ai-e not admitted into tlie iiifanti-}' of itie Alge-
rine ftatc, which is the moil honoiinihlo ai)d \ilVful corps,
but they coinpofc the cavalry ol the Dty, which is not imich
eileemcd. The Moorilli niountaiiiecrs are deiiomiiiated Ca-
BviES. The Arabian tribes, who inhabit the Algerir.c do-
minions, are thofe who, without blending with the Moors,
or moll ancient pofleiiors of the country, have uniformly
maintained tlieir feparation from others, partly in a (late of
i:ide])endenee, and ])artly as tributaries; to the Dey. They
arc dillinguiflicd from the rell by their language, their rude
manners, and a peeuliai- mode of living ; and alio by a degree
of pnde which leads them to look upon themfelves as better
and inore noble than others. They are alfo diiliiignilhed by
their love of liberty. They live either in the delert, or in
iiiacceflible ridges of movmtains, divided into families and
clans, under the patriarchal government of a flielk, who may
be corfidered as the judge, inllruftor and leader of his tribe.
'I'heir wealth confiils in their flocks and herds. Wlienever
they think themfelves fecure, they defcend from the moun-
tains into the plain country. The number of thefe mai-au-
ders decreafes every year. The Arab tribes that are the
iiibjefls of the Algerhie ilate, pay a fmall tribute, and are
tre;itcd with great lenity, that they may not be jirovokcd to
unite with the Cabyles and the independent Arabs. The
i.u:'iber of Jews in Algiers is not conhderable : lliey are de-
; ' 1 d and oppreffed, dillinguifhed by a drefs of dark colour,
rjltrained from acquiiing landed property, and forbidden to
ride through the gates or in the city. If a Jew be attacked,
he would incur danger by defending himfelf againll the abufe
of the Turks and Moors, and therefore they purehale the
! ' 'ttc'tion either of powerful Turks, or European confuls.
i lie Algerine Jev/s are, in general, very tuperftitious and fa-
natical, and alfo cowardly, perfidious, avaricious, and addifted
to cheating and fraud. In their own concerns they a're ame-
nable to their o^vn tribunal, and have an elder amongll them,
known by the appellation of " King of the Jews."

The number of negroes annually iinpoisted as flaves into
Algiers, amounts to from 150 to 180; and their price varies
from 50 to 150 fequins. The femalp are often kept as
concubmcs by thtf wealthy Turks and Moors. Mofl of
thefe flaves obtain their freedom, either gratuitoufly or by
purchafc ; and during their flaver}-, they are treated with
lenity, and fevere ufage is noticed and even puniflied by the
government. Both negro and Chriilian flaves are employed
at Algiers in the fame offices with our domefl.ic fervants. But
Jews and Chrilllans are forbidden from keeping negro Daves
who profefs the Mahometan religion. An emancipated (lave
becomes entitled to the fame privileges with the Moors.

The Chnitlans of Algiers are ti-unfitory refidents, and can
hardly be reckoned in any clafs of inhabitants. They are
feldotn found in the open country. On the weilern coail
the Spaniards occupy Oran and Mafalquivir: but the greater
part of the citizens who refide there cor.fill of fugitives from
their native land, and derive a fcanty fubfillence from
the garrifon ; and deftitutc of trade, agriculture and manufac-
tures, pafs their time in indolence and wretchednefs. The
Chriftians in other cities are, generally fpeaking, all flaves.
Some of them are fuch as have been captured by the Al-
gerine corfairs ; of whom fome are felefted by the Dey, and
the reft are fold in the market-place to the higheft bidder. .
The other Chriilian flaves are fuch as enter of their own ac-
cord into a ilate of flavery ; and thefe are for th? moil part
deferters from the Spanirti garrifon at Oran and Mafalquivir ;
fo that Oran is the nurfery of this clafs of flaves, ainounting
annually to about 100. As to the tieatinent of thefe Chrif-
lian flaves, thofe that are deferters from Oran, and thofe that
Sice captured by the cruifers, are treated without diicrimina-

fion : tliey al'c j^cncrally well kept, but o>'crwhc'tT"cd wit^i
labour or cruel ufage. Thofe who attend upon the Dey live
fumptuoufly, and are riclily clud, but they muft ftclude
themfelves from focitty, and arc ieldoin allowed to leave the
palace. The youngell and mod beautiful arc exj)ofed to the
feduflion of liccHlious courtiers. Others, wiio are the prti-
perty of the ilate, are employed in dock-yards and ninga-
y.ints, and are under the command of Turkilh taflc-mallei*.
Tluy labour from fun-rifo to fun-let, and their fare is coarfv j
and their accommodations at night, amidll the filth and ver-
min and coriupt air of the bagnios, are m(>ic intolerabk ihiit
the fatiglits of the day. The condition of flaves, purchaicd
by private pcrfons, is, upon the whole, preferable to that of
thofe who belong to the ilate. In the cities, they arc em-
ployed as menial fervants ; in the country, they cultivate thi*
vineyards and gardens. Thofe who In.ve an opportunity to
acquire property, take taverns in the city, and gradually be-
come rich. Thofe flaves who had been captured by the cor>-
fairs, often regain their liberty by being ranfomed ; but the
Oranite flaves have feldoin any hopes ot dehverancc. Some*
times the government of a country ranloms all its flaves with-
out exception, which was the cafe with the I'rench in 1784.
Their number, however, is not commonly vary great, lu
1 785, the year after the French ranfom, it anu>unted to about
2000. In 1 786 and 1787, 500 Spaniards and Neapolitan!
were liberated, and about 700 died of the plague ; fo that
there remained about 800, moil of whom were deferters
from Oran.

As to thofe called /vw^Wo^j-, there are few of them in this
eountiy. They arc either Jews or Chrillians. The former,
of whom there arc coinmonly more women than men, re-
nounce the faith of their ancellors, and embrace the predo-
minant religion of the country, for the purpofc of being re-
venged of their relations, or with a view to efcape from me-
rited and appi-ehendcd puniflimcnt, or from motives of ambi-
tion or intcrcfl;. If fuch perfons poflefs talents and render
fervice to the government, they are elleemed equal to the
Cololles, and have a chance of being advanced to honourable
and lucrative employments. ' The admiral ol the Algerine
fleet was a renegado, and fonnerly a Jew. Of Chriilian renc-
gadoes the number is not fo great. The zeal to gain pro-
felytes from Chriftianity is abated : fuch converflons are not
now encouraged, and in many inllances not permitted, as the
proprietors of the flaves would be lolers, and be deprived of
the expefted ranfom. Renegadoes are defpiii d and diilrull-
ed, and not without reafon, for moft of them are in judgment
and affeftiim attached neither to one religion nor to the other,
Shaw's Travels. Paflim. Pilts's Account of the Religion'
and Manners of the Mahometans, ed. iv. 1738. Palfim.
Mod. Un. Hill. vol. xiv. p. 435 — 456. 8vo.

Algiers, the capital of the country above defcribcd»
was formerly called Mefgana, from an Afiican family of
that name, and derives its prcfcnt name /llgivrs, or yll-Je-
zeire, the ijlnnd, from its being in the vicinity of the eaiterit
mound of the harbour, which, before the time of the Turk-
ilTi conqueft, was fevered from the continent. Some have
fappofcd that this wss the ancient Icofnim ; but Dr. Shaw ia
of opinion that the ruins of a Roman city on the banks of
the river Haratch, the ancient Savus, four miles to the fouth-
eaft of Algiers, bids fairer than Algiers to be the ancient
Icofium. The city is fituated on the declivity of a hill, and
is built in the form of an ainphitheatre. The houfcs rife
gradually above one another, and their roofs or terraces are
flat and white, fo that at fca it appears, fays Pitts, like the'
top-fail of a fliip, or like a whiteners ground covered v\ith
linen. It is, fay's Dr. Shaw, about a mile and a half in cir-
cuit, and is computed to contain about 2000 Chriilian
4 R 2 flaves.

A L G

fi»ye*, i5,occ J«w«, and 100,000 Mahometans. But (ince
his time the number has bce.< much reduced ; and the num-
ber of inliabitants is now cllimated at about So,coo, in
which number arc included fcveral t)ioufaiid [ewifli faniihcs.
It is furrouiided by high walls, 12 feet thick, flanked with
fquare towers, but fo decayed as to afford very little de-
fence. A ditch, 20 feet wide and feven deep, formerly en-
compaffid the whole city, but is now alrr.oft filled with
mud. It has five gates, which are open from fun-rife to
fnn-fct ; and without the walls fevcn caftles or forts, of
which tlie grcateft is that on the mole, all which arc fupplied
with cannon. Its belt defence is towards the fea. The
rvile, the work of Hayradin, the fon of Barbarofla, is built
on the fmall ifland that faces the town, in form of a large fe-
r.iicircle, with a liandfome opening into the haven, which is
1 ^o fathoms long, and 80 broad, and where the largeil
velTels may ride fo as to be fecure from the violence ot the
waves. The mole is defended by a caille, which flands upon
tiie folid rock, and which alio fervcs as a light-houfe. It has
three batteries of cannon. At the fouth end of the ifiand is
another fort, confiding of three batteries, to defend the en-
trance of the harbour. There are alfo other forts along the
coaft. In the town there is but one handfome ilieet, which
reaches from the eaft to the v.-eft end, and in which are the
bed ihops, the houfes of the principal merchants, and the
market for com and all provifions. All the other ftreets are lo
narrow that two perfons cannot walkabreall, and the middle
being much lower than the fides for the reception of water and
tilth, the palTage of camels, horfcs, mules and afles, renders it
Uill more inconvenient and dilagrecable for foot paffengers. It
is llill more dangerous to meet with a TurkliTi foldier, to whom
the wcalthieil Chrillian mud give way, or be likely to feel the
elTeils of his brutal refentmcnt. The houlcs are fuppofcd
to be placed thus near to each other, either to flielter them
from the fun, or for the convenience of mutual fupport, by
means of props, when earthquakes occur. They are
built of brick or ftone, mollly fquare, with a paved court in
the middle, fomewhat like our old inns ; round this court
there are galleries fupporttd by columns, and over thele a fe-
cond range, and upon this upper gallery are the terraces,
which ferve for walking or drying linen. Their chimnies
rife in the form of a cupola on the four corners of the ter-
race, and their houfes are whitewadied evei-y year. As the
houfes are contiguous, a perfon may walk from one end of
the town to the other along the terraces, and in this way
they keep up an iirtercourfe with each other. The houfes
of private people are within meanly fitted up and furnidied,
but thofe of the rich are incruded with marble, fupported on
columns, and have their cielings finely canred, painted and
gilt. The mod magnificent building is the palace of the
Dey, in the midll of the city, which has two fpacious halls,
in one of which the douwan meets thrice a week. The bar-
racks for the Turkilh foldiery are likewife grand edifices,
and each of them contains about 600 ; their mofques are nu-
merous, of which the larger are feven, and the baths are
many and fpacious, but they are of different kinds, for the
accommodation of perfons of every rank and condition. Be-
fides the public baths and thofe appropriated to women,
tliere are others called baf'ios, which are loathfome prifons,
and in which their flaves deep every night. There are fome
handfome edifices without the walls of the town, and a great
number of tombs, fome of which are adorned with chapels
and oratories, to which the men and women retort every Fri-
<hy. The city of Algiers, which had formerly neither wells
Bor fountains, is now fupplied with excellent water by two
a(|Ufdnfts, which convey it from the adjacent mountains to
a bumber of fountains at convenient diftancee from one ano-

A L G

ther. The ten-ilory about Algiers is very firtiJe ; the hills
and vallics are every where ornamented with pendens, grove-s,
and country -feats, whither tiie riclicr foils retire during th«
lummer feafou. Their villas are little white lioufcs, fhaded.
with a variety of fruit-trees and evcr-greens, which, hcfides
thelliade and retirement, afford a beautiful proipecl toward*
the fea. Tlic gardens are flocked with plenty of tniit-trecs,
melons, and pot-herbs, and well watered by a riiultitudc of
fountains and rivulets. Algiers, although it has many forts,
and though in former times it has couuteracled the affaultr
of fome of the greatefl powers of Cliriilcndom, is but weakly
defended, and incapable of fudaining a regular ilcge. The
Spaniards, however, attacked it in I 775, both by land and
fea, with a force confiding of about 20,000 foot, and 2000
horfe, 47 king's ITiips of different rales, and 346 tranfports^
and were repuUcd with great lofs. In 17S3 and 1784 their
attacks were renewed, but without fucccfs. N. lat. 36*"
49' 30". E. long. 2° 12' 45'. Thehay of Algiers lies to the
ead of the city, and the mole that forms the harbour is 500
paces long, and here is anchorage in 18 to 25 fathoms water.
Cape Matifou lies to the north-cad extremity of the bay^
and Cape Caxines to the north-wed of the city, and the
wedern limit of the bay.

ALGOA Bay, or Zwartiops, a bay ©f South Africa,
fituate in S. lat. 35° 56'. E. long. 26^ 53', and didant from>
the Cape of Good Hope 500 miles. Mr. Barrow, a late
traveller, fuggells, that from the vicinity of this place to the
falt-pans, from the cafe of procuring bullocks in good condi-
tion, and from the abundance of excellent fi(h on the coad,.
great benefits would accrue to the Ead India company, if
au eftablilliment was formed for tlie preparation of faked
beef and filh. The river Zwartkops flows through a valley,
in which our traveller found a fpeeies of antelope, called the
r'let-bok, or red-goat, hitherto undeicribcd by naturalifts.

ALGODONALES Islascs he on the coad of Peru,
in S. lat. 21° 56', and W.long. 72° 50', eight leagues north
from the harbour of Cobijah, and aflord fredi water.

ALGODRES, adidricl of Beira, in Portugal, contain-
ing eight paridies and 450 inhabitants.

AI-GOIDES, in Bdtany, a name given by Va'Uant to a
genus of plants, called by Michcli and Linnaeus Zannj-

CHELLIA.

ALGOL, or Medufa's Head, in yijlronomy, a dar of the
fecond magnitude, in the condellatioii Perfeus. This dar
has been fubjecl to fingular variations, appearing at different
times of different magnitudes, from the fourth to the fe-
cond, which is its ufual appearance. Thefe variations were
noticed at the clofe of the lad century by Montanari and
Maraldi ; alfo by Flamllead, 1696 and 171 1 ; but they
have been more accurately obfervcd by Mr. Goodricke, at
York, in 1783, who has, by comparing a great variety of
obfervations, determined the period of their return to be 2*,
20'', 48', 56". As to the caufe of this variation, Mr. Good-
ricke conjectures, that it may be owdng either to the interpo-
fition of a large body revolving round Algol, or to fome mo-
tion of its own, in confequence of which, part of its body,
covered with fpots or fuck like matter, is periodically turned
towards the earth. M. de la Laiide, comparing his own ob-
fervations with thofe of Mr. Goodricke, and M. Wurms, of
Nurtingen, determines the period oF variation to be 2'', 20'',
49', 2"- Mem. Acad. Sc. Paris, 1788. See Phil. Tranf.
vol. Ixxiii. p. 474. Vol. Ixxiv. p. 287.

ALGOMEIZA, a name given to the dar Procyon.

ALGONQUINS, in Geography, an Indian nation of
North America, which formerly polfefTed confiderable trafts
of land along the north-weil fhores of the river St. Lawrence,
in Canada. As hunters and warriors they had no rivals, and

were

A L G

were loner '" nlliance with the Iroquois ; wliom they agreed
to protect from all invaders, wliilit the Iroquois lUpulaleii to
pay them a tribiile out of th ■ produce ot the earth, and to
perform for them all the menial duties, fuch as flaying; the
gHJUe, curint; tiie fleth, and dvcfTmir llie (kins. At length the
Iroquois ailociated with the Aljonijuins in their hunting
matehes and military expeditionb ; but hy degrees the Al-
gonq\iins became jealous of their aif.eiatcs and allies, and
mvudered feveral ot their number. The Iroquois for fonie
time llifled their refentmcnt, but determining upon revenge,
they apphed to the ftudy of the art of war, as it was praftilcd
among tlie lavaj;e nations ; and having acquired a compttent
knowledge, which tliey improved by expeiiciiee, tiiey at-
tacked tlu.- Algcmquins with inch fui-y, th.-it, uulefs tlu-y had
been jH'cfcrved by the interpolition of the French, their whole
>-ace would have been exterminated. They are daily de-
creafmg m number, lubfdl principally on lifhing and hunting,
and have fcarcely any notion of agriculture. The Al-
gonqtiins are now dilperfed along the river Atawar, and
occupy diifcTCnt parts of Upper Canada, above the lakes
Huron, Ontario, and Superior. The lake of the Two Moun-
tains, which may be deemed the commencement of the
Utawas river, and which is about 20 miles long, and three
wide, and furrounded by cultivated fields, is nominally in pof-
feffion of the two tnbes of Iroquois and Algonquins, whofe
village is lituated In a delightful point of land under the hills,
wiiicii, under the denomination of mountains, give a name to
the lake. Near the extremity of the point their church is
built, which divides the village into two parts, forming a re-
gular angle along the water-iide. On the eail is the Itation
of the Algonquins, and on the well one of the Iroquois, con-
fiiling in all ot about 500 warriors. Each party has its mif-
fionar)-, and divine worfiiip is performed, according to the
rites of the Romifh church, in their refpcftive languages, in
the fame church : and fo affiduous, it is faid, have their paf-
tors been, that thefe people have been inllrufted in reading
and writing in their own language, and arc better taught
tJian the Canadians of the country of the lower ranks : but
notwithftanding thefe advantages, and though the eftabhdi-
ment is nearly coeval with the colonization of the countiy,
they do not advance towards a Hate of civilization, but re-
tain their ancient habits, language and cuftoms, and are be-
coming every day more depraved, indigent, and infignifi-
cant. The country round them, though capable of cultiva-
tion, prefents only a few miferable patches of ground, fown
by the women with maize and vegetables. During the win-
ter fealon they leave their habitations and their pallors to fol-
low the chace, according to the cullom of their forefathers.
A tribe of the Algonquin cation occupies the parts adjacent
to the lake Nhpisingui. Some few families inhabit the
iiland of St. Jofeph, near the lake Huron ; alio a village,
near the fall of St. Mary, about 50 miles farther towards
the north-well, who are (larving for one-half of the year, and
in a ftate of intoxication for the other half, and the coalls of
lake Superior, where they live chiefly on fifh. The refi-
dence of the firll chief, or Sachem, of all the Algonquin
tribes inhabiting different parts of the country, is at the
trading eilabhlhinent, fituate on a high bank on the north
fide of the river la Pluie, in N. lat. 48° 37'. This chief
ia by way of diftinftion called NeClam, implying perfoiial
pre-eminence. In this place the elders meet in council to
treat cf peace or war. Of this tribe fume few are found near
the AssiNiBOiN river, who are in almoft conftant hoftility
with theNADOWAsis. Thofcof them who occupy the country
near lake WiMipic and its fource, are employed in fur-hunt-
ing, fo that they thus acquire the additional articles of cloth,
blankets, &.C. but their paffion for mm puts it out of their
power to fupply themfclves with real neceflaries. The Ai-

A L H

gonquiQ5anJKNisTiNiAi;x arc fuppofedbyalate intelligent
trdTcller to have been originally the lame peo])le, and to have
iuhabiled the Allanlic coali, the banks ot tiie river St. I.aw-
rence, and a.ijacent countries. Their progrefs has beenwtf-
terly, and they are even found well and nortli as far a$ Alha-
balea. Tlie language of the Algonquins isone of the three prin-
cipal languages, t)r of thnfe wliich have b^en called radicid, or
mother tongues, amongll the Indians of C'anada. The other
tivo are the Sioux ami the Huron, Ry means of an ac-
quaintance w.tli the Algonquin and Huron languages, a pcr-
loii may travel 1 joo leagues in this conntry without an inter-
preter. The Algonquin language is fai<l to e>.cel that of the
Huronsiu fmootlmels and elegance. See Knisten eaux. The
Baron la llontaii has friven a linall dlclionan' on the Algon-
quin language; Rel.tnd lias alio given a glolson fcvenil word*
of the fame. The llrll is entitled, Mem. de I'Americ. Sep-
tent. Hag. 1703 : the lall is in his Dili'. Mile. p. 3. Difl". i.
Mod. Uii. Hill. vol. XXXV. p. 37<;. Mackenzie's V'oyagcS,
&:e. through the Continent of North America, &c. p. 25,
63, &c.

ALGOR is ufed by fome MciUamil IVriters, to denote a
preternatural coldnefs or chilnefs in a part. Muys fpeaks, in
this lenfe, of an algor of the arm, attended with an atrophy.
ALGORAB, in yljlronomy, a fixed ilar of the third mag-
nitude, in the right uing of the conllellatiou CoRVUS.

ALGORITHM, or Algorism, an Arabic term, which
fome authors, and tfpecially the Spaniards, make ufe of to
fignify the praclical operation of feveral parts of fpcckut
arithmetic or ul;^ehia. Sometimes it is alio ufed for the
praclice of common arithmetic, by ten numeral figures.

Algorithm is properly the art of numbering truly and
readily ; and comprehends the llx common rules of arithme-
tic. It Is lometimes called !fi«;ij)'ica riuiiurali.t. We fav the
algorithm of integers, the algorithm of fraclions, the algo-
rithm of furds, iS;c.

ALGOSAREI^, in Botany, a name ufed by Avicenna,
ar.d fome other authors, for the common wild carrot, or
D A u c u s fylvcjiris ■

ALGOW, or Algau, in Gfc^rnj>hy, a canton of Ger-
many, in the circle of Swabia, bounded on the north by the
Danube, on the eaft by the Leek, on tlie well by the He-
gow and the lake of Conflance, and on the foutli by the
county of Tyrol. It includes the marquifate of Burgaw,
the counties of Bregents and Montfort, the territoiy of the
billiopof Auglburg, the abby of Kempten, of the counts of
Fngger, Waldburg, Konigfeck and Mindleheim ; with the
cities of Augfhurg, Kempten, Memmingen, liny, Lindaw,
Biberac and Wangen.

ALGOZO, a fmall place of Traz-oz-Montes, in Portu-
gal, lituate on the river Ma^as, containing 20 parilhes, and
about 400 inhabitants.

AJ.GUAZIL, in the Spanifh PoUcv, a ferjeant or offi-
cial of a judge, or magillrate, appointed to fee his decrees
executed.

ALGUEL, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the
empire of Morocco and province of Hea.

ALHABOR, among the Arabian yljlronomers , is that
liar commonly called SiRius.

ATHAGI, m Botany, a fpecies of Hedysarum. The
inhabitants of Mefopotamia and the eaftern countries gather
from this (lirub a kind of manna, by means of the juice
whicli tranfudes from its leaves, in the form of drops of va-
rious fizes, which is indurated by the heat of the fun.
Tournefort has particulariy dcfcribed this tree, and made a
dilline^ genus of it, under the name of A'.hag':. The fhrub
grows plentifidly about Tauris ; it has been alio found ia
rinos, and in many plains of Armenia and Georgia; and
the manna is known iu the Levant by the name of Ttrenja-

3 bta.

A L H

"Sm. The leaves are faid to be of a hot di7nij» natiive,
and the natives ule the flowers as a purgative, one hand-
Til of wliich, boiled in water, fuffieet for a dofe. Lc-
niiTv.

ALHAMA, in Crography, a pleafant town of Spain, in
th« province of Granada, lituate in a narrow valley betwixt
\\\^\\ and ver\ lleop mountains ; and having warm baths and
liiedieinil waters tliat arc niueh frequented. It was taken by
the Moors, after a gallant defence, in 14S1, and fiinen-
Jered to the pillage of the Chiillian foldicrs, who, befides
jiillaging an ininieiifc quantity of gold and jewels, made
llaves of^oco of the inhabitants. It in about 25 miles fouth-
weil of Ciranada, and 2S iiorth-eaft of Malaga. N. lat. 36°
59'. W. long. 3"' 26'.

Alhama, ii alfo a town of Spain, in Cordova, near the
Sierra Morena, nine leagues well of Cordova.

A L HA MA is alio a fmall town or village of Spain, in Ara-
gon, celebrated for its medicinal waters.

. Ai. HAMA, a river of Spain, which runs into the Ebro,
near AUaro.

• A\.H.'i.Mk la Si'fa, a town of Spain, in Granada, fituate
on the river Almeria, ten miles north-north-weft of Al-
meria.

■ ALHAMIiRA, a town of Spain, in Aragon, fevcn
miles north of Teruel.

' Alhambra is alio a river of Spain, which joins the
Guadalquivir at Teruel.

' Alhambra, one of the four wards of the ancient city of
Granada, fo called by the Moors from the red colour of its
materials, Alhambra fignifying a red houfe; and by the Spa-
niards la Sierra del Sol, becaufe, by its elevation on a high
mountain, it is expofed to the rifing fun. The inhabitants
confiil of the defcendants of the ancient Moors. In this dii-
tridl are two palaces, one built by the Moors, the other by
Charles V. and Philip II. The lirft, which is very large, is
environed with wails, towers, and baftions ; and both com-
mand, by th^ir eminence, an extenfive and delightful profpetl.
Above the old Moorifh palace is the magnificent and beauti-
ful houfe of Xeneralife, wliich was alfo built by a Moorifh
prince ; and on the top of the mountain Hands a church de-'
dicattd to St. Helena. The Moorifli palace, according to
the defcription given of it by Swinburne in his Travels, ap-
pears to have been a moft magnificent and aftonilhing edi-
Jice. The court to which you are firft admitted, called the
Commnna, or ilel Mefucar, i. e. the common batliJ, is an
oblong fquare, with a deep bafon of clear water in the mid-
dle, into which is a defcent by two flights of marble fteps, and
having on each fide a parterre of flowers and a row of orange
trees. A periftyle, paved with marble, runs round the court,
and the arches are fupported by pillars, in a ftyle different
from all the regular orders of architecture ; and the ciehng
and walls are incrufted with llucco fret-work. In every
divifion are Arabian fentences of different lengths, denoting
" there is no conqueror but God ;" and " obedience and
honour to our Lord Abouabdoidah." The cielings are gilt
or painted, and the colours ilill retain their frelhncfs ; the
iower part of the walls is Mofaic, difpofcd in fantaflic knots
and feftoons. The porches rcfemble grotto-work ; and
that on the right-hand opens into an otiagon vault under the
emperor's palace, which forms a whifpering-gallery, commu-
nicating between the offices of both honfcs. Oppoiite to the
door by which you enter into the Communa, is another
leading into the quarto ilc los kones, or apartment of the lions ;
which is an oblong court, 100 feet long, and 50 broad, en-
compafTed by a colonnade, feven feet broad on the fides, and
ten at the end. Two porticoes or cabinets, about 15 feet
fquare, projeft into the court at the two extremities. The
fquare is paved with coloured tilej, and the colonnade with

A L H

white marGlc. 'The walls are covered to the height of five
feet from the ground with blue and yellow tiles, placed chc-
querwife. Above and below is a border of fraall efcutcheons,
enamelled blue and gold, with an Arabian motto on a bend,
fignifying, " No Con(iueror but God." Tiie columns that
fupport the roof and galleiy are of white marble, very /len-
der, fantallieally adorned, and irregularly difpofed. The
cieling of the portico is much more highly tinilhed thaa
that of the Communa. The capitals are of various defigii>.
Amidll the varieties of foliages, grotcfques, and tlrange or-
naments, there does not occur the flightcll reprefentation ot
animal life. About each arch is a large fquare of ara-
befques, furrounded with a rim of characters tliat are gene-
rally quotations from the Koran. Over the pillar is another
fcjuare of beautiful filligree work ; and higher up is a kind
of wooden cornice, enriched with carving as much as the
llucco below. Over this projedls a roof of red tiles, which
disfigure this beautiful fquare, and which has been lately-
added when the Alliambra was repaired. In iNIoorilli timcj
the buildings were covered with large painted and gla/.ed
tiles, fome of which Hill remain. In the centre of the court
are twelve ill-form-ed lions muzzled, bearing upon their backs
an enormous bafon, out of which riles another of fnialler
fize. When the pipes were kept in order, a volume of water
was thrown up, which, falling into the bafon, paifed through
thcfe lions, and was diicharged out of their mouths into a
larger refervoir, communicating by channels with the jets
d'eaux in the apartments. Tliis fountain is of white marble,
adorned with felloons and Arabic dillichs, to this purpofe.
" Seeft thou not how the water flows copioufiy like the
Nile?" " This refembles a fea walhing over its fhores,
threatening fhipwreck to the mariner." " This water runs
aliundaiitly to give drink to the lions." " Terrible as the
lion is working in the day of battle." " The Nile gives
glory to the King, and the lofty mountains proclaim it."
" This garden is fertile in delight ; God takes care that
no noxious animal fliall approach it." " The fair priiicefs
that walks in this garden, covered with pearls, ornaments its
beauty fo much, that thou mayeft doubt whether it be a
fountain that flows, or the tears of her admirers." Beyond the
colonnade, and on its fouth fide, is a circular room ufed by the
men as a place for drinking coffee, &c. And it was rcfrcfhcd
in fummer by a fountain. The form of this hall, the ele-
gance of its cupola, the cheerful diftribution of light from
above, and the cxquifite manner in which the ilucco is de-
figned, painted, arid finifhed, exceed all powers of defcrip-
tion. In this delightful fcene, it is laid, Abouabdoulah af-
fembled the Abencarrages, and caufed their heads to be
ftruek off into the fountain. At the head of a court are two
rooms, which are fuppofed to have been tribunals, or au-
dience chambers. Oppofite to the Sala de los Abencarrages
is the entrance into the Torre de las dos Hermatias, or the
tower of the two fifters, fo denominated from two \er\ beiiu-
tlfnl pieces of marble laid as flags in the pavement. This
gate exceeds all the reft in profufion of ornaments, and in
beauty of profpefl, which it affords through a range of
apartments, where a multitude of arches terminate in a large
window open into the coimtiy. In a gleam of iunihine, the
variety of tints and lights thrown upon this enfilade are un-
commonly rich. The fiiit hall is the concert-room where
the women fat ; the muficians played above in four balco-
nies. In the middle is a jet d'eau. The marble pavement
is much admired for both the fize of the flags and evennefs
of the colour. The two filters, which give name to the
room, are flabs meafuring 15 feet by 7f, without flaw or
ftain. The walls, to a certain height, are mofaic, and,
above, are divided into neat compartments of flucco. The
cieling is a fretted cove. For prcferving this vaulted roof,
7 and

AL H

ami I'ome ot!ier of tne principal cupolas, the outward walls
of tliK towers arc railed lo ftct above t!ic top of the dome,
and fiipport another roof over all, fo tliat no injury can be
ccoarioued by wet weather, or exccfTive heat and cold. Fro;n
this luiU you pais round the little myrtle garden of Linda-
raxa into an additional building conilrudled at the call end
by Charles V. His admired motto, " plus outre," ap-
pears on every beam. Tliis leads to a little tower, called, El
tocailor, or the drefiing-room of the Sultana ; in one corner of
which is a large marble flag, penetrated with holes, through
which the fmoke ot perfumes afcended from furnaces below;
and here, it is fuppofed, the Muorifh queen fumigated and
fweetened her perfon. The emperor caufed this room to be
painted with reprefentations of his wars, and a variety of
groteiques, which appear to be copies or imitations of thofe
in the loggie of the Vatican. From hence you go through
a long paiTage to the hall of ambalTadors, wiiich is magnifi.
cently decorated with innumerable varietie.-, of molaics, and
the mottoes of all the kings of Granada. This antichamber
opens on the lett hand into the Commuua, and on tl'.e rin-ht
into the great audience hall in the tower of Comares, which
is a noble apartment, 36 feet fqaarc, 36 higli to the cornice,
and 18 from thence to the centre of tiie cupola. Tlic lower
i-ange of windows is 13 feet high ; the walls on three (ides
are 15 teet thick, and on the other 9. The wliole wall is in-
laid with mofaic of many colours, difpofcd in intricate knots,
liars, and other figures. In ever)' part various j\rabic fen-
tences are repeated.

The lower floor of the palace confided of bed-chambers
and fummer-rooms ; the moll remarkable of which is the
king's bed-chamber, which, by means of a gallery, com-
municated with the upper llory. The beds were placed in
two alcoves upon a railed pavement of blue and white tiles ;
but it has been repaired, and probably altered by Philip V.
In the midd'e a fountain played for refrefhing the apartment
in hot weather. Beiiind the alcoves are fmall doors that lead
to the royal baths. Thefe confill of one fmall clofet, with
marble cillerns, for wafliing children, two rooms fjr grown-
up perfons, and vaults for furnaces and boilers that fupplied
the baths with water and the ftoves with vapour. The
troughs are formed of large llabs of white marble ; the walls
are oinamented with party-coloiu-ed earthen-ware, and light
is admitted by holes in the covered cieling. At a fmall dif-
tanoe is a whifpering-gallcry, and a kind of labyrinth, faid
to have been deligned for the amnfement of women and chil-
dren. One of tlic pa.Tages is fenced olT with a ftrong iron
grate, and called the Pnfon of the Sullann ; but it was more
probably intended for preventing intruders from climbing
into the women's quarter. Under the council-room is a long
flip, called the King's Sluily ; and adjoining to it are ievtral
vaults, faid to be the burial-place of the royal family. In
theretrofpeftive view of this tumptuous palace, we need not
wonder that the Moors thought of Granada with regret ;
and that they fhould (lill offer up prayers eveiy Friday for
the recovery of this city, which they regard as a ten-eilrial
paradife.

ALHANDAL, a term in the Arabian Pharmacy, fig-
nifying colocyrith. The troches ot alhatidal, trochifri al-
hamlal, are a kind of troches, compoftd oi rolorynth, bdellium,
and gum tragacanth. The word is lormed of the Arabic han-
dnl, or bimdhal, a name for colocyiilh'ts. They are elleemed
good purgatives, and are ufed on divers occafions.

ALHANDRA,inG«;5-r/7/>Aj,alownof Portugal, in Eftre-
madura, containing two parilhcs, and about 1 350 inhabitants.

ALHANGA, a fmall town of Spain, in Eftremadura,
belonging to the order of St. Jago, feated on an eminence,
and dvfended by a ftrong callle ilanding on a rock.

Atn

ALHAUR, a river of Afia, whicli runs into the Sakka*
ria, eight miles fouth of Ameria.

ALHAUS, a town of PrufCa, four miles foulh of
Culm^

AlvHAZEN, in Biography, a learned Arabian, lived in
Spain about the clofe of the I ith, or beginning of the iztb
century; though Montucla fays, that it is not known what
was the precife period in which he lived. lie wrote a trca-
tile on allrology ; and another on optics, which was printed
in Latin in the Thefaurus Optica; of Kifuer, in 1572. In
this optical treatile he gives a tolerable defcription of the
eye, and difcourfes largely concerning the nature of vifion ;
maintaining that the cryllalline humour is the mod import-
ant organ for this purpoic, without confidering it a.i a lens,
ami alli-rting thatviiion is not completed till the ideas of cxter-
nal objefts are conveyed by the optic nerves to the brain. He
accounts for fimple vifion with tvo eyes, by fuppofing, th;:t
wlieu two corrcfponding parts of the retina are aft'ecled, the
mind perceives but one image ; and he treats very difiufcly
of optical deceptions, botli in direct vilion, and alfo in vi-
fion by reflecled and refracled light. Alliazen purfued his
enquiries into the nature of refraftion mucFi further, and with
greater fucccfs, than the more ancient writers. He deduces
irom experimental and general reafoning fevcral properties of
atmofpherical refradlion, obferving, that it increafes the alti-
tudes of all celellial objects ; and he was the firll who ad-
vanced the notion, that the liars are fometimes feen above
the horizon by means of refraftion, when they are really
below it. He alfo obferved, that refraction contracts the
diameters anddillances of the heavenly bodies, and that it is
the caufe of the twinkling of the liars.

Alhazen fuppofed, that the refraftion of the atmofphere
did not depend upon its vapours, but upon its different tranf-
parency, that is, as Montucla underflands his meaning, the
dei'.fity of the grofs air contiguous to the earfli, and the a-ther
or fubtle air that lies beyond it. In examining the eftedts
of refrattion, he endeavours to prove that it is fo far from
being the caufe of the heavenly bodies appearing larger near'
the horizon, that it would make them appear lets ; two liars,
he fays, appearing nearer togctlier in the liorizon than near
the meridian. This phenomenon he ranks among optical
deceptions. We judge, fays he, of diilani---j, by cumiiaring
the angle under which objects appear with thrir fuppofed
diflance ; fo that if thefe angles be neaj-ly equal, and the dif-
tance of one objett be conceived to be greater than tl:at of the
other, it will be imagined to be the larger : And lie adds^
that the ll<y near the horizon is always imagined to be farther
from us than any other part of tlie concave furface. In the
writings of Alhazen, we find the firll dillind account of the
Tiiagnifying power of glaifes, and he probably fuggellld the
hints which led to the ufeful invention of fpettaclts ; for, he
fays, that if an object be applied clofe to tlie bafc of a larger
fegment of glafs, it will appear magnified ; he alfo treats of
the appearance of an objeCt through a globe, and favs, that
he was the firll that found out the refraction of rays into the
eye. Alhazen's optics were much illullr.ited by Viiellio in a
trcatife publifhed in 1270. Smith's Optics, Remarks,

§ 89. p. 15. Priellley's Hill, of Vifion, &S. 1772. p. 17 •

20. Montucla's Hill, des Mathem. tom. i. p. 367.

ALHEN, in Botanyf a name by which Dr. Shaw and
others have called a genus of plants, fince named by Lin-
nxus Lawsonia. Sec Ai.camna.

ALHIDADE, or Alibade, the index or label of an
allronomical or geometrical inllrument, for taking of heights'
or di (lances. The word is Arabic, and it lignii'.es the lame
thing. In Greek and Latin it is called liitno-^, ilioplra, and
liiieaJiJiuis,Jidu<ial Hue, The alhkhnU is a kind of nilcr,'

moveable

A L I

movcaW; on thf centre of tiie i;illnimcnt, 3'iJ carrying two
figits, which are crcc^td perjn-nd.cularly at the two txtre-
iniucs of it.

ALHIRTO, in AJlronomy, a fixed liar of the thiid mag-
nitude, in the conlieUation Capricorn. Tiiis is otlvr-
wife called roj/nim ^til/in.r. Near tiiis liar, in the year 1600,
appeared a new ilar, which lalled tuentyone years, and then
.ditappeared aj>in.

ALHUVS Point, in Girojn!/>'>y, is litinted upon a river
falling into the Baltic, in a bay which bears nearly N. N. W.
a little well-.rly from tlie illiiid of Boniholm. If a fliip is a
lea'-"ae call of this point, the courfe will be due north to the
Jjoltom of the bay, having the land all the way on the lar-
board, but the depth of the water is uncertain. It is in N.
lat. 55"^ 3J'. li. long. 14° 30'. Mulham's Naval Ga/..

A LI, in Bio^ra/>'iy, the fon of Abu Taleb, who was un-
cle of Mahomet, and was eminently diftinguilhcd among the
Mahometans, both during the life and after the death of
ihcir prophet. Ali was an early convert to the divine mil-
fion of his coufiii, and contributed, in no fmall degree, by his
.zeal and activity, to the fuccefs of liis cauie. Having been
taken in his infancy inider the pvotcAion of Abubeker, tJie
father-in-law of Mahomet, and the ardent promoter of his
intereil, he w-as directed by his patron to fummon the kin-
died of the prophet, to receive from him a folemn declara-
tion of his p'-ophetic office. Mahomet, after announcing his
commiffion to his afl'emhled relatives, alked tliem who would
become his vizir or vicegerent ? Whilll they were lielitating,
Ali flartcd up and exclaimed, witli the enthufialm that
marked his characler, " I, O prophet of God, will be thy
vizir ; 1 myfelf will beat out the teeth, pull out the eyes,
rip open the bellies, and cut off the legs of all who fliall daie
to oppofe thee." Upon this Mahomet embraced Ali with
great affection, and enjoined all who were prelcnt to regard
Him as his deputy. I'o him he afterwards committed the
promulgation of the ninth chapter of the Koran ; which com-
miffion he executed at Mecca, by reading 20 or 30 verfesof
this chapter to thofe who were affenibled, and then announc-
ing to them four particulars which were ftritlly to be ob-
ferved, viz. " that no idolater is to come near the temple of
Mecca after this year ;" " that no man is to prefume to
compafs the Caaba naked for the future ;" " that none but
true believers (liall enter paradife ;" and " that public faith
is to be kept." Ali was equally celebrated for his eloquence
tind his valour ; his furname of " the Lion of God, always
victorious," fufficiently evinces his military renown ; and as
lie UicceedcJ hisfatherin being chief of the illuftrious family
of Halhem, and hereditary guardian of the city and temple
v{ Mecca, and had married Fatimah, the daughter of Maho-
met, liis talents and liis rank, as well as his near relation to
■the prophet, and the perfoual favuiir by which he had been
diftingulllied, ellablilhed claims of pre-eminence, which na-
tarally direfted his views to the honour of fuceeeding Maho-
met in the regal office. To this honour he alfo alpired ;
but he wifely declined contending for it during the three ca-
liphates of Abubeker, Omar, and Othman. Upon the af-
faffmation of the lad of thefe, Ali w'as unanimoufly elected
caliph. When he was urged by fome of tlie chief Modems
to accept the office, he faid to them, " If you intend to re-
cognize my authority as the fuccelfor of Mahomet, fwear to
be faithful to me, or elfe permit me to take the oath of alle-
giance to one of you." As foon as he was elected, he halt-
Aued to the raofque at Medina, at the time of prayer, in a
;thin cotton gown, tied about him with a girdle, with a coarfe
turban upon his head, carrying his llippcrs in one hand, and
in the other a bow, which he ufed as a walking itick, and
jvas there publicly inaugurated, in the 35th year of the He-

A L I

gira, A. D. fijy. As foon as Ayedia, the daughter of Abn-
beker, and the widow of Mahomet, heard of Ali's eleftion,
(he expreffed her difapprobation ; having conceived an invin-
cible prejiuiice againil him, becaufe, as it is faid, he had dif.
covered her infidelity to the prophet ; and Telha and Zobeir,
two pcrfons of great influence, who had concurred in the
choice, fled to Baiforah, and there railed the ilandard of re-
bellion. Ali had alfo roufed the refenlment of a llroiig party,
by difplacing thofe governors of the provinces, who had
been appointed by his predeccffor Othman. Ayellia appeared
at the head of the mal-contents at Bafforah, and there Ali
met them with an inferior force w ith regard to number, but
formed of veteran troops. Ayeilia was mounted on a great
camel, in a pavilion refembling a fort of cage, from which
circuinftance the day of battle was called the i/ny of tl";
camel. Ali gained a complete victory. Telha was llain in the
engagement ; Zobeir was afterwards affaflinated ; and Ayeflia
was taken prifoner ; and, after fome fubmiffion, treated cour-
teoully, and fent back to Medina. The next enterprife of
Ali was diretted againft Moawyah, a former governor of
Syria, who had been proclaimed caliph, and was fupported
by the houfe of Ommijah, and by Ainru, the conqueror of
Egypt. The armies met at the plain of Seffein, on the
weilern banks of the Euphrates. After feveral ikirmiflics,
and an ineffeftual challenge of Moawyah to fmgle combat,
the hofllie forces engaged, and the contell was continued all
night, to the great difadvantage of the Syrians ; and tins
night was denominated by the Arab hiftorians, " the valinnt
night." As victory was likely loon to be decided in fa-
vour of Ali, Moawyah, in concert with Amru, contrived an
artifice that might induce the caliph's men to defeit. With
this view they ordered lome of their men to cany lances,
bearing upon their points copies of the Koran, at the head
of the troops, and to cry out as they advanced, "This is the
book that ought to decide all differences between us ; this is
the book of God between us and you, which abfolutely prohi-
bits the effufion of human blood." Ali was thus compelled by
fome of his troops, who threw down their anns, to found a re-
treat, and thus to give up the contell in the moment of vic-
tory, and after having loft, as it is faid, 25,000 men, and killed
45,000 of the enemy. The difpule was iubmitted to arbi-
tration, and the two perfons, by whofe award it was to be
determined, concurred in depofing Ali. Sentence was pro-
nounced on a tribunal erected between the two armies. Abu
Mufa, one of the arbitrators, firll pronounced his award :
" 1 depofe from the caliphate both Ali and Moawyah, in
the fame manner as I take this ring off my finger." Amni,
the other arbitrator, immediately alcended the tribunal, and
faid, " I concur with Abu Mula in depofing All, and con-
fer the caliphate upon Moawyah ; I therefore invcft that
prince with the fupreme authority in the fame manner as I
put this ring on my finger. And this 1 am the more dif-
pofed to do, as he has jullice on his fide ; having been de-
clared by Otlmian his fucceffor, and being the moil worthy
of the Mollems to occupy the high ftation to which I now
advance him." Thus commenced that fchifm among the
Mahometans, which has produced animofity and mutual ex-
communication, and which is vifible to this day in the rooted
antipathy that fubfills between the Turks and Pcrfians. All
and his adherents were difgnfted and irritated ; but they
were under the neceffity of acquitfcing and retiring to Cufa,
where Ali was foon deferted by the Kharejita, I. e. as the
name imports, rebels or rcvolters. Thefe were called Mo-
hiiHemhes, or judiciarians, becaufe the reafou they gave for
their revolt was, tbat Ali had referred a matter concerning
the religion of Gud to the judgment of men ; whereas, in
fuch cafcj the judgment belonged folely to G.od. Tiic

Kharcjites

A L I

A L I

Kliarejites,^ not convinced by Ali's reafoning, affbcintcd In
lavms, and fixed upon Naharwan, about four miles to the call
of the Ti<:;i-is, for their place of rendezvous. Ali marched
out agaiiiil them, and having reclaimed moll of them to their
former attachment by perfualion, he deftroyed the relt in
battle, and gained again the poflefiion of Arabia. But his
rival Moawiyah edablilhed liimfelf in Syria and Perfia, and
Amru fei/.ed upon Egypt in his name. The Syrians alfo
made an incurfion into Ali's territories, exercifed great
cruelty, and committed many depredations. At this time
three of the Kliarejites happening to meet at Mecca, con-
curred in lamenting the miferics of the civil war which the
people were enduring, and refolved to terminate them by nf-
laflinating the principal authors of them, -viz. Ali, Moawi-
yah, aad Amru. One of them hailened to Damafcus, nnd
wounded Moawiyah, but the wound, though dangerous,
was not mortal. Another went to Egypt, and entering a
niofque, where he expefted to find Amru, miilook another
pevion for him, and difpatched him, wliiHl Amru furvived
unhurt. The third confpirator, whofe name was Abdalrah-
man, was more fuccefsful than either of his two profligate
companions. Having arrived at Cufa, he engaged two af-
iociates, who joined in aflaulting Ali at the door of the
mofque, when Abdalrahman gave him the fatal blow. The
expiring caliph left in charge with bis fon Haflan, in cafe of
his death, to execute the affaflln at one ftroke, thus humanely
guarding againll the lingering torments which ufually ac-
corapaiiied the death of offenders. Ali, pierced as it is faid,
by a poiibned fword, expired on the fifth day after his
wound, in the 63d, 57th, or 58th year of his age, for fuch
are the dilferent accounts that are given of his age, in the
40th year of the Hegira, A. D. 660. His fcpulchre at
Cufa was concealed till the expiration of the caliphate of the
Ommiades ; but in the year of the Hegira 367, A. D. 977,
Addad cd Dowlat erefted a fuperb monument over it,
which has been decorated by the Perfian kings, called, " the
dome of the di'lributor of lights and graces," and regarded
as a great objeft of the devotion of his votaries. A city,
called Melhed Ali, has alfo been built to his honour, not far
from the ruins of Cufa. Some of his moil zealous devotees
fuppofe that he is itill alive, and expeft his advent in the
clouds of heaven to fill the earth with juftice. Ali, after the
death of Fatima, by whom he liad three fons, Haflan,
Houffain, and Mohaflan, the firfl; of whom -fucceeded him,
had eight other wives. The Modem writers, particularly
thofe of his feet, fpeak highly of his corporeal, mental, and
moral endowments. They extol his valour, munificence, and
benignity of temper. Among them he ^.Ifo ranks high as to
his learning. Tliere are ftill extant his " Centiloquium,"
or colleftion of a hundred maxims or fcntences, which has
been tranflated from the Arabic into the Perfian and Turkifh,
part of which has been publiflied in Englilh by Mr. Ockley ;
and alfo Ins " Divan," or collection of verfes. But his mod
celebrated relic is a parchment, written in myilerious charac-
ters, intermixed with figures, prophetic of all the events that
are to happen in the world. This was a depofit in the hands
of his family. Many ot Ali's fayings and apophthegms are
recorded by authors ; one of the moil inilruflive is the fol-
lowing : " He who would be rich without wealth, power-
ful without fubjects, and a i'ubjeft without mailer, has only
to forfake fin and fene God."

The appellations by which Ah was honoured by the
Arabs are very dillinguifliing and honourable. On account
of his fuperior braveiy, they called him " Al Haidar," the
lion, and " tlie viftorious Lion of God." They alfo de-
nominated him " Wafi," i.f. legatee or heir of Mahomet,
ond " Mortadi," o. d. beloved tjy, and acceptable to God.

He VIM alfo called by his follower:", " thf diflributor of
lights and graces ;" and " the king of men."

Ali has given denomination to a fe6l or party anionjr the
Mahometans, who adheretothe right of luccefTion of Ali, the
fourth caliph, or fncceflbr of Mahomet, and the reform of
Mudulmanifm introduced by him. The fei^laries of Ali arc
more particularlv called Suiitks, and Hand oppofcd to the
iSo:»NiTKS, or fefl of Omar, who adhere to the law as left
by Mahomet, Abubeker and Omar. The followers of Alf
have poffefTed various ftatcs in Afiaand Africa ; and at prc-
fent the Perfians, part of the Uflnc Tartars, and fome Maho-
metan fovereignsof India are of the fedt of Ali ; whilll the
Turks are of the feci of Omar, and hold Ali in execration.
The diflinguifliing badge of Ali's followers is a red turban,
which is worn by the Perfians, who are hence called, in de-
rifion by the Turks, " Kifilbachi," i.e. redheads. Mod.
Un. Hifl. c. ii. vol. i. Gen. Did. Sale's Prel. Difc. to the
Koran.

ALI BEY, an caflern adventurer, whofe hiflor)'- and
exploits have interelled much attention, was probably born
among the Abazans, a people inhabiting Mount Caucafus,
and brought by the fiave-merchants to one of the annual
fales at Cairo, where he was purchafed by the brotlicru,
IHiac and Youfef, Jews, employed in the cuftom-houfc,
and by them prcfented to Ibrahim, a kiaya, or veteran co-
hmel of janizaries, who was then one of the moll con-
fiderable men in Egypt. At this time he is fuppofed 10
have been 12 or 14 years of age. By the favour of his pa-
tron, to whom he rendered the ufual fervices of the Mam-
louks, he was taught to read and write, and to perform the
cuilomary exercifes of a military kind, in which he difplay-
ed a fire and aftivity that obtained for him the appellation
of (Ijftidall, or madman. At the age of 18 or 20 his beard
was allowed to grow, or he was made free; and his patron
gave him a wile and revenues ; promoted him to the rank
of kachcf, or governor of a dillrid ; and at length procured
him to be elecled one of the 24 beys. Thus favoured and
advanced, his ambition was excited ; and the death of Ibra-
him, in 1757, opened a free courl'e for the exectition of his
projects. After an abfence of a few years, during which
he had been engaged in a variety of intrigues, for raifing and
difplacing fcvtral chiefs, and two years of which he had
pafled in a ftate of exile in Said, or Upper Egypt, devifinjj
and maturing his plans of future dominion, he returned to
Cairo in 1766; and in one night killed four beys, who
were his enemies, baniflied four others, and thus became
from that time the chief of the moll numerous party. Not
contented with the trivial title and dependent office of
bey, he afpired to the title and honour of Sultan of Eg\-pt ;
and with thefe views he determined to throw ofl the fupre-
macy of the Porte ; and accordingly he expelled the pacha,
refuf-:d the cuilomary tribute, and in 1768, he proceeded to
coin money in his own name. The attention of the Porte
was fo much cx:cupicd by other concerns that he was un-
der a neceffity of temporifing ; and Ali, well appriftd of
his fituation, puflied forward his enterprifcs with fuccefs. He
began with difpoffeffing Hammam, an Arab flicik, of a port
of the Said, wliich he liad occupied, and where he had form-
ed a power capable of giving dillurbance ; and towards
the end of this year, 1769, he fitted out fome vclTcIs at
Suez, which were ordered to fcize on Djedda, the port of
Mecca, whilll a body of cavalry marched by land to take
pofTeHion of Mecca itfelf, whicii was given up to phuider.
The projeft which he had formed, in confecpience of the
fuggellion of a Venetian merchant, was to make Europe
abandon the paflage to the Eall Indies by the Cape of
Good HopCj by fyblliluting the ancient route of the Me-
4 S ditenaneRn

A L I

illerranean and the Red Si-a. Fluflicd with fiiccefs in the
pitty cnteqiriies ht had already acconipUnitd, and flattered
by his fcrvilc courtiers, his ambition fuggcllcd to him more
extenlive conqnelts. Syria was the full objedt of his con-
tcniphition ; and the war with the Ruffians, which broke
out in 1769, and which occupied all the Turkifh forces ui
the north, favoured his defign. liefides, (heik Daher, m
attual rebellion againll the Forte, would be a powerful and
faithful allv ; and the extortions of the pacha of Damaf-
cus difpofcd thofe he had opprcfTed for revolt, and made
way fur liis obtaining the title of the deliverer of n;itions.
Ali having laid his plan, detached in 1770 a corps of Mam-
louks to take polTtfrion of Gaza, and thus to fccure an en-
trance into Paltlline: and foon after he fent a larger army,
to foi-m a junftion with Daher at Acre, and to proceed from
thence to Damafcus. Ofman, pacha of Damafcus, was
diligent in his preparations, and collected an army equally
numerous and ill regul.ited. On the 6th of June 1771,
the two annies met, and a dtcifive aftion took place, in
which Mohammed, the friend of Ali, and Daher his ally,
proved viclorious. Tlicy immediately took poffcffion of
jbamafcus ; but the caftle reiiiled. At the moment when
the figna! of fuiTcnder was cxpefted, Mohammed fuddenly
commanded a retreat, and all his cavaliy turned towards
Egypt. This fingular revolution was at firft attributed to
a pretended report of the death of Ali Bey ; but it was
really owing to a conference which had pafTed the preceding
night between a crafty agent of Ofman and Mohammed Bey,
Ali's commander. Ali, though difappointed and chagrin-
ed, did not renounce his projects : he prepared, in conjunc-
tion with Daher, a fecond army for the campaign of 1772 ;
but the event was unpropitious. The efcape of Moham-
med roufed his jealouCy and his fears ; he beheld in him a dan-
gerous rival, and refolved on his ruin. Having ordered the
gates of Cairo to be (liut, and no Mamlouk to be allowed
to pafs, he fentenced Mohammed into immediate exile in
the Said. Mohammed, however, contrived to make his
efcape ; and from this moment all was loft. The Mam-
louks, wearied with the infolence of Ali Bey, repaired in
crowds to his rival, and in about fix weeks he left the Said,
ivith a ftrong force, and marched towards Cairo. Ali pre-
pared to meet him ; and in the month of Apiil 1772, the
two armiis had a rencontre in the plains of El-Mafateb, at
the gates of Cairo ; the ifTue of which was, that Moham.-
med and his party entered the city, fabre in hand ; and Ali
Bey had barely time to efcape with 800 of his Mamlouks.
With this inconfiderable force he repaired to Gaza, and at-
tempted to join his ally, Daher, at Acre, who, aiter fome
danger from which he was refcued, conducted him to Acre.
Both Ah and Daher marched to the fuccour of Said,
(Sidon) which was then befieged by the troops of Ofman,
in conjunction with the Dnizes. At their approach the
Turks raifed the fiege, and retired to a place about a league
north of the city, on the river Aoula, There, in July
1772, an engagement took place; and the Turkifli army,
three times more numerous than that of the two allies, was
entirely defeated. The feven pachas, who commanded it,
fled ; and Said remained in the pofleffion of Daher. Ali
Bey and Daher, on their return to Acre, proceeded to chaf-
tife the inhabitants of Yafa or Jaffa, who had revolted ;
and after a fiege of eight months the town capitulated in
February 1773. Ali now determined to return to Cairo;
and he was encouraged in his purpofe by the promifed fuc-
cours of Daher, and of the Ruflians. This afCftance was
delayed, and Ali became impatient. In April 1773, quick-
ened in the execution of his purpofe, by fabricated letters,
which he received from Cairo, he began his march at the

A L J

head of his Mamlouks, and fome troops furnifhed by Da-
her ; but when he advanced into the Defart, which fepa-
rates Ga/.a from Egypt, he fell into an ambulh of 1000
Mamlouks, who were waiting his arrival, 'i'his corps
was commanded by Mourad, a young bey, who, being en-
amoured of tlic wife of Aii Bey, had obtained a promife
of her from Mohammed, in cafe he fliould bring him the
head of Ali. The attack was impetuous ; Mourad met
with Ali in the crowd, wounded him in the forehead, made
him prifoncr, and conduced him to Mohammed. By his
former mailer, Ali was received with perfidious refpeft :
but on the third day, tliis parade of civility and politencfs
terminated by the death of Ali Bey, who, according tp
fome, died of his wounds ; or, as others report, by poi-
fon.

Ali_ Bey was certainly a charafter of original vigour and
capacity ; and was fuperior in his views to what could have
been cxpecled from one who was bred in a fchool of bar-
barifni and ignorance. He governed Egypt with a fleady
hand, and v>as particularly favourable to the Franks; but
he undertook more than he had power or talents to per-
form, and exhaufttd his revenues in fruitleis enterprifes.
He is alfo blamed for too foon refigning aftive labours to
his lieutenants, and for placing unlimited confidence in his
favourites, and winking at the exaftions of his officers. His
morals were thofe of his clafs and countiy, where perfidy
and murder are allowable means in purluing the objc6ls of
ambition ; yet he was not devoid of generofity and a fenfe
of juftice. During his adminiftration, feveral nefts of
robbers in Egypt were annihilated, villages which had been
inhabited by the pirates of the Nile were razed ; the com-
munication between different parts of the country was
free ; the roads were no longer infefted with robbers, nor
was navigation interrupted by that fpirit of pillage, which,
fince his death, has relumed its fatal activity. It was his
wiih, " that every man might be able to can-y his purfe in
his hand, and leave his door open, even during the night,
without running any rifle."

Volney has pointed out the errors of Savary's account
of this fingular perfon and the fource whence they were
derived. Volney's Travels in Egypt and Syria, vol. i. c. 8.
p. 114 — 142. Sonnini's Travels in Egypt, p. 391, 410.
Gen. Biog.

ALI, in Geography, a town of Afia, in the country of
Georgia, 50 miles weft of Teflis.

Ali, a town of Afia, in the country of Georgia, in the
province of Satabago; 22 miles fouth-weft of Akalzika.

ALIA, AAia, in Grecian Jlntiquity, folemn games cele-
brated at Rhodes on the 24th day of the month Gorpia;a,
ccrrefponding to the Athenian Bosdromion, in honour of
the fun, K\io;, or Aaio;, who is faid to have been born there;
the inhabitants of which were hence called HAiaJsf, Heliadae.
The vitlors were crowned with poplar. Strabo, toin. ii.
p. 966.

ALIABAD, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the
province of Tabriftan, 10 leagues fouth fouth-eall of Fe-
rabad.

ALIACMON, or Haliacmon, in vlncient Gecgraphy,
a river of Macedon, feparating it from Theffaly, rifes in
the PeneftoE mountains, and running fouth-eaft, enters the
bay of Thelfalonica, between the cities of Pydna, and
Dium.

ALJAKI, in Geography, a town of Poland in the pa-
latinate of Kiov, 20 miles fouth-eaft of Czerkafy.

ALJAMEIA is a name which the Morefcoes in Spain
give to the language of the Spaniards.

Among other articles agreed on by the junto, which was
7 appointed

A L t

A L I

appoLitcd by the empci-or diaries V. in i J26, in favoni- of
the Morclcoes, this was one, that the Moicfeoes (huulJ iia
longer fpeak Algavareia, /'. e. Moorilh, or Araliic, but
(hould all fpeak Aljameia, /. e. Spanifh, as it was called by
the Moors, and all their writings and contrails fliould be in
that languaaje. Geddes's Mifc. Trafts, torn. i. p. 23.

ALIANA, in Geography, a biihopriek of Phrygia, fiib-
(.jiTI: to the metropolis of Laodlcea.

ALIANNELO, a town of Italy in the kingdom of
Naples, and province of Bafdicata, 27 miles call of I'o-
tcn/.a.

ALT ANO, a town of Naples, in the province of Bafdi-
cata, 23 miles fouth-eall of Potenza.

Aliano is alio a town of Naples, in tlic country of JLa-
vora, two miles weft of Gaeta.

ALIANSKOI, a fort of Ruffian Siberia, in the govern-
ntent of Kolivan, 120 miles fouth fouth-well of Kolivan.
N. lat. 52° 50'. E.long. 79= 34'.

ALIARBUCHA, in NcUura! Hlflory, the Arabian
name for a large kind of rat, the Jerboa of other writers,
common in that country, and good to cat, according to Bo-
chart, who thinks it the fame as the fnphan, mentioned in
Leviticus, and there declared unclean. Levit xi. 5.

Dr. Shaw thinks the faphan to be the daman Jj'ratl, or a
fpecios of rabbit.

ALIARDII, in Ancient Geography, a people of Africa,
according to Ptolemy.

ALIARIA, a town of Comagena, placed by Antonin,
in the route from Nieopolis to Edefla.

ALIARTUS. SccHaliartus.

ALIAS, in Laza, a fecond or farther writ ifTued from
the courts of Wcilminiter, after ccplas, &:c. fued out with-
out effect.

ALIBiVCA, in Ancifnt Geography, a town placed by
Ptolemy, in the Pentapolis. i

ALIBANI, or Alibinali, in Geography, a town of
Arabia, 14.0 miles foiith-eaft of Amanzirifdin.

ALIBAG Rem, a tovn of European Turkey in Bulga-
ria, eight leagues eaft of Slliftria.

ALIBI, in Law, denotes the abfence of the accufed
from the place where he is charged with having committed
a crime : or his being elfeuuhere, as the word imports, at
the time fpecified.

ALICA, in the Ancient Phyfic and Diet, a kind of food;
but the various accounts given of it by authors, make it
uncertain what it was; fome reprefenting it as a fort of grain,
and others as an aliment made of grain.

The Greek word for alica was X'"'^P'''> which term, and
wTio-o-avij, feem to have been general names for all fpelt or
hulhid grain, beaten or ground into a pulp.

Ray, in his hiftor)-, fays the alica diifers from the xo»-
'Jp;, as the ^™«j- from \\\^fpecies.

ALICA, in Geography, a town of Italy in the duchy of
Tufcany, 29 miles well fouth-weil of Florence.

ALICANDRA, or Alidraca, in Ancient Geography,
a town placed by Ptolemy in Media.

ALICANE, in Geography, a river towards the fouth-
•weft part of the illand of Ceylon, nearly eaft from Barberine
ifland, and fouth from Caliture.

A Lie ANT, a fmall, but well-built, rich, populous, and
fortified fea-port town of Spain, in the kingdom of Valen-
cia. It is fituated on the Mediterranean, between a moun-
!um, on which the caftle ftands, and the fea ; and it is well
defended by ftrong baftions. This mountain is white, and
being vifible at a great diftance, feems as a guide to pilots.
The bay in which it ftands is (heltered on the eaft by Cape

de la Huerta, and to the weft by Cape St. Pa\il, and the
illand ot Tabarea. Veifels unciu)r about a iiiiie from the
mole, which is large and commodious, in water from fix to
10 fathoms, and may enter and go out with any wind.
This bay is faid to have been the famous gulf of Ilici, iv
called from a Roman colony, now Elehe ; but tha declin-
ing ftate of that port, and the improvements of Alicant,
gave it the name which it now bears : it begins at Cape St.
Martin, and terminates at Cape Palos. Tlie couft is
guarded by watch-towers againft tiie incurfions of tlic Cor-
lairs. Alicant was taken from the Moors in 1264. The
caftle was taken by the Englifii in 1706, and retaken in
I 708, by tiie Spaniards. The adjacent territory is fertile,
and produces wlilte and red wines that arc much valued.
The export trade, which is confidtrable, confifts of barilla,
antimony, alum, anifeed, cummin-fced, dried fruit, wool,
and wine. As the duli>s of cntiy are lower tiinn thofe at
Valencia and Carthagena, this circumftance has contributed
to the increafe of its commerce and riches. Linen, from
France, Switzerland, and Silefin, and caniblets and woollen*
from France, are the chief imports. Tlie Englifli, French,
Dutch, and fome Italian States have ufually had a conful at
Alicant. N. lat. l^" 34'. W.long. o'' 7'.

ALICARItE, in Ancient Hijlory, a term fynonymouj
with proftitutcs.

ALICANUM, or Halicanum, in Ancient Geography,
a town of Pannonia.

ALICASTRUM, in Botany. See Brosimum.

ALICATA, in Geography, a fmall town of Sicily in
the valley of Noto, built partly upon a flopc, and partly
on the beach, at the end of a long chain of hills ; 19 miles
eaft fouth-eaft of Girgenti, and 60 fouth-weft of Catania.
This is a place of little ftrength, the caftle of St. Angelo
on the brow of the hill being ruinous, the town walls much
decayed, and the fortrefs on the peninfula wanting repairs.
It forms two fmall bays for the bai'ges that carry out the
corn to fliips that lie in the offing, it has great conneiSlions
with Malta in the corn trade. The town contains 10,000
inhabitants. The populace pay great refpecl to the facer-
dotal charafter ; the women and children falling on their
knees in the ftreets before a clergyman, touching his gar-
ments with a finger and then kiffing their hands with great
veneration. Alicata is faid to poflefs fome ancient Greek
manufcripts relating to the ancient city of Gela : the moft
remarkable is a pfephifma, or decree of tiie fcnate, for
crowning Heraclides diredor of the pubhc academy. This
town was plundered by tlie Turks in 1543. N. lat. 37"
11'. E.long. 13° 51'. Swinburne's Travels into Sicily,
vol. iv. p. 39.

Alicata is alfo a mountain of Sicily not far from this
town, in which, as it is thought, was fituated Dxdalion,
where Phalaris kept his bra/en bull.

ALICHORDA, or Alicodra, a town, placed by
Ptolemy in Baftriana.

ALICE, a river of Sicily, was the ancient boundaiy of
the Locrian ftate. Immenfe quantities of anchovies fre«
quent the mouth of this ftream and the adjacent coaft : it
is therefore probable that either the fifli derived its Latin
name Halic from the river, or the river was called after the
fiffi.

ALICONDA, in Botany, an African tree, growing na-
turally in the kingdom of Congo, of fuch bulk that la
men cannot fathom it round. The natives called it bondo,
and as the wood ealily rots, they do not build their huts
near it, left its fdl ftiould crufli them to death, or its fruit,
whicli is of the fize of a large gourd, and ealily broken {j-oiTj
4 S 2 the

A L I

iht tree, fhoiild knock them down. The bark of this tree,
wdl beaten and mnccrattd, yields a coarfc thrceid, of which
they make their ropes, and which macerated and dried, and
beaten with bars of iron or wood, becomes hke a larfje
piece of cloth, with which the natives cover their middle
from the girdle to the knees. The (hell or rind of the
fniit, which is hard hke that of a gourd or calabafli, bemg
freed from its pulp, which i:. lime of fcarcity may be made
into a nourifliing p?p, ferves for vtlfels of various kinds, and
pivcs to water, preferved in it, a pleafant aromatic tafte.
The fmall leaves are eaten in time of fcarcity, and the large
ones ferve to cover houfes, or being burned, to make good
foap. Mod. Un. Hiit. vol. xiii. p. 23. 8vo.

ALICONEA, in Er.li/mology, the name given by Cra-
mer to the PAPILIO JULIA.

ALICUDA, or Alicur, one of the Lipari i/lands, near
the coall of Sicily. N. lat. 38^ 31'. E. long. 14° 32'.
This ifland is about fix miles in circuit ; its popula-
tion is not fo great as that of Felicuda, which contains
about 650 inhabit:tnts, and the houfes are built at the fouth
and fouth-eaft end of the ifland, on the declivities of the
uiountains about halfway up their afcent, in order to be
guai-ded a:;ainll the nightly fui-pri/e and rvttack of the
Tunifian Corfairs. Behdes Indian figs, and feme olive-
trees, thefe two iflands contain many vines, from the grape
of which a good wine is made, though it be not malm-
fey, nor the grape the paffola or pafiohna. The corn grown
here is b.irlcy and wheat, which, together with the grapes,
amount in vidne of produce to about 3000 Neapolitan
crowns. The indulliy and patience of the people of Ali-
euda are incredible ; they do not lofe an inch of the ground
they cultivate. Their foil is almoft wholly interrupted by
points of rocks, maiTes of lava, clefts and crags ; and yet
they render trads of this kind productive, by turning and
breaking them with pointed fpades : fo that the Lipartfe
humoroufly fay of them, that the people of Alicuda till
their lands with the point of a knife. In all the^olian ifles
there is not better bread than that of Ahcuda. Three or four
fifhing boats belong to this ifland, which are mollly the pro-
perty of the parilh piieil, and are employed for the augmenta-
tion of their ecclcfiuftical revenues, amounting to httle more
than 12 fequins. There is not a Angle fpring of frefh wa-
ter either in Alicutla or Felicuda ; and therefore when it
docs not rain for fcveral months, the diftrcfs of the inhabitants
is extreme. They have no ferpents in thefe iflands, as they
furnifti no food necefiaiy for their fubflftence. The people
are exempted, on account of their poverty, from every kind
of taxation, the tythes which they pay to the bifliop ex-
cepted. Thefe iflanders, notwithftanding their extreme po-
verty, and inhabiting huts, formed of pieces of lava, fcarcely
admitting a ray of light, and appearing hke the nefts of
birds hung to the chfFs, are fingularly contented and happy.
Their fare confifts of black barley bread, and wild fiiiits,
and fometimes, by way of dainty, fait fifli, and their drink
of pure water; and yet fuch is the temperature of the cli-
mate, and the falubrious quality of the air, that they enjoy,
with little interruption, health of body and cheeifulnefs of
mind. The veiligcs of fire are difcernible in everj' part of
this ifland, but the aftual exiftence of volcanic errnptions
and conflagration precedes the records of hiftory. The vol-
canic materials, now found in it, and particularly examined
by the accurate and induilrious Spallanzani in his viik to
this ifland, are pumices, tufas, and glafles, and great quan-
tities of lava, in detached globules and continued currents,
which have pctrofllex for their bafe. Dolomieu was of
«p;ni(Sii, that Felicuda and Alicuda had ouce formed a fingle

A L I

conical mountain, which had been opened and feparatcd on
one fide ; but v^pallanzani alledges feveral circumftances
that evince the improbability of this opinion. Although
thefe two iflands exhibit numerous and indubitable charac-
ters of fire, no figns of it in a ftale of aftivity are now
to be feen The ancient name of Alicuda was Ertcvfa ;
and the author of the epitome of Stcphanus fiiys, that it
was fo named from the erica or heath which giows there
plentifully Strabo likewife (lib. vi.) informs us, that thefe
two iflands derived their names from plants. But in the
time of Ariftotle and Strabo, and other ancient writers,
the conflagrations in thefe two iflands, as they are un-
noticed by them, mull; have been entirely extinguiflicd.
Spallanzani's Travels in the two Sicilies, vol. iii. c. 18 —
vol. iv. c. 24.

ALICULA, in Antiquity, a kind of puerile habit worn
by the Roman children. This was a iort of chlamys; fomc
explained it by tunica maniaita.

ALICYRNA, in Ancient Geography, a place of Greece,
filuate, according to Steph. Byz. in Acarnania, and ac-
cording to the periplus of Scylax in jEtolia. It is proba-
bly the lyciriia of other authors, to the fouth of Calydon
on the borders of the fea.

ALIDES, in the Mahometan H'ljlory, the defcendants
of Ali, otlierwife called Fatim'iies. See All

ALIEIS, in Ancient Geography, a fea-port town of Pe-
loponnefus, in Laconia, inhabited by fifliermen, whence its
Greek name.

ALIE-Kruvk, in Natural H'lJlory, a Dutch name given
to a kind of fea-fnail, the hillory of which is given by
Swammerdam. Bib. Nat. torn. i. p. i8o.

ALJEMBUT, or, as fome write it, gcmbut, in Botany, a
name given by the Arabians, Avicenna, and others, to a
fpecies of acacia, which they alfo call the Nabathsean pod,
and ceration, or filiqua, an^ which fome have fuppofed to
be the fame with the common carob ; but they exprefsly
diilingiufli it, by faying that it is an ailringent, wiiereas the
other is gently purgative ; and that the fruit of it was
given in hemorrhages. Nay, Ifidore goes fo far as to fay,
that the acacia juice of the fliops was made of its fruit,
while unripe.

ALIEN, in Law, ailranger or perfon born out of the
king's allegiance ; or under the jurifdiftion of fome other
fovereign ; and not natunilized, or made a denizen.

Of thefe there are two kinds ; viz. alien friends, who are
of thofe countries which are at peace and league with us ;
and alien enemies, who are of countries at war with us ; to
which fome add a third, viz. alZn hifidels.

A man born out of the land, but within the limits of the ■
king's obedience beyond the feas ; or of Englifh parents out
of the king's obedience, provided the parents at the time of
the birth be of fuch obedience, is no alien, but a fubjeft of
the king, ilat. 2. 25 Edw. III. commonly called the ilatute
De natis ultra mare.

By ieveral more modern ftatutes, (7 Ann. c. 5. 10 Ann.
c. 5. 4 Geo. II. c. 21, and 13 Geo. III. c. 21.) thefe re:-
ftridionsare further taken off; fo that all children born out
of the king's liegeance whofe fathers, or grandfathers by the
father's fide, were natural born fubjefts, though their mo-
thers were aliens, are now deemed to be natural born fubjerts
themfelves to all intents and purpofes, unlefs thtir fnici ar.-
ceitor were attainted, or baniflied beyond fea for high
trcafon ; or were at the birth of fueh children in the fervice
of a prince at enmity with Great Britain. But the grandchil.
dren of fuch anceftors fliall not be privileged in refpect of. the
aliens duty, except they be proteilants, and actually refi4,e

within

A L I

A L I

within the realm ; nor fliall be enabled to claim any edate
or iiitercft, unlefs the claim be made within five years after
the fame (hall accrue. The children of aliens born in Eng-
land are, generally fpeaking, natural born fubjefts, and
entitled to <fll the privileges of fuch. i Comni. 373.

By the llat. 11 and 12 W. III. cap. 6. all perfons being
the king's n?.tural born fubjeds, may inherit as heirs to
their anceftors, though their ancellors were aliens. Children
of an ambalTador in a foreign country by a wife who is an
Englilh woman, are natural born fubjcfts by the common
law. 7 Rep. II. And if an Englilli mercliant living beyond
fea, marnes a wife there, and hath a child by her and dies,
this child is born a denizen, and Ihall be heir to him, not-
withft.ii;ding the wife be an alien. Cro. Car. 60J. Perfons
born in EnghlTi plantations are natural born fubjects.

An alien can hold no land by defcent or purchafe, or be
tenant by courtefy, or in dower ; and if he purchafe,
the king iliall have it ; but he may purchafe a houfe for
years for habitation, during his refidence, as necefiury for
trade. If an alien merchant leas-es the kingdom, the king
fliall have the leafe ; if he be no merchant, the king fhall
have his leafe for years, though it were for his habitation ;
and by the llat. 32 Hen. VIIL there is a penalty for letting

houfes to aliens. 5 Rep. 502 7 Rep. 18. — 1 Inll. 2. I2y.

— 2. lull. 741.

By 13 Geo. III. c. 14. aliens are enabled to lend money
on the fecurity of mortgages of eftates in tlie Weft India
colonies, and may have every remedy to recover the money
lent, except foreclofing the mortgage and obtaining pofTeffiou
of the land.

A dcvife of lands to an alien is void ; and if a man be
bound to an nhen enemy in a bond, it is void to him, but
the king rtiall have it.

Ahens, however, may obtain goods and perfonal eftate
by trade, &c. and may bring aftions for the fame ; and
make a will and difpofe of their perfonal eftate ; but an alien
enemy cannot maintain any aftion whatever, nor obtain any
thing lawfully within the realm, i Bulft. 124. Terms de
Ley. 36.

Aliens are not to be returned on any Jury ; but where an
alien is party in acaufe, the jury are to be half denizens and
half aliens, except in cafes of high treafon. 2 Inft. 17.
By flat. 27 Ed. III. c. 8. if both parties are aliens, the
inqutft fiiall be all aliens. By the ftat. 12 W. III. cap. 2.
aliens are i.icapable of being members of parliament, or of
enjoying oifices ; neither have they. any vote for the cleftlon
of members. Hob. 271. Ahens likewife are by feveral
acls of parliament put under feveral other reftriftions, with
regard toexercifing trades, taking apprentices, and are like-
wife difabled from being fadlors in the plantations, &c. See
Denizen and Naturalization.

A very great influx of Frenchmen into England having
been occafioncd in the years 1792 and i7(;-<, by the troubles
in France, and there being caufc to fulpeft that fome of
them were fent here for dangerous and unjulliliable pur-
pofes, an aft was puffed, llr.t. 33 Geo. III. c. 4, commonly
called the Arien-lill, compe!li}ig the mafters of fhips arriving
from foreign parts, under certain penalties, to give an ac-
count at every port of the number and names of every fo-
reigner on board to the cuftom-houfe officers ; appointing
juflices and others to grant paffports to fueh aliens ; and
giving the king power to rcftraiu and to fend them out of
the kingdom on pain of tranfportation, and on their return,
of death. The fame aft alio dircfts an account to be de-
livered of the arms of aliens, which, if required, are to.be
delivered up, and aliens were not to go fiora one place. to

another in the kingdom without paffports. TKis aft was
continued by feveral fubfequents acts; by 38 Geo. III.
c. 50, to AuTf. I, ifioo, and from thence to the end of the
then next f.ilion of parliament, and by 41 Geo. III. c. 24.
till fix Pout! s after the conclulion of a general peace.

Ami ns duly, an inipoft laid on all goods imported into
England, by aliens, or denizens, and even onccitain goods
imported by natural fubjefts, if they be brought on foreign
bottoms, over and above what is paid far the fame good*
imported by Britilh, and in Britiih fhipping. 12 Stat.
Car. II.

Aliens duty is otherwife called prtly cufloms, and naviga-
tion duly. This was firft grar.tt.d in 31 Ed. I.

Fifli, dried or lalted, and cod-iilh, or herring, not caughc
in Britifli veffels, and cured by Britidi, pay a double aUns
duly.

Aliens duty outwards, is taken off by the following afts.

12 Car. II. cap. 4 25 Car. II. cap. 6 — 5 Ann, cap. 27.

— 6 Ann, cap. ]0 — 7 Ann, cap. 7. — 9 Aim, cap. 6.—
8 Geo. I. cap. 15 — u Geo. I. cap. 59.

Scavnge, package, and haliiage, payable to the city of
London, ai'e properly alien duties. On what footing aliens
are permitted to import foreign commodities- into Great-
Britain. See Duty.

Alien is fometimes ufed, in UrtdJlc jigc IVriters, for
exempt. Du-Cange.

Alien-i^tov, ov alien friend. See Alien.

Alien priories, a lubordinate kind of monaRerirs in
England, belonging to, and independent on, other nionaf-
teries in foreign countries. In the reign of Hem-)- V. the
alien priories, or abbies for foreign monks were fupprefled,
and tiieir lands given to the crown. Vide Dudg. Monaft'.
Abr. p. 44.

ALIENATION, Alienatio, in Law, the aft of
making a thing another man's ; or the altering or trans-
ferring tlie property, and pofleffion of lands, tenements, or
other things from one man to another.

To alienate, or alien in Mortmain, is to make over lands
or tenements to a religious community, or other body politic.

To iiHenate in Fee, is to fell the fec-fimple of any land,
or other incorporeal right.

All perfons who have a right to lands may generally alien ■
them to others ; but fome alienations are prohibited : fuch-.
as alienations by tenant for life, &c. whereby tlity incur a.
foifeit lire of their eftate. i [nft. u8.

Ly the ftatutc of Edward 1. a bar was put to alienations
by what we rail entails, which is an expedient for ])rocuring
perpetuities in families ; but counter-expedients were devifed
to defeat this intent, and a praftice was introduced of cutting
off' entails hyjines, and of barring remainders and rcverfions •
by reeoveries.

Eftates in tail, for life or years, where the whole intereft.-
is not parted widi, may be made with condition notto alien
to others, for the prefervation of the lands granted in the
hands of the firft granter.

The ftatute for alienations in Henry the Seventh'*'
time, had a great effeft on the conftltution of this kingdom :
as among other regulations of that reign, it tended to throw
the balance of power more into the hands of the people.
By the ftat. 12 Car. II. cap. 24. fines for ;Jietiations are
taken away; except fines due by particular cuftoms of manors.

Crown lands are only alienable uudera faculty of perpe-
tual redemption.

The council of Lateran, held in 1123, forbids any clerk
to alienate his benefice, prebend, or the like.

By the hvri of the ancient Jews, lands could only b»

alienated ■

A L I

alienated for the fpaee of fifty years. At each return of
the jubilee, all returned again to the primitive owners, or
their defcendants, to whom "the lands were originally allotted,
at llic firll dilbibulion of Canaan.

Alienatio a'fiwiilia. See Abdication.

Alienation ojjicf, is an office to which all writs of co-
veinnti and entry, upon wliich fines are levied, and reco-
veries fufleTcd, are carried, to have fines fur alienation let
and paid thereon.

ALIEU, or Alioev, in /Indent Geography, iflands
placed bv Pliny in the Adulic gulf, near Ethiopia.

ALTFI, \n Geography, a town of Italy, in the kingdom
of Naples, and country of Lavora ; five miles north of
Capua. This town, placed by M. d'Anville to the fouth-"
well of Bovianum and north-weft of Beneventum, was for-
merly a Roman colony, and poiTeired by the Samnites.

AI-IFORMES miifculi, xn/lnatomy, are thus called from
aln, 'wing,?in&forma,fiape, as refembling wings. See Ptery-
goid.*; us extcrnus et internus.

Aliformes/x-oc^j, are procefles of the fphmoid bone,
under which article they will be defcribed.

ALII muh'i, Ali lie regno, are phrafcs which often
occur in our ancient records and hiflorians. Their meaning
has occafioned much difpute. Dr. Brady will have them
to fignify only tenants in eapite ; which Mr. Tyrrel endea-
vours to refute, and {hew that they denote the whole
commojis of the kingdom. Hift. of Eng. torn. i. Appen.

ALILiEI, in yincient Geography, a people who inliabited
the weftern part of Arabia Felix ; among whom gold, it is
faid, was fo abundant, that it was held in lower eftimation
than copper and iron, which were probably very fcarcf .

ALIMA, among Mineralyh, a kind of fand found in
gold mines, out of which lead is extrailed.

AJblMALA, in Ancient Geography, a country' of Afia
Minor in Lycia. Steph. Byz.

ALIMEA, or Halimusia, a diftrift of Attica, be-
longing to the Leontid tribe, fituate near the Phalereum,
and in the vicinity of Athens. In thisdiftrift was a temple
confccrated to Ceres Thefmophoria, or the legiflatrix, and
to Profei-pine, according to Paufanias, in Attic, lib. i. c. 31.
p. 76.

ALIMENA, in Entomology, a fpecies of Papilio Nym-
phal'is, with dentated black wings, an intennipted creiii-
lean fafcia, and feven white marginal points, found in South
America and India.

ALIMENT, Alimentum, formed of alere, to nourlfo,
in a phyfical fenfe, is whatever may be dilTolved and turned
into chyle, fo as to be afterwards converted into blood, for
augmenting the body, or repairing its continual wafte. The
fubjeft of aliments has been veiy diffufcly and compre-
henfively difcufied by Dr. Cullen, in his Mat. Med. vol. i.
p. 217 — 408. See Chylification, Digestion, Drink,
Food, and Nutrition.

A\.\-mHT of plants. See Plants.

ALIMENTARY, Ali mental, fomething that relates
to aliment, or food.

Alimentary liud, or canal, is a denomination that has
been given to the whole of thofe paflages which the food
permeates from the mouth to the anus. It is di\-ided into the
gula, which is fubdivided into the pharynx and oefophagns,
the ftomach, and the inteftines. For an account of its
ftrufture and funftions, the reader is referred to thefe
oivifions.

This duft is faid to be the true charafteriftic of an animal,
cr propnum quarto modo ; there being no animal without it,
and whatever has it, being properly enough ranged under

A L I

tlie clafs of aijimal:-. Plants receive their nourilhment by
the numerous fibres of their roots, but have no commou
receptacle for digelling the food received, or for carrying off
the recrements. But in all, even the lowell degree of animal
life, we may obferve a lloniach and inteitines, even where
we cannot perceive the leall formation of any organs of the
fenfes, unlel's that common one of feehng, as in oytlcrs. Phil.
Tranf. N^ 269. p. 776, feq.

Dr. Wallis deduces an argument from the flruAure of the
alimentary tube in man, to prove that he is not naturally
carnivorous. To the cogency of whicii. Dr. Tyfon makes
fome objeftions. Phil. Tranl". N° 269. p. 777.

Alimentary du8, is fometimes aU'o underRucd of the
thoracic duft.

Alimentary latv, lex al'imentaria, w.^s an old lavvf among
^he Romans, whereby children were obliged to find fulle-
nance for their parents.

Alimentary boys, A/imentarii ptier't. Sec. were certain
children maintained and educated by the munificence of the
emperors, in a fort of public places, not unlike our hof-
pitals.

Trajan was the firft that brought up any of thefe alimen-
tary boys. He was imitated by Adrian. Antoninus Piu.s
did the fame for a number of maids, at the felicitation of
Fauftina ; and hence, in fome medals of that emprefs, we
read pvellae favstinianae. — Alexander Severus did the
like, at the requcil of Mamma:a ; and the maids thus edu-
cated are called Mammreana;.

ALIMENTATION is ufed by fome naturalifts, for
what we more ordinarily call Nutrition.

ALIMENTUS, C'incius, in Biography, a Roman hif-
tori'ui, was a praetor in the confnlfiiip of Claudius Marcellui
and Marcus Valerius, in the year 152, B. C. Livy repre-
fents him as a diligent coUedlor of hiftorical fafts ; and as
an eminent writer, giving him the appellation of " maximus
auftor." Livy, lib. vii. lib. xxx. He wrote the hiilory of
Hannibal, in v. hofe hands he was a prifoner ; and the
hiilory of Gorgias of Leontium, probably from materials
which he collefted during his prsetorfhip in Sicily. He was
alfo the author of a treatife on the military art, mentioned
by Aulus Gellius, (lib. xxvi. c. 4.) and Amobius, (lib. iii.)
mentions him in his account of the foreign divinities, called
Novcnjiles.

ALIMNE, in yincient Geography, a town of Afia, in
Phiygia, fuppofed to be the fame with that called alfo
yllinum.

ALIMONY, Ali M ON I a, properly fignifies nourift-
ment, or maintenance : but in a modern Icnfe, in laiu,
it denotes that portion, or allowance, which a married
woman fues for, upon any occafional feparation from her
hulband, wherein Ihe is not charged with elopement or
adultery.

Tliis was anciently called rational/He ejloverium, reafonable
maintenance, and was recoverable only in the fpiritual court ;
but now it is recoverable alfo in cliancery.

^'i^here a woman is divorced a menfa izf thorc, (Ite may fiic
her hulband in her own name for alimony, or maintenance,
out of her hufband's eftate, during the feparation, either in
the chancery, or in the fpiritual court ; and it will be allowed,
except in the cafes of elopement and adultei-y, as aforefajd.
I Inlt. 235.

ALIMOS, in Botany, the name given by fome of the
Greek writers to the common liquorice. It has been thus
called, from its quality of palling the appetite, and making
it infenfible either of hunger or thirft.

ALINA, in Ancient Geography, one of the three fmall

iflands

A L I

iilauds Crj-ceon, fitiiate on t!ie north-weft part of tlie "ulf of
Glaucus, towards hit. 36° 35'.

Alina, or Atina, a diflrift of Italy, in that part of
Magna Grxcia, called Lucania, north of Cx-fariana, and
well of Abdlinum Marficiim.

ALINDA, a town placed by Ptulcmy in Caria, bitwecn
Stratonice and BadcfTus. This is erroncoiilly called yllina by
Steph. Byz.

ALINDESIS, in the indent Gfrnnqjlic Merliane, a kind
of exercife, wherein perfons being befmeared with oil, rolled
themlelves naked in the dull.

The word is fometimes alfo written aXivJo-.

ALINDOCA, in jlncu-nt Geography, a town placed by
Steph. Byz. in Macedonia.

ALINGO, Alingijnh partus, L'm^on, is affigned by M.
d'Anville to the Valfati, and placed between Sirio to
the norlh-weft and UfTubium to the fonth-eail. Sidonius
Apolhnaris fpeaks of it as being fituatcd on the Ga-
rumna.

ALINGSAHS, in Gengraphy, a town of Sweden, inWeft
Gothland, iituate on the river Sewelanga. Tt was built by
the inhabitants of Ny-Lodefe, after the deftruftion of their
town by the enemy. A filk and woollen manufacture is
eilabhflied in this town ; tobacco is alfo fpun, and tobacco
pipes are made here. This is the 8 ift voting town in the
Diet.

ALINZA, a town placed by Ptolemy inMcdia, and called
alfo Orofa. Another town of the fame name was iituated
more to the north. Aihi%a was alfo a town of Sufiana.

ALIONE, or Alone, a name given in the Notitia to
Lancastek.

ALIOS hatov, in Ichthyology, a name given by Ariflotle
to the ftrange lifn called by Artedi, lophius, andby otliers
'B^i.ii h ptfcatrix.

ALlPxENOS, in the Ancient Phyfic, an appellation given
to diy topical medicines, or fuch as have no fat mixed with
them.

. The word is fometimes alfo written nl'ipantos. It is purely
Greek, aXi-xiTOs, compounded of the primitive a, and
'Kv:ta.i,iui, p'tnguej'cere, to fatten. In which fenfe aUpicna ftands
oppofed to I'lpcira, or plafters, which have fat in their com-
yofition ; called alfo by Celfus, len'ia.

Galen gives the name aAixn to the remedies applied to
frefh wounds, to check the inflammation, and haften their
healing.

ALIPHERA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Arcadia,
feated in the weftern part of it, and fouth of Heraea, by
which the river Alpheus pafied, on the top of a high and
fteep hill, which was defended by a ilrong fortrefs. Some
fay that it took its name from Alipherus, the fon of Lycaon.
It was abandoned by the greateil number of its inhabitants,
when Megalopolis was founded ; and at the time of the
Achxan league it was joined to Triphylia. This city was
reduced by Philip of Macedon, when lie brought the whole
country of the Triphalians under fubjeftion. We kam from
Polybius, (lib. ii. p. 343.) that there was to be feen in this
fortrefs a brazen llatue of Minen-a, famous for its fize and
workmanfliip. But he adds, that the inhabitants could give
no fatisfaclory account why it was placed there, and at whofe
charge. It was the work of Hecabodorus and Sollratus,
> and generally eileemed the moil beautiful and finilhed piece
"which they ever executed. Minerva and Hercules had both
temples in this place ; and the tradition of the country
reports, that Minerva was born and educated here.

ALIPILARIUS, or Alipilus, in ylntiqultv, an officer

belonging to the baths, who, by means of wax, and waxen

. plafters, took off the hairs from the dj:, or arm pits. The

ALT

women wlio performed this office were called pkatrlcei, and

piirlillrht.

The nlipilus anfwered to what the Greeks called Jfi'T«xis>if.
The ancient Romans made it a point of clcanlinefs to keip
the ar.n-pits clear and fmooth. In after-times, they went
farther, and took oft' the hair from their arms, legs, and
other parts, with pitch and roiin, and by the ■voljellii, an in-
ilrumtnt for that purpofe.

ALIPOW Montis Ceti, in the Mnterhi AM'ica, a
kind of white turhith, which is a itroiig purgative. It is to
be found in feveral places of Languedoc, particularly near
Cete, whence the modern botanilis have given it its name.
It is fometimes ufed inllead of fcna ; which, however, may
be dangerous, fmce it is a much llronger purgative.

AIjIPTA, from aAsi^o), / anoint, in the Ancient Gym*
tkijlics, an officer appointed to anoint the athlete:.

In which fenfe the aliptx amount to the lame wth what
are otherwife called untlorcs, ■AnAjalndipt/e.

Alipta is fometimes alio ufed, in a lefs proper fenfe, for
the direftor, or fuperintendant of the excrcifes of the athhtx.
In which fenfe alipta is fynonymous with gymnajlcs, and
p.eJolnl'n.

ALIPTERIUM, aXiTTj^^iov, in Antiquity, a place in the
undent palijlr^, where the athletic were anointed before their
exercifes.

The alipterium, or aVipterion, was otherwife called el/ZO-
THESiON, s.nd iinf/iiariiini ; (omcUmcs <d{o ccroma.
ALIPTES, the name of a fountain near Ephefus.
ALIQLTANT/'j///, in Arithmetic, is that which will not
meafure or divide any number exatlly. Or an aliquant
pirt is that which being taken anv number of times, is
always greater or lefs than the whole.

Thus live is an aliquant part of 12 ; for being taken
twice, it falls (hort ; and when taken three times, it exceed*
I 2.

The aliquant parts of a pound, or 20s. are,

3J-. an aliquant part compofed of a tenth and 2cth.
6s. of a 5th and a loth.
•js. of a 4th and a tenth.
8s. of two 5ths.
9^. of a 4ch and a 5th.
1 IS. of a half and a 20th.
J 2s. of a half and a loth.
13^. of a half, a loth, and a 20th,
14J. of a half and a 5th.
ip. of a half and a 4th.
i6s. of a half, a fifth, and a icth.
ijs. of a half, a 4th, and a i&th.
18s. of a half and two jths.

igj-. of a half, a 4th, and 5tii. See Mvi.tiplicatiov,
ALIQJ.TOT/rt;V, is fuch part of any number or quan-
tity, as will exaftly meafure it, without any remainder. —
Or, it is a part, which being taken a certain number of
times, becomes equal to the whole, or integer.

The word is formed of aliqiioties, any number of times.
Thus 3 is an aliquot part of 1 2 ; becaufc, being taken four
times, it will jull meafure it.

All the aliquot parts of any number may be thus found.
Divide the given number by its Icaft divifor, and divide the'
q\iotient alfo by its kail divllor, and fo on always dividing
the leaft quotient by its lall divllor, till tiie quotient I is ob-
tained ; and all the divifors, thus taken, are the prime ali-
quot parts of the given number. Then multiply continually
together thefe prime divifors, I'/'s. every two, every three,
every four of them, &c. ; and the products will be the other
or compound aliquot parts of the given number. E.G.
Ltt the aliquot parts of 60 be required ; firll divide it by 2,

and

and
and
i?.,

21. 6tf- an eigluh.
I J. Si/, a twelfth.
IS. 4//. a fifteenth.
IS. ^rt. 3. fixteenth.
lod. a twenty-fourth.
^d. a forty-eighth.

A L I

■and the quotient is 30; then 30 divided by 2 gives the
.quotient ij ; and ij divided by 3 givts 5, and 5 divided
by 5 gives 1 ; and therefore, all the prime divilbrs or ali-
quot parts arc 1, 2, 2, r. S- 1''>'-'" t'"-' conipounJ onesob
taincd by multiplying every two, arc 2, 4, 6, 10, 15 ; ""'
by militiplying cveiy three, 6, 10, 12, J 5, 20, 30;
«U the aliquot parts of 60 arc 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, C\ »o,
15, 20, 3D.

The aliquot parts of 20s. arc,
ics. hulf of 20s.

jj. a AiUith.

4j. a fifth.

,2s. a tenth.

If. a twentieth.

6/. id. a third.

y. 41/. a fixth.
To multiply by ti\c help of aliquot parts, fee Multi-

rl-ICATION.

We mutl not confoinid an aliquot part with that of a
commeiij'uralle ; for ever)- aliquot part is a commerifuralle, but
-not -cice vdj'a. Thus four is commenfurahk with fix, but is
not an aliquot part of it. Phil. Tianf. N° 41.

ALIS^I, in AncUnl Geot^raphy, a name given by Jo-
fephus to the inhabitants of F.olis.

ALISANDERS, in Boiiniy. See Smyrnium.

ALISANUS. See Ruexia.

ALISARNA, or IIalisarnA, in ^indent Geography, a
city of the Troas, in Afia Minor.

ALISCA, a town of Lower Pannonia. In the Notitia
Imp. it is called Jlefca, and placed in Valeria, near the
X)anube.

ALISDACA, a town of Media, according to Ptolemy.

ALISE, or Ai.KsiA Ste. Reine, in Geography, a town
pf France, in the department of the Cote d'Or, eight miles
north-eaft of Semur-en-Auxois. This town was the ancient
Alesia. The celebrity of this place in the time of the
Romans is difcernible in the veftiges of the Roman ways,
which lead to and from it. After the fall of the Weftern
empire, Ahfe was tlie chief place of an extended country,
called Pagus-AleJier.Jis or Alficnfis, whence was fonned the
Fr. Aulfo'is and Auxo'is. The ravages of the Normans oc-
cafioned the removal of the relics of Ste. Reine, the mar-
tyrefs, to Flavigni in the year 864. After the ancient Alife
was ruined, the name continued to be appropriated to fome
dwellings that remained on the declivity of the adjoining
mountain. The fite of the ancient city is now cultivated
ground ; " Nunc feges ubi Troja fuit." The commerce
of this place confilled of chaplets, (hrines, flowers, &c.
for the accommodation of the pilgrims, who reforted hither
from all parts of France, to celebrate the feall of Ste.
Reine, which was kept twice a year. The fountain of
Ste. Reine is a refervoir of clear and frefli water, about
two feet fquare ; and its water was formerly held in high
eftimation. But the place has long fince loft its reputa-
tion.

ALISINCUM, Anizi, a town of Gaul, belonging to
the Edui, between Anguilodunum to the eaft, and Decetia
to the fouth-weil.

ALISIO, in Geography, a town of Corfica, in thediftrift
pf Capo Corfo.

ALISIUM, a town of Elis, fituate on a high mountain,
between Elis and Olympia ; the Alefoti of Steph. Byz. It
had a river of the fame name, according to Strabo.

Alisium or Alesius, a mountain of Arcadia, fepara-
$'ng it from the Argolide.

A-LISMA, from aXv(rfi.y., anxiety, or rather from aX,-,
iibc /ea, IVater Plantain, in Botany, a genus of the

A L I

hexandr'ux polygyn'u! clafs and order, of the natural order of
tripitalo'ulca' -M-iAjund oi jn^KM: its charadters are, that the
per'umlhium is three-leaved, leaflets ovate, concave and per-
manent ; the corolla three-petalled, petals roundidi, large,
flat and very fpreading ; the jiam'ina have a\yl-(liapeil fila-
ments, fliorter than the corolla, anthers roundiflt ; the pijl'il-
liim has gemis more than five, llyles fimplc, ftigmas obtufe,
the capfules of the pcr'icarphim are compreffed, (many and
aggregate. Smith,) and \\\e feeds folitary and fmall.

There are nine fpecies, wa. i. A./>/(7h/^-9, great orbroal
water plantain, or greater thrumwort, with leaves ovate,
acute, capfules obtufely triangular. This fpecies is eafily
known by its fmooth entire leaves on very long petioles ; and
by its puiplifli flowers growing in a kind of umbel, at the
end of a long fcape. The flowers are fully expanded about
four in the afternoon. It grows in watery placi-s, on the
banks of pools, lakes and rivers, is perennial, and flowers in •
July. This plant poffefles the poifonous quality of the ra-
mincuh, to which order it is naturally allied. Dr. Smith
mentions two varieties, in-x.. A. lanceolata of Withering,
or narrow water plantain, and pLintago aquatica hptoinacro-
phylhs of DiU. in Ray Synop., or greater water plantain.
2. A. pavum, damafonium flavum of Miller, with leaves
ovate, acute, peduncles umbellate, capfules globofe. This
grows in Jamaica, Barbadoes, and feveial other places in the
warm parts of America, in fl:agnant waters and fwampy
places ; but being of no great beauty, and not eafily pre-
ferved in England, it is not worth cultivating. 3. A. da-
mafomum, damafonium A. of Miller, ftar-headed water plan-
tain, with leaves cordate-oblong, flowers fix-pointallcd, cap-
fules awl-fliaped, the flowers are white ; fl.yles fix, and cap-
fules fix, divaricated, with a ftellated appearance, of a hard
texture, and fo clofcly united at the bafe, as to appear hke a
fingle fruit. Stokes. This is a native of France, Siberia and
England ; is found, more rarely than the former, in ditches
and ilagnant waters, about London in feveral places, on
Houndow Heath, Winkfield plain, near Windfor, &c. ; is
perennial, and flowers in June and July. 4. A. cordifolium,
with leaves heart-fliaped, obtufe, flowers twelve-llamcned,
capfules hook-pointed. This fpecies connetls the genus
ahfma with that of fagittaria ; and is found in North and
South America. 5. A. nalans, creeping or floating water
plantain, with leaves ovate or eUiptic, obtufe, peduncles lo-
litary, and capfules ftriated. The leaves which fwim on the
furface are ovate, and thofe under water linear. It is found in
ditches, in France,Sweden, Germany, and Siberia : in the lakes
of Bala and Lanberris,inNorth Wales; is perennial, and flower*
in July and Augufl. 6. A. ramincidoidcs, Imall water plan-
tain, with leaves linear-lanceolate, capfulej pentagonous, in-
curved, globofe-aggregate. The corolla is bluilh-white, and
opens about noon. It is a native of Sweden, Holland,
France, Germany, Italy, and England, in marflies and
mours; is perennial, and flowers in Auguft. 7. A.Jultiilalum,
with leaves awl-fliapcd ; a Virginian plant, the dwarfyrt^;V/<j
of Clayton, with a very tender white corolla, and fubulate
leaves, y. A. parnnffifoliuw, with leaves hcart-fliaped, acute,
petioles jointed ; a native of Italy, in the marflies under the
Apennines. 9. A. rcpens, with ftems creeping, leaves lan-
ceolate, petioied, acute, a native of Spain, on the fandy
banks of the river Manzanares ; flowering in Augult ; and
feeming to be the fame, though much fmaller, with the
alifma, which Abbe Poiret found on the Northern coaft
of Africa, defcribedby Lamarck. Willdcnow adds a loth
fpecies, A. fagittifolia, with leaves fagittated, and capfule
obovate, obtufe ; found in Guinea. Martyn. Miller. Smith's
Flor. Brit. vol. i. p. 400.
- Alisma. See Arnica, Primula and Senecio.

<5 ALISO,

A L K

ALTSO, Almt, ill /InnenI Geography, a froall river of
Gennany, raentioiKfi by l>ioM C;i(iUis. This was alfo tlie
name of a caftle built by Diiifus in Germany for the con-
finement of the Sicambri.

ALISONTIA, Ai-SET?,, a river of Germany, which
pafTin.g by Luxembourg-, difeharges iif.If into the Molelle.

ALISTA, a town phiceJ by Ptolemy, in the fouthem
part of the ifland of Corfica.

ALISTRES, a fort of Epirus, rebuilt by Jiiftinian.

ALISUS, a town placed by Ptolemy in the norllicrn part
of Germany.

ALITAMBI, a people of Africa, placed by Ptolemy
between Libya and mount Thala.

ALITES, formed from ahi, a tv'mx, in Anttqu'ily, a name
given to thole birds which aftorded auguries by their wings
and flight. In this Icnfe alites Hand oppofed to oscines,
or birds, which gave auguries by their mouths, by tinging,
or croaking, &c. To the clafs of alites belong the buz-
zard, ofprey, &c. To that of oscines, the crane, raven,
owl, &e.

ALITROPES, in Ancient G<vgr,iphy, a town placed by
Scylax in a part of Greece, nfligned by him to the Acheans,
which was the dillricl of Phthiotis, ufually domprifed in
Thelfaly.

ALJUBARROTA, in Geography. See Alcibar-

ROTA.

ALJUCEN, a fmall river of Spain, which runs into the
Guadiana, not far from Montachet in Leon.

ALJUSTREL, a town of Portugal, in Alentejo, i6
miles W. S. \A'. of Beja, containing one parilli, and about
1500 inhabitants.

ALIXEN, a town of France, in the department of the
Ardeche, two leagues E. N. E. of Valence.

ALKADARII, formed from the Arabic, alLailar,
■which fignifies daree, a feft among the Mahometans, who
deny any eternal, fixed, divine decrees ; and are affertors of
free 'will. The Alhadarn are a branch of Moatazalites.
They (land oppofite to the Algiabarii.

ALKjENDA, in Botany, fee Myrtus.

ALKAHEST, or Alcahest, in Chemijlry. This
■word, fo famous in the lail ages of alchemy, occurs, for
the firft time in the treatife of Paracelfus, De Vh'ihus
Mcmbrorum, where it is mentioned as a fovcreign remedy
againft dropfy and all difeafes of the liver. Notwithftanding
that its particular ufe is here expi-eislv ftated, without any
lunt of its other qualities, or tlie method of preparation;
■notwithllanding alio that the term is not to be met with in
Tiny other of his writings, yet Van Helmont, giving his mailer
■credit for the knowledge of more myfterics than ever lie him-
felf has pretended to ; has raifed the alkahell from a mere me-
dicine in the diiorders of a particular organ to the lofty cha-
niifter of an univeri'al folvent, and the moil a£live of all the
alchemical menllrua. 4

The origin of the word is varioufly derived horn faltz-gr'i/},
fpirit ot fait ; a!-ge}Jl, all fpirit, /'. e. a perfedtly pure ipirit ;
or alk-eft, i. e. alkali eit, according to a cuftom common with
Paracellus and other •alchcmiils, of concealing the name
of a fubilance by abbreviation or tranfpofition, of which a
fimilar example occurs in the fame author of tlie word aroph,
for aroma-philofophorum.

The properties of the alkahcft, according to Van Hel-
mont, are the following. It is a fluid of perfeft fimplicity
and purity, is never found native, but alwavs prepared by art;
K capal)le of difliiilving all fubftances into a liquor, which
, rifts wholly in dilUllation, leaving no ficces behind ; at the
fame time that the alkahell itfclf fpontaneoufly feparates
from the body on which it has produced fuch a remarkable
diange. The fubllances thus aftcd upon retain, however,

Vol. L

A L K

their cfTcntial properties, but by further digcftion with thr
alkahell, are all rtfolved to the fame indolent,' fcentlefs, inhpid
elementary water. A menftruumof fuch fiirprifing powerswa*
immediatelv fuppofed to be of the utmoft confeq\icnce in the
higiicr alchemical procefles ; and tlie folenin afleveration of
Hehnont, that he was really in polTeflion of fuch an agent,
gained eafy credit even among many from wJiom a fober fcepti-
cifm of fuch myrterious and unheard of qualities might have
been expefted. As Helmont nevcrdivulged the fecret metlnvl
of preparing the alkahell, moll of the fucceeding alcht mills of
any eminence had each their particular theory on the fub-
jccl ; Becker imagined it to be contained in fea lalt ; and
Glauber, in his very ingenious tradl, " De Mercurio Philo-
fophorum," endeavours to prove it to be nitre ; and indeed
by taking the liberty, as this author does, of applying the
nitre in folution or fufion, or feparated into its acid and al-
kaline elements, there are few fubflances that are not capable
of being thus brought into a fluid Hate.

In modern chemlllry nothing is acknowledged as true till
it has Hood the tcft of repeated and accurate experiment ;
and we now hear no more of the alkahell than of the elixir
of metals, and the univerfal medicine. Boerhaave'a Chemif-
try. Glauberi Opera, vol. i.

Alkahest is alio ufed in amorc cxtenfive fenfe, fo as to
comprehend all fixed falts volatilized, and reduced into a
qiilntefcence.

ALKAHESTIC is ufed by fome to denote the quality
of bodies which are powerfully lolvent.

In which fenfe, alkahcftic amounts to much the fame witU
the menllrnous ; except that the fomier imports a greater
degree of the folutive power than the latter. See Men«

STRUUM.

AI^KAISAR, in Geography, a fortrefs of Afia, in the
Arabian Irak, 106 miles well of Bagdad.

ALKALESCEN'l', denotes a fubftance flightly aU
kaline, or in which an alkali is beginning to be formed
and to predominate. As the volatile alkali, or ammo-
nia, is the only one which is ufually obferved to be pro-
duced by fpontaneous change, the term alkalefcent gene-
rally refers to the generation of this alkali, in certain vege-
table and animal fubftances by the procefs of putrtfa3ion or
any fimilar ciccompofition. Some ipccics of vegetables, efpe-
cially the tetradynamious plants, have received the name
of alkalefcent, becaufe, when placed in circumilanccs favour,
able to fermentation, they have a peculiar tendency to fomi
ammonia, which maybe feparated in a very fenfible quantity,
by the pracefs of diftillation.

ALKALI is the generic term for an order of falts of
the highcll importance, and the moH familiar ufc in che«
miftrv.

Aikali is a word of Arabian origin, and it was employed
by the Arabian ciiemifts and phyficians, to cxprefs the fait
which was procured from the afhes left'after the combuition
of feveral vegetables, particukrly the fait kali of the defart,
and feveral plants growing on the lea Ihore. The fame fait
is alfo found native in immcnfe quantities, mixed with fea
fait, in the waters and on the fliores ot leveral lakes of Low-
er Egypt, and has been known, from time immemorial, by
the name of nalror., or tlie nilre of tiie ancients. The Greeks
and Romans were equally familiar with the al.kallne fait con-
tained in vegetable alhes, which was termed hxiviary allies
(Hxiviiis citus, Plin.), whence the name of alkaline ley, lixiz<ium,
or Hxiviary fall, which is Hill retained. The ufe of the
word alkali was at firll confined lo the fait which was yielded
by the /fv«/ or inconibullilile allies of vegetables ; but the
•volatile fait, which rifes in dillillation of vegetable, and cfpe.
cially of animal matter, having been found to poffcfs fimilar
chemical properties v.ith the fixed lixiviary fait, in the mod ef-
4 T fcnlial

A L K

friitial particulars, the refpcflive app •llations of fixst! and VO'
IjliU alkali have long been adopted by chMiiilh. Tor the
account of the procefs of" procuring thcfe lalts as an article
of corn'm-rcc, for their natural hillory, and other particulars,
wc Ihall refer the reader to the v, or'dsi Potash, Soda, and
Ammonia.

The properties common to all alkalies are the following :
they hive a highly acrid tnile, -.vliich afts with fo much enorgy
upon the tongue as to produce the feni'ation ot burning, and
uiilefs they arc much diluted, they very foon corrode the
tliin Ikin which covers it, and produce a fmall efehar or dead
part, which, for a time, leavrs a flight fore on that fcnlible
organ. They have an unftuous feel to tlic finger, not from
any oily nature in the alkalies, butbecaufe thty direftly dif-
f;jlve the furface of the (l<in, and produce a kind of foap.
They effeft a remarkable change on fevcral vegetable colours.
The red of rofes, and the blue of violets, are turned by them
to a dull green ; the red of archill or litmus, to a blue ; the
yellow of turmeric, the light brown of jalap root, liquorice
loot, and of many other roots and woods, are all rendered
much deeper in colour, approaching to a brick-red. They
unite with fulphur, forming compounds which have the pro-
perty of abforbing tlie oxygen from atmofphcric air, and,
when moiftened, of giving out a peculiar fetid gas. 'I'hefe
compounds have been denominated alLaline Ivpars, or I'lvtrs,
and in the modern nomenclature, yw^/'K/Y.'j-. Tliey have a
very powerful aftion on almoft all vegetable and animal mat-
ters, producing fpeidy diforganization, and diflblving them
into a thick pulp. With oils they form the well-known
compound, /ou/i. They are largely foluble in water, giving
out heat ou union with this liquid. They imite with every
acid, and produce nciural fahs of various degrees of foUibi-
lity ; in which, when tl-.e contents are mutually faturated,
the diftinguilhing properties of both acid and alkali are neu-
fi-alized, and no longer to be perceived. Owing to the very
Arong affinity which they bear for acids, they decompofe
the acid folutions of all metals and moil earths. Thcfe are
the moft charafteriflic properties common to <?// alkalies ;
hut there are others which are confiued to one or other of
the two fpecies. Thefe we fhall enumerate, referring the
Teader for more particular information, to the individual ar-
ticles.

The Volatile Alkali (Ammonia) is diflinguifhed, (as
its name implies) by its volatility. Thepurell form in which
it is known to us is that of a gas, which is permanent at
any degree of cold that has ever been appHcd to it, and
ur.ites readily with water in large quantity, from which,
however, it may be again expelled by a heat much below
boiling. It has never been procured in a folid form, unlefs
coTTibined with fome other fubftance ; nor as a Hquid, except
by its union with water. It differs remarkably from the
fixed alkahes in having a very pungent fmell, which highly
ftiniulates the noftrils, and excites coughing and tears. Ow-
ing to the eafe with which it affunies a gafeous form, it is in-
capable of uniting with many fubftances which the fixed al-
kalies will diffolve, wlien affiftcd by fufion in a flrong heat.
The volatile alkali is weaker in all itsatfuiities than the fixed.
It is alfo the only one which is decidedly proved to be a com-
pound iubflaiice ; the nature of its conlfltuent parts (which
are bjdrogen and azote) having been afcertaiued by nume-
rous experiments both of fyrithefis and analyfis. See Am-
monia.

The Fixed Alkalies, (Alkali fuerhjlandiges, Laugeri'
falzy Germ-Alcali dlYo Ital.) are the proper //.-cii'wrj; alkalies,
or thofc that are procured by lixiviution of the afhes of burnt
vegetables. They may be obtained in a very pure folid
form, either cryftallized, or as a fimple concrete. Befides
the properties which have been mentioned as common to all

A L K

alkalies, thcfe poffefs confiderable fixity in fire, and at a red
heat they run into thin fufion. A higher heat, however, vo-
latilizes them, and they fly off in fenfible vapour. The fixed
alkalies, when in fufion, will readily diffolve filiceous earth in-
to the perfectly homogeneous tranfparcnt compound, glass.
Thev alio will diifolve by heat all the metallic oxyds, and
thereby receive various tints. They affill in the fufion of all
earthy and m.etallic admixtures, and their degree of fixity in
tlie fire enables them to combine more intimately than the
volatile alkali, with fulphur, phofphorus and charcoal.
\\'lien pure and folid, they are remarkably dehquefcent, ab-
forbing water from cveiy fuiTOunding medium ; and hence
they have been ufed by chemith to render the air of any vef-
fel in which they are confined, perfeftly dry. The fixed .al-
kalies are two in number, potash and soda, the former be-
ing procured from the alhes of all vegetables except marine
plants, and a few that grow near the fea fiiore, which yield
the latter alkah. The former is alfo termed the I'egelable
alkali, and the latter, (owing to its being fometimes found
native in the earth), is called the ?«;nfra/ alkali. The gene-
ral properties of thefe two alkalies were long known, and
they were long employed in various arts, before the circum-
ftances by which they are diilinguiflied were well afcertaiued,
and their feparate exiftence ellablifhed. The clofe rcfem-
blance which they bear to each other when pure, and the
fimilarity in all their moft remarkable chemical properties,
prevented a proper diilinition between them ; and it was
chiefly by the refearches of Pott, Duhamel and Margraaff,
that the nature of the two alkalies was fully explained. The
two neutral falts with vvhich the older chemifts were the mofl
familiar, nitre and fea-falt, have for their bafes, the former
the vegetable, and the latter the mineral alkali ; and it was
principally by enquiries into the properties and decompofitlon
of thefe neutral falts that the dilliniif nature of their alkaline
bafes was decided.

Potafh and foda differ from each other in the ffrength of
their affinity with acids, which is greater in the former ; in
fome flight variation in their aftion on oils and animal fatSi;
but chieilv in the neutral ialts which they form with the
acids, which in all cafes differ in form of cry-flallization, in
folubihty, often in tafte, and in feveral other particulars.

The intimate nature of the fixed alkahes is ffill unknown
to us. From the very flrong analogy with the volatile al-
kali, the component parts of which are fully eflabhibed, it
mull be confidered as highly probable that the fxed alkalies
are compounds, though their decompofitlon has not yet been
effeftcd by any experiments which can be allowed to be un-
exceptionable. Fixed alkalies have been fuppofed to be ge-
virated by the procefs of conibuilion of vegetables ; fince no
plants, even thofe whcfe aihes yield the molt of this fait,
contain before combuilion any fenfible quantity of uncom-
bined alkali. The accurate analvfes of feveral of the modern
chemills have however detetled, ip the native juices of plants,
feveral neutral falts, whofe alkaline bafes are united to an acid
which is eafily deflruclible by fire. But for this, and other
fpeculations on the natme of the fixed alkalies, we Ihall re-
fer the reader to the article Potash.

Alkali ( Caiijlic or Pure). The alkaline f;Jt procured
from vegetable aflies, befides being mixed with other falts,
and with earth, is always faturated more or lefs completely
with fixed air, or carbonic acid; fo that the fixed alkali which
was the fubjeft of the experiments of all the chemifts, till
within a few years, was a fait compounded of carbonic acid
and the alkaline bafis. The beautiful experiments of Dr.
Black fully illullrated this point, and fhewed, that the reafon
of the greatly increafed cauilicity of alkalies, when mixed
with quick-hme, was the lofs of the carbonic acid, which had
paffed from the alkali to the earth. Caujlic alkalies, there-
fore,

A L K

A L K

fore, nre alkalies deprived of carbonic acid by qiiiek-lime or
any other matliod ; and this is tlie only llato in which, pro-
perly fpeaking, alkalies can be coiifidered as purt' ; though
even wiien they contain much of this volatile acid, th'." pecu-
liar qualities of the alkaline part predominate fo conlulerably
as to enable them to exhibit (though in a weaker degree) all
the chemical properties by which alkalies are characterized.

Alkali ( Efffwefcent or Mil J), is oppofed to the Hate
of caufticity, and expreffes that degree of faturation with
carbonic acid, which, as has jufl been mentioned, diminidics,
but does not hipprefs, the charaAcrillic properties of the al-
kali. Owing to the alkali obtained from vegetable aflies
being always left after combullion in union with carbonic
acid, effervffcence "u.'i.'h adds was confidered by the older chc-
mifts as an effential charadler of alkalies in general, who thus
afcribed to a property inherent in this genus of lalts, an ap-
pearance which is now known to depend upon the expuHion
of the gafcous acid. The terms caujVtc or pure, and ejfer-
vjccnt or tnihl, are applied to the volatile as well as to the
fixed alkalies.

Alkali ( Extemporanenus ) , is a mfid vegetable alkali, pre-
pared by deflagrating nitre with tartar. See Carbon at
of Potash,

Alkali (Fluor), is a folution of pure Ammonia iu
water.

Alkali ( Phlo^lflir), is prepared by calcining carbonated
potafhwith bullocks' blood or other animal matter, in which
procefs it unites with the Prussic acid, formed during the
calcination.

Alkali fof Tartar), or Salt of Tartar, is properly a mild
vegetable fixed alkali, prepared by the combullion of tar-
tar, which yields it in great purity. The name is ufed more
extenlively for any pure carbonated potafli, and it is the term
by which this fait is more generally known in common lan-
guage and in medicine.

ALKALINE EARTHS. It is by no means eafy to
draw the line accurately between alkahes and earths. The
original idea of an earth, entertained by the ancient
chemifts, was that of a fub (lance of confidcrable den-
fity, infoluble in water, without tafte, fmell, or any percep-
tible aAion on the organs of fenfe, entirely unfufible, and
fixed in the mod intenfe fire ; and, in (liort, with properties
as oppofite as polTible to thofe of a salt. This opinion
principally attached to eartii, confidered as one of the four
elements of which the material world was fuppofed to be
conllituted. The progrefs of chemical inveftigation having,
however, difcovered feveral ipecies of earths, which could
not by any means be proved to be cortipounds, in which the
fimple or viniverfal earth was fo difguifed as to lole fome of
its effential charafters, it became neceffary to alter and mo-
dify the original definition of an earth, and to allow to it
more of a faline nature.

Some of the modern chemifts, therefore, have adopted the
term J'a!ijiab/f, and others aliaUiie earths, in order to allow of
more accuracy in fyftematical ar';angcment. By alkaline
earth has been meant an earth which agrees with alkali in
the property of folubility in water to a certain extent, and
thereby rendering it fapid, of changing to green certain blue
and red vegetable colours ; of abforbing carbonic acid with
c igernefs, and of poffefTing, when purt, thofe caujlic or acrid
quahties that fo much diitinguifh the alkalies. Magv.eja,
lime, barytes and Jlrontian, arc the earths which may be tenncd
alkaline, but the former is verj' imperfeftly fo, being
fcarcely more foluble in water than filex ; aod though its
habitudes with carbonic acid are partly fimiliar to thofe of
the alkalies, it does not acquire any tafte, or any degree of
caidlicity, by the lofs of this gafeous acid. Bar) tes and
llrontian, on the other hand, approach nearer to an alkaline

nature than Time, in being very largely fohible in water, and
readily ciyllallizable from its folution m a determinate form.
They have therefore been adually enumerated as alkalies
by I'ourcroy, who reckons the following; potajh, foda, am-
monia, harytfs, :xnA Jlrontian. The two latter even ftand be-
fore the three ancient alkalies in their order of affinity with
moll acids, but, til! the intimate nature of the fixed alkalies
he fully cleared up, it will perhaps be proper to lellritt the
term alkali to the tliree above-mentioned, and to retain in
the clafs oi aHaline earths magncfia, lime, barytes, and llron-
tian, all of which, however tliey may be alk:dies in many
refpedts, differ liorn them in being unfuiible per fe in very
intenfe fire, and being entirely incapable of being volatilised
by the utmoil heat that has ever been applied to them.

Alkali, in Botany. See Salicornia.

ALKALINE, in a general fenfe, fomething that has the
properties of an Alkali.

In this fenfe we fay, alkaline falts, alkaline fpirita, alka-
line fubllances, &c.

Alkalini fah.s, confidered in their reference to the Materia
Medico, are known to poffefs antifcptic powers. Experi-
ments upon them, out of the body, fufficiently indicate and
attell thefe powers ; but Dr. Culleii obferves, that it is at
the fame time equally well known, that they are conftantly
imbued with fuch an acrimony, that they cannot by them-
felves be introduced into the body without acling more by
tluir llimulant than by their antifeptic powers. The volatile
alkali may fometimes be an ufcful remedy in putrid fevers ;
but it cannot, as fome have imagined, be given more freely
on account of its antifeptic powers, as it can never be gives
copioudy enough to have any effeCl by thete qualities. The
volatile alkaline falts (hew their llimulant power in everr
dofe, wherever the energy of the brain is weakened, and
confequently the atfion of the heart is languid, or requires
to be accelerated. In fuch cafes this ftimulus is among the
fafell, as it is always tranfitory ; and when their acrimony
can be covered, fo as to pafs the mouth and fauces without
irritation there, they may be given in larg." dofes from lo to
20 grains. Theft are prepared in two different ways ; one
of which is from fal ammoniac, which gives the ammonia of
the London Difpenfatory, or the fal ammoniacus volatilis,
and fpiritus falis ammoniac! of the Edinburgh. Thefe are the
purcil forms of the volatile alkali, the moil free from any ad-
hering animal fubllances ; but whilll the procefs of preparing
a volatile alkali from the bones or other folid parts of animals
continues, there will come into the (hops a fait and fpirit that
can hardly ever be fo pure, from fome empyreumatic animal
lubftance adiiering to it ; and fuch an adherence may probably
give fome peculiar quality to the fait and fpint, and render
it more antifpafmodic. It cannot be very confidcrable in any
dofes of the fait or fpirits given to adults, but it may pro-
duce more fenfible effedt in the fpafmodic affeftions of in-
fants. The liquid volatile alkali is commonly employed in
its mild ftate ; but by a diftillation of the fal ammoniac with
quick-lime, the alkali may be obtained in its cauftic ftate.
In this ftate it may be readily joined with fpirit of wine, and
gives the fpiritus falis ammomaci of the Edinburgh Difpen-
fatory, or the fpiritus lalis ammoniaci vinofus of that of
London. The combination affords an excellent menftruuin
for diffolving the feveral fetid fubftances employed as anti-
fpafmodics, and renders them more fuddenly dillulible, and
perhaps gives them a greater effeft in all fpafmodic affec-
tions. The cauftic volatile alkali is feldom adininiftered
alone ; but if its acrimony be covered while it paifes the
mouth and fauces, it may be vei-y fafely employed. Its
chief ufe is external, and when fmelled at the nufe, it gives
a more powerful ftimulus than the mild alkali can do. Its
acrimony is fo confidcrable, that when appUcd to the (kin, it
4T 2 readily

A L K

rtadily irritates, and even inflames it, and may be fo managed,
n^ to prove an ulcfiil lliinulant and rubefacient in many cales.
But this requires its beings blended witli a mild, exprclTcd oil,
fi) as to prevent its inflaming too mud). See F^ol<i>i/f Oil.
Tlic fixed alkaline falts have l)een commonly adminifttred as
diuretics. Dr. CuUcn has chiefly employed the vegetable
fixed alkah, and has fomctlmes obtained its effefts in a re-
markable dtgree ; but he has been often difappointcd, which
he afcribes to the neutralization of the alkali in the (lomach,
and in that ftate they could have no other efi"e£l than other
neutrals, which is commonly inconfiderablc, either as laxa-
tives or dim-etics. Alkaliiies do, however, occafionally ma-
nifeft their diurLtic power ; and upon the fuppofition of
their neutral ftate in the ftomach, their coiliderablc opera-
tion as diuretics cannot be ealily accounted tor. Of this faft
Dr. Cullcn offers two explanations. One is, that the cjunn-
tlty of alkali thrown into the ilomach may be more than the
acid can there neutralize, and therefore fome portion of it
may reach the kidnics in its alkaline ftatc, and prove a more
powerful ilimulant than any neutral fait would be; and on
this ground a large quantity of alkali is always ncceflary to
produce diuretic cffetls. An., ther explanation of .he fail is
as follows. As the acid of the Itomach may be pvelumed to
be of the nature of the fermented acid of vegetables, fo an
alkali joined with it muft. form a regenerated tartar, a fal
diurcticus, or kali acctatum ; and if this be lefs purgative,
and more diuretic than other neutrals, while it is alfo con-
veyed to the blood-veflcls in larger quantity, we can under-
lland wliy, from thefe circumftanccs, the fixed alkali may of-
ten appear diuretic. With refpcft to its operation as a diu-
retic, another conjefture may be offered. When it is given
with bitters, after the manner of Sir John Pringle, it com-
monly proves diuretic ; and Dr. Cullen imagined, that as the
bitters arc abforbents of acid, they might abforb fo much of
that prefcnt in the ftomach, as to prevent its being fo fully
applied to the alkali. As alkalines may be often prevented,
by purging, from reaching the kidnics, fo then- diuretic ef-
fect may be often more certainly fecured by giving an opiate
at the lame time ; and for the utility of this practice, fee
Dr. Mead on the fubjeft of Dropfy. Befides the laxative
and diuretic powers of the fixed alkali, another is alcribed to
it, which is that of diffolving the fluids, or the concretions
which may happen to be formed in them, exprelfcd by
French writers under the denomination of foiitlant. Dr. Cul-
len does not allow it to pofTefs this power to any great de-
gree, or to produce the eifcfts in this way that have been af-
cribed to it. Cullen's Mat. Med. vol. i. p. 568. Vol. li.
p. 382. 512.

Alkaline acrimony, in Mcilicine, fignlfies a morbid qua-
lity in the blood, which is indicated by a defire of and thirft
after four things, lofs of appetite, and averfion to alkalefcent
food, nidorous crucjations, putrid ulcers on the lips, tongue,
and other parts in the mouth, ficknefs in the ftomach, a fre-
quent J'uirrhsa, a fenfe of heat, laiTitude, and general uneafi-
nefs, a difTolution of the texture of the blood, the urine high-
coloured and red. It produces a putrcfcency in the blood,
&c. and is to be remedied by the fame means as the fea-
fcurvy and other putrid diforders.

ALKALIZATION, Alkalizatio, in Chemlfiry, the
aft of impregnating a liquor with an aUnHiif fait.

This is done eitlier to make it a better dllTolvent, for fomc
particular purpofes ; or to load the phlegm, fo as it may not
rife in dilllllation, whereby the fpirituous parts may go over
more pure.

Alkalization, is a name applied to operations, by
which alkaline properties are communicated to bodies ; or
to thofc by which alkali is extraded from bodies which con-
tain It, or m which it may be formed; e. g.ffirU of wine is

A L K

faid to be alkallxcd, when it has bcci^lgefled upon alkali }
a part of which itdlfiolves, and thence acquires alkaline pro.
pertles. On the other hand, when a neutral fait is dccom-
pofed, in order to obtain its alkitline bafis, this fait is to be al-
kah/'.d. Vegetable fubftances when reduced to afhes, may
alfo be faid to be alkalized, bccaufe the aflies coutain fixed
:Ukali.

ALKAMARE, in Geography, a town of Pcifia, in the
province of Ir;;k-Agcmi, 28 leagues eaft of Bagdad.

ALKANET, ill Botany. See Anchusa.

ALKANSAS, or Arkansas, an Indian nation of
Louliiana, on the weft fide of the MilTifippi river, near the
river of the fame name, in N. lat. 34". See Arkans-^s
rivtr.

ALKENNA. Sec Alcanna and Lawsonia.

AJ-KEKENGI, w Botany. See Atkopa and Phvsalis.

Alkfkknoi, a mcdlcinalfrr.lt or berry, produced by the
P H V s AL'. s yf'lriew^i, popularly alfo calh'd winltr-chirry; for-
merly ufed and much commended as an abftergent, diffolvcnt,
and diuretic.

Thefe berries were well known to the ancients, and are
cliaracterirtically defcrlbed by Diofcorides, under the deno-
jnination rfu,Y'" aAi>:«K5'./3ov. They have an acidulous and not
unpleafaiit tafle, followed by a flight bitterneis, which they
are faid to derive in a confiderable degree from the invefting
calyx, if not gathered with great care. Although thefe
berries are efteemed to be detergent and aperient, they have
been chiefly recommended as a diuretic, operating without
heat or irritation, in fupprcflions of urine, and for removing
obftrudfions cccafioned by gravel or mucus. With this in-
tention the number of 6 to 12 cherries in fubftance, or an.
ounce of the expreffed juice has been the ufual dole ; but
there fcems to be no danger from a much larger quantity j
for, we are told, that in fome parts of Germany the country
people eat them by handfuls with much benefit ; and in Spain
and Switzerland they often fupply the place of other eatable
fruits. Ray Informs us, that a gouty perfon prevented the
returns of the diforder by taking eight of thefe cherries at,
each change of tlie moon ; and inllances are recoriled of their
good effedls in dropfical and calculous complaints, but at
prefent they are wholly dlfregarded.

The cherries may be dried fo as to be pulverable, or the
depurated juice infpiflated with a gentle heat to the confift-
ence of a rob or extraft, which Diofcorides commends, and
in this ftate preferved for ufe. They h^ve been fometimes
mixed with opium. Dr. Cullen (Mat. Med. vol. ii. p. 553-)
obferves, that as it is allowed the berries take a taint from
the leaves, it will always require fome caution in employing
any part of a plant which is taken from an order of a very
poifonpus kind. Lewis, Mat. Med. Woodvllle, Med. Bot.
vol. iv. p. 34. Murray's Mat. Med. vol. i. p. 679.

ALKENDI, or Alkindi, Jacob Ebn Isaac, in Bio-
graphy, a celebrated Arabian philofopher and writer, was the
fon of the prefeift of Cufa, under Muhamed Modi ami
Rafhid, and flourifhcd jn the caliphate of Al-Mamon, or at
the beginning of the ninth century. He acquired fuch emi-
nence in Hterature and philofophy in the fchool of Baffoi-a,
that he was called, by way of ditlinftion, " The Philofo-
pher." Although he yielded implicit obedience, in common
with his contemporaries, to the authority oi Ariftotle, and
principally devoted himfelf to the office of i.tterpreting and
illuftratlng his writings, he diretjled his attention to other
more important and uleful ftudies. His name is mentioned
among the mathematicians and allronomers of his age ; and
his medical writings, that are ftill extant, prove that he l.ii-
talned a Tci-y honourable rank among the Arabian phyli-
cians. Herbelot reprefents Alkendi as a Jew, who was
perfecuted on accoiwt of his religion ; but the account of

hk

A L K

hi8 genealogy in the mnnufcript Ilillor}' of Pliilofophers, re-
fcrrcd to by Dr. lluTrell, coiitradifts tliis (hitcnu'iit ; for liia
father's great pjiaudfather is faid to have hecn one of the
companions of tin; prophet. This maniifcript contains a ca-
talogue of iiis writings; hut the medical trart ufiialiy afcnbtjd
to him, and trandattd into Latin, under the title of " Dc
Mtdicinarum Conipoiltarum gradibus inveiligandis," is not
included. Abuifarajrius mentions an anecdote concerning
him, which furnilhes a very amiable trait of the moderation
and liberality ot his temper towaids a malicious advcrfary.
Whilll be was vifiting the fchools of Bagdad, to which the
learned and ftudious ufually rcforted in his days, he gave
great offence, by promoting the iludy of philofophy, and
endeavouring to reconcile tlie doftrines of Iliamifm wilh the
principles ofreafon, to one Albumafar, one of the intei-pre-
ters of the Koran, who was alarmed lell increafing know-
ledge (liould undermine vulgar fuperftitions. Accordingly
this 7.ealot acculed him of herefy and impiety. Alkendi, in-
llead of rofenting lliis conduifl, and countenidiYig, by bis
iiUerelt with the caUph, the delign which Albumafar had
formed againll b.is life, endeavoured to fubdue his adverfaiy
by Itfiuns and admonitions cf philofophy. Fully apprized
of the influence of wiklom as a means of meliorating the
difpcjCtion, he engaged a preceptor to inilrudl his adverfaiy
in mathematics and philoft^phy. Albumafar was thus led to
perceive the folly and bafenef, oi iiis pail conduft, and to
t>ft"er bimfelf as a pupil to the piiilofopher whom he bad pei-
fecuted. Alkendi received him with condefeenfion and kind-
nets, and Albumafar became an ornament t-o his fchool.
Brucker'o Hid. Thil. by Enfield, vol. ii. p. 237. RuffeU's
Aleppo, vol. ii. Appendix, p. 9.

ALKERMES, in Jllir/icine, &c. a term borrowed from
the Arabs, denoting a celebrated remedy, of the form and
confluence of a conteif ion, whereof the i-ermes are the balls.

The other ingredients are rofe-watcr, fugar, ambcrgrife,
inufl<, cinnamon, aloes wood, pearls, and leaf gold, &c. but
the fweets are ufually omitted.

The confiilto alkcrmcs was chiefly made at Montpelier,
which place fupphes moll of Europe with it. It is faid to be
better inade there than it can be elfewhcrc; the reafon of
which doubtlefs is, that the drug, which gives it the depo-
xnination, is no where found fo plentifully as there. The
manner of preparing the grain for making the confeclion is
defcribcd in the Fhil.Tranf. N=' 20.

It has been much ufed as a cordial ; efpecially, fays Dr.
Quincy, among female prefcnbcrs, and in complaifance
to them ; but that author decries its value in that inten-
tion, and thinks it ought only to be regarded as a fweet-
ener.

Count Marfjgli, in an inquiry into the com])ofition of this
medicine, fliews, that many of the ingredierts with which
the ancients fo plentifully loaded it, and which are dill re-
tained in it by the modern3,are not only ufelcfs.but hurtful ;
more particularly the lup'ts hizuli, by many miitakeiily held
cordial, on account of the ajipearance gf veins of gold in it ;
whereas, in reality, it is only a marcafite of fulphur and vi-
triol, and contains a great quantity of acid, dirtdtly repug-
nant to the alkaline nature of the kermes, and highly
prejudicial in difeafes where the blood tends to coagu-
lation.

ALKES, in /tjlronomy, a fiar in the conllellation Crater.

ALKETH, in Cio^rciphy, one of the Pelew iflands, in
the North Pacific Ocean.

ALKMAAR. See Alcmaar.

Alkmaar, Henry of, in Biography, a native of Alk-
maar in Holland, and the rrputed author of the celebrated
fable of ♦' Reynard the Fox j" a poem v.-ritten iu Lowf

ALL

J")iitcli in the 15th century, which, under the allegory of a
Society of Animals, fatiii/es the different vices of n an-
.kind. This poem has been very popular, and tranflaled
into all the languages of Eni-opc. A Gennan edition of it,
by Gottflied, is adorned with figures, and ennchcd witli
le.irncd difllrlations. It riow appears that this pnem was
aflually written by Nicholas Bauniaim, an Eaft-Irieflandcr,
and that he afTimnid the name of Heniy Von Alkmaar, in
order to fecure blnifi.lf from the inquiries of the ducal
court of Juliers. Baumaiui was a member of the council
of duke Magnus of Juliers, who died in 1 503; but being
djiven from court by means of a cabal, be compofed this
allegorical poem, for the purjiofe of fatiri/.ing his enemies,
and painting the intrigues carried on there. Nouv. Dift.
Hid.

ALKMAR, in Gogrnphy, a fmall ifland near that of
Java, within fight of Batavia.

ALKOHOL. See Alcohol,

ALICORAN. See Alcoran.

ALKUKSA, in Ichihyolnny,^ name given by the Swedes
to a fill), which they alfo called lahe. It is a fpceics of thi-
SiLURUS, and is diftinguiflied by Artedi by the name of
i\\e flurus, wilh only one cirrus, or beaij, under the chin.
The common Jtlurus, which is the glaiius of the ancients,
has fo\ir clrn.

AEKY of kail, among Mchemijls, denotes a fwect fub-
flance procured from lead.

ALL hi the U'iml, a fca-phrafe, which cxpreffes the ftatc
of a fhip's fails when they are parallel to the dircdion of
the wind, fo as to fhakc or fliiver.

All Hands hony ! the call by which the fliip's company
are fnmmoned upon deck.

All Sainl', in the Calendar, denotes a feflival celebrated
on the firil of November, in com.mcmoration of all the
faints in general, which is otherwifc called ylll-lxdloivs.

The number of faints being fo exceflfively multiplied, it
was found too burthenfome to dedicate a feall-day to each.
In reality there were not days enough, fcarce hours enough,
in the year for this purpofe. Hence an expedient was had
recourfe to, by commemorating fuch in combination who
had no peculiar days of their own. Boniface IV. in the
ninth century, introduced the feaft ai jIII Saints into Italy,
which was foon after adoptexl into the other churches.

All Saints, in Geography, iflands near Guadaloupe ifland,
in the Well Indies.

All Saints, a parifli in the diftrift of George-town,
South Carolina, containing 2225 inhabitants, of whom 429
are whites, and 1 795 flavcs. It fends a member to each
houfe of the flate-legillature.

All Saints Bay, a fpacious harbour near .St. Salvador in
Brazil, in South America, on the Atlantic Ocean. S. lat.
i-;" 5'. W. long. 38° 45'. This bay is 2\ leagues wide, is
iiiterfpcrfed with a number of fmall but plcafant iflaads,
and is of great benefit to the whole country'. This is alfo-
the name of a Captainlhip in the middle divifion of Brazil,,
fo c.illed from the bay ; bounded north by the Ria real, on
the fouth by that of Los Ilheos, on the call by the ocean,
and on the welt by three uncoiujiiered nations oi Indians.
It is reckoned one of the richell and mod fertile Captain-
fhips in Brazil, producing great quantities of cotton and
fugar. It has feveral cities and towns, particularly St. Sal-
vador, which is its capital.

All Sfugita, in Italian Mi/Jic, is faid of difcords, winch
we call paffing notes, that appear in the melody, but are
unnoticed in the harmony. Thefe difcords, yllla SfugitOy
require no preparation or refolution like notes in ligature.

All Souls, in the Calendar, daiotc* a feaft-day held on

tue

ALL

the fecond of November, in commemoraiion of all the
fjitliful deceafcd.

The fcall of jl/ Sou/s was firft introduced in the mh cen-
tury, bv Odilon, abbot of Cluny, who enjoined it on his own
order ; but it was not lonjT before it became adopted by the
neighbourinj; churches. Othcrpfaythntitwiiseftabhihcd A.D.
99S. Seejoxtin's Ren , on Eccl. Hill. vol. v. p. 11. p. 34.

ALLA, in dogrjpky, a fmall town of Italy, in the val-
lev of Trent, upon a fmall river which falls into the Adige.

N. lat. 45'' 40'- E- lonp. 13° 42'-

Ali-A, or Ai-LK, a river of Poland, in Ducal Prulua,
which runs into the Pregel, about five leagues above Ko-
nigfbei-g.

Alla, Ital. joined to, or rather following, a fubftan-
tive, has the force of the word ULc in Englitli ; ns nlla Fran-
Cfj'c, like the French, or in the French ilyle or manner ;
«lLi Fenetiann, in the Venetian manner. Thus, in mufic,
aila breve implies a quick time, though the notes look flow,
as when breves are played or fung like or as quick as fcmi-
brevea, •femibre-.cs like minims, and minims like crotchets.
This mcafure is fc'klom fouinl in fccular niuilc compofed by
authors fubfequcnt to Corelli, Geminlani, and Handel. A
bar in alia breve time contains two femibreves, performed as
quick as minims ; and as few bl.ick notes appear in fuch
movements, which are generally fiigato, or in fugue ; mufi-
cians, in fport, term them ivhite fugues. Alia Scozze/e, in
the Scots ftyle ; Mi Pohrcca, Polilh ; alla xoppa, limping,
as in movements full of binding or driving notes or liga-
tures ; all' ottavn, in the oftave ; all' otiava piu alto, an oc-
tave higher ; piu bnjfo, lower. In paffkges for the addi-
tional keys to piano-fortes, all' %vo.. implies that all the
notes from this indication, included under the line drawn
over them, till the words in loco (the ufual pitch) occur,
are to be played an oftave higher. This precludes tlw
trouble and fatigue to the eye of leger lines, as afcendiag
to C in altiflimo would require fi\e additional lines and
fpaceato be piled on the ufual llaff of five lines. Choral muiic
is faid to be alla Palejlrina, when the ftyle of compofitioa
refembles that of this venerable fatherofecclefiaftica! harmony.

ALLABA, or A^LAVA, in AmkiU Geography, a town
of Sicily, on the fouthern fide of it, near the mouth ot a
river of the fame name, and not far from Heraclea Minoa.

ALLAH, or Alla, an Arabic word, and the name
which all who profefs Mahometanifm give to God, and
make frequent repetitions of in their prayers.

ALLAHABAD, in Geography, a foubah or province
of Hindoftan, about 160 miles in length and 120 in
breadth, bounded on the eaft by the province of Bahar, on
the north by Oude, on the fouth by Berar, and on the weft
by Malwa and Agra. It contains, according to the diftri-
bution of Akbar, recorded in the Ayetii-Akbeiy, 10 cir-
cars or counties, divided into 177 pergunnahs, or hundreds.
Its revenue, according to the ftatement of Maurice, in his
Indian Antiquities, is 3,310,695 ficca rupees. It furnilhes
11,375 cavalry, 237,870 infantrj-, and 323 elephants. The
greater part of it is in the poflellion of Azuph Dowlah, a
tributary ally of the Britilh pov/er. The principal cities
are Allahabad, Benares, and Iconpour.

Allahabad, a city of Hindoftan, fituate at the
confluence of the two great rivers Jumna and Ganges. It
is compofed of two towns — the old, which is near the Gan-
ges, and the new, about a mile long and half a mile wide,
near the Jumna. It was called Allahabad by the emperor
Akbar, who erefted a ftrong fortrefs of ftone in it, which
occupies a large fpace of ground, and of which we have an
elegant delineation by Mr. Hodges, in No. IV. of his Se-
Jedt Views in India. The toinb of fultan Khufru is alfo an

ALL

excellent fpecimcn of Mahometan aa;hlteflure ; and a pil-
lar 40 feet high, of one ftone, coveredwith illegible infcrip-
tions, is afcribed by tradition to Bima, one of the heroes of
the Mahabarat. Allahabad is a feat of devotion fo noted
that it is denominated " the king of worlhippcd places."
We alfo learn from the Ayeen-Akbery, that the territory-
round it, to the extent of 40 miles, is deemed holy ground.
The Hindoos believe, that when a man dies in this place,
whatever he wiflics for he will obtain in his next regeni. ra-
tion. Although they teach that fuicide in general will be
pnnrflied with torments hereafter, yet they confiderit as me-
rltorious for a man to kill hlmfelt at Allahabad. There are
various objefts of veneration in and about this city, which
are ftiU vilited with great devotion by an immenf^: number of
pilgrims. Dr. Robertfon is of opinion, that the ancient
Palibothra is the modern city of Allahabad ; but major
Rennell has placed Palibothra on the fame fite with
Patna. Robert fon's India, p. 39. p. 356. N. lat. 25° 27'.
E. long. 82° 5'.

ALLAKNANDARA, a river of Thibet, which runs
into the Ganges, about 20 miles fouth of Sirinagur.

ALLAM, Andrew, in Biography, a writer of the
17th century, was born of mean parentage at Garfmgdon
near Oxford, in 1655 ; and after previous education at a
private grammar fchool, was entered at St. Edmund's Hall
Oxford, in 167 1 ; where he became tutor, moderator, lec-
turer in the chapel, and at length vice-principal. In 1680,
he took orders, and in 1683 was made one of the mailers of
the fchools. He died of the fmall-pox in 1685. He
wrote epiftles prefixed to the publications of other writers
and additions to a book, entitled, " Anglice notitia," and
to " Helvicus's Hiftorical and Chronological Theatre ;"
and he alio trandated the " I-,ife of Iphicrates," laid the
foundation of a " Notitia Ecclefix Angllcanoe," which was
left uufinilhed, and affifted Mr. Anthony Wood in compil-
ing the " Athenas Oxonienfes," by whom he is mentioned
with great commendation and refpeft. Biog. Brit.

ALLAMANDA, fo called from Mr. F. Allamand, a
Dutch furgeon, who vifited Guiana about 1769, and Ruf-
fia about 1776, and fent defcriptions, fig'ures, and fpecimens
of plants to Linnjeus, in Botany, a genus of the pentarntria
nionogyiiia clals and order, of the natural order of covtorts,
and apociiiea of Juflieu ; the charafters of which are, that
the calyx is a perianthium one-leafed, five-parted, parts ovate
and acute ; the corolla one-pctalled, funnel-ftiaped, tube
cylindric, border femiquinquefid, fweUing, diviiions fpreading,
obtuie ; the Jlamina, with fcarcely any filaments, anthers
five, fagittate, converging, in the throat of the tube ; the
pijlillum has a gen;i oval, furroundcd with a ring, ftyle fili-
form, of the length of the tube, ftigma headed, contrafted
in the middle ; pericarpium, an orbicular, lens-fhaped, echi-
nate, one-celled, two-valved capfule ; the feeds very many,
imbricate, orbiculate, flat, edged with a membranous wing.
There is one fpecies, i;Js. A. cathartica, galarips of Alla-
mand, oreha grandiflora of Aublet, a milky (hrab, with
ftem twining and climbing on trees, which grows wild at
Cayenne, in Guiana, &c. by the fea-fide. The leaves are
cathartic, and an infufion of them is ufed at Surinam, in the
colic : introduced in 1 7 85 by Baron Hake. Marty n.

ALLAMP, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Meurte, and diftrift of Toul, three leagues
fouth of Toul.

ALLAN, a river of Scotland, which runs into the Frith
of Forth near Stirhng. Allan Water is alfo a river of the
fame country, which runs into the Tweed, about a mile
north-weft of Melrofs.

ALLANCHE, a town of France, in the department of
4 Cantal)

ALL

ALL

Cantal, nnd diftrift of Murnt, fituato in a valley, and havincj
a conf-Jcrable coiiiiv.eri^(;f cattle ; four Icag^K•^ aiul :i half
lurlh north-\vtit of St.rloiir. N. lat. 4.5^ 12'. E, long.

" -'+ ■

ALL ANT A, in Ancient Ccograp<\-y,z. town of Arcadia.

;'itcp!). 15y^.

ALLANTA, or Allantium, a town of Macedonia,
luppufed to be inhabited by the Allnntier.fes of Plinv.

ALLANTOIS, ALLANTOiDF.s,calltd alfo Farcimtunlis,
ir. Compilative /Inatomy, is a thin traiifp;;rL'nt fac or bag,
iLiiiad amongft the membranes, inverting the fj'tiis of qna-
'■•npcdj ; it is connected with the nrinar)- bladder of the
\ n.iig animal, by means of the iirachus, and is fuppofed to
. 've the purpofe of a refervoir for the urine.

Malpighi, Halltr, and others have attributed this mem-
b/.uie to the chick during the period of incubation.

The word is derived from a.\>.a;, fat\-imcn, a gut : and
i.''r.:,Jhrnui,JJMpe; beeaufe, in many brutes, it has fomewhat
the appeai-anee of an inflated intelline. — For a further
account, fee ALvmmalia, in Comparative Anatomy.

ALLARD, Guy, in Bio;^raphy, was born at Dau-
phine, about the middle of the 17th centvuy, and acquired
reputation by feveral works relating to the hillory of that
province. His " Nobiliaire du Daupliine avec Its Armoi-
ries," l2mo. Grenoble, 1714, and " Hiiloire des Maifons
IXiuphinoiies," are his principal and moit elteemed works.

ALLAT, in Mytholcgy, derived from Alia, Goil, is the
r.:ime of an idol among the Arabians and idolatrous Jews.

ALLATA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Arabia De-
ferta, according to Ptolemy.

Allata, a town of Dalmatia, in the itinerary of An-
tonin.

ALLATIUS, or Allacci, Lto, in Biography, a volu-
minous writer of the 17th centuiy, was born in the ifland
of Chios, and at the age of nine years, after having
been educated in the Greek church, removed to Calabria,
where he enjoyed the patronage of the noble family of Spi-
piclli, and embraced the Catholic religion. At Rome he was
admitted into the Greek college, where he acquired reputa-
tion by the iludy of polite learning, philofophy, and di-
' 'nity. From Rome he went to Naples, and was made
!-reat vicar to the bifliop of Anglona ; and having fettled
K)r fome time in his native country, he returned again to
Rome, ftudicd phyfic, and took his degree of doftor in that
fcience. But the belles lettrcs beft fuited his tafte and en-
c::iged his principal attention ; and, inftead of purfuing the
;radice of phyiic, he taught the Greek language in the
I'lie^e of his own nation. About the year 1622 he was

< 'iiployed by Gregory XV. in removing to Rome the library
of Heidelberg, which the eleftor of Bavaria had prefentcd
'o this pontiff; he was afterwards librarian to Cardinal
"arberini ; and at length pope Alexander VIL appointed
him librarian of the Vatican. His publications, which con-
filted of editions of old MSS, tranflations from Greek
authors, and original compofitions, are very numerous.
Some of the principal of the latter clafs are the following :
" De Ecclefiae Occidentahs et Orientalis perpetua confen-
fi ine," 4to. Cologne 1648 ; " On purgatory," 8vo. Rcmie,
1655; " De patria Homeri," 8vo. Lyons, 1640; " De
.'''eptem orbis Spedlaculis," 8vo. Rome, 1640; " Confuta-
tio Fabula: de Joanna papiffa ;" " De PfeUis ;" " De
Georgils ;" " De Simeonibus." His retentive memory
and application qualified him for compiling catalogues ; ac-

< ordmgly he publifhed a work of this kind under the title,
" Apes UrbanK," in allufion to the bees bofne in the arms of
jpope Urban VliL which contained a hiilory of the learned

men of Rome for the years i6p, 1631, and ifi:;:, with a
catalogue of their works : and another Iradt of a finular
kind, entitled, " Dr.imaturgia," giving an account of
dramatic authors and their works, printed at Rome in 1636,
and reprinted at Venice in 1755. Allatius alfo wrote feve-
ral Greek poems, one upon the birth of Lewis XIV. in
which he introduced Greece fpeaking. Allatius was a dili-
gent and rapid writer ; and he is faid to have written
Greek 40 years with the fame pen, the lofs of which he
lamented with tears. His erudition and induftry are more
commended than his judgment ; and he is generally re-
proached tor want of liberality and candour. His criti-
cifins were harrti and ill-natured ; his refleftions on tliofc
who differed from him were coarfe and vulgar, as well 33
fevere ; and his animofiiy and intolerance, in his conduct
towards thofe who were not comprehended within the pale
of tlie Romifh chiircli, to which he was a profelyte, and for
which he was an ardent advocate, were fuch as led him to
denounce agaiufl them the moll cruel penalties. The Ro-
man pontiff, as he maintained, was independent ; judged
the w orld without being accountable to any ; his unjuft
commands were to be obeyed ; and he had an abfolule au-
thority as legillator and judge, and was incapable ofillufion
and error. As for heretics and fehilmatics Allatius was of
opinion, that they ought to be proferibed and exterminated,,
and if they periilled in their herefy, put to death and con-
fumed in the flames. Li his zeal for uniting the Greek
church to the Latin, and with this view fur infinuating
himfelf into the favour and confidence of pope Urban VHL,
he is charged by F. Simon with iiifincerity and mifrepre-
fcntation. The gentlemen of Port Royal have attempted
a vindication of Allatius, particularly againft the attacks o£
Mr. Claude.

Allatius was neither mairied nor took orders ; and in
accounting for this part of his inde'cifive conduft, when h?
was afked by pope Alexander VH. " why do you not en-
ter into orders ?" he replied, " Bccanfe I would be free to
many." " Why then," laid the pope, " do you not
maiTy ?" " Beeaufe," replied Allatius again, " I would be
at liberty to take orders." He died at Rome in the year
1669, at the age ef 83 years.

ALLAY. Sec Alloy.

ALLAZONIUM, in Ar.eient Geography, a town of
Alia in Myfia, north call of Scepfis.

ALLBURG, in Geography, a townlhip of America, in
Franklin county, Vermont, iituate on MilTifque Bay, and
containing 446 inhabitants.

ALLCHURCH, a viUage of War\vickfhire, faid to
have been formerly feveu miles in circumference, and hav-
ing the Roman Icknild ilrcet pafTing through it. It was
once a borough, with a market and feveral flrects. The
bifhop of Worcefter had a palace in it, and the church,
parti of which are of Saxon architefture, contains many
ancient monuments. It is fituated five milts from Brorai-
grove, in the road to Leiceiler.

ALLECTUS, in A luient Biography Vi.n^ Hi/lory, the con-
fidential friend and prime minifler of Caraufius, emperor of
Britain, apprthendiug punithmeiit for feveral crimes with
which he was chargeable,murdered his mailer, A.D. 294, and
ufurped the imperial dignity, which he maintained for three
years. During this period Conftantius was preparing for
the recoveiy of Britain ; and at length the principal fqua-
dron, deftined for this enterprife, and affembled in the
mouth of the Seine, was intrulled to the command of the
prsefcft Afelepiodotus. The weather proved favourable,
and under the cover of a thick fog, the invaderj efcaped

the

ALL

the fleet of Alleflus, which had been ftationeJ off the Ifle
of Wight to receive tliem, landed in fafcty on the wel-
tem coall ; and convinced the Britons, fays Gibbon, " that
a fiiperiority of naval llrength will not always protcft their
countiy from a foreign invaiion." As foon as the troops
were landed, the intrepid commander let fne to the fliips,
aiid marched forward to meet the enemy. The ufui-per had
ported himfelf near London in expedaiion of an attack from
Conllantiiis, who commanded the fleet of Boulogne ; but
upon hearing of the defcent of Afclepiodotus, he made
forced marclics to oppofe his progrefs. With a fmall body
of haralTed and di(heartened followers, AUeftus encountered
the Imperial troops, and the engagement foon terminated in
his total defeat and death : fo that a fingle battle decided
the fate of this great illand. When Coniiantius landed on
the fhorcs of Kent, he was welcomed by the loud and un-
animous acclamations of obedient fubjefts ; and Britain,
after a feparation of 10 years, was thus reftorcd, A. D.
297, to the body of the Roman empire. Crevier's Rom.
JEmp. vol.ix. p. 311. Gibbon's Hift. vol. ii. p. 127.

ALLEGHANY, or Alleghany County, in Geography,
a dillritl of Pennfylvania in America, extends from the junc-
tion of the river of that name with the Ohio, where its
chief town Pittftiurg is fituated, to the New York line. It
contains 10,309 inhabitants, including 159 flaves. Morfe.
Alleghany is alfo the moft weftern connty in Mainland,
and has Pennfylvania on the north. The windings of the
Patowmac river feparate it from Virginia on the fouth, and
Sideling-hill Creek divides it from Walhington county on
the eaft. It contains 4809 inhabitants, including 258 flaves.
Its chief town is Cumberland. Morfe.

Alleghany Mountains of America, fituate between the
Atlantic Ocean, the Miififippi river, and the lakes, are a
long and broad range of mountains, formed of a great num-
ber of ildges, extending to the north-eaft and fonth-weft,
and nearly parallel to the fea-coaft, about 900 miles in
length, and 60 to 150 and 200 miles in breadth. The diffe-
rent ridge-;, which compofe this immenfe range of moun-
tains, bear appropriate names in the feveral flates ; viz. the
Blue Ridge, the North Moimtain or North Ridge, or
Devil's Back-bone, Laurel Ridge, Jackfon's Mountains,
and Kittatinny Mountains. All thefe ridges, except the
Alleghany, are broken through by rivers, which appear to
have forced their way through i'olid rocks ; and between
the feveral ridges numerous trafts of fine arable and grazing
land intervene. In thofe diftrifts, however, which lie in
the back parts of Pennfylvania, Mr. Evans, who travelled
over them, obfer\es, that fcarcely one acre in 10 is capable
of culture. The principal ridge is more appropriately
called Alleghany, and diiHnguinicd by the appellation of the
Back-bone of the United States. From the feveral ridges
proceed innumerable branches or fpurs. The general name
of the whole range, taken coUeftively, feems not yet to have
been determined. Mr. Evans calls them " the endlefs
mountains ;" others have called them " the Apalachian
mountains," from a tribe of Indians, who live on a river
which proceeds from this mountain, called the Apalachi-
cola ; but the moft common name is the " Alleghany moun-
tains" fo called, probably from the principal ridge of the
range. Thefe mountains are not confufedly fcattered, rifing
here and there into high peaks, overtopping each other ;
but they run along in uniform ridges, fcarcely half a mile
high. They fpread towards the fouth, and fome of them
terminate in high perpendicular bluffs ; others gradually
fnbfide into a level counti7, g'^''"g "fe to the rivers which
J-un to the foiithward into the Gulf of Mexico. Morfe.

3

ALL

Alleghany River, an American river of Pennfylvanis,,
rifes on the weftern fide of the Alleghany mountains, and
after running about 200 miles in a fouth-weft direftion,
unites with Monongahela at Pittfburg ; and both together
form the Ohio. The lands on each fide of this river, for
1 JO miles above Pittfburg, confift of wh.ite oak and chefnut
ridges, and in many places of poor pitch pines, interfperftd.
with trafts of good land and low meadows. This river,
and the Ohio likewife, from its head waters until it enters
Mifiifippi, are known and called by the name of Alleghany
river, by the Seneca and other tribes of the fix nations, who
once inhabited it. Morfe.

ALLEGATA, in Antiquity, a word anciently fub-
feribed at the bottom of refcripts and conftitutions of the
emperors, as fignala, or tefiata, was under other inftruinents.
In this fenfc allegata imports as much as verified, •vcrificala. '
Allegata was a kind of fubfeription, fomewhat lefs ufual
than data, propofitum, accepta, fubdita, fuppojila, or fub-
fcripta.

ALLEGATION, is ufed for the producing of acts, or'
inftruraents, to authorize a thing. In the ecclefiaftical
courts, articles are drawn out in a formal allegation, or by
libel, to fct forth the complainant's ground of complaint
againft the injuring party, brought before the cdurt by
citation. To this fucceeds the defendant's anfwerupon oath,
when, if he denies or extenuates the charge, they proceed to'
proofs by witnelfes examined, and their depontions taken
down in writing, by an officer of the court. If the defen-
dant has any circumftances to offer in his defence, he muft
alfo propound them in what is called his defenfive allega-
tion, to which he is entitled, in his turn, to the plaintiff's
anfwer upon oath, and may from thence proceed to proofs
as well as his antagonift.

Allegation, in a literary fenfe, denotes the act of citing or
quoting an author, or patTage of fome book.

ALLEGEAS, or Allegiae, in Commerce, a ftufF
manufaftured in the Eaft Indies. There are two forts of
them ; fome are of cotton, and others of feveiul kinds of
herbs, which are fpun like flax and hemp. Their length
and breadth are of eight ells, by five, fix, or feven-eighths ;'
and of twelve ells bv three fourths, or five-eighths.

ALLEGIANCE, In Laiv, the legal faith and obedi-
ence, which every fubieft owes to his prince : or, it is the
tie or ligamen, which binds the fubjecl to the king, in re-
turn for that proteftion which the king affords the fub-
jea. ' ;

This was anciently called ligeanfia, or Vtgeance ; from the-
Latin ligare, and alligare, to bind ; q. d. ligamen Jidei.

The thing itfelf, in the fubflance of it, is founded in rea«'
fon and the nature of government ; the name and the fonn'
are derived to us from our Gothic anceftors. Under the
feudal fyftem, eveiy owner of lands held them in fubjeftion
to fome fuperior or lord, from whom or from whofe anceftors
the tenant or vaffal had received them ; and there was a
mutual truft or confidence fubfifting between the lord and
vaffal, that the lord fhould protect the vaffal in the enjoy-
ment of the territory he had granted him : and, on tlie
other hand, that the vaffal fhould be faithful to the lord,
and defend him againft all his enemies. This obligation on
:the part of the vaffal was called h\% fidelitiis, or fealty ; and
an oath of fealty was required, by the feudal law, to be
taken by all tenants to their lord ; v.-hich is couched in al-
moft the fame terms with our ancient oath of allegiance ;
except that in the ufual oath of fealty there \\n% frc([uently
a faving or exception of the fiith due to a fuperior lord by
name, under whom the landlord himfelf was perhaps only a

tenant

A L L

A L 1.

tenant or vad'al. But wlien the ackiiowlcdpfmcnl was niHilo
u) the fiiptrior lord liinil'tlf, wlu) was va(l'al to no man, it
was no longer called the oath of fealty, but the oath of
allegiance ; and therein the tenant fwore to hear faith to his
lovercign lord, in oppolition to all men, without any laving
la- exeeption ; " contra onines homines fidelitatcm fecit."
Land held by this exalted fpecics of fealty was called
" Fcudumlirrltim," a lit gc fee, the vafTals "homines ligei," or
liege men ; and the fovereign their " doniinns ligius," or liege
lord. And when fuvereign princes diij homage to each other
lor lands held under their relpec^ive fovcrcignties, a dillinftion
was always made between ym,;^/(> homage, which was only
an acknowledgment of tenure, and AV^v homage, which in-
cluded the fealty before mentioned, and the ferviccs confe-
qnent upon it. Thus, when our Edward III. in 1329,
did liomage to Philip VI. of France, for his ducal domi-
nions on that continent, it was warmly difputed of what
fpecics the lunr.age was to be, whether AV/c or fimpk ho-
mage. But with us in England, it becoming a fettled prin-
ciple of tenure, that all lands in the kingdom are holden of
the king as their lovereign or lord paramount, no oath but
that of fealty could be taken to ir.ferior lords, and the oath
of allegiance was necefTarily confined to the perfon of the
king alone. By an eafy analogy the term of allegiance rt-as
foon brought to fignify all other engagements, which are
due from fubjeCls to their prince, as well as thofe duties
which were luiiply and merely territorial. And the oath of
allegiance, as adniinillercd fur nj/wards of 600 years, con-
tained a promife " to be true and faithful to the king and
•' his heirs, and truth and faith to bear of life and limb, and
" terrene honour, and not to know or hear of any ill or da-
" mage intended him, without defending liim therefrom."
At the revolution, the terms of this oath being thought to
favour too much the notion of non-refiltanee, the prefent
foiTTi was introduced by the convention parliament, vliich
is more general and indeterminate than the former ; the
, fubjeCt only pnnnifing " that he will be faithful and bear
" true allegiance to the king," without mentioning " his
lieirs," or ipecifying in the leall wherein that allegiance
confilts. Accordingly, the convention of cllates haviu':; of-
fered the crown to the prince and princefs of Orange, who
accepted it, the old oaths of allegiance inipofed by the
llat. I Eliz. and 3 James I. were abrogated ; and a new
oath was drawn up to be taken by all the fubjcfls of Eng-
land, on penalty of being deprived of all employments, civil,
military, and ccclefiallieal. The form of the oath of alle-
giance by I Geo. ilat. ii. c. 13. is " I, y1. B. do fineerely
" promife and fwear, that I will be faithful, and bear true
" allegiance to his majelly king George. So help nie
" God." This oath may be tendered to all perfons above
the age of 12 years, whether natives, deni/cns, or aliens,
either in the court-lect of the manor, or in the flicriff's
tourn, which is the court-leet of t'ac county. See Pr^.mu-
NIRE. The quakers are exempted from taking the oath
of allegiance ; and, in lieu thereof, are only enjoined a de-
claration of fidelity, 8 Geo. c. vi. The oath of allegiance,
taken by the people to the king, is only the counterpart
to the coronation oath, taken by tlie king to the people ;
and, as fuch, jiartakes of the nature of a covenant : that
is, is conditional, and ccafes on a violation of the contract
by the prince : at leafl this is the doftrine of fome of the
chief advocates ior the revolution. The anti-revolutioncrs,
on the contrary, held the oath (.f allegiance to be abfolute
and unconditional. Archdeacon Paley, in his illullration
of this oath, obferves, that it excludes all intenti<m to fup-
port the claims or pretcnfions of any other perfon or perfons
to the crown and government, than llie reigning ioveriign;
Vol. I.

arid alio all delign, at the time, of attempting to depol'c
the reigning prince, ior any realon whatever; and that it
forbids the taking \ip of arms againll the reigning prince,
with views of private advancement, or from motive,, of pti-
fonal refentment or dillikt. On tiie other hand, this oath
permits relitlance to the king, when iiis ill-behaviour or
imbecility is fuch, as to make rcfillance beneficial to the
community ; nor does it require obedience to fuch ccin-
mands of the king as are unauthoriled by the law, or tliat
wt fliould continue our allegiance to the king, after he
is aftuallv and abfolutelv depofed, driven into exile, carried
away captive, or otherwife rendered incapable of excrcifiujj
the regal office, whether by his fault or without it.

Beiides this exprefs engagement, the law alio holds, that
there is an implied, original and virtual allegiance, owing
trom every fubjetl to his fovercign, antecedently to any ex-
prefs promife ; and althotigh the fubjecl never fworc any
faith or allegiance in form. For as the king, by the very
defcent of the crown, is fully invellcd with all the rights,
and bound to all the duties of fovereignty, before his coro-
nation ; fo the fubjedt is bound to his prince by an intrinfic
allegiance, before the fuperindudtion of thofe out\vard bonds
of oath, homage and fealty, which were oiilv inllituted to
remind the fuhj( ft of his previous duty, and for the better
fecuring its pci-forn.ance. The formal profeflion, therefore,
or oath of fubjeition, is nothing more than a declaration in
words of what was before implied in law.

Allegiance, both exprefs and implied, is however didin-
guilhed by the law into natiu-al and local; the former being
alfo perpi lual, and the latter temporarv. Natural allegiance is
hichasis due froniall men born within the king'sdominions im-
mediately upon their birth ; for innncdiately upon their birth,
they are under the king's protetlion ; at a time too, when
(during their infancy) they are incapable of protecting them-
fclvcs. Natural allegiance, therefore, is a debt of gratitude,
which cannot be forfeited, cancelled or altered, iiy any change
of time, place orcircumllance,nor by any thing but the united
concurrence of the legillature. An Englifliman who removes
to France, or to China, owes the fame allegiance to the king
of England there as at home, and 20 years hence as well as
now. For it is a principle of univerlal law, that the natural
born fubjeft of one prince camiot by any aft of his own, no,
not by iwearing allegiance to another, put ofl or difcharge
his natural allegiance to the former; for this natural alle-
giance was intrinfic and primitive, and antecedent to thtr
other, and cannot be divellcd without the concurrent aCt of
that prince to whom it was firit due.

Local allegiance is Inch as is due trom an alien, or (Iran-
ger born, for fo long time as he continues within the king's
dominion and jn'otcftiiui ; and it ccafes the inflant (uch llran-
ger transfers himfelf from this kingdom to another. Natu-
ral allegiance is, therefore, perpetual, and local, temporary
only ; and that for this reafoii, evidently founded upon the
nature of government, that allegiance is a debt due from
the fubjeft, upon an imphed contraft with the prince, that
fo long as the one afTinds proteftion, fo long the other will
demean himfelf faithfully. As therefore the prince is always
under a conllant tie to proteft his natural born fubjefts at
all times, and in all countries, for this reafon their allegiance
due to him is equally univerlal and permanent. But, on the
other hand, as the prince affords his proteftion to an alien,
only during his refidence in this realm, the :dlegiancc of an
alien is confined, in point of time, to the duration of fuch his
refidence ; and, in point of locality, to the dominions of the
Brilifli empire. Blackllone's Com. book i. eh. 10. vol. i.

^f/i — 371. 8vo. P;iley's Principles of Moral and Pohtie-al

Philolojihy.

book iii. eh. 18. vol.
4U

p. 203-

-207. 8vo.

ALLE-

A L L

ALLEGINI, GuiSEPPE, in Biography, an Italia/i en-
graver, who rtoiirifhod in I74f>, and piibliihed t!ic fullowing
plates, I'/z. a Virgin Mary, the Circiimcilion, the iloning of
Kt. Stephen, a finall print of Rinaldo and Armida, and a
large architcthiral Opera fcene. Strutt.

ALLEGORICAL, fonuthing containing an allegory.

The divines find divers fcnl'es in fcripture ; as a littnil, a
ntyfi':cal, and an alle^oricalienic. Sec Prophecy, and TyTR.

ALLEGORY, Alltcoria, a figure in Rhtlork, where-
by wc make ufe of terms which, in tiieir proper tlgnification,
mean fomething elfe than what they are brought lo denote;
or it is a figure whereby we fay one thing, cxpeclitig it Ihall
be underftood of another, to wliicl\ it alUides ; or which,
under the literal fcnfe of the words, conceals a foieigu or
diilant meaning.

An allegory is, properly, a continued metaphor, or a feries
of fcveral metaphors in one or more fenlenccs. ijuch is that
beautiful allegoiy, in Horace, lib. i. Od. 14.

" O navis, referunt in mare te novi
Fludus, &c."

Where the fhip is ufually held to ftand for the republic ;
waves, for civil war ; port, for peace and concord ; oars, for
foldiers ; and mariners for magiftrates. Thus alfo, in Prior's
Her.ry and Emma, Emma delcribes her conftancy to Henry
in the following allegorical manner:

" Did I but purpofe to embark with thee
On the fmooth furface of a fummcr's lea.
While gentle zephyrs play with profperous gales,
And fortune's favour fills the fwelling fails ;
But would forfake the fhip, and make the Ihore,
When the winds whillle, and the tempefts roar J"

Cicero likewife fpeaking of himfeif (in Pifon. c. 9. torn. vi.
p. 187.) ufes this allegorical language: " Nor was I fo ti-
morous, that after I had fteered die Ihip of the ftate througli
the grenteft ftorms and waves, and brought her fafe into
{X)rt, I (liould fear the cloud of your forehead, or your col-
league's pellilent breath. I faw other winds, I perceived
other ftorms, I did not withdraw from other impending tem-
pefts ; but I expofed myfelf fmgly to them for the common
iafety." Here the ilate is compared to a ibip, and all the
things that are faid of it under that image, are exprefted in
metaphors made ufe of to denote the dangers with which it
had been threatened. We have alfo a very fine example of
an allegory in the 80th Pfalm ; in which the people of Ifrael
are reprefented under the image of a vine, and the figure is
fupported throughout with great correftnefs and beauty.
Whereas, if inftead of defcribing the vine as wailed by the
boar from the wood, and devoured by the wild beafts of
the field, the Pfalmiil had fnid, it was afflifted by heathens
or overcome by enemies, which is the real meaning, the figu-
rative and the literal meaning would have been blended, and
the allegory ruined. The learned Bifhop Lowth (De Sacra
Poefi Hebraeorum, Pra;l. 10. 11. p. 120 — 140.) has fpecified
three forms of allegory that occur in facred poetry. The
lit is that which rhetoricians call a continued metaphor.
When fevcral metaphors fucceed each other, fays Cicero
(Orator, c. 27. torn. i. p. 520.) they alter the form of the
compofition; and this fucceftion has vciy properly, in reference
to the etymology of the word, been denominated by the
Greeks a?.Xr,yopi2, an allegory ; although Ariftolle, inftead
of coiifidering it as a newfpecies of figure, has referred it to
the clals of metaphors. The principle of allegory in this
fcnfe of the term, and of the fimple metaphor, is the fame ;
nor IB it an eafy matter to reftrift each to its proper Hmit,
and to mark the precife termination of the one, and the
coramencemeni of the other. For examples of this kind,

ALL

we refer to Metaphor. This eminently judicious critic
obl'erves, that when the Hebrew poets ufe the congtnial
figures of metaphor, allegoiy, and comparifon, particularly
in the proplietic poetry, tliey adopt a peculiar mode of do-
ing it, and feldom regulate the imagery which they introduce
by any fixed principle or Itandard. Not fatisfied with a
fimple metaphor, they often run it into an allegory, or blend
with it a direft comparifon. The allegory fometinies f(;l-
lows, and fometimes precedes the fiinile : to this is added a
frequent change of imageiy, as well as of pcrlonsand tenfes ;
and thus are difpkyed an energy and boldncfs, both of cx-
predion and meaning, which are uiiconfined by any ilated
rules, and which mark the dlfcriminating genius of tlie He-
brew poetry. Thus, in Gen. xlix. 9. " Judah is a lion's
whelp ;" this metaphor is immediately drawn out Into aa
allegory, with a change of perfon : " From the prey, my
fon, thou art gone up," that is, to the mountains, which is
underftood ; and in the fucceeding ientences the perfun is
again changed, the image is gradually advanced, and the me-
taphor is ioined with a comparifon that is repeated.
" He ftoopeth down, he cnucheth as a lion :
And as a lionef^ ; who ihall roufe him ?"

A fimilar inllance occurs in the prophecy, recorded in Pfalni
ex. 3. which explicitly foretells the abundant increal'e of the
gofpel on its firft promulgation. This kind of allegory,
however, fometimes affumcs a inore regular and perfeft
form, and then occupies the whole fubjedl and compafs of
the difcourfe. An example of this kind occurs in Solomon's
well-known allegory, Eccles. xii. 2 — 6. in which old age is
fo admirably depifted. There is alio in liaiah, xxviii. 24 — 29,
an allegory, which, with no lefs elegance of imagery, is more
fimple and regular, as well as more juft and complete, both
in the form and the method of treating it. Another kind
of allegory is that, which in the proper and more reilricted
fenfe, may be called a parable ; and confiils of a continued
narration of fome fiftitious event, accommodated by way o£
fimilitudc to the illuftration of fome important truth. The
Greeks call thefe allegories aivoi or apologues, and the
Latins fabulie, or fables. See Parable. The third
fpecies of allegor)', which often occurs in the prophetic
poetry, is that in which a double meaning is couched under
the fame words, or when the fame difcourfe, differently
interpreted, defignates different events, difiimilar in their
nature and remote as to time. Thefe different relations are
denominated the literal and myilical fcnfes. This kind of
allegory, which the learned prelate calls myftical. feems to
derive its origin from the principles of the Jevviili religion ;
and it differs from the two former fpecies in a variety of re-
fpects. In thefe allegories the writer may adopt any ima-
geiy that is nioft fuitable to his fancy or inclination ; but
the only proper materials for this allegory muft be fupplied
from the facred rites of the Hebrews themfelves, and it can
only be introduced in relation to fuch things as are imme-
diately conneftcd with the Jewidi religion, or tlieir imme-
diate oppofites.

The former kinds partake of the common privileges of
poetry ; but the myftical allegory has its foundation in the
nature of the Jewilli economy, and is adapted iolely to the
poetiy of the Hebrews. Befides, in the other forms of alle-
gory, the exterior or ottenfible imagery is mere fiftion, and
the truth lies altogether in the interior or remote fenfe ; but
in this allegory each idea is equally agreeable to truth. The
exterior or oftenfibie image is itfelf a reality ; and although
it fuftains another character, it does not wholly lay afide its
own. There is alfo a great variety in the ufe and conduft
of the myftical allegory ; in the modes in which the corre-
Iponding images are arranged, and in which they are ob-
6- fcured

A L L

TcurcJ or cclipfed by one an<)t}icr. Somi-times the obvioiu
or literal fenlc is fo promiiKiit and coiifpiciious, both in the
words uiid Iciitinn'iits, that the rcinotc ov ligurative fciife is
fcarccl)- permitted to ghmmcrthroiijrli it. On the other liaiul,
the fiijurative feiife is more frtcjiieiitly found to beam forth
with io much perfpieiiily iwd hillrc, that the hteral fenfe is
quite call into a diade, oi becomes indlfcerniblc. Sometimes
the principal or figurative idea is cxiiibited to the attentive
tye with a condant and ecjnal hght ; and fomctimes it un-
expeftedly glares upon ns, and breaki; forth with fudden and
allonifhing corrufcationii, like a flarti of lijrjilninj; b\n-lling
from the clouds. But the mode or form of this figure, which
pofreffes the chief beauty and elegance, is, when the two
images, equally confpicuous, run, as it were, parallel through
tlie wliole poem, mutually ilhillrating and correfpondent to
each other. The learned author has illuiliated thefe obfer-
vations by inftances Tekfted from the 2d and 72d Pfalms.
He adds, that the myilical allegory is, on account of the ob-
fcurity refulting from the nature of the figuie, and the llyle
of the compofition, fo agreeable to the nature of the pro-
phecy, that it is the form which it generally, and indeed
lawfully affumes, as bell adapted to the prediction of future
events. Itdefcribes events in a manner exadly conformable
to the intention of prophecy ; that is, in a dark, dlfguifed and
intricate manner, (Iciteliing out iu a general way tiieir form
and outline ; and ftldom defccnding to a minutenels of de-
fcription and exaftnefs of detail. On this fubjeft in its im-
mediate connection with the double fenfe of prophecy, which
fome eminent critics and commentators have not only dil-
puted, but abfolutely rtjeftcdas grouudlefs and fanciful, and
leading to great uncertainty of interpretation ; fee Pro-
phecy.

Allegories were a favourite method of delivering inftruc-
tions in ancient times ; for what we call fables or parables,
are no other than allegories ; where, by words and aftions
attributed to beafts or inanimate objefts, the difpoiltlons of
men are figured ; and what we call the moral, io the un-
figured fenfe or meaning of the allegory. An xnigma or
riddle is alio a fpecies of allegory ; one thing reprcfented or
imaged by another ; but purpofely wrapt up under fo many
circuniftances as to be rendered obfcure. Where a riddle is
rot intended, it is always a fault iu allegoiy to be too dark.
The meaning fhould be eafily feeu through the figure em-
ployed to iliadow it. Plowever, the proper mixture of light
or fhade, in fuch compofitions, the exail adjuftment of all
the figurative circuniftances with the literal fenfe, fo as nei-
ther to lay the meaning too bare and open, nor to cover and
.wrap it up too much, has ever been found an affair of great
nicety ; and there are few fj)cele3 of compofition in wliich it
is more difficult to wiite, fo as to pleafe and command at-
tention than in allegories. In fome of the vifions of the
SpeClator, we have examples of allegories vciy happily exe-
cuted. In the right managemeiit oi' allegories, care ihould
be taken that the fame kind of trope be carried through the
whole, fo as to compofe one uniform and confillent fet of
ideas ; otherwife they drefs up a chimera, a thing that has
no exiflence, and of which the mind can form no conception.
Quiuclillan very jultly obferves (Inft. Orat. !. viii. c. 6.) that
" to begin with a tempeft and end with a fire, would be veiy
ridiculous and unnatural." It is llkewife very necelfary that
the allnfions be all plain and evident, efpecially where the
name of the thing alluded to is not exprefied. Thefe are
called pure allegories. But where the reference is not evi-
dent, it becomes a riddle, which is nothing elfe but an oh-
fcure iilligory. To avoid this the beft writers ufe what are
generally called mixni alL-gor'us, or fuch as exprefs tlie jiroper

ALL

nam? of the thing which the whole Hniilitudc rcfpcftj. Of

this kind is that in the fpeech of Phihj), king of Macedoii,
given by Julliii (). xxix. c. 3.), where he fays, " I perceive
that cloud of a dreadful and bloody war arifing in Ifslv, an.?
a thunder-llorm from the well, which will iiil .ill place's witb
a large (liower of blood, wherever ihe tempeft of >idnrj' lliall
carry it." Tiie proper words " war," " blood," and "vic-
tory," being joined to the tropes " cloud," " ftiower," and
" temped," in this fentencc, render the fevcral parts of the
fimilitude plain and evident. Quinftiliaii thinks thofe allc-
gorits moll beautiful, where the whole fimilitude is ex-
preded, and thofe words, ■which in their proper fenfe relate
to one of tiie two things, between which the comparifon u
made, are allegorically apphed to the other : as when Cor-
nelius Ncpos fays of Atticus (cap. x.), " If that pilot gains
the greatell reputation, who prelerves iiis fiiip in a boifieroiis
and rocky fea ; ought not he to be thought a man of fingu-
lar prudence, who arrived in fafity tlirongh fo many and fo
great civil tempefts ?" Thefe are the allegories witli which
orators are chiefly concerned. See Ward's Oratoiy, vol. ii.
p. 27 — 31. Blair's Ledlures, vol. i. p. t^cjC — jgtj.

The Old Tellament is fuppofed, by many, to be a per-
petual allegory, or typical reprefentation of the myfirricsot
the New. Mr. CoUins, in his " Grounds and Reafons of
the Chriilian Religion," pretends, that the Old Tellament,
literally underllood, no where ferves the purpofes of Chrif-
tianity ; but if it be of any ufe, it mull be underftood al!e-
goric.dly. lie firft recommends allegory, as the only mode
of rcafoiiing proper for bringing men to the faith of Cbrift ;
and then ridicides this allegorical interpretation as ab-
furd. p. 87, 90, 94, 160. In effea, allegories have entered
into mod; religions. — The Jews, we know, abound with
them. Philo Judxus has three books, of the allegories in
the hiftory of the fix days. Nor are the heathens without
allegories in their religion : it may be even fald, that the
ufe of them is of a much eariier ftanding in the Gentile
than in the Jewifii worid. — Some of their phllofophers, un-
dertaking to give a rationale of their faith, and to fltew the
reafon and feope of their fables, and the ancient hiftories of
their gods, found it neceffai-y to put another conftruCtion on
them ; and maintain, that they fignified fomething very dif-
ferent from what they fecmcd to exprefs. And hence came
the word allegory, or a difcourfe that, in Its natural fenfe,
aWo cfofEiji, fignifies fomething other than what fecms in-
tended by it. Tills flilft they had i-ecourfe to, in order to
prevent people from being fiiocked with thofe abfuidltles
which the poets had introduced into their religion ; and to
convince the worid, that the gods of Greece had not been
thofe v.le perfims which their liiilories reprefented them to
be. By thii means the hiftory, as well as r-llglon, of Greece,
was at once converted into allegoiy ; and the world left to
feek for them both in a heap of fables, few of whicli have
been fatisfaelorily folved, either by ancient or modern writers.
The Jews, finding the advantages of tiiis way of explaining
religion, made ufe of it to interpret the facred writings, fo as
to render them more palatable to the Pagans. The fame
method was adopted by the primitive writers of Chriftianitv.
Tlie practice of allegorical interpetatiou, which the Jews
had learned from the Egyptians, andwh4,-h, before the time
of Chriil, was common among them, the cajly converts to
Chriftianity brought out of the Je%vidi into the Chridian
church. Some traces of this method we find in the New
Tellament, particularly in St. Paul's argument againft the
Jewlfti advocates for tlie perpetual and univerfal obligation
of the Mofaic ritual, drawn from the hiiloiy of Abraham,
in the epillk to the Galatians, ch. iv. 22 ; aiid in the typical
4 '-' 2 applicatio*

A I. L

application of ilit ceremonial appointments of Mofcs totlie
C'lirillian inftitulion, in the cpillle to tlii.' Hebrews. But a
Ids fobcr and juilicinu!; ufe was made of this kind of lan-
pnage by the Cliriltian fathers. This was more efpecially.
the cafe withthofe Gentile eonverts who had been educated
in the Alevandrian fchool, \vhere, by the help of allegory,
the Icvend I'yllems of philolophy were mixed and confounded ;
and with thofe Jtwifh Cluillians, wiio, by the fame
means, had been inllrudcd in the Cabbalillic dodrines,
which, before this time, had fprung up in Egypt, and pafled
thence into judia. Several of tliofe fefts of Chriltians,
wlio were called heretics, particularly the Valentinian Gnof-
tics, made ufe of allegorical language to difguife the utma-
tui-al alliance which they liad introduced between the fanciful
dogmas of the oriental philofophy arid the fimple doftrine
of Chrirt. The orthodox fathers of the church, too, de-
fended themftlves with the fame armour, both againft heretics
and inlidel?, apph ing, with more ingenuity than judgment, the
fymbohcal method of intcrpretatimi to the facrcd fcriptnres.
In the fame manner in which Philo and other Alexandrian
Jcwj had corrupted the Jewilh church, Clemens Alexan-
drhius, Origen, and other difciples of the Alexandrian
fchool, in the fecond centuiy, introduced error and corrup-
tion into the church of Chrift. Whitby on the interpretation
of Scripture, Lond. i744. Brucker's Hill. Philcf. by
linfield, vol. ii. p. 272.

Allegories are dnlinguiilied into divers kinds : as •verLd,
retil, Jiinplf, alliiftve, phf/ical, moral, pblil'ical, theological, &c.

Allegory, /fm/)/f, according to fome writers, is that
which' is taken from any kind of natural things.

Allegory, allufi-ve, is that which relates to other words,
or things.

Allegory, verbal, is a thread, or feries of metaphors ;
or a continuation of the fame trope, chiefly metaphor,
through many words. Such is that in Virgil :

" Claudite jam rivos pueri, fat prata biberunt."

Where the metaphor of watering the ground is carried on
to the fhutting of the fluices, &c.

Allegory, perpeliuil, or conliniieit, is that where the al-
legorical thread is pnrfued through all the parts of a con-
fiderable difcourfe. Such arc the books of Jonah, of Can-
ticles, of Job, not to fey the whole Old Teflament, accord-
ing to the hypothefis of fome divines.

Allegories, pl'ifcal, thole wherein fonie point of na-
tural philofopliy is rcprcfented ; fueh in Homer, are Jiuio,
who reprefents the air ; Jupiter, the Kther, &:c.

Allegories, medical, thofe wherein fome fecrtt of phvllc
k revealed : fuch is Solomon's defcription of old age, Kcelef.
xii. I, &c. wherein, according to certain autliors, the cir-
culation of the blood is indicated : fuch alio, according to
a modern writer, is the ftory of the labours of Hercules.
For an illuitration of Solomon's allegorical defcription of
old age, fee Mead's Medica Sacra, chap. vi.

Allegories, cAfm/'iv//, thofe relating to cliemiflry : fuch,
according to Snidas, and many moderns, is the ftory of the
Argonautic expedition, wherein the procefs of making gold
is exailly dcicribed : fuch alfo, according to Tollius, is the
name and title of Bafd, Valentine, Bcnedidine, Monk: under
which are concealed the fecrets of the philofophical mercuiy.

Allegories, moral, thofe whereby fome ufeful moral
inftruftion is held forth : fuch, in Homer, is the vittory of
Diomede over Venus, or fleflily lufl : fuch alfo are the Py-
thagorean metempfychofis, and the flory of thejudgmeiit
of Hercules, related by Prodieus. To which may be added,
the fdbles of avarice and luxury ; of the grotto of grief, and

A L L

and othiTs in the Speftators and Tatlcrs. Speclat. N' Jj.
Tail. N-^ 97.

Allegories, ^Of//W, thofe wherein fome maxim of good
government is artfully wrapped up ; fuch is that celebrated
one of Mcnenlus Agrippa, whereby he prevailed on the Roman
jKople, who had witiuhawn in diicontent at the magiltrates,
to return into the city ; to which purpofe he related to them
the parable of a war railed by the le.eral parts of the human
body againll the flonia'^h.

Allegories, theological, ihefe wherein fome truth re-
lating to the nature and attributes of God is couched.

Allegory is aifo ufed for the drawing of fome words,
plainly and literally intended at firll, from their natural and
proper meaning, to a foreign fenfe ; for the better inllruCting
of our minds in fome point of faith or manners. This co-
incides with what is otherwifc called .V-'commodation.

Allegory, in Painting, is ufed as in poeti-v, and
fometimes too licentioufly, by painters, who, while they
enrich their piftures by allegories, offend the fpedator,
efpecially" in reprefentations of modern hiftwy. Rubens,
whofe works are full of great and noble ideas, cannot be
juflified in the licentious treatment of allegoi")- in his famous
piftures reprefenting the hiftory of Mary of Medicis, and
in feveral others of that great mailer's works which coukl
be mentioned. In the Luxemburg gallery Rubens has fo
united t!ie Chrillian ceremonies with heathen mythology as
greatly to offend the eye of the intelligent Ipedator, not-
withllanding the grandeur of the compcfition and richnefs
of the colouring, which are produced by this veiy means.
A great general has been reprefented crofiing a river with
his troops by an armed warrior llriding over a ftreara of wa-
ter flowing from an urn held by a river god ; which would,
it is appreliended, have been exprefTed with greater propriety
by the general holding his truncheon, while the troops, at
a dillance, were reprefcjited as fording a river. Allegory
feems better employed in poetical fubjeifls than in hiilorical
reprefentations. See more upon this fubjeCt under the
article Painting.

ALLEGRI, Gregorio, in Biography, an eminent mu-
fical compoler of the 1 7th century, was a native of Rome,
and by profeflion an ecclefiaflie. He was a dii'ciple of Na-
nini, who was contemporan' with Paleflrina, and his inti-
mate friend. His abilities as a finger were ineonfiderable,
and yet he was accounted an admirable mailer of harmony ;
and fo much was he epjeemed by all the mufical profeffors of
his time, that the pope, in order to appropriate him to his
fcrvice, appointed him to be one of the fingers of his cha-
pel in i6ig. To his extraordinarv merit as a compofer of
church mufic he joined a devout and benevolent difpontion,
and an excellent moral charac^fer ; for he not only aiTifted
the poor, by whom his door was ufually cro«-ded, to the
utmoll of his power, but daily vifited the prilons of Rome,
in order to bellow his alms on the moll deferving and dif-
trelTed objecls he could find in them. He let many parts of
the church fcrvice with fuch divine fimplicity and purity of
harmony, that ti.^ iofs of him was much felt and fincerely
lamented by the whole college of lingers in the papal fcr-
vice. He died Feb. i8th, 1652 ; and was buried in the
Ciiiefa Nuova, before the chapel of S. Filippo Neri, near
the altar of annunciation, where is a vault for the reception
of deceafed fingers belonging to the pope's chapel.

Among his works preferved, that are Hill in ufe, is the
famous MijWere, which, for upwards of 170 years, has
been annually performed at the ])ope's chapel in Rome on
Wedncfday and Good FViday in Paflion week, and which in
appearance is io iimple as to make thofe who li-^ve only feen it

on

I

A L L

on paper wonder whence its bca\ity and cffeft could arife, and
whicli owes its reputation more to the manner in which it is
performed than to the conipolition ; the fame miific is many
timen repeated to diifercnt words, and tlie fingers liave, by
tradition, certain cnftomn, expreflions, and graces of con-
vention (eerie efprc[]'iom c Griippi), wliich produce great ef-
feds, fueh as fwelhng and diniiniihing the founds akogether,
accelerating or retarding the meaiurc at fomc particular
words, and finging fome entire verfe; quicker than others.
This information was furnilhed to the autlior hv fignor San-
tarelli, the pope's maelho di capella. And Andrea Adami
afferts, in his Offer-oal'tiim per ben rc^. il coro Jella C.ip. Pont.
171 1, p. 36, " that after feveral vain attempts by preceding
compofers, for more than a hundred years, to fct the fame
words to the fatisfnftion of the lieads of the church, Gre-
orio Alltgri fncceeded fo well as to merit eternal praile ;
or with few notes, well modulated and well underllood, he
compofed fuch a Miferere as will continue to be fung on the
fame days, every year, for ages yet to come ; and one that
is conceived in fuch juil proportions as will ailonilh future
times, and raviih, as at prefent, the foul of every hearer.

However, fome of the great effeds jirodneed by this
piece may, perhaps, be juilly attributed to the time, place,
and folemnity of the ceremonials uled during the perfonn-
ance : the pope and conclave are all proilrated on the
ground ; the candles of the chapel and the torches of the
baluilradc are extinguilhed one by one ; and the lall verfe of
this pfahii is terminated by t\vo choirs ; the maellro di ca-
pella beating time flower and flower, and the Angers dimi-
nilhing or rather extinguilhing the harmony, by little and
little, to a i)erfecl: point.

It is likewife performed by ielecl voices, who have fre-
quent rehearfals, particularly on the Monday in Pafilon
week, which is wholly fpent in repeating and polifliing the
performance.

This conipofition ufcd to be held fo facred, that it was
imagined excommunication would be the confequence of an
attempt to tranfcribe it.

Padri Martini faid that there were never more than three
copies of it made by authority, " one of which was for the
emperor I^eopold, one for the late king of Portugal, and the
other for himlelf." Of this lall he favoured the author with
a tranfcript at Bologna, and fignor Santarelli indulged him
with another from the archives of the pope's chapel. Upon
collating thele two copies, they were found to differ very little
from'each other. — Picfent ftate of Miific in France and Italy.

Before we quit a fubjeCl fo interelling to the lovers of
church mufic, we fhall add the following anecdote, with
which we were likewife favoured by fignor Santarelli.

" The emperor Leopold the flrft, not only a lover and pa-
tron of mufic, but a good compofcr himfelf, ordered his
anibaflador at Rome to entreat the pope to permit him to
have a copy of the celebrated Miferere of Allegri, for the
ufe of the Imperial chapel at Vienna ; which being granted,
a copy was made by the fignor raaellro of the pope's cha-
pel, and fent to the emperor, who had then in his fervice
fome of the iirtt fingers of the age ; but, notwithftandiug
the abilities of the performers, this compofition was fo far
from anfwering tiie expeifations of the emperor and his
court in the execution, that he concluded the pope's maef-
tro di capella, in order to keep it a myftery, had put a
trick upon him, and fent him another compofition. Uj>on
which, in great wrath, he fent an exprels to his holincfs,
with a complaint aguinft the maeflro di capella, which oc-
cahoued his immediate difgrace, and difmifTion from the
fervice of the papal chapel ; and in fo great a degree was
the pope ofEended, at the fuppofed impofitioii of his com-

A L 1.

pofcr, that, for a long time, he woidj neither fee him nrr
hear his defence. However, at length, the poor mtiii got
one ol the cardinals Id tdci^d his caufe, and to acquaiiit his
holinefs that the (lyle of lingi.ig in his chapel, particularly
in pertorming the Mijerere, was fuch as could not be tx-
preflcd by notes, nor taught nor traiifmittcd to any oilier
place, but by example, for which reafon the piece in quef-
tion, though faithfully tranfcribed, mull fail in its elfeft
when performed cU'ewlurc. His holinefs did not under-
Hand muflc, and could hardly comprc-hend how the fame
notes (llould found fo differently in different places ; hmv-
cver, he ordered his maeflro di capella to write down his
defence, in order to be fent to Vienna, which was done ;
and the emperor, feeing no t)ther way of gratifying his
wilhes with refpcc't to this compofition, begged of the
pope that fome of the niulicians in the fervice of his holi-
nefs might be fent to Vienna, to inllrutt thofe in the fervice
of his chapel how to perform the Miferere of Allegri, in
the fame cxpreHlve manner as in the Siltine chapel at Rome,
which wa,-, granted. liut, before they arrived, a war broke
out with the Turks, which called tlie emperor from \'i-
enna ; and the Miferere has never y.t, ])erhaps, been truly
performed but in the pope's chaptl.

With refpecl to the intrinlic woith of this renowned Mi-
ferere, as a mufieal phenomenon, we know that more fublimc
compofitions have been produced, liiice Allegri's time, by
muficians of fuperior genius ; but the words were thought
by the heads of the Romilh church to be let with fo much
more propriety, reverence, and cffeft, than by any formeT
ccclcfiartical compofer whoi'e productions had been allowed
admifllon into the fer\-ice of the papal chapel during the
holy week, that, belides the manner in which it was per-
formed, its merit was perhaps fomewhat exaggerated in
imagination by the mylleiy with which it was feduloufly
prcferved from profane examination.

Allegri, Antonio. Sec Corrf.gio.

ALLEGRINI, Francesco, an engraver, who lived at
Florence, and flouriflied in 1760. By him we have many
poi-traits, from different mailers. The image of St. Francis
d'AlTile is lield in high eflinidlion at Sienna, in the church
named I'Alberino. Strutt.

ALLEGRO, Ilal. Miifi:, denotes gay, cheerful, quick.
The force of this term is augmented by the wcjids p'lii, cxjfai,
and the fuperlativc degree of comparifon, as put nUcro,
more quick ; iille^ro nffui, and alle^ri/Jtmo, very quick. It
has likewife its diminutives, as poeo allegro, and allegretto, a
little gay, cheerful, or quick, allegro is the degree of time
between Andante and Presto, which fee.

ALLEIN, Richard, in B'wgmpky, a nonconformifl
divine, was born at Dichet, in Sonierfetlhire, in 161 1, edu-
cated by his father, who was rector of the parifh, and en-
tered a c(nnmoner at St. Alhan's Hall, Oxford, in 1627.
Having taken the degrees of bachelor and mailer of arts in
the Univerlity, he became firll, affiflant preacher to his fa-
ther, and afterwards, viz. in 1641, reclor of Batcomb, in
Somerfetfhire, where he faithfully difcharged his duty. Hav-
ing received from his father a bias towards the fentimcnts of
the Puritans, he attached himfelf to that party, and zea-
loufly lupportcd the folemn league and covenant, though he
dilapproved the enthufiallic fpirit of. fome of its adherents ;
as appears by a paper printed in 1^48, and entitled, " The
teflimony of the niiniilry of Somcrfetllare to the truth of
Jefns Chrill, and to the folemn league and covenant." In
1654 he was employed as alTiltant to the commiflioners ap-
pointed by parliament for ejecling fcandalous miniih"'; t •
the refloration he manifelled an inclination to yield tV^n
to the government ; but unable confcientioufiy to comply

with

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witk tlie terms of conformity, he preferred the altcinative,
impotVd by the art of uniformity, of quitting liis living
after liaviug retained it for 20 years, and oi ranking witii
about 2000 other fuiTi.rcrs, who were diiUngiiiilicd by the
denomination of cjedcd minifters. Under tlie rcilraintsand
penalties of this ad, he exerciied his niinillry in tlie houle
of Mr. More, who had been formcily a member of par-
liament, and wl>o lived in his neighbourhood ; and though he
was reprimanded by the magilhates and imprifoncd, his re-
putation for piety, learning, and exemplary condud, pro-
cured a mitigation of the rigorous treatment with which he
encountered. In confequence of " The Five-mile Ad,"
he was utuler a neceffity of removing fiom Batcomb to
Frome-Selwood, where he continued in the difcharge of
his profeffional duties, notwithll:inding the dangers to which
«lie was cxpofed. In this fituation he remained, till death
terminated his trials and labours in 1681. He was diftin-
guilhed by his plain, pradical and pathetic manner of
preaching, and by his affiduity in the duties of his pailoral
office, fuch as catechifiug, viiiting the fick and indruding
the ignorant. Although he was an avowed non-conformift,
and ii:ridly attached to his principles, the moderation of his
temper, as well as his general charader, recommended him
to the clergy and laity of fentiraents different from his own,
and lie lived amongft them on terms of friendlbip and inter-
courfe. Mr. Jenkins, vicar of Frome-Selwood, preached
his funeral fermon, and bore tellimony to his piety, meek-
nefs, and modcratien. His works, which were all of the
devotional kind, were much eftecmed, and frequently re-
printed. The principal of thefe was his " Vindicix Pieta-
tis," or, " A Vindication of Godlincfs, in the greateft
ftriclnefs and fpirituality of it, from the imputations of
folly and fancy," which was publilhed in 1665, without a
printer's name, becaufe it was not licenfed ; but the copies
of it were feized and fent to the king's kitchen for wafte-
paper. They were afterwards bought by the king's book-
feller, who had caufed them to be feized, at a cheap rate,
and fold ; for which artifice he was brought on his knees to
the council table, and the books were again fent to the king's
kitchen and biik'd, /'. e. Ilruck over with ink, fo as to be
illegible. The other works of AUein were " Heaven opened,
or a brief and plain difcovery of the riches of God's co-
venant of grace," printed in 1665 ; " The World Con-
quered," 1668, 8vo. ; " Godly Fear," 1674. 8vo. ; «' A
Rebuke to Backfliders, and a Spur for Loiterers," 1677,
and 1684, 8vo ; " A Companion for Prayer," 1680, l2mo. ;
" Inllrudions about Heart- work, &c." 1 68 1, 8vo. Ca-
Jamy's Life of Baxter, vol. ii. Wood's Athen. Oxon. vol. ii.
Biog. Brit.

Allein, Joseph, a nonconformift divine, was born at
Devizes, in Wiltfliire, in J 633. Having manifefted at a
very early age an eminently pious difpofition and an inclina-
tion for the miniftry, he was educated with this view and
fent to Oxford at the age of 16 years. At college he was
:diftingni(hed by diligence in his ftudies and gravity in his de-
portment. In 1653 he became a tutor in the college of
■Corpus Chrilli, to which he belonged, and where, for the
exercife of his gifts in prayer, he had performed the office
of chaplain, which he preferred to a fellowfliip ; and in this
■fituation he was fo afiiduons and io fuccefsful, that many of
his pupils occupied refpedable ftation-s both in the eftabliihed
church and among the nonconformifts. In 1655 he left
college, and was affiltant minifter at Taunton Magdalen, in
Somerfetlhire, until the year 1662, when he was deprived
for nonconfoi-mity. During this connedion he was inde-
fatigable in his nuniilerial fervices, and his condud was fo

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amiable and exemplary, as to fecure the affedionate eftecm
and attachment of his parirtiioners. After his exclufion from
the church, he perfevered in his labours, and preached com-
monly fix or feven, and lometimes 14 or 15 times a week ;
till in 1663 he was committed to Ivelcheller jail, where feven
miniftei'S and 50 quakcrs were clofcly confined and enduring
fimihir hardlhips. At the aflizes Allein was convicted of
having preached in the preceding Mayi, and lentcnced to pay
100 marks, and to remain in priion till the tine was paid.
" I am glad," faid he on receiving his fentence, '■ that it
has appeared before my country, that whatever 1 am charged
with, I have been guilty of nothing but doing my duty ;
and that all which appeared from the evidence was, that 1
fungapfalm, and inilruded my family, others being there,
and both in ray own houfe." By an imprifonment of 12
months, AUein's conftitution was impaired and the duration
of his life (hortened. After his releafe he renewed his
hibours, and his fufterings were alfo renewed ; his health
gradually declined ; and in 1668 he finifhedhiscouife, at the
age of 35 years. His biographers, Anthony Wood ex-
cepted, bear teftimony to his learning and cliarity. Zealous
in his own mode of worftiipping God, he was not, as mi-
nifters of the eftablifhed church have teftlfied, in the leaft
bitter towards any Chriftians who worfnipped in another
manner. He preferved a great refped for the church, not-
W'ithftanding all his fufferings, and was eminently loyal to
his prince, notwithftanding the feverities of the times. His
writings breathe a true fpirit of piety, for which they have
been always and dcfervedly efteemed. His works are, " An
Explanationof theAfl'emb!y'aShorterCatechifm,"i656,8vo;
" A Call to Archippus," exhorting the cjeded miniilers to
continue in their miniftry, 1664, 410 ; " An Alarm to the
Unconverted," 1672, 8vo. and i2mo., of which 20,000
were fold, and after it was printed in 1675 under the title
of " A Sure Guide to Heaven," 50,000 ; " Chriftian
Letters, full of Spiritual Inftrudion," 1672, 8vo. ; " Cafes
of Confcience," 1672, Svo. ; " Remains, &c." 1672, 8vo.
and feveral other fmall pradical pieces ; befidcs an impcrftd
body of natural theology in Latin, which has not been
printed. An account of his life and death is often annexed
to his writings. Calamy's Baxter, vol.ii. p. 577, &c. Neal's
Hift. of the Puritans, vol. ii. p. 670, 410. Biog. Brit.

ALLELENGYON, in Antiquity, a kind of tax, or
tribute, which the rich paid to the poor, when abfent in the
armies.

ALLELOPHAGI, from kAXuXk;-, one another, and^ayij,
/ eat, in Natural Hljiory, a term ufed by Mouffct, and
other writers on infeds, to exprels a peculiar genus of flies,
which feed on one another. They are thus called in dif-
tindion from another cla'.s, called the heierophagi, from their
feeding on different fubftances, not on one another.

ALLELUJAH. See Hallelujah.

ALLEMAENGEL, in Geography, a fmall Moravian
fettlement on Swetara river, in Pennfylvania.

ALLEMAND, a river of America, which falls into the
Miffilippi from the fouth-eaft, about 43 miles fouth of the
Natches.

ALLEMANDA, in Mujic, an ancient movement in
common time, moderately quick ; fuppofed, from its title,
to be of German invention. lu almoil every leffon, or fonata
for the harpfichoid in Handel's time, there was a prelude,
an allemand, a faraband, a courant, and a jig, which fee.
Roufi'eau fays, the allemand is a dance very common in Swit.''
zerland and Germany, as it became in England a few years
ago. But the allemand for dancing is very different from
thufe in the works oi Corelli, Handel and Matthefon.

ALLEMANNIC,

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ALLEMAKNIC, in a general fenfe, fometliing relating
to the ancitnt GcrmaMS. The word ii alfo written Ahimaii-
nic, yllcmamiic, and jihmanic. It is formed from ^llemiiimi,
y/llc;nanni, or /Harmumi ; the name whereby the Gernrun
nation was anciently known. See Alemannm.

In this fenfe we meet with Allemannic hillory, Allemannic
language, Allemannic laws, S;c. GuUialhis, and other.s,
have publifhed collcClions of writers on Allemannic affairs :
^Ikniantciinim irrum fcriptores.

Allemannic language was fpoken throughout the fouthern
parts of Germany. It is divided into feveral dialects ; the
principal of which are the Suevic, and Helvetic. The Al-
lemannic differed from the Franeic, which was the language
in ufe through the northern parts of Germany ; the chief
dialccls of this are the Palatine, Frauconian, and Saxon.

Allemannic /atu, jus Alhmannicum, is the fame with
what is otherwife called the Suevic law, being that which
obtained in the more fouthern parts of the country, as the
Saxon law did throughout the northern.

Schilter has publiihed the provincial Allemannic law, and
alfo the code of the feudal Allemannic law.

ALI^EN, John, in Biogriiphy, archbifhop of Dublin,
in the reign of Henry VIII., was educated at Oxford, and
look his degree of bachelor of laws at Cambridge. Having
been fent to the pope by Warham, archbilhop of Canter-
bury, on fome eeclefiailical affairs, he continued at Rome
nine years ; and after his retiu'n, was chaplain to cardinal
WoHcy, and commiifary or judge of his court as legate a
latere ; in the execution of which office he was fufpccled of
diflionefty and even of perjuiy. In return fur his fcrvices,
the cardinal procured for him the living of Ualby, in Lei-
cefterlhire. In i 525 he was iacorporated at Oxford, doctor
of laws, which degree he had taken either at Rome or fome
Italian univerfity ; and in 1528 he was confecrated arch-
bifhop of Dublin, and made chancellor of Ireland. He was
cruelly murdered by command of the eldeft fon of the earl
of Kiidare, in a time of rebellion, A.D. 1534, in the 58th
year of his age. His works are, " Epiftola de Pallii fignili-
catione aftiva and pafTiva," and " De confuetudinibus ac
llatntls in tuitoriis caufis obfcrvandls ;" and fevtral other
pieces relating to the church. Biog. Brit.

Allen, or Alleyn, Thomas, an eminent mathema-
tician, was born at Uttoxeter, in Staffordfhire, in 1542,
-nd admitted fcholar of Trinity college, in Oxford, in ijOi,
fellow in 1565, and in 1567, mailer of arts. Averfe from
taking orders, and inclined to retirement, he withdrew from
college and took up iiis relidence in 1570 at Glouceiter-hall,
where he fediiloiifly purfiied his ftudies and became an emi-
nent antiquary, mathematician, and philufopher. His
ta'ents and learning attracted the notice of feveral perfons
of diflinftion ; he was offered a bifhopric by Robert, earl
of Leicefler, and ftrongly folicited by Albertus L'Afliie,
count or prince of Sirade, in Poland, to refide with him in
kis own country ; but he declined every propofal of this
kind, and preferred the pleafure of retirement and ftudy to
fccular advantages that were hkely to accrue to him from
the patronage of the great. He affociated, however, with
perfons molt diftinguilhed for literature and feience at the
period in which he lived, to whom he had acccfs in the houfe
of Henry, earl of Northumberland, the great friend and
patron of the mathematicians. By the ignorant and vulgar
he was regarded, on account of his great ficill in the mathe-
matics, as a magician and conjurer. Mr. Sclden informs
us, " that he was a perfon of the moll extenfive learning and
confummate judgment, the brighteft ornament of the uni-
verfity of Oxford;" and Camden tstoli him as "highly

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accompliflied in an estenfive acquaintance with the mofl valu-
able arts and Iciences." He was curious and diligent in ccl-
Icefing iMSS. relating to various branches of learning. Thefe
collections iiavebten cited by feveral authors ; but they arc
now difperfcd and loll. His works are, " The ftcond and
third books of Ptolemy, concerning the judgment of the
Itars, with a commentary," publiflied in Latin ; notes on
many of Lilly's books, and on I'ale's book " De Scrip-
toribus Maj. Britannia;." It is julUy to be regretted, that
the v/orld has derived fo little advantage from the erudition
and literary labours of a perfon, who in his funeral eulogy
by Burton, was denominated " not only the Corvphiu.s,
but the very foul and fun of all the mathematicians of his
time. He died Sept. 30th, 1632. Wood's Atticn. Oxan.-
vol. i. Biog. Brit.

Allen, Thomas, a learned divine, was born in ijyjr
cducated in the king's fchool at Worccller, and removed to
Oxford in 1589, wliere he made » great jirogrefs in j)hilo-
fophy,and became a noted difputant. He took orders, but
applied to the abllrufe and critical parts of learning more
than to preaeliing. He wrote in Ijatiii " Obfervalions on
St. Chryfultoni's book upon Ifaiah," publiihed in Sir H.
Savile's edition of Chi^follom's works, and affilled him in
his annotations on this fatiier's homilies on the Evangelills.
Savlle reprefents hhn " as a very learned man, antl no lefs-
ikilled in the Greek learning than in divinity." He died in-
1636, and was buried in the chap J of Eton-college, of
which he was a fellow. Biog. Brit.

Allen, Bknjamin, M. 1). publiihed in the year 1700,
at London, " The natural iiillory of the ehalybeat and
purging waters in England," 8vo. This was republifiied in
the year 171 i. He gives the analyfis of the feveral waters,
which he claifes under the heads of ehalybeat, faline, ful-
phnreous, or mixed, and attributes their virtues to a fubtle
gas or fpirit with which he fuppofes they are imbued. There
are no memorials extant of the life of this writer.

Allen, John, M. D. F. R. S. publifhed in the year
1719, " Synopfis univerfie Medicinx Pra6tic;t," 8vo. The
work is dedicated to the prefident and fellows of the Roval
College of Phyiicians, London ; and compriles brief dt-
fcriptions, and accounts of all the difeafes incident to the
human body, with the moll approved modes of treating
them; taken, as the author every where acknowledges, fron^
the moft em.inent writers, ancient and moder:.. Of this work
the author fpeaks verj- modeilly, and particularly admoiiilhes
the leader not to content himfelf with the abflrafts he has gi-
ven, " fed polius authores ipfos ubicunque confuhit : tiiun in
" transfereiidis," he adds, " eorum fcntcntiis.verilimile eil,me
" frequenter crraffe, aut faltem fenfum obfcurc, aut imper-
" fette Iradidiffe. Duk'ius exipfu j'onle Libunttir aqua:." The
work was, however, received with fuch avidity, not only ia
England but "in all parts of Europe, that in the fpace of a
very few years, it pafl'ed through numerous editions, to
which, from time to time, the author made fuch additions,
as incrcafed it to nearly double its original bulk. In the
year 1734 he gave an Englifh tranflation, which was pub-
liflied in two volumes, 8vo. : it had been before tiauflated into
French. The author appears to have pratUfed medicine
in London, but no particulars of his life have been
publiflied.

Allen, Flopert J''an, an engraver, who flourifhcd in
1686. He drew the town of Vienna, in 1686, and en-
graved the town of Prague, a large, flight print, with many
figures. Strutt.

Allen, Frouc'u, an obfcure engraver of Lubcsk, who
flourifhed in 1652.

Alienj

ALL

AiLFM, in Gogniph, a finall river of FIii:l(hire, in North
\\";il.s, which finks unikr groiiiid near Mold, and is loft for
;i (hurt interval.

ALLENHACII, or F.i.i.i miach, in Cnt^rohhy, a prc-
Rdunilc of the piincipility of Hersfcld, in Germany, lying
betwixt llie rivcis Nalie an.l Cllans.

ALLKNBURG, a fmall town of PrulTia, in the govern-
r.u-nt of Tapi-ui, well fiinated on the river Albe, eight leagues
cail-foiith-eall of Konii^fherg.

ALLEXDORV, a bailiwick of Lower Helle, m Ger-
maiiv, fituate aniidll high and rocky mountains, of which
thofeof Gobiirgand liohcberg, on the frontiers of Eichf-
fitld, are the molt remarkable, and producing fome wuie.
The town of Allendorif is lltuated on the river Werra, or
V.'efer, about fifteen miles call of CalTel, N. lat. si'' 18'.
E. long. 9" 44'. Tliis town was deilroyedby fne m 1637.
Near it are the great fait works in the Sedan, which are
more ancient than the town itfelf, as they are mentioned m
an inilrument of the emperor Otho 11. bearing date in 973.
Ali.kndorf isalfo a prcfcctui-ate of Upper Heffe. The
town, fin-named An der lAimde, was erefted in 1 370. It is
fix miles iiorth-eall of Gicden, and eight fouth of Mar-
burg.

ALLENSTOAVN, a town of America, in New Jerfey,
in Momnouth county, 15 miles nqith-call of Burlington,
and 13 fouth by eaft from Princeton.

Aluf.nstown isalfo a townihip in Rockingham county,
New Hamplhire, containing 254 inhabitants, fituate on the
eaflfideof Merrimack river, 2J miles uorth-weit of Exeter,
and 40 from Portfmouth.

ALLEN-TOWN, mPennfylvania, Northampton county,
on the point of land formed by Jordan's creek, and the
little Leheigh, contains about 90 houfes and an academy.

ALLENTROP, a town of Germany, in the circle of
the Lower Riiine and duchy of Weftphalia, fituate on the
river Sorbeck, three leagues fouth of Arenlberg.

ALLER, a river of Germany, rifes in the duchy of
Magdeburg, paffes by Luneburg, Gifhorn, Zell, &c. and
joins tlie 'Wefer, a httle below Verden.

ALLER good, in our J/icknl Writers. The word aller
ferves to make the exprefllon uf fuperlative iignification.
So aller good, is the greateft good. Sometimes it is written
aliUr.

A.LLERL'V. SeeALF.RiA.

ALLERION, or Alerion, in Heraldry, a fort of
eaglet, reprefented without either beak or feet.

The name is Frencli ; and is faid to have been intro-
duced for the word eaglet : it is added, that the praftice of
caUing eaglets, allerioiis, and of reprefenting them fpread,
without feet and beaks, is not above a hundred years old, and
is of French invention ; introduced to reprcfent the Impe-
rialills as fubdued. Hence, Menage derives the word from
aqiiilurio, a diminutive of aqmla. In Latin they are called
aquiU miil'die.

Tlie alkrion, reprefented Tab. Heraldry, Jig. I. appears
much the fame with the martlet, except that the wings of
the latter are clofe, and it is reprefented, as it were, pajfant ;
whei-eas the allerhn is fpread, and is reprefented in pale.
Add, that among our heralds, the martlet has a beak, which
the alhr'wn wants.

ALLERSHEIM, in Geography, a town of Germany, in
the circle of Swabia, and capital of a bailiwick, in the prin-
cipality of Oettingcn, five miles fouth of Oettingen.

Allersheim is alio the name of a bailiwick, in the
principality of Wolfenbuttel, containing four villages, and
anciently called EUerfcn,

ALL

ALLERSPERG, a town of Germany, in the circle of
Franconia, fix leagues fouth of Nuremberg.

ALLERSTEIN, called in the Polini language Olflmecl,
is a fmall town with a caiUe in the province of Ermelai.d,
lituate on tlie river AUc, and built in 1 367.

ALLERTSPERG, a town of Germany, in the arch-
duchy of Aullria, feven miles north of Bavarian Waid-
hoven.

ALLESANI, a town of Corfica, 13 miles eaft-north-
caft of Corte.

ALLESTRY, Richard, in Biography, an Englifh
cpifcopalian divine, was born at Uppington, near the Wreken,
in Sliroplliire, in the year 1619, and after receiving part of
his education at Coventiy, under Philemon Holland, the
tranflator, was entered a commoner in Chriil-church, Oxford,
under the tuition of Riciiard Initby, afterwards Dr. Bufby,
the famous mailer of \Vellmiii(ler fchool. From a courfe
of ftudy and improvement, in which after he had taken the
degree of bachelor of arts, he was chofen moderator in phi-
lofophy, the diilrattion of the times fuddenly called him
forth to military fen'ice. In this new occupation, he and
the other Oxford fcholars, manifefted their loyalty ; bi:t
having been protefted and fuppoited by Sir John Biron,
with a party of horfe, Alleilry and his affociates returned to
their ilwdies. It was not long before their fafety was again
endangered by a republican party, who entered Oxfoi'd for
the pui-pofc of plundering the colleges. Alleilry contrived
fecretly to remove the booty which they had coUettcd ; and
as focn as it was known that he was the caiife of their dif-
appointment, they fcized him, and would probably have
treated him with feverity, if they had not been fuddenlv
called away by the earl of Effex. On a fubfequent occafion
he was taken prifoner by a party of horfe, but when the
parliament garrifon at Broughton-houfc, whither he was
conveyed, furrendered to the king's forces, he was releafed.
Alleilry refuming his ftudies, took his degree of mailer of
arts. As foon, however, as he recovered from a diforder
which threatened his life, and which had prevailed in the
garrifon at Oxford, he entered again into the krng's fervice,
and encountered the fatigues and hazards of a militaiy life,
in the humble llation of a common foldier. In this fervice,
blending the watchings of a ioldier with the lucubrations of
a icholar, he continued till the end of the war ; and when
the republican party became triumphant, he retired to his
college. Here he was employed in the office of cenfor, and
as private tutor to feveral Undents ; and though he had no
profpeA of ecclefiaftical preferment, he entered into holv
orders. Still zealonfly attached to the royal party, he ligned
the decree palled in the univerfity of Oxford, againll the
folemn league and covenant. In confequence of this aft,
he and other members of the univerfity, with whom he con-
curred, were profcribed and banilhed from Oxford by the
pavliamentaiy vifitors. To him, however, a ihoit rcfpite
was granted for fetthng his affairs, " bccaufe," as one of
their number alTerted, " he was an eminent man." During
the depreflion of the royalifts he found an afjlum, firft in
the houfe of Francis Newport, Efq. in Shropfnire, where
he officiated as chaplain, and afterwards in that of Sir An-
thony Cope, in Oxfordlhire. His talents and fidelity ren-
dered him an ufefid and aftive inftrument in prepainng the
way for the reftoration of Charles II. In one of his expe-
ditions for this purpofe he was feized at Dover by a party of
foldiers, and committed to the jail of the king's friends at
Lambeth houfe. Upon his releafe from confinement, he
propofed to vifit his friend Dr. Hammond, at Weflwood,
near Worceiler ; but when he approaelicd his houfe, he met
I ins

J

ALL

ALL

liii fiinoral proccffioii. Of his eftoem, however, he reci-ivod ttopnrtment of Ifcro, and diftrkl of Grcnobli.', fiK Ieaguf»

a valurtblf teftimony in the lejjacy of his lihmrv, whicli was iioi'th-noith tail i)f Gienoblc.

licqueathed him for this rcnfoii ; becaiirc the tcllatoi- " well ALLEVEUKIC, the fuiallell copper coin that is ftnick

knew tliat the hooks in liis hands would be iifefiil wea|)ons i'l Sweden ; it is not wortli quite two drnien Tournois of

for the defence of the caufe whieli he had during life fo vi- France, or about Jd of Knjrlilh money.

gnroudy fupported." ALLEVIARE, in Ultl Records, to i,i;vY or pay an ac»

Soon after the Reftorntion, Alleftiy returned to Oxford, cullomed fnie or compofition.
and took the degree of doftor in divinity. In reeonipcnce ALLEVIATION, denotes the art of makir.g a thing
of his pall fervices he was foon made a canon of Chrill church, lighter, and eaticr to hear or endure.

one of the king's chaplains in ordinan,', and regius-prufefior The word is originally Latin, compounded of «</, /o ; and
of divinity. Li 1665 the king conferred upon Dr. Allellry kvis, Hs;hl.

tlie provoftfhip of Eton college, which he held till his death. In which fenfe, alleviation is fynonymous with lightening.
To this college he was a munificent benefaclor, by recrencli- and (lands oppofed to aggra\ation.

in;::; his own dues in order to pay off its debts, and by creftinn- ALLEX, in Geni^raphy, a town of France, in the de-
al his own expence the well fide of the outward court of partmeut of the Drome, and diilricl of Cietl, on the north
the college ; nor was he lefs liberal in other refpeils, as he iidc of the Drome, 10 miles fouth ot Valence,
lettled penfions on indigent perfons and families, and dillri- Ali.fv, William, \\\ Biography, biihop of Exeter, in
bute<l his income in ocealional charities. At the inftaneeof the reign of Qiicen Elizabeth, was born at Ciieat Wycomb,
Dr. Allellry, and in compliance with the petition of the in Buckinghanilhire, educated at Eton Schuol, and removed
provoil and fellows of King's college, Cambridge, the king to King's college, in Cambridge, in 152H. Here betook
palled a grant inider the broad feal, that, whereas formerly the degree of bachelor of ails, and afterwards puriued his
the fellowlhips of Eton were generally dil'pofed of to perfons lludies at Oxford. He was a zealous reformer ; and upon
of foreign education, for the future live of the feven fellows Queen Maiy's aeceffion he quitted his benefice, and travelled
/liould be fuch as had been educated at Eton fehool, and in the northern parts of England, where he was not known,
were fellows of King's college. In 1679, Dr. Allellry, gaining a decent fublillence by the prartice «jf ])hyfic and the
finding his health, and particularly his fight, much impaired, inllrudtion of youth. When Queen Elizabeth afcended the
rellgiied his profefTorlhip of divinity ; and in 1681 a dropfy throne, he came to London, and acquired iueh reputation in
terminated his life, and he was buried in Eton chapel, under preaching the divinity lefluie at St. Paul's, that he was
a monument of white marble, on which is iiiferibed a Latin confecrated to the fee of Exeter in 1 560 ; and in 1561 he
epitaph, diflinguiflied by its terfenefs and elegance. A bio- was created doftor of divinity at Oxford. He died in 1570,
grapher in an account of his life prefixed to his fermons re- as fome fay, according to others in 1571, and, as Fuller
prefcnts Dr. Allelliy as a man of uncommon talents and fays, in 1576, .and was buried at Exeter, in the middle of
lingular merit. "Memory, fancy, judgment, elocution, the choir. Over his tomb is a Latin inlcription, reprefenting
great modefl;y, and no lefs alTurance ; a comprehenfion of him as " A zealous advocate for the truths of the Gofpel,
tilings, and a fluency of words ; an aptnels for the plcafant, eminent for his virtues, and remarkably fl<illed in all the ufe-
and fufficiency for the ragged parts of knowledge ; a con- ful parts of learning." He wrote " The Poor Man's Li-
rage to encounter, and an induftry to mafter all things, make brary," a mifcellany, in two volumes, containing leifture*
up the character of his happy genius. There was not in upon the Epillle of St. Peter, and " An Hebrew Gram.
tlie world a man of clearer honelly and courage ; no tein])ta- mar." When the verfion of tiie Bible was undertaken by
tion could bribe liim to do a bafe thing, or terror affright him command of Queen Elizabeth, this biihop tranflated the Pen-
front the doing a good one. This made his friendlhips as tateuch. " His Judgment concerning the Doclrine and Dif-
lalling and inviolable as his life, without the dirty conildera- ciphne of the Church," has been publifhed by Strypc in his
tions of profit, or fly referves of craft ; not the pageantry Annals of Queen Elizabeth. Biog. Brit.
of ceremonious addrefs, or cold civility, much lefs the fcrvile Alley, derived from nller, to go, in Gardfntng, fignifies a
falfenefs of obfequious flattery." Whatever may be thought narrow or confined path between beds, borders, or other
of his political principles, no doubt can be entertained of liis compartments of a garden, and is chiefly formed for the con-
eonfillcncv ; and of the benevolence of his dilpofition, his venience of going between them, in order to [lerforin the ne-
luimerousaCls of liberahty aft'ord fuffieient evidence. Of his celTary bufinefs, fuch as hoeing and weeding the plants, ^id
literary talents pofterity can only judge by a volume of 40 alfo to cut, pick, and colleCl the plants or fiiiils. Alleys arc
icnnons, printed in folio at Oxford, in 1684 ; and excepting made of different breadths, according to the fizes of the beds
<ine lingular inllance of credulity which they furnifh, they or compartments ; but in general a breadth from one to two
dii no dlicredit to the memory of the author. His leftiires, feet is fuffieient. In exteiifive kitchen-gardens, where bor-
wliich gave fatisfaftion to thofe who heard them, he would ders are carried round next the walks, and immediately ad-
Tii ver be prevailed upon to publilh. His valuable hbrary he joining the main quarters of the ground, they fhould be di-
left to his college. Biog. Brit. vided from them by two-feet alleys, for the convenience of

Allestry, Jacob, a poet of the i yth century, was the carrying in dung, water, &c. and the large compartments

" ~ fliould likewife be divided by one or two crofs alleys,

with the fame intention. Alleys between afparagus beds
flioiJd conllantly be two feet wide ; thofe between flraw-
berries, a foot and a half ; but between beds of aro-

ion of a bookfeller, in London, and entered Chriil church,
ill Oxfoid, in 1^171, at the age of iS years. He took the
degrees of bachelor and maker of arts, and was mufic-reader
i:i 1679, and terrK-liliuj in 1682, both which offices he

executed with great applaufe, as he was elleemed a good matic herbs, fifteen inches may be fully fuffieient ; and bc-

philologill and poet. He died in 1686, in confequencc, as tween beds of onions, leeks, carrots, parfnips, lettuce, endive,

't is faid, of the vices of his youth, and was buried in the and all other fmall crops, the width of ten or twilvc inches

ehurcli of St. Thomas, at Oxford. The pieces of poetiy, is as much as is rcqiiifite in general ; and the fame dillance

written by him, were printed in a book, entitled, " Examen between beds of feedling and pricked-out cabbages, favoys,

Poeticum." Biog. Brit. celery, &c. for the t<nivenience of going in to weed, water,

ALLEU, or Allode, in ytnttqitily. Se^ Allodium. and draw the young plants for tranfplantalion, will be the

ALLEVAKD, in Geography, a town of France, iiithe mofl convenient. Alleys are frequently intended both for

Vol. I. 4 X life

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liff and ornnmcnt in flower-gardens ; therefore, bitween beda
of tulip., liyaciiith;, ra;iuiicwl'.i!e::, aaemones, and otln.-r
fjmll;ir{rard(;ii-(lo\vtn;that art bedded, they (l.ould in general
be eighteen inches or two feet wide ; and in order to have
them ornamental, the beds (lioiild be edged witli box, and
the alleys filled with the bell coloured line gravel ; ur
where thai cannot be readily procured, with fand, Ihells, or
other porous fiibftances. See Gravkl Walks.

Allky, in Dr'iH Hiijhiwdry, implies the vacant fpace be-
tween the outev.Tioll row of corn on one bed, and the ::earell
row to it on the next piirallcl bed. In the praftice of drill-
ing it was at firll f.ippofed that narrow alleys would not an-
fw^er the end for which they were intended ; while, on the
other hand, the inak'n t them very wide would be a lofs of
pround ; about four fee:, exclufive of t'ne ipaces or parti-
tions, between the n wi of corn in the beds, was therefore
confidered as the moll fuitable and convenient ditlance. But
as it is obvious, that it is not necefTary to make the alleys lo
wide in good foils as in thofe of inferior quality, and that
fome forts of crops require much larger fpaces than others ;
the intelligent hufbandman fliould always decide what
breadth is tlie moll proper in difterent cafes, and for different
pui-pofes ; one circunillance mull, however, be duly attended
to, which is, that wide alleys are more eafily and much bet-
ter tlirrcd between than thofe that are narrower ; for, when
an alley is wide, the large furrow in the middle of it may
be cut deep, there being then futiicient room to turn the
eanh over towards the rows, while, on the contrary, the earth
where alleys are narrow cannot be llirred deep enough, nor
can room be found for what is turned over out of the fur-
rows, without danger of burying fome part of the rows of
corn or other crops that may be cultivated. In hoeing thefe
fpaces the whole of them is not to be llirred, cither with the
Jllough or cultivator, vi-hen the crop appears ; neither of
thefe" inllruments fhould go too near the rows of corn or
other crop, for fear of rooting up the rows of corn or young
plants ; but a flip of earth, about fix inches wide, is diredted
ro be left untouched on the outfide of each bed, by which
means the part of the alley that is to be itirred will be re-
duced to the breadth of three feet ; and even that fpace is
leifcned in the tirll ploughing before winter by a deep fur-
row, which is then cut clofe to, and all along thofe fix-inch
jlips, and the earth taken out of each furrow is thrown into
the great furrow in the middle of the alley, which it fills and
arches up. Thefe two fide-furrows make together a breadth
«)f about eighteen inches, and confequently leave, in the
middle of the alley, a fpace of about eighteen inches more,
on which is heaped up the earth thrown out of the two fur-
rows ; and thus the alleys are to remain during winter.
By the firll hoeing in the fpring, the earth heaped up in the
TiiJdle of the alleys is to be turned back towards the rows of
corn. The two firrrows that were opened before winter are
tlv.vi filled up, and a new one is cut in the middle of the
slley. This bufinefs may be very eafily performed with the
coramon plough ; two turns of that inllrument being fre-
quently fuiKcieut fur the purpofe, one on each fide of the
alley, as near as pofiible to the beds. But when thefe two
turns are not fufficient to form the furrows pertetlly, or
where too much earth remains between it and the bed, a
third turn becomes necefTary, and fometimcs a fourth, in

order to hollow the middle furrow as it ought to be

When this work is performed with the cultivator with two
mould-boards, the inftrument mull be placed in the middle
of the alley, and the horfes in one of the two furrows ; the
fhare readily entering a great depth into the eaith, which
was laid there by the laft hoeing before winter, the horfes ad-
vancing, the rid fe of the earth is divided into two parts, and
fills up the furrov.s that were made before winter, on each

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fide of tl..- alley, clofe to the beds. Thus, tlie high furrow
in the mivldle of the alley may be opened, and the whole
operat on performed by a iingle tur,i «f the cultivator ; by
which lo nnicli time and labour is faved, that the tV.nricrmay
afford one or two llirrings more in the fummer, which will
be of great utility in many cales. See Cultivatur,
HoksE-HOFiNC, and Dri I-l -HV sbanury.

Ai-i.ii Y, in PerfpiCli'Vc, is that which islarger at the entrance
than at the exit ; to give it the greater appearance of Ungtli.

ALLEYN, Edv.ard, m liiop-aphy, a celebrated come-
dian, was born in London in 1566, and tiained at an early
period to the llage, for which he was naturally qualified by
a ilately port and afpeft, corporal agility, flexjble genius^.,
lively temper, retentive memory, and fluent elocution. Be-
fore the year 1 592 he ieems to have acquired a very confi-
derable degree 01 popularity in his profcilion ; he was one of
the original aftors in the plays of Shakfpeare, and a princi-
pal performer in fome of thofe of jonfon ; but it does not
now appear what were the characters v/hich he perfonated.
They were probably the moll dignified and majcflic, for to
thefe the portly and graceful figure of his perfon was wcE
adapted. At length he became mailer of a company of
players, and the proprietor of a play-hjufe, called the For-
tune, which he erefted, at his own expeuce, near White-
crofs-llreet ; and he was alfo joint proprietor and mailer of
the Royal Bear-Gardcn, on the Bank-fide, in Souliiwark.
By the profits accruing from thefe occupations, added to his.
paternal inheritance, and to the dowries of his two wives, by
whom he had no children, he araaffed a confiderabk pro-
perty, Vvhich he bellowed in a manner that has redounded
more to his honour than his profellional merit. The wealth
thus acquired enabled him to lay the foundation of a college,
for the maintenance of aged people, and the education of
children, at Dulwich, in Surry, which inftitution, called,.
" The College of God's Gift," fubfills at this time in an
improved and profperous Hate. The liberal founder, before
he was 48 years of age, began this building after the defign^
and under the direftion, of Inigo Jones : and it is prefumed
that he expended ciglrc or ten thoufand pounds upon the
college, chapel, &c. before the buildings and gardens were i
finiflicd, which was about the year 1617. It is hardly ne- \
celTary to mention a fabulous tradition concerning tlie origin
of this college, recorded by Mr. Aubrey. The idle tradi-
tion, which deferves no credit, and needs no confutation, re-
ports, that jVIr. Alleyn, " playing a dxrnon, with fix others,
iu one of Shakfpeare's plavs, was in the midll of the play
furprifed by the apparition of the devil, which fo worked on
his fancy, that he made a vow, which he performed at this ■
place." After the founder had built this college, he met.
with difficulties in obtaining a charter for fettling his lands in
mortmain, that he might endow it, as he propofcd, with
800I. per annum, for the fupport and maijitenancc of one
mafler, one warden, and four fellows, three of whom were
to be ecclcfiaftics, and the other a {l.:ilful organift ; alfo fix
poor men, as many women, and twelve poor boys, who
were to be maintained and educated till the age of 14 or id-
years, and then put out to honell trades and callings. The
mailer and warden were to be unmamed, and always to be of
the name of Allen or Alleyn. At length the oppofition of
the Lord Chancellor Bacon was overcome, and Alleyn's be-
nefaflion obtained the royal licence, and he had full power
granted him to cllablilh his foundation, by his Maielly's let-
ters patent, under the great feal, bearing date June 2 i, 1619.
When the college was finilhed, the fou.ider and his wife re-
fided in it, and conformed iu even' refpeft to the regulations
ellabliflied for the government of his almoners. Having,
by his will, liberally provided for his widow, and for found-
ing 20 alms-houfes, 10 in the parifli of St. Botolphj with-
3 out

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out Biniopj;ate, in wliicli he was born, and ton in St. Sa-
viour's parilli, Soutliwark, and bequeathed fovi ml fmall le-
j^acies to his relations and friend;, he appropriated the rc-
i'uh'.e of liis»property to the ufe of the college. He died in
i6:6, in the 6 1 (I year of his age, and was buried in the
chapel of h;s own college. The chapel, mailer's apartments,
&c. are in the front of this building, ar.d the lodgings of
the other inhabitants, &c. in the two wings, of which that
on the call iide was handfomelv new built, in 1739, at the
expence of the college. They have a fmall library of books,
and a gallciy of pictures, with that of the founder at full
length. The infcription over the door conclude'; with thefe
words: " Abi tii, et fac fimilitcr ;" i.e. Go thou, and do
likewifc. Biog. Brit.

A..T,-GOOD, m Botar.y. See Chenovodium.

AL',.-HEAL. See Hfr.«,clkum and Stacuy^.

ALT I, or Sf. MlRUS, in yhi.:!.;:.' Geograpky, a river of
Brutium, in Italy.

ALLIA, a fmall river of Italy, in the territory of the
Sabines, to which Virgil (lib. vii. v. 717.) annexes the epi-
thet of " infauftum nonien," in allufion to the defeat of the
Roman army by tiie Gauls on the banks of this river, when, in
the ye V of Rome 363, 40,000 Romans were either killed or
put to (light. Hence, " AUienfis dies," is in their alma-
naek.s marked as an unlucky day, i. e. the iSth of July,
which was the anniverfarj' of this battle. Livy (lib. v. c. 37.
torn. ii. p. 165.) reprefents this river as runnirig down a veiy
fteep channel from the mountains of Cvuiluminum, at the
iith mile-ftone, and mixing with the Tiber. Our ancef-
tors, fays Cicero (ad yVttic. lib. ix. 5. tom. viii. p. 355.)
deemed the dav of the battle of Allia, more fatal than that
of llie capture of the city.

ALLIANCE, in the Ciiil ar.i! Canon I^anv, the imion
or connexion of two perfons, or two families, by means of
marriage ; otherwife called affinity.

The word fecms formed of the Latin acHigatio, q. d. a ly-
ing together.

The law of the Tiurlve Tables forbids all alliance between
perfons of unequal rank and condition. And in Portugal,
we are told, the daughters of the nobility are prohibited to
ally with fuch as have never been in the wars.

Alliance is alfo extended to the leagues or treaties con-
cluded between fovereign princes E-.nd dates, for their mutual
fafety and defence ; in which fenfe they are the fame with
what we otherwife call confedernc-f, league, &c. Alliances
make a fpecies of treaties, which are ulually divided into
treaties of peace, of commerce, and of alliance, properly fo
called. Thefe are fometimes particularly denominated fo-
reign alliances.

Alliances are varioudy diftinguifhed, according to their
objeft, the parties in them, Sec. Hence we read of equal, un-
equal, triple, quadruple, grand, offenfive, defenfive, &c. al-
liances. Uneq.ial allianceSjyii./tnz ineijiia/ia, are tho{e wherein
one of the contrafting powers promifes patronage or protec-
tion, and the other fidelity and obfervance ; by whicli they
Hand contradiib.nguilTicd from alliances, wherein the feveral
powers treat on a par. Offcufive aUiance, is that whereby
the parties oblige themfelves jointly to attack fome otiier
power. This itands contiadiilinguifhed from defenfive al-
liances.

Alliances, offenfive and defenfive, are thofe in which the
contrafting partirs agree to regard as a common enemy any
P'Aver that attacks either of them, as well as mutually to
di ferd each other. Such was that between the Emperor and
tiie States-General againil !■' ranee, concluded at Vienna the
I2tl; of May, 16S9, and which was the commencement of
that which was called the general or grand alliance. To
thi3 treaty Spain was to be invited by the emperor, and

ALL

England by the States, and it was (lipulated that all tht al-
lies of either party were to be admitted, if ihey thought pro-
per to accede. The triple alliance between Lnglami, Hol-
land, and Sweden, in 1668, concluded by the ncgocialion of
l">e Wit and Temple, was an event of importance in the hil-
toiy of Europe. England thus recovered her influence and
credit in Europe. Temple was applauded for it. The
French monarch and the court of Spain were greatly dif-
pleafed •, but they were obliged to acqniefce, as the whole of
Europe feemed to lepofe v.ith fecurily under liie wirg- of
that powerful confederacy, which had been fo baj-pily
formed for her protection.' Another alliance of this kind
was formed in 17c I between the kings of Great Britain and
Denmark, a-'d the States-General; and another beU\een
the Emperor, Ei:;-land, and Holland was concluded in t!ie
fame year. A triple alliance was formed in 17 16 betwe'cii
Great' Britain, France, and the States-Gener.-!. 'Fhe in-
trigues of Cardinal Alberoni, prime-miniller to Phihj) V. of
Spain, produced various negociations in 171S, )r.)ni which
at length fprung the treaty, called at firll the triple alliance
between Great Britain, France, and Holland ; and, alter
the accefiion of the emperor, lliled the quadruple alliance.
Theobjea of this alliance was to fettle all difputed preten-
fions between Spain, Gemiany, and fome of the Itah;-;!
princes. The king of Sicily was adir.itted into this treaty ;
and at length the king of Spain himfelf was forced to accede
to it; and Alberoni was banifhed by Philip V. But as
fome points were ftiU controverted between the emperor and
king of Spain, thefe were refeiTed to be amicably determined
in the congrefs opened at Cambray in 1721, under the
mediation of his Britannic Majcily and ih.e moil ChriiUan
king. Puifendorf, Grotius, and other writers upon the
laws of nature and nations, have dillingninieJ alliances into
perfonal and real. The former are thofe which are made
with a king conlidered perfonally, fo that they terminate
with his life, and real are fuchasexiil between ftatCo ae.d na-
tions, and which fubfift and retain their obligation after the
death of the king or ruling magiilratcs. It has been argued
by others, that the admiflion of perfonal alliances is incon-
fiilent with the foundation of political fociety, and that they
tend to feparate the fovereign from his fubjecls.

Though the title of allies, _/oc/7, of the Romans, was a fort
of fervitude, it was much coveted. Ariarathes, we are told
by Polybius, offered a facrifice to the gods by way of thanki-
giving for having obtained this alliance. The reafon was,
that thenceforwards people were fure not to receive any in-
juries except from them. C-.efar informs us that a great
number of kings had this honour. There were divers lorts
of allies: fome only united to them, by a participation of
the privileges of the Romans, as the Latini and Hernici ;
others by their very foundation, as the colonies ; others by
the benefatlions they received from them as Mafiiniira, Eu-
menes, and Attalus, who owed their kingdoms to Rome ;
others by free treaties, which laft, by a long alliance, be-
came fubjecls, as the kings of Bithyiiia, Cappadocia, Egypt,
and moll of the cities of Greece : lallly, others by com-
pulfive treaties, and the law of fubjecftion, as Philip and
Antiochus. For they never granted peace to an enemy,
without making an alliance with him ; that is, they never
fubdued any people without ufmg it as a means of fubduing
others.

The allies of Italy, Socii flalicl, were diilinguifhed from
other foreign allies. Of thefe there were two kinds ; thofe
diilinguifhed by the name of frirfedum, who were governed
by Roman magillrates and laws, and thofe who retained the
privilege of being governed by their own ancient laws, and
were denominated aulonomi. The l^atin allies, foat laiini,
were thofe who enjoyed the ywr Laiii, and who held the full
4X2 rank

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ALL

rank hi the order of allies; of iIrTc there were three diftinc-
tions, viz. thofc wiio inhabited Latium, the Latin colonies,
and thofe on whom were conferred the privileges of the
Latin colonics, on acc«u!it of foine fcrviee which had been
rendered by them to the Roman Hate, or by the peculiar
favour of the Roman people and the emperors. There was
a great difference between the allie.i and the auxiliaries, when
they were admitted into tiic armies of the Roman empire.
The allied troops were always taken from the allies of Italy,
which had never been reduced into Roman provinces. The
auxdiaries were fnrnilhed by the foreign allies. The allied
troops maintained themfelves at their own charge, and were
fnpplicd only with corn by the Romans ; the latter were
kept in pay by them. When the allies joined the Roman
army, the conluls chofe 12 out of their number to command
them, under the name of pi-jefeds. They were of the fame
number, and pofleired Ihnilar powers with the tribunes of le-
gions. The places which they occupied in tlie army and camp
were affigned them by particular regulations. The allies ot
the provinces, J'ocit provir.i'uihs, held the firll rank among the
foreign allies. The honour-of this appellation was conferred
on provinces, which fnbmitted to the dominion of the Ro-
mans, and were governed by their own magiftratcs, according
to the culloms and laws of Rome, and paid an annual tribute
JO the fenate. Thefodi immunes were thofe who had never
been enemies to the Romans, and who were exempt from
every kind of impofition. Such were Ptolemy, king of
Egypt, and the Jews, who were the firll of the eallern
nations which folicited the friendfliip of Rome. Others,
after having been enemies of the Romans, laid down their
arms and contracted alliances with them.

The forms or ceremonies of alliances have been various in
diflerent ages and countries. The Romans conferred it on
i'overeigns by a deputation of fenators, who accompanied it
with a fceptre of ivory, the toga pi(fta, and the titles of
ally and friend of the Roman people. Among us, figning
and fwearing, fometimes at the altar, are the chief ; an-
ciently eating and drinking together, chiefly offering facrifices
together, were the cuftomary rites of ratifying an alliance.
Among the Jews and Chaldeans, heifers or calves ; among
tlie (Greeks, bulls or goats ; and among the Romans, hogs
were facriliced on this occafion. Among the ancient Arabs,
;jlliances were confirmed by drawing blood out of the palms
of the hands of the two contrafting princes with a (harp
flone, dipping herein a piece of their garments, and there-
with fmearing fcven (tones, at the fame time invoking the
gods Vrotalt and Alilat, /'. e. according to Herodotus, Bac-
chus and Urania. Among the people of Colchis, the con-
firmation of alliances is faid to be effefted by one of the
princes offering his wife's breads to the other to fuck, which
he was obliged to do till blood iffued.

It has been difputed, whether the (lates of the empire
have a right of making alliances without the emperor's par-
ticipation : and whether the king of England be veiled
with abfolute power of making alliances at difcretion, with-
out confent of parliament. Dr. Davenant affeits the nega-
tive. According to him, the contrary opinion owes its rife
to the mere flattery of modern courtiers, having no founda-
tion in the ancient laws and conftitution of the kingdom.
King John and Richard II. were, according to thi« author,
the firll that attempted any thing like it. It is certain there
occur numerous inftances in hidory, where the king has
adced, or the parliament have offered, their advice, concern-
ing the alliances to be made ; but there are many others, at
lead of later times, wherein no footllcps of any fuch con-
fultation appear. There are indances likewife where the
parliament have declined giving any advice concerning fuch
arduous matters.

Ati.iANCE, in a figurative fenfe, is applied to any kind
of union or connexion ; and in this fenfe the late bidiop
Warburton has ufedthe term in his treatife, entitled, " The
Alliance between Church and State," publidied in 1736.
Some perfons, however, who are advocates for a rehgious
cdabliflunent, have objeiled to this ufe of the term ; alledg-
ing, that alliance implies a contraft formed by two or more
independent powers ; whereas the ellablilhed church, being
a part of the date, or one of its members, cannot properly
be reprefented as entering into alliance with it. " The no-
tion," fays Lord Bolingbroke (Works, vol. iv. p. 515.)
" of a formal alliance between the church and the date, as
between two independent didinft powers, is a veiy ground-
lefs and whimfical notion." He informs us, that Ur. Se-
nior, preaching before King Charles II. at Newmarket from
Exod. iv. 14, 15, 16, edablifhed on thefe texts a fuppofed
alliance between the church and the date, or rather between
the church and the king. " Warburton," he fays, " took
his hint pofiibly from it ;" but of this we have no evi-
dence befides his lorddiip's affertion. Others have ob-
jefted to the fcntiment implied in the expredion. " Every
other idea" of a church edablifiunent, befides that of a
fcheme of inilrutlion, and " every other end" that has been
blended with that of the prefervation and communication of
religious knowledge, " as the making of the church an
engine, or even an ally of the date ; converting it into the
means of drengthening or of diffufing influence ; or regard-
ing it as a fupport of regal in oppofition to popular forms of
government, have ferved only to debafe the inditution, and
to introduce into it numerous corruptions and abufes."
Paley's Principles of Moral and Political Pliilofophy, vol.
ii. p. 305, ed. 6th. See Religious Establishment.

Alliance Island, in Geography, an idand in N. lat. 8°
and E. long. ioo°, difcovered by a (hip fo called from Phi-
ladelphia in 1787.

ALLIARIA, in Botany, a fpeciesof Erysimum.

ALLICA, in Entomology, a fpecies of Papilio Nym-
phalh, with wings dentated and of a dark yellow colour ;
with numerous black points intermixed with white ; found,
of a fmall fize, in Siam.

ALLIENI Forum, in Ancient Geography, a city of
Italy, now generally thought to be Ferrara.

ALLIER, in Geogniphy, a river of France, which gives
name to one of the departments. It rifes near Chateau
Neuf de Randon, in the department of Lozere, and joins
the Loire three miles wed of Nevers.

Allier, ckparlmtnt of, is formed of the ancient province,
Bourbonnois. It is bounded on the north, by the depart-
ments of Saone and Loire, Nievre and Cher ; on the ead,
by thofe of Saone and Loire, and the Loire ; on the fouth,
by thofe of the Loire, Puy de Dome, and Creufe ; and on
the wed, by thofe of Creufe and Cher. Its fuperficies is
about 1,454,341 fquare acres, or 742,272 heftares ; its-
population about 266,105 individuals; it is divided into
four communal dillridls ; and its chief town is Moulins.

ALLIGATI, in Antiquity, the bafed and word kinds
of flaves, whom they kept locked up, or with fetters on.

The Romans had three degrees, or orders, of (laves or
fervants ; the fird employed in the management of their ef-
tates, the fccond in menial or lower functions of the family,
the third called aUigati, above mentioned.

ALLIGATION, in Arithmetic, a rule or operation
by which quedions are rclolved, relating to the mixture of
diverfe commodities or ingredients to~gether, with the value,
effeft, &c. thereof in compofition.

The word is formed of alligare, to tie together, by reafon,
perhaps, of a fort of wncuht, or circular ligatures, ordina-
rily ufed to connedl the feveral ntmibers together.

7 AUigation

ALL

jiUl^allon is of two kinds, medial and alternate ; to w!»ich
fome add a third, caMed pjrliiil.

Alligation medial, teaches how to find the mean rate of
a mixture, when the particular quantities that are mixed or
compounded, and their refpcdlive mean rates, arc given.
The fever.d cafes will come under the following rules.
I. The quantity of the ingredients, and the prices of
each, being given j to find the price or value of fome part
of the mixture.

Rule, As the fum of the quantities given,

Is to the fum of the produfts of each ingredient

by its price.
So is any quantity of the mixture,
To its value.
Example i. A refiner, or goldfmith, hath 12 ^ of gold
at 4/. per J, 8 J at 4/. 5/. 3 J at 4/. 6s. Sd. and y f at
4/. 13^. 4//. per J ; what is an ounce worth of all thele
melted together ?

J of gold

/. s.

d. I.

12 X i^y

4 0

0 the produft is 48

8 by

4 5

° 34

3 ^Y

4 ^'

8 13

9 ty

4 13

4 42

32 total

137 fum.

Then as 32

s

'37/- :

: I 5 : 4/. -f,, or to 4/. ^.t. -jld.

By the fame rule the value of any other quantity of that
compofitiou is to be found : as fuppofing 7 J.

For as 32 : 137 : : 7 : 29 j I.
Example 2. Suppofe it were required to mix 6 gallons of
wine at ^s. a gallon, 8 at 6s. and 4 at 8,f. what woidd be
the value of the mixture per gallon ?

6 X 5 = 30

8 X 6 = 48

4 X 8 = 32

Whole compound, 18 iio fum of produfts.

Then 18) 1 10 ( 6-;^ or 6^. is the value fought.

II. The prices ot the feveral ingredients, and the fum
paid or received for the mixture being given ; to find what
quantity of each was bought or fold. Divide the fum paid
or leceived, by the fum of the particular prices ; the quo-
tient is the aniVer.

III. The ingredients of a mixture being given, to augment
or diminilh the mixture proportionally.

Ride. As the fum of the particular quantities of the

compound given,
Is to the whole quantity propofed to be augmented or

leiTened ;
So is each particular quantity in the given compoimd.
To the due proportion required of that fpecie, finenefs,

&c.
Example. The compound in the foregoing inflance is re-
quired to be augmented to 48 J : that is, 1 6 is to be added
to 32, how much of each ingredient mnil be taken J

Then as 32 : 16

(■

3
9

32 fum

63

4

li

■ 1 6 fum.

J.

o per 2-

So that there mull be 18 ^ of gold at 4

12 4

4i 4

i?i 4

Sum = 48 for proof of thv operation.
IV. The nature, quality, 5«c. of the feveral ingredients of

5 o

6 8

13 4

ALL

a mixture being given, to find the temperament or degree of
finenefs refidting from the whole. Place the fevtral quanti-
ties of the mixture in rows ; againll \vhich place orderly
their feveral qualities or finenefs : and multiply each quan-
tity by its own quality or degree of finenefs ; then, as the
fum of the quantities is to the produds, fo is unity to the
quality or finenefs of the mixture.

V. The quantities of a mixture being given ; to find the
particular quantities of any ingredient in any part of the
mixture.

Rule. As the total of the compofition,

Is to the quantity of any fimple in that compofition,

So is the total quantity propofed, to be proportionably

compounded,
To the quantity of each fimple to be in that propofed

quantity.
Example. How much of each ingredient (or price of
gold mentioned in the firft cafe) is in a pound, or 12 3 of
the 32, being the compound given ?

As 32 :

at
at

at
at

5

6

13

//.

o per |.

o

8

4

4i
3

Ji

1 2 proof.

VI. Given the total of a mixture, with the whole value,
and the values of the feveral ingredients ; to find the fevcnil
quantities mixed, though unequally.

This cafe admits of two varieties : firft, where the mix-
ture is of two fimples ; and, fccondly, when it confifls of
more than of two. For the firft, the rule is — Multiply tlie
total of the mixt\ire by theleaft value, fubtratt the produdl:
from the total value ; and the remainder is the firft divi-
dend ; then take the faid Icaft value from the greateft va-
lued ingredient, and the remainder is the firft divifor. The
quotient of this divifion (hews the quantity of the higheft-
priced ingredient, and the other is the complement to the
whole.

Thus, ftill referring to the firft example, and alTuming the
two iiril terms of it :

Gold at 4/. per ^.
Ditto at 4/. ^s.

Total of the compofition =■ 20 ^.
X 4
80
quantity of the higheft-priced ingredient.

Secondly, when the quantities are more than two in num-
ber.

Thefe kinds of queftions, as in tliofe of alligation alter-
nate, admit of various aiifwers, all of them true, and are
called INDETERMINATE problems. They are beft done by
parcel, two at a time, as in the preceding operation.

Alligation alternate is the method of finding the
quantities of ingredients or fimples ncccflary to form a com-
pound of a given rate or quality j and it is tlic convcrfe of
alligation medial.

Alligation alternate (hews the diie proportion of feveral
ingredients ; and counterchangcs the place of fuch exceftes
oi- differences as arife between the mean price and the ex-
tremes ; afcribing that to the greater extreme '.vhich proceeds
from the leffcr : and contravily.

The rules which obtain in alligation aliernnte arc as fol-
low : every greater extreme is to be linked with one
lefter. If either of the extremes be fingle, and the other
extremes plural, the fingle extreme is to be linked to all
the reft-

If

Total value Rz/.

—So

-^ by ^/.)"T(8 the

AL'L'

' IF botli Ri-ealcr and kffer extremes he not plural, tlay
may be linked lo differently that fcvcral differences may be
taken and a variety of anfwers may be made to the queftion,
yet aU true ; but if one of the extremes be llngJe, there can

h< but one anfwcr. ,,,.„- r .

The numbers being linked, take the difference of each
from tlie mean or common price ; and place this difference
ajraiiift the luimber it is linked to, alternately.

Everry number, hnked with more than one, muff have all
tlie differences of the numbers it is linked to, fet againft it.

Thefc differences rclolve the queftion, when the price of
every one of the ingredients is given without tlieir quanti-
ties : and the demand is, to mix them fo as to iell a certain
quantity at a mean rate.

Exalnble I. A perfon would mix wheat at 4^. a bulhel
with rye at 2s. 8</. fo as to fell the mixture at 3^. 6d. a
bulhel,' how much of each mull he take ?

Thus : (1.

48110 bufliels of wheat.j A„f,,.„.
^ 32I 6 bufliels ot rye. j
Esamph 2. A vintner would mix Malaga, at Js. 6?/. a
gallon, with Canary at 6.r. 9</. and white wine st 4--. 3^/. fo
as to fell the compound at 5s. 2d. a gallon : what quantity
of each muft he take ?

d.

00 -"x

62

"y
5^^

I !
I I

19

1 1 Malaga, I
1 1 Canary, |. Anfwcr.

^ .28 47 VHiite wine. )
N.B. The difference between 62 and 51 is 11, which is
fet againft 81, and alfo againft 90: the difference between
62 and 81 is 19, placed againft 51 : the difference^between
62 and 90 is 28, which is alfo fet againft 51. Th-.-ii 19,
added to 28, is 47 : and therefore the differences required

are II, II, 47- , , . ^ . ,

But, in .AlUgattoii partial., when the quantity 01 one, witli
the price of all the ingredients, is given, and the demand is
to know the quantities of the other ingredients ; then, the
rule of three is to be ufcd.

Say, as the difference ftanding againft the price of the
given quantity is to the given quantity, fo are the feveral
other differences to the refpeftive quantities required.

Example 1. If it be defired to mix 10 bufhels of wheat,
at 5^. with rye at 3s. 6d. and barley at 2s. \d. fo as to fell
the mixture at 4J. per bufliel, how much rye and barley mull
be taken J

r Wheat, ^o''^

48 ] Rye, AzJ]

I Barley, 28--^

6.20
12
12

26

12

12

White wine, il— ^

12
21
18

9

21

12

ALL

"Tlien, the quantity -of Canary being given, fay, by the
f:; iT. irethod 21 : 24 : : each difference : its rcfpeftive quan-
tity : that is,

1 3i gall. Malaga,
As 7:8:: -I 18 : 2C4 Sherry,

White wine.

Then 26 : 10 : : 12 : 4-^- bufnels of 176 and of barley.
Example 2. How much Isfalaga at -,i.(id. a gallon, Sherry
at 5^. white wine at 4J-. ^d. muft be mixed with 24 gallons
01 Canary at 6j-. ^)d. fo that the whole may be fold at 6j-.
per gallon \

r Malaga,

\ Canary,

72 -J Sherry,

(. White wine,

Or thus : —

Malaga, ^^'V.

Canary, ^^A 1

Sherry, 6ciJ J

f 1 2 : 13!
4 18 : 2oi

I 9 : lof

Or, ty the

As 12 ; 24: : p' :
Or .: 2.:|J:

1

Anfwc

Or, ty the fecond method : —

42 gall. Malaga,

18 Sherry,

36 White wine.

And, in Alhgahon total, when the price of eveiy ingre-
dieu". Is given, without any of their quantities, and the de-
mand is to make up a certain quantity to be fold at a mean
rate ; then all the differences added together will be the firfl
iTun-.ber in tlie nile cf three ; the whole qui.ntity to be
mixed, the fecond number ; and each difference apart, the
feveral third numbers ; snd fo many forts as are mixed, fo
many operations muft there be of the rule of three.

Example I. A goldfmith would mix gold of 24 carafts
with fome of 21, and with another fort of 19 carafts fine,
and v.-ith a due quantity of alloy, fo that 190 ounces might
be of the fiaenefs of 17 caiafts ; how much of each loil
muft be taken >.

iJ. B. Alloy is reckoned at o caraft.

_., , C 17 : ?o^-'- of the three forts of Kold.

Then 64: 190:: jj^.^sllofailoy.

Exami)le I. A mixture of wine is required to be made of
130 quarts from 5 forts, whofe prices are 7^. 8^/. \cd. 14^/.
and I ?(/. a quart refpettlvely, and the whole is to be fold

of each is neceffary ? As

and ijt/. a qua:

at 12(7. a quart; how much ot eacU is nece

there are five quantities, they will admit of feveral alterna'

tions.

F'lrjl Method.

r

I

12 ^

2
3

Second Method.

r i5-\

12 <i loj) )

L

Method.

[

2.4.5
2.4.5
3-2

3-2
3-2

II

1 1

5
5

37

The operation by the laft method is as follows

r 1 1 : 38if quarts of wine at 15^/. and J^d.

1 5 : «7tf

21 ■■ »30

at lod. 8(/. and jJ.
The

ALL

A L L

Tlve rule for tliii kiiul of alligalioii may be otiicnv'fc cx-
prcflVd and applied to nil the calciaboVc i iiii:;i<.iatcd, thus:
Haviiiir coupled tlie rates as before, then i\>r any pair of dif-
ferences, taLe their eiiuirmiltiples, or multiply tliein by any
number at plealm-e ; proceed in the fume maimer witli any
other pair ; and you will thus have a new fct of difierenccs
with which to woi

lod.
^li. fo that the mixture may
be fold at yf/. ; how mucli mult he take ?

Exam/i/f I. A grocer would mix 12II1. of fugar at u
with two other forts at SJ. ami Ci/. fo that the mixture m

Common IvTeth'iJ^
10,

Central Method.

45

I-.;

Wheat,

Ry>--,

4,8 X

i6x 3

4x5

48
20

Barley,
Oats,

8X5
20 X jl

40
60

The pair of dilferences atraiiid lo and 5, being 2 and i,
are mulLiplied by 2, and they bceome 4 and 2 : thofe
againll 8 and 5, being 2 and 5, are multiplied by 3, and
they become 6 and y ; fo that 4, 6, 11, will be the new fet
of dideienceG.

rp, f 6 : 8//;. at %d.

Ihen, 4 : 12 -{ ,, ,

t" = 33'''- at 5^/.
Example 2. A farmer would mix wheat at 4J. with rye at
3/. and bailey at 2s. and oats at u. per buflicl, in order to
obtain a quantity of 120 burticls, to be fold at 2j. 4^. per
bulhel ; how miieh of each mull be taken ?

28

i68

TiS : 345- bufliels of wheat,
J 20 : 14^ rye,

> 40 : 28^ barley,

(60 : 42^ oats.

But all quedions of this kind are moft eafily and accu-
rately folved by common algebra, which will enable us to
determine their limits ; as they form a fort of indeterminate
problems, and admit of many, or an indefinite number of
aivfwers. For a further explanation of this ride and exam-
ples, we refer to Ward, Wallis, Malcolm, Emerfon, and
other writers on arithmetic and algebra.

We fhall add an example, wherein both the kinds of alli-
gation have place. Suppofe a mixture of wine of 119
quarts, required to be made of wines of the following
prices, 7</. 8(/. 14//. and \^d. per quart ; and fo aji that
the whole may be afforded at ild. per quart.

Having linked 8 to 14, and 7 to 15, and counterchanged
their differences from the common price, 1 2;/. the fum of
their difference is found to be 14 ; by which dividing 119,
the quotient is S-^-'y, or 8i, or for convenience in opera-
tien y.

Quarts.
yX2 = V = i7

Tlien 168 : 120 :
Or, 7:5:

8 ("2
7 Si

X4=
X3^

= 25*

yxj=V=_4i|
•'9

ALLIGATOR, in Ztmh^^y, a name given to the Ame-
rican crocodile, a fpccics of Lackrta, under which article
it is dcfcribed.

Alligator Pear, in Botany. See Latirus.

ALLIONIA, in Botany, fo called in honour of Charles
AUioni, profefibr of botany at Turin, a genus of the tt-

fra.rdrla minogynia clafs and order, of thi; natitral ord<ir of
c<^^rc^a!(t and dipfacce: of JuITku; the tharaderii of wl^ich arc,
lh.it the cid)'x is a perianthium common to three flower;,,
fnr.ple, oblong, fi.e-partcd, the parts ovate, acute, pc-
uianent ; and the pcriitvtl.'.iim proper is obfolete, fiperior ;
the coroil.< proper, o;it-peta!led, fminel-fliaptd, edjjc quin-
queSd, and creel ; the fiimna have fitaceous filaments,
longer thau the coioUa, bendi.ig to one fide, anlliers ixjuiid-
ifli ; the /i;'/7;('.'h)/. '.IS a germ inferior, olilong, Hylt lltaceous,
longer than the flamens, flignia mullifid and linear ; nopcn-
carphim ; feeds folitary, oblong, live-eonieiLd and naked :
tlie receptacle naked. Martyn enumerates two, and Cfiiielin
three fpccics, v':~. I. A. liolic-a, with leaves hcart-fhaped
and calyces quinquelid, a native of Cumnna, in South Ame-
rica. 2. A. incaniala, with leaves obliquely ovate, and ca-
lyces triphyllous, a native of Peru, in rocks and (xvAy
foils, introduced into the Pans garden from feeds fent by
Dombey, flourifliing there and perfecting its feeds in the
middle of fummer. 3. A. allidti of Gmeliri, with leaves
lanceolate, oppollte and roughiili, and calyces pcdidllatcd
and folitai-)-.

ALLIOTH, in Aftronomy, a flar in the tail of the Great
Bear, whofe obfervation is much uled at lea.

It is alfo written all'iol, and al'wt, and literally denotes »
horfe. The Arabs give this name to each of the three ihtra
in the tail of the Great Bear, on account of their appear-
ing like three horfes, ranged for the drawing of the wag-
gon, reprefentcd by four ftars, called Charles's wain.

ALLIOTICUM, from aW.oi., to -jary, a Galenical
medicine, which alters and purifies the blood, confifting
chiefly of the roots of dandelion, fnccory, fennel, and rai-
fins ; with the herbs endive, common ox-eye, lettuce, for-
rel, fumitory, &.c. See AltkrativK.

ALLITERATION, in Rkioric, is a figure or decora-
tion of language, chiefly ufed in poetry, and confiiling in
the repetition of the fame letter or letters at certain inter*-
vals,- whence its name is derived. This figure has been go
nerally regarded either as tiivial in itfelf, or as an iiillance
of falfe refinement ; but for the ufe of it we might refer to
the beft authority, and it unqucftionably facilitates the reci-
tation of vcrfe, contributes to both its fwcctnefs and energy,
fervcs to enforce the fentimcnt which it exprclTes, and aids
the memory in retaining it. Pontanus, one of thofe inge»
nious Itahans wlu) (louriflicd upon the revival of literaturt
in Europe, has particularly defcribed this figure, and fur-
nifhed inilanecs of it both from poetical and profe writers.
It occurs in the repetition of the fame letters, fyllables, or
words ; and when it takes place in the firft and laft fyllables,
and even in the middle ones, it is, he fays, wonderfully
pleafing. The inilanecs which he produces from Virgil are
fuch as follow : " S:Eva fedeus fuper arma." — " Tales cafus
Caffandra cancbat." — " Infontem infando indieio." —
" Longe falc faxa fonabant." — " Magno mifceri murmurc
pontiim." — " Quxcjuc lacus late liquidos." — In the follow-
ing inllance, cited from Lucretius, it is continued from qne
verfe to another : —

«« Advcrfo flabra feruntur

Flumine."

Cicero (in Brut.) ufes this figure : — " Nulh res msgis-
pcnetrat in animos, cofque fmgit, format, flectit :"' and
alfo (De Orat.l : " Quodque ine follicitave fumme folct."
For the ufe of this figure we may add to that of Virgil the
fuperior authority of Homer. 11. ^. 201.

"Hroi 0 xccTXMicv TO .\XrI*''y oVo^ 'AXctTo,
■'0» 9;uM xa'lf^wv, a-alw 'A>9{wT»n' 'A^li(>»l».

Hermogene*

ALL

Hcrmogenes quotes thcfe lines as an example of ihc figure
now dcfcnbed, wliich he calls by a Greek name, najjixniri;, pa-
reelielis.aud defines to be beauty in iiniilar words, which imucr
.1 different lij^nitication found the fame. Ariftotle called this
fiijure Ta,o(jt/uo-i;, paromoiolis ; and the Latin rhetoriciano
lliled it Annominatio. Oiraldus Cambrcnfis informs us,
that in the time of Henry 11. tlie En^lilh and the Welch
were fo attached to this verbal ornameii: in every highly
fniilhcd compofition, that nothing was Ijy them cileemed
ele>'a;'.tly delivered, nu diction coiihdered but as rude and
rultic, if it were not tirll aaiply refined with the poHfliing
art of tliis figure. From this national talle may probably
be derived fome of our proverbial fimiles, which, indepen-
dently of tlie found, have no otlier merit.

Spenfer and Shalcfpcare adopted this praftice. Spenfer
fays —

" I'or not to have been dipt in Leihe lah
Could /live tkc Son of Thd'is from to die ;
But tliat Html bard did him immortal make
With verfes, dipt in diiu of Cailalie."

Tims Shakfpeare : —

" Hod my fweet Harry had but half their numbers,
This day might I, hanging on Holfpur's neck,
Have talked." Hen. IV. part 2. aft 2.

Milton alfo followed them : —

" For eloquence, \.\\e foul ; fong charms the fenfe."

P. L. li. S5^'
Again : —

" Behemoth, biggefl lorn of earth, iipheav'd

His vaftnefs " P. L. vii. 471.

Dryden employed this figure frequently, and, like Virgil,
with fingular fimplicity and llrength. E. G.

" Better to hunt in fields for health unbought.
Than fee the doctor for a naufeous draught.
The wife for cure on exercife depend ;
God never made his work for man to mend." Fables.

Pope adopted the fame figure, as in the following cou-
plet : —

" Eternal beauties grace the Jhlning fene ;
fields ever fre/h, and groves for ever green."

Gray, who profeffed to have learnt his verfification from
Dr)-dcn, fecnis alfo to have paid particular attention to this
ornament, as in the following inftances : —

" Ruin feize thee, rwthlefs king!"

'• To /jighborn HoeVs Ziarp, or foft /,/ewelyn's /ay."

" /Keavc the warp, and weave the woof."

" Stamp we our vengeance </eep, and ratify his (Zoom."

" Regardlefs of th^; yit'ccping wliirlwind's fway."

" Eyes that g\o\v, and fangs that ^^riu."

" Thouglits that ireathe, and words that Zurn."

" //auberk crafh, and Aelmet ring." &c. &c.

J. Jov. Pontani Aftiu«-Dialogus, torn. ii. p. 104. ed.Vcnet.
apud Aid. 15 19. Harris's Philological Inquiries, p. 94 —
102.

ALLIUM, probably from a-Xiu.-, to avoid, becaufe fome
perfons avoid the plant on account of its very difagreeable
Imell, or from uW-oIm, exilire, from the quickncfs of its
growth, or from ay?ii9!i.:, which fignifies a head of garlic,

ALL

Gar I.I f, in Ijo/miy, a genus of the hrx,indrta monogpiia
clafa and order, of the natural order oi fpathactit and afpho-
drli of Jnilieu : its charaders are, the calyx is a common
fpatha or (heath, roundilli, flirlvcUing, and many-flowered ;
the corolla conii''^s of fix oblong petals : the flamina have fix
filaments, fubulate, generally of the length of the corolla,
the anthers are oblong and upright : the pifliUum has a germ,
fuperior, ihort, bluntly three-cornered, the corners being
marked witli a grooved line, ftyle fimple, l\igma acute : the
peruarpium is a capfule, very firort, broad, threc-lobcd, three-
celled, and three-valved ; and the feds are many and round-
ifli. Profeflbr Martyn enumerates 4J, Gmelin and Willdenow
53 fpeeies, dillributed into feveral divifions. 1. Thofe with
item and leaves flat, and umbel capfule-bcaring. 1. A. ampe-
loprafum, great round-headed garlic ; has umbel globofe, ila-
niens three-cufped, and petals with a rough keel : its ftem
is a foot or more in height, having leaves at the bottom,
glaucous and fucculent : the fpathe is conical, one-leafed,
and deciduous ; it flowers in a clofe ball on peduncles which
are about an inch in length : the ftamens are fomewhat
lon-^er than the corolla, which is of a pale purpliflr colour ;
this is eaten along with other pot-herbs ; it communicates
its flavour to the milk and butter of cows that eat it :
it grows naturally in the Eail, in Switzerland, on tlic
Holms ifland in the mouth of the Severn, &c. is perennial,
and flowers with us in July. 2. A. porrum, porrum fativum
of Ray and Miller, common leek, has umbel globofe, fta-
mens three-cufped, petals with a rough keel, root coated :
it has a rather high ftem, leafy at bottom, Ipathe ihortly
conical, deciduous : flowers in clofe large balls on purple
peduncles in April or May : it is very like the former fpe-
eies, and probably only a variety : it has been generally fup-
pofed that there are two forts of leeks ; but Martyn has
made trial of both, and found that they were the fame ; the
difference being occafioned by faving the feeds from old
roots, and not from the feedling leeks, whereby they have
degenerated, and become fmaller and more narrow-leaved :
this fpeeies was cultivated by Gerard in 1597, and probably
at an earlier period ; but its native place is not afcertamed :
it is highly efteemed in fome places for culinary ufes.
3. A. lincare, linear-leaved G. with umbel globofe, itamens
three-cufped, twice as long as the corolla, grows naturally
in Siberia, and is called by Miller, wlio cultivated it in 1768,
porrum ampeloprafum. 4. A. fiavsolevs, with umbel ca-
pitated, and ilamcns avvl-fliaped, twice as long as the corolla ;
grows in Auilria. 5. A. deflesum, has three-cufped fta-
mens, of the length of the corolla, leaves narrow and linear,
and ftalk declined. 6. A. rotundum, great round-headed G.
with umbel fub-globofe, ftamens three-cufped, and fide-
flowers nodding, has the fruit and feeds of the fecond fpe-
eies or leek, and is a native of the fouthern part? of Europe.
7. A. viBorinle, long-rooted G. with umbel rounded, fta-
mens lanceolate, longer than the corolla, and leaves elliptic ;
grows on the mountains of Switzerland, Italy, Auilria, Si-
lefia, and Savoy ; cultivated in 1739 by Miller. 8. A. fu!>-
hirfutiim, hairy G. or Diofcorides's Moly, with itamens awl-
fhaped, and lower leaves hirlute, is a native of Italy, Spain,
Africa, and the Levant ; was cultivated by Gerard in 1596 ;
flowers in May. 9. A. magicum. Homer's G. or Moly,
with fimple ftamens and bulb-bearing branches, was culti-
vated in 1596 by Gerard, and is prefcrved in gardens for
the fake of variety; but it has a very ftrong iccnt. 10.
A. obliquum, obHque-leaved G. with filiform ftamens, thrice
as long as the flower, and oblique leaves, is a native of Si-
beria, and cultivated here before 1768 by Miller. II. A.
ramof/m, branched G. with globofe umbel, ftamens awl-
fliaped, longer, leaves linear and fub-convex, grows naturally

in

ALL

in Silier-ia, wtitnce ihe feeds of ihii and tlie former fort were
(cut to I'eterlbiirgli, aiul from tliem the botanic garden, in
which they arc preferved for the fake of variity, was fup-
plicd. 12. A. Tiitarlciim, Tartarian G. with umbel flat,
Itamens fimple, and leave: femi-cyhndrical, « a native of Si-
h.ria, and introduced into Kew gardens in 1787 by Mr.
I-Ianeman. 13. A. rof.iim, rofe G. with umbel flat topped,
;)aals emarginate, and" (lamens very fimple, giows naturally
about Muntpetlier and in Piedmont, in the fields, olive-
^;i ounds, and vineyards, and was cultivated in 1752 by Miller.
■4. -A. cxnilium has a globofe umbel, fimple llanieiis, linear
leaves, and prickly (lieaths. Gmclin.

II. A. with Item-leaves flat and umbel biilb-hcaring.
15. A. fath'um, common C. with compound bulli and ihr^e-
cufped ilamens, is faid to be found wild in Sicily, and cul-
tivated in 1 55 1, or probably at a much earlier period. 16.
A. Scuradoprtifum, Rocambole, with three-eufped ftameiis,
crenulate leaves, and two-edged flieaths, is found wild in
Sweden, Denmark, Germany, and Hungary, and cultivated
hereby Gerard in 1596 : it lias compound bulbs, but much
fmallerthan thofe of garlic : the root is heart -fliapcd, folid,
and generally ftands fideways of the flalk : the leaves are
rather broad and crenatcd at tlie edges : the flowers, which
are colleeled into a fort of globular head, are of a pale pur-
ple colour : the ftcm generally rifes from two to three feet
in height, and produces many fm.all bulbs at the top, that
may be made \vi(i of as well as thofe of the root. 17. A.
arenar'nim, A. fcorodoprafum of Flor. Dan. 290, fand G.
with three-cufped ftamens, columnar (lieaths, awnlefs fpathe,
2nd petals flightly rough in the keel, dilHnguiflicd from the
lail Ipecies by its round flieaths, and by its growing always
in a fandy foil : bulbs, which are numerous, and bloffoms,
are blue ; ftamens a little longer than the bloflcjms ; leaves
three or four, lower ones quickly withering, broad, edges
hairy, or rather finely toothed, teeth not dilcernible without
a glafs ; leaf-ftieaths ftrongly keeled ; ilem two to five feet
high ; flowers few, on fliort ftalks, fmall, purple, marked
with a deeper line : it grows wild in Thuringia, Scania,
Denmark, Switzerland, Italy, and in the woody and moun-
tainous parts of the north of England, particularly about
JLowtlier in Weftmoreland, Caftle Howard in Yorkfhire,
Thorp-arch, and Heflington-fields near York. It is perennial,
and flowers in July. 18. A. carinnUim, ampeloprafum pro-
lifemm of Lob. ic. 156, Moly montanum fecr.ndum Clufii,
mountain G. with awl-fliaped ftamens, very long (acute,
Smith) fpathe ; ftem, when cultivated, four feet high ;
leaves a foot long, not half an inch broad, ftieath-leavcs
two, awl-fliaped, unequal ; umbel has few flowers, but many
bulbs ; bloiTom of a dull brown yellow colour, often
changing to purple : the plant has but little of the garlic
fmell : it is found wild in Scania, Germany, Carniola, Italy,
and Switzerland, and alfo in the rocky and mountainous
parts of the north of England, near Settle in Yorkfliirc, in
Heflington-fields near York, and about Knarcft)orough, on
the rocks about Eongfledale inWeftmorcland, near Rainfgate
in the ifle of Thanet, and between Sandwich and Deal : it
is perennial, and flowers in July.

III. A. with ftem-leaves columnar, and capfule -bearing
umbel. 19. A. fpharocephalon, Moly montanum with a
purple flower of Cliifius, fmall round-headed G. with
ttirec-cufpej ftamens, longer than the coroUa, and femi-co-
lumnar leaves, is a native of Switzerland, Italy, Germany,
and Siberia, y.'a3 cultivated in 1759 by Miller, and is thought
by Haller not to be fpecifically dillinil from A. defcendens.
20. A. parSijlorum, fmall-flowered G. with globofe umbel,
fimple ftamens, longer than the corolla, and awl-fliaped fpathe,
is a native of the fouth of Europe, and introduced into Kew

Vol.. I.

A L L

garden in 17^1 bv M. Tiiouin. 21. A. ^;/r.'/K/w, pnrple-
headed G. with ihrcc-cifpcd ftamens, and outer pedinicK's
fliorter, is a native of Italy and Switzerland, .ind cuhivaliM
in the Oxford garden in 176^1: this fpecics has two bulbs
at the origin of the ftalk, the le.ivcs being fiiluhnis and chan-
nelled above, the ftalk generally two or more feet in height,
the flieath quadnlld, 22. A.ino/r-«fl/MH;,mufl{-fmcUi;ig G. Nloly
of l^auliin and Rudbcck, with umbel flat-to])ped, nioftly
fi\-flowered, acute petals, fimple Ilamens, ar.d fetaccous
leaves, grows wild in Provence, Narbonnc, and Spain ;
brouglit by Sallzmann, according to C:.fp. Bauhin, from
the hills about Montpellicr \\\ 1 598, and cultivated in his
garden. 23. A. Jltivum, fulphur-colourcd G. with flowers
pendulous, ovate petals, and ftamens longer than the co-
lulla; thought by Gerard and Gouan to be a variety of the
lall fpeeics ; is a native of the fouth of France, Italy, and
Audria, and cultivated in 1768 by Miller. 24. A. d'fnio'
rum, with awl-fliaped ftamens, and petals marked by a dark
line in the middle. Forlk. Fl. TEg. Arab. p. 72 : doubt-
ful whether it be a diftinft fpecies. 25. A. palUr.i,
pale-flowered G. with flowers pendulous, truncated ; fta-
mens fimple, equalling the corolla ; is a native of Italy,
Spain, MonlpcUier, and Hnngaiy ; and introduced into the
Kew garden in 1779 by Abbe Poiret. 26. A. puniru/alum,
panieltd G. with peduncles capillary, fpread out, ftamen*
awl-fluiped, and very long fpathe, joined by Gerard to the
preceding, is a native of Italy, Auftria, Switzerland, Car-
niola, Siberia, and the Levant ; and introduced into the
Kew garden in 1 780 by Sign. Giov. Fabroni. 27. A. vi-
nenlc, A. fylveftre of Ray and Gerard, crow G. with
thrce-cufped ftamens; bulbs tapering, bowed back, often run-
ning into long hair-like points, compafted into a clofe head ;
bloifom fmall, violet ; filaments with two long briftles, pro-
jefting beyond the flower ; ftem about two feet high ;
leaves fniooth, hollow, flender, and veiy long ; umbel
flieath of one leaf, broad at the bafe, ending in an awl-
fhaped point about an inch long, fcorcd with green lines ;
bulbs numerous, white ; and bloftbms few, fmall ; there is
a variety with a double head of bulbs : this fpecies is a na-
tive of Switzerland, Germany, Ital)-, &c. and with us ii '
frequent in dry paftures, communicating its rank taftc to
the milk and butter, and growing in o'd walls and among
corn, chiefly in calcareous foil, near Worcciler (Stokes): it is
perennial, and flowers in July. 28. A. ckmcciim, purple
ilriped, or ftreaked, field or wild G. with ftamens fimple,
leaves rough, (not nnigh. Withering.) femi-coluninar,
furrowed underneath : the root a folid bulb, ftem two
or three feet high, v.priglit or a little bent towards the
top, fmooth, not fcored, folid ; leaves hollow, bulbs nume-
rous, cgg-fliaped, forming a roundilh knob, between which
arife feveral thread-fliaped fruit-ftalks, each fupporting a
fiu'fle flower, which is dnioping, cylindrical, but fomewhat
bell-fliaped ; bloffom whitiili green, with three dark purple
llreaks on each petal, or pale with purple lines; germen
prifm-ihaped, fix-angled ; ftyle flender, longer than the blof-
fom ; ftamens fliorter than the petals ; w^ith minute white
dots, hardly vifible to the naked eye, fcattercd over the
whole plant : it is a native of Sweden, Germany, Switzer-
land, Italy, and Ingria ; and with us in Weftmortland, near
York, near Briftol, at Fincham, Norfolk, and Black Not-
ky, Eflex, nnd Baydale near Darli.igton, among corn, and
about the borders of fields. It is perennial, and flowers in
July. 29. A. Pnlliifi, Pallas's G. with umbel difform,
ftamens fimple, equalling the corolla, and ftyle very fliort ;
three-cornered capfule ; is a native of Siberia.

IV. A. with leaves radical and ftcm naked, 30. A. nu-
tans, porrum of Gmclin, flat-ftalkcd G. with fcape two-

4 Y edged.

ALL

edgtd, leaves linear, flat, anJ ihrec-ciilpcJ iTamcns ; If a na-
tive of Sibeiia, and introductd into Kew g;irden in 17H5 by
iJr. W. Pitcairn. 31. A. afralonicum, cepa afcalonica of
Mor^fon, crpa ftcrilis of Banliiii, iliallot and elcliallotte,
vith fcape colnmnar, leaves awl-fliaped, umbel globofe, and
thrce-cuiped llaincns : tliis fpccies lias a conglobate root
confilliiig of numerous oblong parts bound together by
moans of a tliin delicati.' membranaceous covering, each of
which fends forth two or throe long fillular awl-(haped leaves
from a (lieath nearly liivc thofe of the common onion ; the
llowor-ftoms ilTue from membranaceous flieaths, are round,
marly naked, and terminated by globular umbels of flowers,
that have erect faucer-fliaped petals, of the length of the
ftamina, and of a purpHUi colour : the roots are very pun-
gent, have a ftrong but lalher pleafant Imell, on which ac-
count they are generally preferred to the onion f8r various
purpofcs of cookcrv ; was found by Hafielquill, native, in
Pa'elline, and cultivated htrc in 1633. 3^- A. _/('Hi?/f««,
Narcillus-leavcd onion or G. with fcape two-edged, leaves
linear, convex beneath, fmooth, umbel roundiih, and awl-
fliaped ftamens, joined by Haller and Scopoli to the A. an-
gulofum, is a native of Sibeiia, the Alps, Silefia, and the
iflaiid of Sicily, and cultivated by Gerard in 1596. 33.
A. illyi'icum, with a colnmnar fcape, leaves linear-lanceo-
lalcd, flat, umbel flat-topped, and a\vl-(hapod fliamens, grows
naturally in the vine and olive yards of Auftria. WiUdenow.
34. A. odonim, fwect-fmelling G. with fcape nearly co-
lumnar, leaves linear, channelled, angular beneath, umbel
flat-topped, is a native of the fouth of Europe, China, Ja-
pan, &c. 35. A. inoi/onim, Carolina G. with fcape naked,
fnbtriquetrous, leaves linear, flat, keeled beneath, umbel faf-
tigiate floriferous, and fimple ftamens, is a native of Carolina,
introduced in 1776 by the Duchefs dowager of Portland,
and flowers in March and April. 36. A. angulofum, cepa
of Gmelin, angiJar-fcaped G. with fcape two-edged, leaves
linear-channelled, fomewhat angular beneath, and flat-topped
umbel, is a native of Siberia, Italy, Auilria, Switzerland,
and Germany, in moift places. 37. A. Jiriatum, with a
three-cornered fcape, hnear leaves, ftriated with furrows be-
neath, faftigiated umbel, obtufe petals and fimple ftamens,
is a native of the Cape of Good Hope. 38. A. narc'iffiflo-
Tum, with a columnar fcape, linear awl-fhaped leaves, fafti-
giated umbel, or umbel terminal inclined, pointed petals,
or petals lanceolated, and fimple ftamens, fliorter than the
corolla, is a native of the mountains in the fouthern paj-ts of
France, 39. A. pedctnontanum, with a four-cornered fcape,
linear obtufe leaves, and few-flowered umbel, is a native of
the Alps of Piedmont. 40. A nigrum, A. multibulbofum
of Jacquin and Murray, A. monfpefliilanum of Gouan,
both of which are in Gmelin's Linnaeus charaflerifed as
ditlindl fpecies, black G. with fcape columnar, leaves li-
near, (lanceolated, Willd.) umbel hemifpherical, petals eveft,
(patent, Willd.) fpathe pointed and bifid, (ftamens fimple,
Willd.) is a native of Provence, Italy, Auftria, and the
neighbourhood of Algiers, and cultivated in 1 759 by Miller.
41. A. Cdiiadenfe, Canada tree onion, with fcape columnar,
leaves hnear, and head bulb-bearing, is a native of North
America : this fpecies has a perennial root ; fmooth, flat,
ftraight leaves, fix. or feven inches in length ; fteni cylindri-
cal, fmooth, nearly naked, hardly longer than the leaves,
fpathe ovate, ftiarpifh, and pointed, flovvers few and whitilh,
petals oval, the filaments fimple, nearly of the length of the
corolla, having brownilh red anthers. 42. A. mfuium,
A. fylveftre latifolium of Ray, broad-leaved G. or Ramfons,
with fcape ihreo-fided, (femi-cylindric. Smith,) leaves lan-
ceolate, petiolate, and flat-topped umbel, flowers large, nu-
merous, and white ; is a native of Sv.cden, Denmark, Ger-

A L L

many, Switzerland, and Italy, in woods and moi(\ (l-.ady-
placcs, and with us in England it is frequent in fuch fitua-
tions. It is perennial, and flowers in May and June : tht
fmell and tafte, according to Haller and Scopoli, are vei-y
acrid : Dr. Smith fays, that the plant has a ftrong fmell o{
garfic, and that it affords to flieep and cattle a palture not
difagreeable ; the milk is of courle nauftous and fa?tid ; and
other plants near it do not flourifli. 43. A. Chifutmtm, Moly
minus of Clufuis, with columnai fcape ; linear, fiat, ciliated
leaves ; few-flowered umbel, and obovated concave petals ; a
native of the fouthern parts of Europe. 44. A. triqudrurif
three-cornered Moly, Mo!y of Parkiufon and Ray, with
fcape and leaves three-fided, and fimple ftamens, is a native
of Italy, and Spain about Narbonne, and cultivated in 1768
by MilLr. 45. A. cepa, cepa of Miller and Bauhin, com-
mon onion, with fcape ivvcUing out below, and longer than
the columnar leaves, is well known by its fiftular leaves and
fwelling ftalks : it differs from t!ie garlic only in having a
fwelliiig pipy ftalk, that is confiderably larger in the middle
than at the extremities : the Latin name cepa, fays Mr. Mar-
tyn, is derived from caput, a head, on account of the form
of its bulb, and for the fame reafon the Greeks called it
xpo/x^uc/». Others derive it from yfiiot a:olice ■yunov, or from
yr,^u and yaif'j ajolice iovyrfju. The Engliih and French name
are deduced from the Latin vn'io, becaufe the bulb never
throws out any oft-fets : the varieties of the common onion
are, the Strafburgh, or common oval ; the Spanifii, filver
fliinned and red il^inned ; the Portugal great oval onion j
and the Tripoli : all thefe vaiy from feeds, and there are fe-
veral intermediate differences not worth eraimerating. 46^
A. Jllo/t, yellow Moly, with fcape fub-cylindric, 'leaves
lanceolate, fcfiile, and umbel level-topped, is a native of
Hungary, on Monte Baldo, about Montpellier, and on the
Pyrenees, and cultivated in 1604 by Edward Lord Zoiich :
it was formerly prcfcrved in gardens for the fake of variety,
but moft perfons have rooted it out on account of its vcrj
ftrong garlic taint. 47. A. tncoccum, tiiree-fceded G. with
fcape naked, femi-coliimnai', leaves lanceolate-oblong, flat,
fmooth, umbel globular, and feeds folitary, is a native of
North America, and introduced in 1770 by Mr. W. Young.
48. A. Jijiuhj'um, Welch onion, or ciboule, with fcape
equalling the colum.nar fwelhng leaves, is perennial, and
does not form bulbs like the common onion : it was culti-
vated in 1629 : the A. altaieum of Pallas, a native of Sibe-
ria, is of a fmaller fize, and a variety of this fpecies : in.
Gmelin's Linnaeus it is made a diftinct fpecies. 49. A.-
fcbduoprafum, cives or chives, or G. with fcape equal-
ling the columnar awl-filiform leaves, is a native of Italy,
Switzerland, Sweden, and Siberia ; where a variety
of this plant has been found and figured by Gmelin, in
which the leaves are refletlcd, whereas in the common fort
they are ftraigrit : it has been found with us very rarely in
meadows and paftures, near Faft-caftle on the borders of
Berwickfhire, in Argylefliive, in Weilmoreland, and near
Kirby Moor-fide, Yorkfhire, and Cartmel Fell, in a fniall
rivulet called Chivey Syke : this is a vei-)' fmall plant when
compared with the former, the ftems naked and feldom ex-
ceeding five or fix incites in length, the roots producing Httle
or no bulbs, and the leaves hollow and awl-fliaped : it lias a
very ftrong fmell. 50. A. S'lbh-hum, Siberian G. A. fchoe-
noprafum j9. Linn. fpec. 433. Murray, Gotting. Com.
1755, t. 4. ; Cepa paluftris altiflima of Buxb. and cepa
alpina paluftris tenuifoha of Tournefort ; with Icape colum-
nar, leaves femi-cylindric, ftamens awl-fliaped, petals lance-
olate acute, is found in Siberia and the mountains of Silefia,
and was introduced into tlie Kew garden in 1777 by Cheva-
lier Murray. J I. A. Jlcikriafium, with a columnar fcape,

femi-cyruijdric

A L L

feml-cyliiiclric leaves, denfc imihels, ami fiilnitaU-J ftamens
longer than the corolla, is a native of tiibcria, near the river
Jenifea. 52. A. capUlare, witli colnmnar fcape, •ai;iilaceous
leaves, few-flowered umbel, and petals lanceolate acute.
53. A. tenuijjimum, (lender-leaved G. with fcape columnar,
empty ; leaves awl-lhaped, I'llifonn ; and heads loofe and
few-flowered (Gmelin), or columnar fcape; loaves linear,
awl-fhapcd ; umbel few-flowered ; and petals ixjundifii-ovale
obtufe (Willdcnow) ; is a native of Siberia : it is much
eaten by the field-mice, and they lay up the roots for their
winter food : the ftamens in this and the preceding arc
(horler than the corolla, 54. A. C.ham,t-Mnly, ballard G.
with fcape fcarccly any, naked, capfules drooping, leaves fiat
■cUiate, is a native of Italy and Spain, and flowers in January.
55. A. gracile, Jamaica G. with fcape naked, columnar,
very long, lea\e3 linear, channelled, ilamens awl-lhaped,
connate at the bafe, is a native of Jamaica, was introduced
in 1787 by Hinton Eaft, Efq. and flowers in Februaiy.
^6. A. NrnpoHttwiim, Naples G. with fcape naked ancipi-
tsl, leaves lanceolate channelled, umbel fcattered, is culti-
vated in the gardens near Naples, begins to grow fponta-
reoufly about the city, and flowers in March. 57. A orni-
tkngaloides, with fc.ipe colnmnar, umbel bearing and few-
flowered, and leaves awl-d'.aped and flat. Walt. Flor. Carol,
p. i-?l. Gmehn's Linna;u5. Maityn's Miller. Willde-
iiow's Linuxus. Smith's Flor. Brit. vol. i. p. 355.
Witherjng's Bot. Arr. vol. ii. p. 332.

Allium, in Gardening, is applied to t;/ir/lcl, onion,
and /e(i. Of the liril or garlick kind of plants, though
there are a great number of fpecies only few are valuable
cither for ■ufe or ornament in the garden. The kinds ne-
ceiTaiy to be taken notice ol in this view are : ift. The
Jativum or common gtirltck ; 2d. Scorodcpnifum or rocambole,
which are officinal or culinary plant.i. 3d. Moly or com-
mon yelloiu moly. 4th. Subl/irfulnm or hairy 'while moly.
^th. Sfh/crocephahn or fphcrical heailcd purple moly. 6th.
Rofeum or rofe-cohnred Mov.lpellicr garlick. yth. Flaviim
or Jlra'W-colonred pendulous moly. 8th. Magicum or great
purple moly. 9th. ViSoriale or elliptical gnrlitk. loth. De-
Jeendens or oval purple-headed garlick : which are all of the
flowering kind.

Thefe different fpecies are of the bulbous-rooted tribe,
"fome having large bulbs, others not bigger than peas ; they
are perennial in root, but annual in leaf and ttalk ; tliey are
all hardy plants, profper in almoll any expofure and foil in
the garden, and in general are very produftive, but mofl: of
tlte forts liave a ftrong fcent like the common garlick.

The common garlick has a krge round white bulbous
root, of an irregular form, with numerous fibres at the
tottom, compofed of many fmaller bulbs denominated
doves, which are included in a common membranous
covering ; each of which being planted, grows, and in one
feafon attains the fize and ftrutture of the parent bulb ; the
leaves are cauline, or form a kind of llalk, v.liich ftldom
fpindles, except when the fame roots remain in the ground
two or three years, when they run up and bear a flower and
fmall bulbs at the top. It defer/es to be cultiviited in the gar-
den for the fake of its root, which is in great eflimation tor
culinary and other domeftic pui-pofes. Indeed, the roots,
as well as all the otlier parts of the plant, have a very acrid
talle, with an highly offenfive fmell, which lias rendered its
cultivation in gardens lefs defirable. It is a liardy plant, ca-
pable of growing in mofl: forts of foils and fituations, and
readily propagated either by roots or feeds.

Rocambole has very fmall compound bidbs, which grow
in clutters; the ftalk generally fpiiidling two or three fett

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high, with many bulbs at its fummit, which, as well ai
the root bulbs, are ufeful for the fame puipofcs as garlick,
though much inferior.

The latter or the flowery kinds have the flowcr-Ucmi.
rifing immediately from the root, growing ere£\ and attain-
ing different heights, from twelve to thirty inches ; in fomc
the leaves aa- radical, in others cauline, or elevated with the
flalk, fomc are broad like thofe of a tulip, others long and
narrow like a daffodil, and fome taper and rufli-iike; but in
all the forts the ftems are tenninated by a fort of flienth,
from W'hich is protruded an aggregate of many fmall flowers
forming a kind of umbel. The flowers (ingly are compofed
each of fix petals, which, though feparately fmall, from
many being coUeftcd into large heads, are veiy confpicuous.
The allium moly, fubhirfulum, fphrifrocrphalcn, rnfcum, and
_;^aT«m, genci-ilh grow from twelve to fifteen or eighteen
inches in height, and their umbels often continue in bloom
for the fpacc of a month or fix weeks. But the irngicum,
viUoriale and drfcendens, rife about a yard in height, pro-
ducing large highly ornnmeiittd umbels. Th.cy moHly flower
in May, June, and July, ripen plenty of feed, and many
fmall bulbs on the (lalk and umbel in fe'veral of them.

Method of propagation. In all the foits it may be effetled
with the utmoil facility by ofi"-fets from the root, and in
many of them by feed and the fmall bulbs contained on the
ftalk.

Common garlick is conftantly propagated by the fmall bulbs
that conftitute the main root, which may be readily divided
into a great number of feparate cloves ; tliefe are to be
planted in the fpring, in beds four feet wide, a little raifed
in rows lengtliways, at from fix to nine inches diflancc from
each other, and fix inches afunder in each row, and two or
three inches deep. The planting may be performed either
by means of a blunt dibble or by draw ing drills, and placing
the cloves in them, afterwards covering them with the eaith.
When planted in this way they moilly flioot uj) their leaves
in a month or fix weeks, only requiring occafional fmall
hoeing afterwards to kill the weeds that may rife.

y\bout the end of July or beginning of Auguft, the
b\ilbs are generally full grown, as is evident from the yellow
appearance and withering of the leaves ; they miifl, be then
taken up, cleaned and dried in the fun, and afterwards tied
or plaited in bunches to be hung up and prefeived for ufe.

Rocambole may be propagated either by the off-fets of it«
roots, or by the cloves produced on the top of the ftalk s,
which may be planted in Spring or Autumn ; but in the
Autumn planting, as about Oitober or November, they gene-
rally grow confiderably larger than when planted' in the
Spring feafon. The feeds are to be planted in the manner
direfted for garlick, and are commonly fit for ufe about July
or Auguft, according as they have been put in early or late.
But it may be obfer\ed that the roota never acquii^-any
ve:y large fize.

The different flowering kinds propagate veiy rapidly
by off-fets, which may be feparated anytime after the decay
of the flower, taking only fueh as are large and fine, and
planting them at once in the borders where they flower the
following Summer.

The propagation by feed is beft accompliflicd in a fhady
border in Spring, the plants being fit to tianfplant in fuck
cafe^ in the Autumn.

Of the fccond divifion, or the onion kind, the charaflers,
&c. of which are the fame as thofe of garlick ; the fpecies
are thefe, ill. Cepa, or common onion, the beft garden v.-,-
rietics of which are the Stralburgh or common round onion,
the oval long-keeping common onion, the Spauilh large flat
4^2 onion.

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onion, the Spanidi filvcr-fkinned onicn, the Spanirti rcd-
ftumcd onion, and tiic Portugal great rouiidilh oval onion.
2d. /V,?a/<yum orthe Ciboule or WlIiIi onion. 3d. Scl.\tm-
prti/um, civcs or chives. , 4. J/ailcnicum, efchalot or iliallot.
5. Camulenfr, or Canada-tree onion. All the/r/? fpecies and
varieties have large bulbous roots, and the plants are biennial,
or being fown in the Spring arrive at perfedion in the root
the fame year, and next year (lioot up into ilalk, flower, and
ripen feed, when the tlalks quickly die and the individuals
are annihilated. But i[\t: feccnd and //j;/v/ fpecies never form
any bulbs at bottom; they are, however, hardy and perennial,
and may be continued many years by the roots according to
the direaions given below for them. And \\\e fourth and
Jfth fpecies are bulbous-rooted perennials, multiplying greatly
by off-fets, as is evident from their culture..

The mSiod of ^roimgnt'ton and culture in the onion kind.
Common onion. Among the feveral varieties of the common
onion, the Stralhurgh is probably thcbeft for general culture,
having a handfome bulb, molUy affiiming a roundidi oval
fhape. It is of Arm growth, and generally keeps well for
winter ufe. The SpaniHi onion'; are large and flat ; the firft
fort is, however, of tl>e mildeft flavour ; but all the varieties
for the moll part afford profitable crops, and none excel
them for culinary purpofes ; but they fcldom keep fo well
after Chrillmas as the Straiburgh or oval fort of onion. The
Portugal onion is a very large handfome bulb, of a roundirti
oval fliape, though it rarely attains the fi/.e here, as in that
climate, as is obvious from thofe annually imported from that
kino-dom. If, however, feeds faved in Portugal be fown
here, the bulbs will arrive at a much larger fize than from
fuch as are faved in this countr)', efpecially where preferved
two or three years fuccefTively, in which cafes they are often
fo far degenerated, that the bulbs become flat, and not
larger than the common onions. The mode of tranfplanting
them at an early period, which is adopted in that country,
may alfo have much effeft in rendering the bulbs fo large.
From this fort of onion being very mild, it is much efteemed
for fauces and other culinary- ufes.

All thefe kinds are propagated by feed fown annually ;
which for the general crop fliould always be perfoiined from
about the twentieth of Februaiy until the latter end of
March, though in cold wet ftiff' foils it may be proper to
defer fowing entirely until towards the middle of the latter
of thefe months. But in cafes of omiflion in fowing at the
times above recommended, it may be performed with tolerable
Xuccefs in the beginning or any time before the fifteenth of
April, but the crops of the February or March fowing
always bulb more freely and acquire a much laiger growth
than thofe fown at later periods.

The mod proper fituation for crops of this kind is an open
expofure, and where the foil is moderately light and rich in
vegetable matter. Thus fpots of the belt mellow ground in
the garden fliould always be chofen, with the addition, if
polTible, of, a good coat of well rotten dung, dug well in,
but not too deep, the furface being kept level, and while it
is frefli ftirred, well raked, and the feed fown, a point which
is of importance to be attended to. The fowing when the
furface is fo wet or moid as to clog to the feet or rake in
preparing it, fliould not however be performed.

The proper quantity of feed is in general about an ounce
to every rod or pole of ground ; but where it is not required
to have them thick for cuttings, two ounces for three rods
may be fufficient. Great care fliould be taken to procure
frefli feed, as but very little of that which is kept more
than one year will vegetate.

The feed may either be fown over the whole of the piece

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or plot of ground, or it may firft be divided into beds o(
four or five feet in width, allowing foot-wide alleys between
them. In /owing, the feed fhould be put in with a regular
fpreading call, and the furface, when very light, immediately
trodden over evenly upon the feed ; afterwards, where fown
in beds, the alleys may be pared an inch or two deep and the
earth call over them, proceeding direftly to rake in the feed
regularly with an even hand, trimming off all the ftones,
roots, &c. See Sowing Seeds.

The method of fowing them in beds is the mod eligible,
where it is defigned to draw or cull the young onions from
time to time for market or family ufe ; as, in fuch cafes, a
perfon can Hand in the alleys without treading upon the beds,
which not only renders the furface hard, fo as to injure the
crop, but highly dellruiflive, by trampling upon the plants
themfelves. It is likewife very convenient to (land in the
alleys, in order to weed, thin, or hoe the crop as occafion
may require. Altliough it is a common praftice in the ge-
neral culture of onions to fow them thick, in order to allow
for culling or drawing out the fuperabundant plants, by
degrees as they are wanted ; it would no doubt be a better
mode to fow a piece particularly for general culling, exclufivc
of the main crop ; becaufe by daily thinning out the fuper-
fluous plants there is no avoiding treading upon, dillurbing
and loofening the remaining ones, by which they become
Hinted in their growth, and by no means fo fine. Th^re is
alfo another veiy common but injudicious praftice, which
is that of mixing other crops fuch as leek, lettuce, radifli,
carrot, ^<tc. with thefe crops. It is productive of coiifufioii,.
as well as obfl;ruftion to the chief crop, without producing'
any great advantage ; nothing Ihould therefore be admitted,
except a ver)^ thin fprinkling of cofs lettuce in fome cafes.
In about fifteen or twenty days after the feed is fown the
plants generally appear, and in a month or fix weeks after
that, as in May and the beginning of June, they will be three
or four inches high ; when they (hould be well cleaned from
weeds, and the main crop thinned to three or four inches
diftance. The weeding and thinning fliould be begun in due
time, before the weeds branch and fpread much, which may
either be performed by the hand or fmall hoeing ; the latter
is the moll expeditious method, as by it one man may do as '
much as three, and it is alfo the moft beneficial to the plants ;
as by fl;ining the ground about them with the hoe, it greatly
forwards their growth, as is mollly feen in a few days after
the operation. This m.ode, however, is more particularly
eligible for the larger principal crops, for \vhich a good
fharp one-hand hoe, about two inches, or not .more than two
and a half broad, is the bcft, taking the opportunity of dry
weather for performing the bufinefs and carefully cutting up
all \yeeds. Where the onions ftand too clofe they fhould be
cut out in a regular thinning order to about three inches dif-
tance; or in fuch crops as are not wanted for occafional
cutting, they may be hoed out at once to about four
or five inches, having regard to leave the ftrongeft plants,
as much as poflible, for the continuing crops.

In the courfe of two or three weeks or fomcthing more,
it will generally be proper to run over them again in the fame
manner, in order to cut up all advancing weeds, and any fuper-
abundant plants that m,ay have efcaped in the firfl hoeing ;
after this they feldom require any further culture, than
that of pulling out fuch cafual draggling weeds as may
rife.

But where the crops are fmall, cr where they are required
for thinning or culhng bydcgrees, for ufe in their young green
date and in fmall bulbs, the weeding and requifite thinning
where they arc in cluders, may generally be bell performed

by

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by tlie liand. In the advanced growth of the crop, when

the fiipcnibundant plants avc occafionally thinned out for
ufe, as vvanttd, they (lu)uld be drawn I'omcwhat regular, fj
as to leave a fuffieiency of the ilroiigcll pl:\nts remaining at
inndcrate dillanccs fur a full crop to attain their full growth
ill large bulbs.

It is highly ncccfTary to continue to keep the different
crops very clear from hurtful weeds in their a<ivancing growth
during the months of May, June, and July, which being
their principal growing feafons, if they are not kept free
from weeds, and fufiiciently thinned to proper dillanccs in
due time, they draw one another up, weak and (lender,
which much retards their bulbing. About the middle or
I.itter end of June the continuing crops begin fwcUing a little
•It bottom in their bulbing order, but more fully in July ;
and in Augull the bulbs arrive to full growth, and are proper
tor taking wholly up. Towards the middle of Augull the
crops in general Ihould therefore be examined, and when the
necks (brink and fill, and the leaves wither, it may be con-
cluded tliat the bulbs are arrived at maturity, and liave done
growing.

They (lioidd then be pulled up, cleaned, dried, andhoufed
for ufe ; this being bed done in dry weather on a piece of
the ground hoed, raked, and cleaned, in order to fpread
ihem on as they are pulled up, to dry and haiden. They
iliould lie in this way a week or a fortnight, being turned
1.VCV) day or two, when, if the weather proves dry, they
will be duly prepared for keeping ; the ilril opportunity
Ihould then be taken to houfe them. The bulbs mull be
fiift diverted of all adhering earth, loofe (kins, and the
grolTcll parts of the leaves and neck, rejcfting all infcAious
and bruiled ones, and then they may be carried into any dry
upper room, out of the damp, fpreading them on tlie floor
as thinly as convenient. Tlie clofer the room is kept the
better, but care mull be taken to turn them over once in
tliree weeks, and to clear out fuch as have any tendency
to infeftion.

As in the culture of onions it frequently happens, that
through badnefs of feed many are difappointed of a crop,
by waiting in expeftation of the plants riling till it has been
too late to fow again ; in fuch cafes recourfe may be had
to tranfplantation from other gardens, as a neighbouring one,
where there are fuperfluous crops, or a bed or fuch pail of
one as is neceffary may be purchafed from a market gardener.
This bufmefs (hould be done in May or early in June, and
if poflible in nioiH weather ; having a fpot of well-dunged
ground prepared, take up the plants with good roots, and
plant them in rows fix inches diftant, and four inches
afunder in each row, inferting the roots but moderately
into the ground, for if planted too deep, they do not bulb
well ; giving them a good watering as loon as tranfplanted.
By repeating the waterings occafionally for a- week or fort-
night, the plants will generally grow freely, and form tole-
rably handfome bulbs.

Onions for pickling are in great requcft in many places:
fuch as are proper for this purpofe (liould not be bigger than
common round buttons, therefore in order to procure them
in due quantity, fome feed (hould be Town late, in a fpot of
light poor land ; about the middle of April is probably the
bell time. It (hould be fovvn moderately thick, the plants
requh-ing little thinning, except where they rife in verj- thick
chillers. They bulb in June and July, and are generally
fit to take up in Augull. In the Spring many of the keep-
ing onions will unavoidably grow as they lie in the houfe ;
thefe may be planted out in rows, at fix inches diilance, and
will fervc to draw by way of tfcallious.

ALL

Thf yiulumn cr Michaelmas crop, is generally fown in
Augull, and the plants rife before Michaelmas, (land the Win-
ter, fome to be drawn occafionally for ufe in that feafon, but
principally intended for Spring ufe, to be drawn up young for
lallads, &c. and likewife where the Stralburgli or any other
variety of the common onion are fown, they, if permitted
to Hand, bulb to a tolerable lize in June, and fupply the
kitchen or market as headed onions, till thofc of the Spring
crop are bulbed.

But as the common onion is liable to be cut off in fcvere
winters, it is always neceffary to fow at the fame time
fome beds of Wellh onions, which bid defiance to the
mod rigorous Winter frolls. Auguft is the bed feafon
for fowiiig thefe crops, for if fown fooncr they are not
only apt to get too forward jn growth before Winter, but
to run up for feed earlier in the Spring ; and therefore the
proper time to fow the main crop is the fird or fecond wxek
of that month, or in the third week for a late Handing one,
fi>wing them in beds four feet wide, with twelve IikIi aUeys
between ; fow and rake in the feed as diredled in the Spring
ci\)p, only let a much larger quantity be fown in tliis cafe.
The plants generally appear in a fortnight, and numerou*
weeds, to which early attention mull be had to clear thein
out by hand before they begin to fpread ; but the plants of
this crop are not now to be llilnncd. But in November and
December if they Hand veiy thick, fome of the larged may
be occafionally thinned out for various iifes.

Saving Sciil. February is the proper time to plant onions
in this view, though this is often done in Oclober by tliofe
that fave great quantities for fale. For this purpofe, make
choice of a due (piantity of the larged and handfonicll
bulbs, rejefting all blemifhed ones, and fuch as have already
made any effort to grow, and having made cliaice of a fpot
of ground well expofed to the fun, which being dug, pro-
ceed to plant the onions ; drain a line, and with a iioe or
fpade open three drills, twelve inches afunder, and fix deep,
place the bulbs therein nine inches didant, and rake the
earth over them ; meafure off" two feet for an allej , and plant
three more rows as above, and in that manner proceed to
the end ; the wide fpacc of two feet is by way of alley to
go between, to hoe and clear off weeds as well as to dake
and fupport the llalks of the plants when neceffary. In
June the fiower-dalks will be (hot to their full height, and
the flower heads will be formed at top, to fecurc which, in
ercCl pofition, drive fome dout dakes in the ground along
each row, at two yards didance, and from dake to Hake
fallen double lines of packthread ; and if thefe arc tied to-
gether in the interval, between the dems of the jilants, it
will effeftually feeure them. About the latter end of Auguft
the feed will be ripe, which is known by the capfules open-
ing, and the black colour of the feed ; the heads (hould I>e
cut in a dry day and fpread upon elochs in the fun, care
being taken to remove them under cover in cafe of wet and
at night ; and when perfeflly dry, beat or rub out the feed ;
cleaning it from the rubbifli, and putting it up in bags for
ufe.

As it is of the utmod importance to have good frelh feed,
fome to try its goodnefs, before they venture their general
crop, fow a little in a pot, and place it in a moderate hot-
bed or near a fire ; a more expeditious method however is
to tie about a thimble full of the feed, loofely in a piece of
linen rag, and put it into a veffel of hot w.ater, fufpcnded
by a threail ; in ten to fifteen or twenty minutes, pull it out,
and if the feeds are good, they will, in that time, liave ger-
minated or fproutcd, perhaps to the extent of a quarter of
an inch in length.

7 As

ALL

As Icek-fceJ ii fiiuilar in its nature it may be lrli;d by the
fame means.

Ciboiile or fl'eljh onion. This is a perennial plant, which
never forms any bulb at bottom ; therefore dcltrves to be
cultivated only to be drawn aa young green oniono for fallads,
&c. in Spring ; but on account of its ftrong tallc it is greatly
inferior to thofe of the common onion. From the plants
being fo extremely hnrdy as to furvlvc the fevcreil Winter, in
which though their blades be cut off, the roots rem.-iin found
and flioot forth with gnat vigour early in Spii ig, furnifhing
fenfonable fupplies till May, when they generally run to feed ;
from this fingnlar hardinefs they may be cultivated more or
lefs as a wiiaer-ftanding crop, with advantage, for Spring
nfe.

They are perennial in root w+iich incrcafe by ofT-tets into

riey are per
clntlers, b

great clutters, but not to be propagated thereby for general
nfe, but by feed, the fame as the fomicr forts of onion.
The beil feafon for fowing them is A\iguil, in the manner
of the Autumn onion crops.

The plants moilly appear in tvehe or fifteen days after
h;ing fown, and towards Michachnas (liould be carefully
hand-weeded. It is a peculiarity in this fpecies of onion to
lofe their tops in November or December, and remain di-
verted thereof till towards Candlemas, when the roots fhoot
forth again ; at that period it is proper to dig the alleys, and
fpread about an inch depth of the earth evenly over the
furfaee of the beds, by which vigour is given to the roots,
Rnd the plants are made to rife ftrong, and at the lame time
tiie part vithin the eaith blanched white and rendered more
tender and mild for eating as well as more agreeable. Where
the fowing of a Michaelmas crop has been oniitted, fome
have fown feed towards the end of January, when the
plants will rife in February or March, and being hardy, con-
tmue growing, and be fit for drawing in the early Spring. In
■order to fave plenty of feed of this fpecies of onion, it is
riccelfary to retain fome plants for ilools. In the end of
March a parcel of ftrong young plants may be put out nine
inches dillant, which produce feed in Auguft. If the roots
be let remain in the following years they produce treble the
quantity ; but as they increafe into great bunches, the ftools
ftiould be removed and feparated every fccond or third
year.

Cives or Chives. This is the fmalleft. of all the onion kind,
riling but a few inches high ; but its roots are perennial, and
increafe confiderably into cluftcrs, from which laro-e tults of
flcnder awl-lhaped leaves iflTue, which are the principal part
ufcd, the roots never forming any bulb, at leall not bigger
than fmall peas. This is a hardy plait which merits a place
in ever)' garden ; its clufters of leaves rife early in Spring,
and are ufeful both in fallads and for culinary purpofes, in
default of onions. The method of gathering it is to cut
the leaves off near the ground, by which a frefli fupply is
foon produced from the bottom ; or occafionally the plants
in clufters may be flipped quite to the root in feparate little
plants, refembhng young onions, and ufcd as fubftitutes for
them. It is eafily incrcafed by dividing the roots in Spring,
and planting eight or ten of them together in holes at fix
inches diftance ; in this way by Autumn they will multiply
into bunches of a large fize.

Efcalot, or Shallot. This is a fpecies of onion which is
fculbous-rooted, and which increafes greatly by off-fets, the
largeft of which are the proper parts of the plant for ufc.
The bulbs are oblong, irregular, and feldom grow large ; as
they generally increafe into clufters they do not fwell like
roots that grow fingly. From the roots are produced many
loa^ narrow, isiirm leaves in the Spring, and which wither

ALL

in J'jly or Augiift, when the roots are full grown ; they
are then taken up, made dry and houfcd, when they keep
in good perfeftion till th.e foUov/ing Spring.

In the propagation of this plant the fmaller roots or ofT-
fets are the belt ; thefe may be planted oat in Autumn or
early in Spring : the end of Oclober, or hegiiming of No-
vember, for the Autumn planting, and Februan' and March
for that of the Spring, but not later than the beginning of
April. The Spring is the moft general feafon of planting
them, but when planted in Autumn, in a dry light foil, they
often grow larger, and fooner attain full growth the foIlowii;g
Summer ; they are to be planted in beds four feet wide, in
rows length-ways, the beds fix inches afunder ; each ofi'-fct
inferted fingly, either by means of a dibble or placed in
drills not more than two or three inches deep ; and the dif-
tance as above in each row. They fiioot up in leaves in
March or April, and the roots increafe in growth till July or
Auguft. The only culture which they require is that of
keeping them clean from weeds, by cccafional hand weeding
or hoeing. Towards the end of July or beginning of Auguft
the bulbs will have attained their full growth,'as is feen by the
withering of the leaves. They fhould then be taken up in
a dry day, and fpread in the fun to harden ; the largeft,
cleaned and houfcd for ufe, and the fmaller off-fets refcrved
for propagation.

As iballots are fometimes required early in the Summ.er
time tor immediate ufe, in fuch cafes as they vvill have
formed fmall bulbs towards the latter end of May or in
June, a few may occafionally be taken up for prefer.t
fupply ; permitting a principal crop to remain in order to
attain their full growth.

Catmda or Tree Onion. This deferves to be cultivated
both as a curiofity in producing the onion at top of the
ftalk ; and for the ufe of the onions, cfpecially for pickling,
in which they are excellent and fuperior in flavour to the
common onion. It is perennial, and propagated bv planting
the bulbs in Spring or Autumn, either the root bulbs, or
thofe produced on the top of the ftalk, being planted in a
bed or beds of any good earth, in rows a foot afunder, fiK
inches diftance in each row, and two or three inches deep ;
they (hoot up leaves and ftalks in the Spring and Summer,
and produce the bulbs for ufe in July or Auguft ; and the
root-bulb remaining, furnifh a produftion of top bulbs,
annually in that feafon ; the root-bulb increafing by off- '
fets, may be taken Hp occaiionally at the time the ftem
decays, in Autumn ; or once in two or three years, in
order to feparate the off-fets and replant them when nc-
celfarv'.

The leek is the third divifion of the genus, the general
characters of which are the fame as thofe before defcribed,
and the fpecies and varieties are the Pornim or common leek ;
which may be fa'id to be an annual-biennial plant, for although
the roots often furvive, after perfetling feeds, yet the plants
always attain pcrfeflion the fame year they are fown, and
the year afterwards run up to flalk and become imfit for ufe.
The feed-ftalk of this plant does not belly like that of the
onion.

The beft of the varieties of this plant for general culture,
is the broad-leaved or London leek, which attains a large
growth, theneck acq\uring a thick fubftance, in length from
fix to nine or ten inches, dividing upwards into many large,
long, thick leaves, arranging themfelves in fomewhat a fan-
fliapc.

The narrow -leaved leek rims up with a long thin neck,
and narrow thin ftraggling leaves, which, as a degenerate
variety, does nut deferve culture; and the ftriped-leaved kind

is

ALL

is retained itiltcI)' for vaiicty, wliicli may be coiuimuJ by
fuckers riling fioia tlie old roots.

Propiignfion, Cii/ture, life. The common kxk ii mifcd
annually from Iced fowii in tlic Spring; the proper time,
for the general crop for Autumn and \\ inter lu'e, is the iamo
■ as that recommended for tiie onion, as from the Iwentitth
of FcbrnHry to the end of March ; but for later crops to
(land for Spring uic, arvy time in Apill may anfwcr, or for
a fmall crop to (Innd as late in the following Spring; as pof-
fible, without running to feed, the begimiing of May.

It is a conmion pradtice from the notion of making the
nioft of the ground, to fow leeki along with the crops of
onions ; which thould not by any means be recommended,
as experience has fliewn it to be confideral>ly the belt culture
to keep them feparate. It is often praCtilVd by tiie market
gardeners, when intending to cull out the onions from time
to time for market ; fo that by a daily thinning, they are
moftly all cleared off by the end of July ; and thofe being
gone, the fame ground remains occupied by a CTop of leeks.
This method ea.not be praitiled to equal advantage in the
main crops of onions that are to Hand to grow to full fize
for keeping. The befl: culture, therefore, for the general
crops of leeks, is to fow them pretty thick in a fpot by
themfelves to be afterwards traniplanted, either wholly or
the greater part thinned out regularly and planted ; the
others being left at good diilances for full growth, and the
fame lituation, foil, and metliod of fowing are to be adopted
as direfted tor the onion. In June, July, and Auguil, the
plants will be of a proper lize for tranl'planting ; in doing
which make choice of an open fpot of the btft ground ; if
dunged it will be of much advantage, digging in the dung
one fpade deep ; then drawing a parcel of the larcrcll leeks,
and trimming their tops and the extreme parts of their root-
fibres, proceed to plant them by line and clibber in rows,
■which for the early crop lliould be twelve inches diltant, and
eight or nine inches apart in each row ; and for better crops
nine inches between the rows and fix the other way, putting
them three or four inches in the ground, or nearly to the
length of their necks, and watering them immediately.
The only culture they require afterwards is to be kept clear
from weeds, which may be done either by hand-weeding,
or more expeditioully by applying a fharp hoe in a dry
feafon.

The leeks thus cultivated are generally finer than tliofe
that remain where fown, their necks, which is the principal
efculent part, are much longer, and all the part within the
earth is finely whitened and rendered mild and tender, which
is a dcfirable property in this plant. However, when it is
intended to raife a crop of leeks in good perfeclion, to re-
main where fown till their fuU growth, the feed Ihould be
*• fown much thinner ; and when the plants are fomewhat ad-
vanced, as in June or July, they fliould be regularly thinned
to about ten or twelve inches diftance ; thofe thinned out
being planted in another compartment of the garden. The
remaining plants v/iU by this means attain a larger and thicker
growth belov.', with large fpreading tops of thick flefuy
leaves.

This is a valnable family plant from Autumn till Spring,
for foups, broth, &c. and for boiling the neck part and top
leaves together, to ule as greens, in the manner of coleworts,
&c. to cat with fielh-meat. It is in perfeftion from Sep-
tember till May, when it (lioots up to (talk for feeding.

In order to fave the feed of this plant, a quantity of the
flneft plants (hould be traniplanted in February into a (liel-
tered funny bed or under a fouth wall, paling hedge, or other
fcuce. This is moftly necelTary, as the feeds ripen late in

ALL

the Autumn, «nd unlcfsaniilcd by fuch fituation and (hclter,
fcldom ripen freely in this climate. In lhi» view it would be
of particular advantage to plant fomc in a ri>w dofe under a
foui!i fence, at ten or tweUe inches dillance, tlity will tlitn
flioot up their ilalki confiderably in May ; and in June attain
two or three feet in heiglil, wiieii lliey Ibould be fiippoi led,
and ciiitinucd in an upright growth, in July the flov.eis
protrude from their flieath at the fnnimit of each ilalk, anil
form a large globular head ; and in September the feeds
begin to ripen. After this is efteCled, cut the h.-.ids with
part of the il:dk and lie them in fn.all bunches, hanging
them acrofs lines in a dry airy apartment, two or three
months, when the feed will be hardened, and the caplults
readily break by threfhingor rubbing, and thus difcharge it
more readily fron\ the cells in which it is lodged.

Allium, liidelic niul mcJicol qncJitirs of ftvcral fpecia of.
The culinary- iifes of fevei-al fpecies of the allium are well
known ; «iid it is neediefs p.'uticularly to defcribe them.
They are refeiied by Dr. CuUen to a particular head under
the title of ylU'iacca; and he conliders them more as condi-
ments than as aliments. Of this order the leek and onion
are moil commonly employed with the hill intention, and
they afford a large proportion of alimentary matter. Ih
their boiled Hate, when their acrimony is exhaled, they
manifcft, with fome Iweetnefs, a large proportion of mu-
cilaginous matter ; and even in their recent llate, and efpe-
cially when young, their acrimony is not fo llrong as to
prevent their being ufed among the lower clalfes as a conii-
derable part of their food. But by ^hofe of fuperior rank,
it is the onion only that is taken in its young and recent
ftate ; but hardly in larger quantity than may be regarded
as a condiment. Deprived, however, of their acrimony by
boiling or roalling, they are ufed by perfons of eveiy con-
dition more freely. Neverthelefs it is fo diflieult to depriva
them entirely of all peculiar talle, that many perfoiis, from
a particular idiofyncracy cannot bear them even in a boiled
ftate. The garlic, njaimbok anAjhal/ot contain alfo alimen-
tary matter; and when the garlick in certain warmer climates
is produced with lefs acrimony than it> is with us, and of
courfe is much milder both in fmell and talle, it is more
frequently and more largely employed as a part of diet-
As cinidiments, t^iofe of the milder kind, more efpccialK"
when deprived of their acrimony, are very fafe and proper j
and even the more acrid, as garlick, which is alinoit folely
employed as a condiment, lervcs, if the odour and tails
can be admitted, to ilimulate the ilon.ach xtvy powerfully»
and to promote digeftion. As promoting peifpiration and
urine, all thefc vegetables are properly joined vviih our ani-
irud food, and may alfo be juftly reckoned among the anti-
fcorbutics. In the eaftern nations, amongll the Jews, ancient
and modern, and alfo in Ruilui, Hungai-y, Spain, ancL
France, the fcveral fpecies above cniunerated, have been freely
ufed. both as alimeiitc- and condiments. In Egypt, onions
have been from time iminemoiial a part of thiir conftant
food ; they arc fweet and fofl, and ufed in their foup, and
roafted with tlieir meat, fo as to make a uiih, culled by lliu
Turks kebak, of which they are ver)- fond. Onion, and
particulatly garlick, which is more powerful ia its effe(£ls»
by llimulating the rtomach favour digeition ; and as thia
lUmulus is more readily and quickly dlifuled through the
whole fyllein than that of alinolt any other known fub-
llance, they may be confidcred as ufelul condiments, with
llie food of piilegniatic people, or thole wliolc circulation is
languid, and fecretions intenupted j )jut for thole who are
fubjeft to infiammatoi'y complaints, or where great irrita-
bility prevails, thefe roots, cfgccially iu iheir acrid 1latc»
3 »-I

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mny iirov? very liuilful. Onions, fays Dr. Lewis, takfii
freely in liot bilious diljiofitioiis, pi-oiiuce flatulencies, tliirll,
l.cad-ach, and febrile lymptoms. In cold (luggifli phleg-
matic temperaincnti, they are of fcrvicc, by warming the
jiabit, attenuating vil'cid humours, and promoting tiie natu-
ral excretions, particularly expedtorution and urine. They
Are hkewifc pjwerfuUy antifepllc, and by virtue "f this
quality, are reeoinniended by lome as a falubrious nddition
to the food ill Icorbutic tales. The dilagrccablc fccnt of
onions, as an article of diet, may be remedied by eating a
few raw parHcy leaves immediately after them, which will
not only overcome their (Irong ImcU, but make them lit
more eafjK- on the ftomach.

The m'cdxaj virtues of feveral of thcfe fpecies have been
long a'.tcrtcd and generally allowed. That the juice of alli-
aceous plants in general has coniiderable cfTefts upon human
colculi, may be inf;rred from the evperiments of Dr. Lobb;
and we are warrantal in afTcrting, fays Dr. \Voodville, that
a decoftion of the bcardo of leeh, A. porn.m, taken libe-
rally and continued for a length of time, has been foun(l re-
markably fuecefiful in calculous and gravelly complaints.
To this purpofe he allcdges the cafe of a boy, li>; or fcven
^•cars old, who had fuflercd for a confiderable time by a
calculus in the urinary bladder, which had been difco-
vcred on founding ; but by recurring to this dccodlion his
pain was foon rdieved ; after which his urine became ex-
tremely turbid, and conllantly depolited a clay-like fedl-
tnent for feveral weeks, when it refumed its natural appear-
ance, and the boy was afterwards freed from complaint.
Other fimiliir cafes have been alfo known. Dr. CuUen ob-
ferves, that although all the fpecies of album have been by
many writers commended as ufeful in nephritic and calcu-
lous cafes, they do not feem to aft otherwife than as diure-
tics, the ufe of which, in fuch cafes, is in general very
doubtful.

The omon, or A. cepn, contains a very volatile part,
■which, however, flies oif fo readily, when the lubftance is
cut and expofed to the air, that it cannot be direfted to any
medicinal purpofe, or employed as an aftive remedy. Onions
are externally employed as cataplafms for fuppuratiug hai-d
tumors ; but Dr. Cullen obferves, that as they are applied
in a heated llate, they do not feem to have mcnc power
than other mucilaginous poultices. Some have recom-
mended them to be rubbed on bald places for promoting
Pie growth of hair. Frederick HolFman reports, that fnp-
prefTions of urine, in children, are fpeedily relieved by the
application of roafled onions to the region of the pubes.
llan/.oni mentions a faft, in which they were ufed, as crude
ar.d boiled, and as a decoftion, and produced a very con-
iiderable dlfeharge of urine in an hydropical cafe. Murray
refers to a cafe of n woman who had an alcites after abor-
tion, and whofe feet were fwellcd, who was elTeftually re-
lieved by a copious difcharge of urine, and a fubiidcnce of
the tumor, in confequer.ce of applying to the a!)domen a
cataplafm of white onions macerated in fpirit of wine. The
lithontriptic powers of the juice or decottion of onion have
been extolled bv fome, and difputcd by others : but in the
cure of deafncfs, a few drops of the juice put into the car
at bed-time have been found effcftual. The root, which
is the moft acrid part of the plant, is much deprived by
drying both of its fmell and tafte, and lofes near fevcn-
eighths of its weight. It gives out its virtue by infnfion,
both to water and fpirit, but to neither readily and com-
pletely. In dillillation no eff--'ntial oil could be obtained.
The watery decoftiou, infpiffated to the confillence of an
extraft, is very mucilaginous, but has fcarcely any taile, and
that of the fpirituous e.-itrail is very weak.

ALL

The medical virtues of A.fiilhtim or ^nrHcl, arc very
various. 'I'he whole of the plant poiredes fimilar qualitie;; ;
but the root, which has a llrong pungent (idour and a \eiy
acrid talle, is the only part cniployed in medicine. Thcfe
qualities depend upon a very volatile part, which is readily
ditlipated by diying, if tlie roots be bruil'ed and the inte-
rior parts be expofed to the air, or by boiling in water.
On drying, fays Dr. Lewis, the root lofes almolt nine parts
in I y of its weight, without lofing much of its talle or
fmell ; and hence, he fays, fix grains dried may he confi-
dercd as equivalent to 15 grains of the frefli root. Dr.
Cullen, however, thinks that the virtue of garlick is diwii-
niilied by drying, and that it is polhblc by thcfe means to dif-
fipatc it entirely ; and he is of opinion, that Dr. Lewis im-
properly propolcs the dried garlick to be ufed in any proper-
tioii as a medicine. The volatile fubtlance of this root is
at leafl in part an effential oil, which exhales along with
the lleam of boiling water ; and therefore the garlick fliould
never be boiled either with vinegar or with watery liquors.
This oil, which is of a pale yellowiOi colour, and of a thick
ropy confidence, may be obtained by dillillation j and like
that of many of the filiquofe plants, it finks in water.
The virtues of the root may more readily and more per-
fcftly be extrafted by rarefied fpirit of wine, digelled upon
it when dry, than by either water or vinegar ; and witli
this menllruum the active matter of the garlic does not
eafily exhale ; and nearly the whole of its virtue remains
in the iiifpilfatcd extraft. Both the fredi and dry root give
out their virtue to water by warm infulion. A quart of
water poured boiling hot upon a pound of the frelh root,
cut in dices, and fuifered to (land upon it in a clofe vefltl
for 12 hours, forms an infuiion, which, with a proper quan-
tity of fugar, was the fyrup of garlick of the drops ; and
the oxymel of garlick was prepared by infufing an ounce
and a half of the frelh root in half a pint of vinegar, and
dilfolving in the llrained liquor, by the heat of a water-bath,
10 ounces of clarified honey ; and in order to cover the ill-
fmell of the garlick, carravvay and fennel feeds bruifed, of
each two dranr's, were boiled in the vinegar before the gar-
lick was put into it. But the fyrup and oxymel are now
expunged from the Britidr Pharmaeoposias. The odour of
garlick is extrcnrely penetrating and diftulive ; infomuch that
when the root is taken into the ftomach, the alliaceous
fcent impregnates the whole fyllem, and is difcoverable in
the various excretions, as in the urine, perfpn-ation and
milk. According to Bennet the difcharge of iflries and
ulcers becomes imbued with this odour very loon after it
is taken ; and Haller fays, that on being applied to the
feet, the alliaceous tafte has been perceived in the mouth.
Garlick has been long in eftimation as an expeftorant in pi-
tuitous and fpafmoJic afthmas, and other pulmonary allec-
tions, unattended with inflammation. Diolcorides mentions
its ufe in moderate coughs. Cellus employed it mixed
with honey in thcfe complaints. Rofenilein recommends it
to be boiled in milk, and a pint to be taken night and
morning. Dr. Cullen allows what has been alTerted, that
even in its external application to the foles of the feet, it
has been ufeful in thefe difeafes. Its utility as a diuretic
in droplies is Attcfted by uuqnellionable authorities. Dr.
Sydenham found fome dropfies cured by garlick alone ; and
as a warm ftrcugtheuer it has been ferviceable not only in
the beginning of dropfies, but for preventing a new accu-
mulation of water after evacuation. Dr. Cullen fays, there
can be no doubt of the A. fativum being a remedy for the
fcurvy. Dr. Ijind alfo commends it both as a preleivatnr-
and a cure for this complaint. Its febrifuge power has been
experienced in preventing the paroxyfms of mtermittcnta ;

Bcrgiu^

ALL

ALL

l'5'-rjui3 fr.ys, that he has feen even qnaitaii!! cured bv it in
many iiiftances. Kc lecommcnds to beE;ii) with a liiiglc
(inal! bulb morning and evening, and one bulb to be added,
till tlie patient takes four or live at a t'lr.e. If the f-.ver
fiiblide, the dufe is to be diniinirnid ; and it will be fufRci-
ciit as the preventive of a return, to take one or tivo bulbs,
nia"'ning and evening, for ftveval weeks. Some have held
it in great efteem as an aiitidite to the contaj>ion of petli-
1 .ntial -and otlier putrid dilV.rders, whence it received the
inme of " Tlieriaea rullieoriim ;" and with a view of fub-
<iiiing the plague, it is to be adrr.iniftcred in fuol\ x qiiantilv
a-; to excite a copious diaphorefis. The virtues alcribed to
It of obviating and refilling contagion appear to Dr.
'.'uUcn very doubtful ; though he allows the probability
tliBt, in the plague, wliich is oommonly attended witli a
low fever, it may have been riftful. Another virtue af-
eribed to garlic is that of an anthelmintic ; for this purpofe
the common people boil it in milk ; and Hoffman conllders
jt as <>!>c of tlie capital medicines of tliat clafs. In caleu-
lius dilbrders it is alfo faij to have been fouiid veiy beneli-
tial, not only as a diuretic, but a.i poneliing a lithontriptic
jiower. The penetrating and diffufive acrimony of garlic
render-i its external application ufeful in many diforders, as
a rubefacient, and mure efpecially aa applied to the foles of
tlie feet, to caufe a revullion from tlie head and breaft ;
and thus it was fuccefsfuUy prae^ifed and recommended by
Sydenham, efpecially in the confluent fmall-pox about the
eighth day. When it occafions pain, as it fometimes does,
this, he lays, may be relieved by a cataplafm of bread and
milk. Dr. Cullen remarks, that though when bruifed and
applied to the (kin it produces inflammation, and frequently
veficates the part, its effefts are not fo permanent nor fo
flow in healing as thofe of muflard and the other fdiquofir ;
and that it is more capable of abforption, and of extending
its atlion to remote parts. It has, therefore, been vari-
oufly employed externally in cafes of tumors and cutane-
ous dileafes : and in fome inllaiices of deafnefs, particularlv
of the rheumatic kind, a clove or fmall bulb ot this root,
Avrapt in gauze or mufiin, and introduced into the meatus
auditorius, has bee3i found an efficacious remedy. Bergius
recommends for this purpofe the juice of garlic dropped in
cotton. Garhc may be adminiftcred in various forms ;
fwallowing the clove entire, after being dipped in oil, is
recommended as the nioft effeftual ; or, where this cannot
be done, it may be cnt into pieces without bruiflng it, and
this may be found equally beneficial, without producing
any uneafuicfs in the fauces. On being beaten up, and
formed into pills, the aclive parts of this medicine foou
evaporate.

Several other fpccies of allium, as the A. porrum, A.
afcalonicnirij A. fiilulofuni, and A. fehccnoprafum, are em-
ployed in diet, but hardly in medicine, as their qualities
are in a lefs confiderable degree than thofe that have been
already mentioned. In Kamtfchatka the wild garlic is ule-
ful both in medicine and food. It is gathered by the
Ruffians and natives, for Winter fupply, and formed into a
ragout w'itli other ingredients, and is tlieir priiicijial remedy
for the fcurvy. Pennant in his Toiir 1772, p. 175, fays,
that an infufion of A. urfinum in brandy is efleemed a good
remedy for the gravel. The young (hoots of A. vineak-
are eaten in fallads, or boiled as pot-herbs. Lewis, Mat.
Med. p. 32. 214. CuUen's Mat. Med. vol. i. p. 272. —
429. vol. ii. p. 172. — 178. Bergius, Mat. Med. vol. i.
p. 264. — 271. Murray's Appar. Medic, vol. v. p. 122. —
J 39. Woodville, IVIed. Bot. vol. iii. p. 4<''0.

Vol. I.

Ai.LivM. See Hyacihthus, Hypoxis, and Tradt-

SCANTl A.

AI.,LIX, Pktiir, In li'invrabhy, a learned divine of the
church of Kngland, and an eminent writer, was born in the
vear 1641, at Alen(;oii iu France; and after receiving a
liberal education, became miniller of the refomled church
at Rouen. In this lituation he acipiired great reputation
by his excellent writings on the fubjeft of the Lucharilf.
From hence lie removed to Charenton, v/iiicli was the re-
fort (jf the moll didiuguillud protellants in France, and
where he had the charge of the principal cliurch belong-
ing to the reformed in that countr)-. Having now im
0])])ortunity of efl'ontially ferving the protcflant caufe, he
preached feveral ferinons in its defence, which were defigncJ
to counleraft the attempts of the bifliop of Meaux, whu
was one of its inoll able opponents. Twelve of thefe fer.
mons were printed at Rotterdam in ifiSy, which were highly
commended by Dayle, and contributed to increafe the re-
putation of the author. U])on the revocation of the edift
of Nantes in i68j, M.-. Allix was obliged to quit I'l-ancc,
and to feek an afylum in I'ngland. His firfl objedl was to
acquire a competent knowledge of our language ; and in thii
he fucceedcd to fiicli a degree, that in 16S8, he publiflicd 1
defence of the Chrillian religion, in a work, entitled, " Rr-
fledtions upon the Books of the Holy Scripture, to efiablifli
tlie Truth of the Chrillian Religion," to which he prefixed
a dedication to king James II. acknowledging, in very re-
fpeftful terms, hi? perfoiial obligations to that princt, and
expreffir.g his fynipathy and concern ftjr the dillrcffcd re-
fugees in general. " I could wifli. Sir," fays he, towardj
the clofe of this dedication, " that this work, which I now
prefent to your Majelly, might be fo lianpy as to pals to
poflerity with this charafter of our a^.■kliowkdglnent ; and
that it might fland as a faithful record for ever, to perpe-
tuate the memory of that lively fenfe of your bounty,
which is imprinted on all our hearts." The author was fu
well received in this counti-)', that he was foon complinieated
with the degree of doftor of divinity, to which his tharailer
and writings gave him a jufl claim ; and in 1690, he was
made treafurer of the church of Salifliurv. The time and
talents of Dr. Allix were diligently employed in writing
feveral valuable treatifcs in defence of the reformed religion,
which he vindicated both from reafon and authority, from
the praftice of early ages, and alfo from the precepts of the
Gofpel ; alledging againfl the church of Rome, that whilfl
fhe treated others with the opprobrious name of heretics,
file Iiad herfelf invented new articles of faith. From the
defence of religion in general, and of the protellant caufe,
he proceeded to that of the doArine of the tiinity againft
the Unitarians, who maintained that the notion of the di.
vinity of Chrifl had originated with Jullin Martyr. This
work exhibits a great difplay of Greek and Hebre\Y lite-
rature ; and it was intended, not merely to refute the affer.
tioiis of the Unitarians, but to prove, that the Trinitarian
doctrine was held by the ancient Jewifli church. At a
time when the diilinguilhed reputation of our author was
nniverfally acknowledged, he incuned fome raillery and
cenfure, particularly on the part of Mr. Bayle, who had
before exprefl'ed fentiinents of the higlieft refpeft for his
abilities and erudition, by a publication, in which he ha-
zarded a conjedlure concerning the fccond advent of
Chrifl, the period of which, deduced from an erroneous
explication of Scripture prophecies, he fixed to the year
1720, or, at the latefl, to x-'i.Oi. His charadler, however,
for emiKci.t talents, indefatigable afliduity, extciiive litcra-
4 Z ture,

ALL

turf, and various fciviccs wliich lie liad r<rnder«d to religion
and i.'ic reformation, was not depreciated in the eftimation
of llie bcil judges. Having prolradcd his ufefiil life, and
enjoytd an uncommon lliarc of health and fpirits to the
76th year of his age, he died at London, Feb. 21 (I, 1717 ;
" Icavmg behind him the reputation of a man equally iilTidu-
ous in the rlglit diftharge of all th- offices of public and
private life, and every way as amiable for his virtues and
focial qualities, as venerable for his uprightnefs and inte-
grity, and famous for his various and profound Icarn-

Mr. Bayle highly commends the learning, candour, and
abilities of Dr. AUix ; and in fpcaking of'his fermons he
fays, '' that they contain a thonfaiid beautiful paflages,
equally llrong in fentiment, and dehcatc in their turn and
cxpreflion." His works were numerous, and they were
written in Latin, French, and Englifli. Thofe of the firil
clafs were " A Diirertation on the (irft rife of the Triia-
gium or Doxologv," Kvo, Rouen, 1674; " On the Blood
of our Lord Jcfiis Chrill," 8vo. ; " On the Life and
Writings of Tenullian," i2mo. Amfterdam, 1701 ; "On
the authority of certain Councils," 8vo. 1680; " Anafta-
fius's twelfth Book of Contemplations on the Six Days
Work of the Creation, &c. from the Verfion and with the
Notes of Andrew Uacier, with an expoftulatory Prefiice,
&c." 4to. London, 1682 : " An hillorical Preface, as to
the Doctrine of Tranfubftantiation, to the Determination
of Brother John Paris, Jacobin, as to the mode of our
Lord's Body exifting in the Sacrament of the Altar, &c."
8vo. London, 1686 ; " Of the two Advents of the Mefliah,
in as many DifTertations againft the Jevi-s," l2mo. Lon-
don 1701 ; " Nedtarius's Confutation of the Pope's Au-
thority in the Church," a tranflation from the Greek ori-
ginal, printed in 1672 in Moldavia, 8vo. London, 1702 ;
" A Preface to, Augullus Herman Francke's Introduction
to the Reading of the Holy Scriptures," 8vo. London,
1 706 ; " A Diffeitation on the Year and Month of the
Nativity of our Lord Jefus Chrill," 8vo. London, 1707,
and 1 7 10. In French, Dr. AUix publidied, " An Anfwer
to a Diflertation of Anfelm on Bertram and John Scot,"
printed at the clofe of Claude's anfwer to Arnaud, Quevilly,
8vo. 1670 ; " Ratramn, or Bertrand, the Prieft, on the
Body and Blood of our Lord," in Latin and French, l2mo.
Rouen, 1672; " Twelve Sermons on feveral Texts,"
12mo. Rotterdam, 1685; " The Maxims of a good Chrif-
tian," Amfterdam, 1687 ; " St. Paul's Farewell to the
Ephefians," i2mo. Amft. 1688; "Preparations for the
Lord's Supper," 8vo. often printed at Geneva. In Eng-
lifli we have by Dr. AUix, " Refleftions upon the Books of
the Holy Scripture, to prove the Truth of the Chriftian
Religion," 2 vols. Svo. London, 1688 ; " Some Remarks
upon the Ecclefiallical Hiftory of the Ancient Churches of
Piedmont," 4to. London, 1690; in anfwer to the " Hif-
tory of the Variations of the Proteftants in Matters of
Faith," by the bilhop of Meaux, which was penned to faci-
litate the defign of Lewis XIV. to oblige all his fubjefts
to be, or fecm to be, of one faith ; " Refearches upon the
Ecclcfiaftical Hiftory of the Ancient Churches of the
Albigenfcs," 4to. London, 1692 ; " The Judgment of
the Ancient Jewifli Church, againft the Unitarians in the
Controverfy upon the Holy Trinity, and the divinity of our
BlefTed Saviour," Svo. London, 1689 ; " Preface and Ar-
guments on the Pfalms," in which the author difapproves
uf the notion of a double completion of the prophecies
contained in them ; " The Prophecies which Mr. Whifton

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applies to the times immediately foUowing the appearance of

the Mcfliah, confukred and examined," Svo. London, 1707 ;
" Remarks upon fome Places of Mr. Whiilon's Books, either
printed or in MS." 8vo. London, 17 u. Biog. Brit.

ALLOA, or Alloway, mGeography, a fea-port town of
Scotland, fituated in the Frith of Forth, about 10 miles
above Leit'i, and five miles caft of Stilling. The town is
populous, has two market days in the week, and is remark-
able for its fine caftle, the feat of the Earl of Mar, and
for its adjacent coal-mines. The harbour is commodious,
having a good depth of water for fliips of burden, and
veflels are expeditiouUy loaded with coals, conveyed from
the pits by a waggon-way in carriages of fuch eafy draught,
that one horfe may draw three waggons, each containing
one ton and an half. A dry dock has lately been ereded,
and there is a glafs-houfe in the town, from which any
quantity of bottles may be fupplied at the fhortcft notice.

The I'nth at this town firft becomes a copious and navi-
gable river. N. lat. se^io'. W. long. 3° 45'. The tower and
lands of Alloa were exchanged by David king of Scots in
1355, with Thomas Lord Erflcine, for the lands and eftate
of Stratilgarney, in PerthUiire, and fince that time the
callle has been the rcfidence of the family of Mar. The
fituation is beautiful, and the gardens, containing about 40
acres, were laid out under the direction of Le Nature, and
the plantation was begun in 1706. The tower of Alloa is
89 feet high, its walls are 1 2 feet thick, and it was built
towards the clofe of the 13th century. The laft heir of
the Scots monarchy, who was nurtured here, was Henry
prince of Wales ; of whom fome youthful relics are pre-
ferved, as is alfo the private fignet of the unfortunate Mary,
after (he was obliged, by the treaty of Edinburgh, to dellft
from wearing the arms of England in the firft quarter, the
chair of James VI. her fon, and the feftive chair of Thomas
Lord Erikine, the fecond earl of Mar of that name, with
an infcription ;

" Soli deo honor et gloria."

ALLOBROGES, in Ancient Geography, the inhabit-
ants of that part of Gallia Narbonenfis, which was fituated
between the rivers Ifara to the fouth, and Rhodanus to the
north, and the lacus Lemanus, comprehending a great part
of the countries fince known by the names of Savoy, Dau-
phine, and Piedmont. Polybius, Plutarch, Dion, and Ap-
pian write their name, Allolriges, and Ptolemy and Stephan.
Byz. Allobryges ; but the true orthography, eftablifiied by
two infcriptions, is Allohroges. Their metropoUs was Vien-
na. The AUobroges were inferior, neither in ftrength no'r
riches, to any of the inhabitants of Gaul. When Hanni-
bal palled the Rhine into their country, he found two bro-
thers contending for the crown, and took part with the
eldeft. This people, whofe country bordered on that of
the Salycs, and with whom they were in amity, were dif-
pofed to fuccour them againft C. Sextius Calvinus, who
had overcome TeutomaUus, their king. But after Domi-
tius had, during his confulfhip, fettled the country of the
Salyes in peace, a work which had been happily begun by
Sextius, three years before, the AUobroges, being uneafy at
the fettlement of the Romans in their neighbourhood, pre-
pared to make an attack upon the Roman colony at
Aqu» Sextiae. Domitius, in order to prevent the Arverni,
a powerful people, from joining the AUobroges, formed an
aUiance with the jEdui, one of the nioft confiderable na-
tions in Tranfalpine Gaul. In confequencc of this con-
nexion the Arverni commenced hoftihties againft the iEdui;

and

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nnd tlie Roman general took occafion, from this circuin-
ihmce, to force a pafTage into the counlry of the Avvi.nii,
whofe king fent a deputation to the general, attended by a
nuniber of large dogs, and a bard or priell, who tlianntcd
the praifes of his king, the people, and the ambadador.
The envoy, after being received with refpeft by Domilius,
aiftiming an imperions air, commanded him, in the name of
his mailer, to forbear molefting the Allobiogcs, and immedi-
ately to retire from Gaul. Domitius, nniiitiniidatcd by
tills addrcfs, gave orders for his troops to march into the
friiitfnl plains of the Cavari, in the neighbouriiood of the
prefent Avignon. Wliillt he was encamped near a village,
called Vindulla, he was attacked by the Allubroges ; but
they were eafdy routed by his regular and well dllciplined
troops. We are told that 20,000 Gauls were killed on the
fpot, and 3,000 made prifoners of war. The Allobroges,
after this defeat, and another viftory gained by Fabius
Maximus over the Arverni, fubmitted ; and fo important
was this event deemed at Rome, that Fabius took from this
occafion the furname of Allobrox. At length the Romans
m ide themfelves mailers of their whole country. Cicero,
(Catilin. iii.) commends the Allobroges for their fidelity ;
hut Horace (Epod. xvi.) reproaches them, on account of
their fondiiefs for novelty :

" Novifque rebus infidelis Allobrox."

ALLOCATION, Allocatio, the admitting or al-
lowing of an article in an account ; and paffing it as fuch.

Allocation is alfoan allowance made upon an account;
■ufed in the exchequer. Hence,

ALLOCATIONE/rtf;V«;/(r, a writ direfted to thelord-
treafurer and barons ot the exchequer, upon tiie complaint
of fome accountant ; commanding him to allow him fuch
funis as he hath in execution of his office lawfully expended.
Reg. Orig. p. 206.

ALLOCATO comitalu, is a new writ of exigent al-
lowed, before any other county-court holden, when the
former has not been fully ferved, or complied with, &c.
•Fitz. Exig. 14.

ALLOCUTION. See Allocution.

ALLODIAL, in Andent Cujloms. See Allodium.

Allodial tiiiure of Innds, in Agricuhnre, a fort of free
"tenure ftill exifting in fome parts of Scotland, under which
the tenant is not required either to pay any quit-rent, or
acknowledge a fupcrior.

ALLODIARIUS, the owner or proprietor of an al-
lod'iiim, or allodial lands ; alfo ufed to denote a lord para-
-mount of a manor.

alotla.

iloi

This is otherwife written aloJlanus, alotlarws, aloanus,

•aloer, aloerhis, and aleut'ier.

ALLODIUM, or Alleud, land held of a man's own
right, without acknowledgment of fen'iee, or payment of

,any new rent to another; and this is property in the highefl
degree ; but feiidum or feodum, is fuch land as is held of
another for which fervice is done, or rent is paid, as an ac-
knowledgment thereof. When the barbarous nations over-
run Europe, and fettled in the countries which they had

■fubdued, in the fifth and fixth centuries, the viftorious
troops divided the conquered lands. The portion which
fell to every foldier was feized by him as a recompence
due to his valour, as a fettlement acquired by his own

■fword. He took pofleffion of it as a freeman in full pro-
perty. He enjoyed it during his own life, and could dif-
pofe of it at pleafure, or tranfmit it as an inheritance to

'his children. Thus property in land became fixed. It was

ALL

at the fame time allad'ml ; i. e. the potTefTor had the
entire right of property and dominion ; he held of no fove-
rcigu or fnperior lord, to whom he was bound to do l>o-
mage, and perform fervice. How it afterwards was con-
verted into feudal poil'eflion, will appear under the aiticlci
Benekicium, Feuu, and Feudal Svstkm.

In feveral parts of Europe this change had taken place,
or allodial property had become almoll entirely feudal, be-
fore the beginiiing of the 10th century. The former fpe-
cies of property leeins to be fo much better and more de-
firable than the latter, that fuch a change feema furprifing,
efpecially when we confider that the allodial property wai
frequently converted into feudal, by a voluntary deed of
the poifeifor. The motives which led to a choice fo repug-
nant to modern ideas concerning property have been invct-
tigated and explained, with his uinal diicernment and accu-
racy,byMontcfquieuin his Spirit of Laws, lib.x>.xi.c.8.vol.i).
Thofe who were feized of fiefo, fays this writer, (p. 431.)
enjoyed very great advantages. The compolitlon for the
injuries done tiiem was greater than that ot trecmeu. It
was a privilege belonging to the king's vaflal, eftablifhed by
the Salic law, and by that of the Ripuarians, that whoever
killed him Ihould pay a conipolition of 600 fous; whereas
they gave but 200 for the murder of a perfon freuhorn, if
lie was a Frank or Barbarian living under the Salic law,
and only 100 for a Roman, liefides, when a man was
fummoncd in court, and did not make bis appearance,
nor obey the judge's orders, he was appealed before the
king ; and if he perfilled in his contumacy, he was excluded
from the king's protection, and no one was allowed to en-
tertain him, or even to give him a morfel of bread. If he
was a perfon of an ordinary condition, his goods were con-
fifcated ; but if he was the king's vaffal, they were not.
The firft by his contumacy was deemed fuffieicntly con-
vifted of the crime, the fecoiid was not : the former for
the fmalleil crimes was obliged to undergo the trial by boil-
ing water ; the latter was condemned to this trial only in
the cafe of minder. Moreover, the king's vaffals could not
be compelled to fw'car in court againft another vaflal.
Thefe privileges augmented daily, and the capitulary of
Charlemagne does this honour to the king's vaflals, that
they fhall not be obliged to fwear in perfon, but only by
the mouth of their own vaflals. When a perfon who had
thefe honours did not repair to the army, his punifhmeiit
was to abltain from flefli-meat and wine, as long as he had
been abfent from tTie fervice ; but a freeman who negletled
to follow his count, paid a compofition of 60 fous, and
v>-as reduced to llavery till he paid it. When tJitfe fevei-al
clrcnmftances are confidered, it is natural to think th;'t
thofe Franks who were not the king's vaflals, and much
more the Romans, became fond of entering into the ftate
of vaffalage ; and that they might not be deprived of their
domains, they devlfed the ufagc of giving their allodium
to the king, and of receiving it from him afterwards as a
fief, and of nominating to him their heirs. This ufage was
always continued, and took place efpecially during the dif-
orders of the fecond race, when every body flood in need
of a proteftor, and wanted to incorporate himfelf with the
other lords, and to enter, as it were, into the feudal mo-
narchy, becaufe the political no longer exilled. This con-
tinued under the third race, as we find by feveral charters ;
whether they gave their allodium and refumed it by the
fame aft ; or whether it was declared an allodium, and after-
wards acknowledged as a fief. Thefe fiefs were called^ty}
of rejumptlon,

4 Z ;: la

A L I,

In tliofe times of anarchy and difordcr, which became
general in Europe after the death of Charlemagne, it be-
came nccefTary for every man to have a powerful proteAor,
under whofe banner he might range himftlf, and obtain
fecurity againll enemies whom he could not fingly oppoie.
For this rcafon he relinqnilhed his allodial independence,
and fubjec'led himfelf to the feudal fen-ices, that he might
find fafety under the patronage of feme rcfpeflable fupc-
rior. In fome parts of Europe this change from allodial to
feudal property became fo general, that he who pofTclled
land had no longer any liberty of choice left. He was
obliged to recognize fome liege lord, and to hold of him.
Upon this principle was formed the maxim, which, at
length, became general in the law of France, " NuUe terre
Cans feigneur." During the 9th, loth, and great part of
the I ith century, the property in the province of Langue-
doc feems to have been entirely allodial ; and during thefe
centuries, the flate of property feems to have been alike in
Catalonia and the country of RouffiUon. In the Low
Countries allodial property continued to a later period ; for
during the I Ith, 12th, and 13th centuries, this fpecies of
property appears to have been of confiderable extent. Some
velliges of it appear there as late as the 14th century. It
appears alfo by feveral facts, that allodial property fubiilled
in dilTerent parts of Europe long after the introduction of
feudal ter.urcs. Whilil fome pcrfons were fond of relin-
quifhing this kind of p^-ipe-'y, in ower to hold it by feudal
Tr:y.:rc, others were fohcitous to convert their fiefs into
allodial property ; of which initances occur in a charter of
Louis leDcbonnaire, again in 1299, and folate as the year

In Italy, allodial property continued longer in eftimation
tlian in France. Many of the cliarters granted by the em-
perors in the 9th centur)', conveyed an allodial right to
land. But in the i ith centur)', there are found examples
of perfons who refigucd their allodial property, and received
it back as a feudal tenure. In Germany, the imperial vaffals
did not afpire io early to independence as in Fiance, nor
did they fo foon obtain the privilege of obtaining their be-
nefices by hereditary right. Conrad II. or the Sahc, who
began his reign A. D. 1024, is faid to have been the firft
emperor who rendered fiefs hereditary. In Germany, as
well as in France and Italy, a confiderable part of the lands
continued to be allodial long aft^r the feudal mode of tenure

was introduced. Robertfon's Charles V. vol. i. p. 255

Hume's Hift. vol. ii. p. 106. 8vo.

All the lands in England, except the crown-lands in the
king's own hands, in right of his crown, are of the nature
of FEUDUM, or FEE ; for although many have lands by
defcent from their anccftors, and others have bought land.
It cannot come to any either by defcent or purchafe, but
with the burden that was laid upon him who had novel-fee,
or firft of all received it from his lord ; fo that there is no
perfon hath dire^iim dominimii, i. e. the very property
or demefne in any lands, but the king in right of his
crown.

The origin of the word is controverted. Caffcneuve fays,
it is almoft as obfcure as the head of the Nile. There are
few of the European languages, from which one etymo-
logift or other has not derived it ; yet fome, not im-
probably, take it for a pi-imitive French word without
etymon.

Wachter (Gloflar.Germanic voc. Allodium) makes it a com-
pound of the German particle an and lot, i. e. land obtained
fcy lot ; and it appears from the authorities cited by him, and

ALL

by Du Gauge (vcc./o/v) that the northern nations divide^!
the lands which they conquered in this manner.

BoUandus explains allodium, to be pndium, feu qu£v\s
poffejfio libera, jiirifque proprii, Sif non in feudairx clientelari
os:ere accepta.

After the conquctl of the Gauls, the lands were divided
in two ways ; "vix.. into benefices, beneficia ; and allodia. —
Benefices confiHed in lands given by the king to his officers
and fuldlcrs ; either for life, or for a time fixed. See Be-

NEFlCIUM.

Allodia, or alleuds, were fuch lands as were left in pro-
perty to the ancient poffenbrs ; fo that land poflcifcd in pro-
perty, which is mentioned in the law of Charlemagne, was,
according to the ilile of that age, allodial land ; alodes and
proprielas, alodium and proprium being terms perfectly fyno-
iiimous. The clearcil proof of the diftinftion between al-
lodial and beneficiai-y poffeflion is contained in two charters,
publilhed by iVIuratorl, by which it appears that a perfoii
might poffefs one part of his eftate as allodial, v.hicli he
could difpofe of at pleafure, the other as a beneficiuin, of
which he had only the ufutruft, the property returning to
the fuperior lord on his demile. Antiq. Ital. medii xvi, vol. i.
p. 5 59. 565. The fame diilinftion is pointed out in a ca-
pitulare of Charlemagne, A.D. 8 1 2. Edit. Buluz. vol. i.
p. 491. In the curious teilament of Count Evcrard, who
married a daughter of Louis le Dcbonnaire, by which he
difpofes of his eftate amo:;g his children, he diftinguilTics
between what he pofTefTcd proprietate, and what he heid
bencficio, and it appears that the greater part was allodiaL
A. D. 837. Aub. Miraei Opera Diplomatica, Lovan.
1723. p. 19. See Robertfon's Hift. Charles V. vol. i.

The fixty-fecond title of the Salic law, is de allodiis :
where the word fignifies hereditary lands, or thofe derived
from a man's anccllors. Whence allodium and pairimonium
are frequently ufed indifcriminately.

In the ancient cspitulars of Charlemagne, and his fuc-
ceffors, we find allodium conftantly oppofcd to fee ; but, to-
ward the period of the fccond race of kings, it lofl th«
prerogative ; the feudal lords obliged the proprietors of al-
lodial lands to hold of them for the future. The fame
change alfo happened in Germany, &c.

In the cuftomar)- laws of France, we find mention made
of two kinds of allodiums, "n/s.

Allodium nobile, aleu noble, that to which juflitia or
jurifdiclion was annexed ; and which was alfo free from all
homage and fervice.

Allodium villaniim, aleu raturier, that to which no jiirif-
diftion was annexed.

ALLOGIA, in Antiquity, denote winter-quarters ap-
pointed for the foldiery.

Some will have the word of French origin, from logement ;
others, with more probabihty, from the Italian alloggio,
formed of locus, place.

ALLOISI, Baldassare, called Galanino, in Bio-
grapl.y, an eminent painter, was born at Bologna, in 1578,
and educated in the celebrated fchool of the Caracci, wliofe
ftyle he retained in all his compofitions. Being of a melan-
choly difpofition and fond of retirement, he devoted hinv-
felt to the ftudy of his art ; but by his attachment to foii-
tude, he became fo indigent as to be under a necefliLy of
procuring a fubnftence by painting portraits. In this de-
partment of his proftflion he excelled to fuch a degree, as
to gain very high efteem, not only for ftriking refemblance,
and the beauty of his colouring, but for a new and unufuil

boldnefs

ALL

ALL

luildnefs of manner, by which his pon raits feemcd abfo-
liitely to brcatlic. He was allowed to be fnperior to all his
rontcmporaries ; and the Italian writers place him in the
l;\me rank of merit with Vandyck. As an engraver, Mr.
.Strutt mtntions one print done by iiim, which is a copy of
Giiido's beautiful etching from Annib. Caracci, where,
" St. Rock is giving charity to the poor ;" hut the copy,
he fays, is far inferior to the original. He died in 1638.
Pilkington and Strutt.

ALLOM. SecAi.uM.

ALLONGE, in Fairing, a thruft, or pass at the ene-
my. The word is French, formed of the verb, alloiigir, to
hngthen out a thing.

ALLOPHYLL denoting Strangers, in Ancient Geo-
graphy, a name given by Sulpicius Scverus, and alio in the
Septuagint, to the Philiilincs.

ALLOPHYLUS, in Botany, a genus of the oC-lanrlria
tnonigynia clais and order, and of the natural order of o-w///-
fer.r, Ju(T. ; the characters of which are, that the r.z/y.v is a
four-leaved pcrianthinm, leaflets orbiculate, exterior, oppo-
flte, lefferby half; the corolla has four petals, lefs than tlie
calyx, orbiculate, equal, claws broad, of the length of the
two fmaller leaves of the calyx ; xhejlamens confill of fila-
ments filiform, of the length of the corolla, antiicrs roundilh;
the piJlUhtm has a germ fuperior, roundilh, twin, ilyle fili-
form, longer than the ftamens, ftigma bifid, with the divi-
fions rolled back, quadrilid (Linn. Syft.). N. I). Tiie
flowers of Rhus Cominia and Cobbe agree with the cha-
radter of this genus ; and Aporetica of Forfter ftiould be re-
ferred to it. Swart/.. Martyn enumerates five, and Gmelin
in his fyftem of Linnaeus three fpec'Cf. I. A. ziylanictis, with
leaves oval acuminate quite entire, racemes axillar)-, very
fhoit. This is a tree having t!ie appearance of Perfea, and
a native of Ceylon : its fruit is yet unknown. 2. A. rigi-
dtis, with leaves fimple, de.iticulated and fpiny, and (lowers
in racemes. 3. A. raccmofus, with leaves tcrnate, (lowers
in racemes. This and the lalt fpecies are natives of Kif-
paniola. 4. A. cominia, Rhus comi-nia of Linnrcus, &c.
cominia of Brown, and toxicodendron arboreum of Tounie-
fort, has leaves ternate, and flowers in panicles, rifcs 30
feet in height, with a tltm of the thicknefs of a man's thigh,-
and fmooth a(h-coloured bark, with numerous whltilh
yellow flowers, to which fucceed Imall, orange-coloured,
iVnooth berries, about the ^\7.e of a pin's head, with a brit-
tle (hell and large kernel, and grows plentifully in Jamaica.
It was introduced into Kew Garden in 177S, by Dr.
Clark. 5. A. ternatus, with leaves ternate ferrate, and ra-
cemes long terminating, is a fhrub five feet high with
fpreadinir branches, and fmall white flowers with hairy pe-
tals, and a neclary of four glands, and bifid ftyle. It is a
native of Cochiuchina, by the banks of rivers ; and the in-
habitants ufe the leaves as a cataplafm in contufions.

ALLORI, Allessandro, called Bronzino, in Bio-
' gi'ipf'^i '' painter of hillory and portrait, was born at Flo-
rence in 1535, and was the difciple of Agnolo Bronzino,
who, by his affeclionate attention, fnpplied the place of his
father, whom he loft when he was five years old. He was
airiduo\is in his application, and imitated the manner not
only of his mafter, but the different manners of other moll
eminent matters. His firit work was a crucifixion, inteaded
for an altar-piece, confiding of a variety of figures we'-!-
grouped, beautifully coloured, and diftinguiflied by good
expreflion. In painting portraits he was much encouraged,
and devoted much of his time to this branch of iiis prufcf-
fion. His pitlnre of the " Laft Judgment," after the
manner of Michael Angelo Buonaroti, wliofe works he lludied

with peculiar attention and pleafurc, is (lill prefcrveJ at
Rome, and will pei-petuatc his honour. He died in 1607.
Pilkington.

Allori, Christofaro, called Bronzing, the fon and
difciple of the former, was born at Florence is 1577 ;
and having fludied defign from the works of Sauti di
Titi, and colouring from the lively and elegant tints of
Cigoli, he acquired a manner very difl'ercnt from that of
his father, which he firlt followed. He executed fcveral
defigns for altars ; but he excelled in fmall pictures, into
which he introduced a number of minute figur-s, fo cor-
reftly drawn, fo round and relieved by the colouring, and
fo delicately touched, that it was furprihng how the hand
or eye could execute them. His portraits, as large as life,
were highly valued for the exprcflion and the attitude.
Pilkington.

ALIX)RIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Crete.
Steph. Byz.

ALLOS, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Lower Alps, and dillriA of Pjarcelonttte, four
miles north of Colmar and nine fouth of Barcclonette.

ALLOSYGNE, in Ancient Geography, a fea-porl towu
of India, on this fide the Ganges.

ALLOTRIGyE, or Allitrio^e, a people placed by
Strabo in tiic northern pait of .Spain, and probably the
ir.nie with the A/lrigona of Ptolemy, and Antrigones of
Pliny.

AIjLOTTING, or Allotment of goods, in matters
of Coinnifrce, is when a (hip's cargo is divided into feveral
parts, bought by divers perfons, whofe names are written
on as many pieces of paper, which arc applied bv an indif-
ferent jJci-fon to the ftiveral lots or parcels ; by which means
the goods are divided without partiality ; every man having
the parcel to which the lot with his name upon it is appro-
priated. See Inch of Canille.

ALLOTMENTS of J.ands, in Agriculture, are fucL
portions of ground as are allotted to claimants on the divi-
fion and inclofure of commons or otlier walle lands, and
which are generally proportionate to the extent of the right
which they enjoy upon them, from the pofllllion of lands,
tenements, 5tc. in the lame parilh in which they are
placed.

ALI,OUE', in Geography, a town of France in the de-
partment of the Charente, and diilrift of Confolent, on tbf
Chaieate, two leagues well of Confolent.

AI^LOVIA, in Botany, a fpecies of Maranta.

ALLOW, a river of England in Northumberlandv
which runs into the Tyne, between Hexham and- New-
caftie.

ALLOWANCE of Franchife, in L.vw. See Fran-
chise.

Allowance of Partlon. See Pardon.

Allowance of Writs of Error. See Error- anj

JuDGr4ENT.

Allowance to Bunlrupts. See Bankrupt.

ALLOWAY Creel:, \n Geography, a creek of Anvrica,
in the county of Salem, and State of Nc.v Jerfey, wliich
empties itfelf into the Delaware. It is navigable 16 miles,
with the interruption of draw-bridges.

ALLOY or Allav;, — /llliage, I'v. — I.egirenMetallverfi'
fung. Germ Lcga, Ital.

The true origin of tliis word is probably derived through
the meduim of the French, from the I^atin ad-ligatio, fig-
nifying the aCl of tying, or binding, orconnetiing together ;
fince, however, the term was formerly ainloll wholly con-
fiucd, in England, to the goldfmiihs and the mint, where it

was

ALL

was appropriated to tlie lowering the purity of gold or filver
by mixture with copper, previoufly to its being coined or
maiiufackured, it fecins gradually to hnve afTumcd the ortlio-
praphy and meaning of the Englifli verb to allay, /'. e. to
ab;'.te, to lowir. All the other known combinations of
metal; with eacli other were fimply called nii.\fil metals. But
as inercafcd attention has been paid to tiie accuracy of che-
mical Nomenclature, the term alloy has at length compre-
hended all the binary and more complicated metallic com-
pounds ; thofe of which mercuiy makes a part, being indeed
more ^encrallv known by the name Amalgam.

Anailoy, therefore, may be defined, a combination of
anv two or more metals, into one homogeneous mafs ; to
tlie exprefs cxclufion of mere mechanical mixtures, which,
however, in fome cafes, are not eafily diftinguilhed from
ccnuine alloys. The moll valuable and ufeful of thefe have
acquired peculiar names, fuch as brafs, type-metal, tutenag,
bron/.e, fpeculum-metal, &c. all of which will be defcribed
in their proper places hereafter ; the objeA in this article
bein"' confmed to the ilatcment of fuch general fafts and
inferences as arc deducible from a comparifon with each other
of thofe experiments on the combinations of metals that
have been made with fuflicicnt accuracy, the number of which
is unfortunately very fmail.

As no metal, except mercur)', is fluid at the common at-
mofpbcrical temperature, and as without the fluidity of one
at lead of the ingredients, no metallic combinations can take
place, it is ncceifar)' to expofe the materials in a crucible, or
other proner veflel, to a 1-eat fomewhat greater than is re-
quired for the liqutfaftion of their moft fufible part ; but as
this diminution of cohefion is equally favourable to intimate
mixture as to chemical combination, and fince all tendency
to reparation ceafcs, the very moment of the congelation of
the mafs, it no doubt often happens that thefe two circum-
ftances are confounded together, and thus caufe many of the
anomalies and peculiar difiiculties with which the fubjeft is
encumbered.

The method that is given in moft chemical books for af-
certaining whether a mafs of metal is a real alloy, or only a
mechanical mixture, confifts in fufing it with as little heat as
poflible, and keeping it in this ftate till its component parts
feparate from each other, like oil from water, according to
their refpeftive fpecific gravities ; and perhaps there is upon
the whole no other way equally fimple and praflicable of
cffefting this ; at the fame time that it is liable to a number
of errors. In the finl place, when experimenting at high
temperatures, it is very difficult and indeed impoflible to
prefcrve an equal degree of heat through the procefs, and it
is highly probable that a metallic combination may take
place at a mere melting heat, which is decompofed by a
higher one, or -vice •uerfa. If this may happen in alloys that
confift of only two materials, it is ftill more likely to do fo
when three or a ftill greater number of metals are united into
one mafs. Thus, if an alloy made of one part zinc and two
of mercury be mixed with another of one part bifmuth and
one mercury, the whole may be fufed together by a heat
juft fufficient to make them flow, may be kept in fufion for
a confiderable time, and then poured into a melting cone
without any feparation of the conftituent parts ; but when
the altey is heated lo as to make the mercury boil, the
greater part of the zinc immediately rifes to the furface and
feparates, owing to the deftrurtion of the equilibrium between
the antagonift affinities, by the prefence of a certain quantity
of caloric.

Again, fuppofing no change in the affinities to take place,
if the mixed -metals are nearly of the fame fufibility and

ALL

fpecific gravity, a fpontaneous feparation by fufion isfcarccly
to be expected : fo alfo, if they differ in thefe two particular;!,
and the metal of eaiieft fution is of the greatell fpecific
gravity, as in an alloy of copper and lead, where the two
parts are in equal proportions, the tirft efcft of the lieat
Avill be the feparation of part of the lead before the mais
enters into fufion, this will occupy the bottom of the cru-
cible, and the fufibihty of the alloy decreafir.g by the gradu.il
feparation of the lead, a temperature nearly equal to I'se
melting heat of copper will be required to bring the whole
to a fluid ftate ; when this is effected, the lead receiving ths
fiift imprefTion of the heat as it enters the crucible from
below, being alfo covered with melted copper, will be made
to boil, and in confequence will be continually thrown up
into the copper notwitiiftanding itsfuperior fpecific gravity.

The only way, therefore, of determining with certainty
the difference between an alloy and a mere mixture, is by a
comparifon of the properties of the compound with thofe
of its elements, which if they are not intermediate, nor caiifed
by mere mechanical aftion on each other, may be received
as adequate evidence of a proper chemical union. Here,
however, a number of difficulties and doubts, as yet wholly
uninvelligated and incapable of being rcfolved by common
cafes of affinity, require examination.

If two metals being fufed together produce a mafs, whofe
fpecific gravity is either greater orlefs than the mean fpecific
gravity of its elements, the refult is faid to be an alloy, or
proper chemical combination. How few however, if even
any experiments for the purpofe of aicertaining this have
been made with fufficient care ? It is not enough that the
fpecific gravity of each of the fimple metals fliould be taken
and compared with that of the alloy ; but they ought to
have been previoufly melted by themfelves, and cooled in the
fame circum ftances to which the alloy was afterwards to be
expofed. For example, fuppofe an alloy to be made of
copper and gold, equal parts ; the copper to have been cut
off from a piece of hard wire, and the gold to have been
laminated, the fpecific gravity of the firil ■ vs-ill be nearly
8.87 and of the latter 19.36; the two metals being thoroughly
mixed by fufion, and either left to cool in the crucible or
poured into a melting cone, are then weighed in the hydrof-
tatic balance, and the difference or agreement between the
fpecific gravity of the aUoy and the mean gravity of the
materials, is confidered as a fair ground of inference for the
reality of chemical combination, or the contrary. But tfs
fpecific gravity of copper cooled flowly and not wire-dravi-n
is only 7.7P, and that of gold in the fame circumftances is
19.25 ; now the alloy is precilely in this ftate, having been
merely melted and cooled gradually ; if therefore no che-
mical combination whatever had taken place, yet the fpecific
gravity of the alloy, inftead of being = 14. 1 1, as deduced
by calculation from that of the materials, would be = 1 3.51,
merely from the circumftance of flow cooling without com-
preffion. Ey cooling a malleable metal fuddenly, as by
pouring it into cold water, it becomes hard, and in fome
degree brittle, refembhng in this refpeft a piece of the fame
metal that has been laminated without fubfequcnt annealing ;
the fpecific gravity of the laminated metal is increafed, and
probably the fame effeft is produced by the fudden cooling ;
thus a great feeming change in fpecific gravity may exill
where there is none in faft. Befides, it is poffible that a real
alteration of fpecific gravity may appear in a mixture of two
metals, which, inftead of being an evidence of chemical com-
bination fliall be merely the effeft of the hardnefs and
tenacity of one of them. It is well known that all metals
expand by heat, and alter their dimenfions when pafTing from

the

ALL

ALL

llii; fluid to tlie folij tlate. Let A B tlienbe a binan' mix-
ture of three parts A, and one B ; A is the leall fiilible of
the two and contratis Icafl in coohng ; it will iieccfrarily
liappcii therefore, upon the fuppofition that no ciiemical
silinity fubfilh between them, that when they are well
mixed by fiifion and then allowed to cool, A will harden
firll, and by it:* excefs in quantity will entirely envelope all the
iiK-lted particles of B with a crull impenetrable to the air,
: il capable of fupporting the whole atniofpheric prefTnre ;
. iierwards B will become folid and contra^, kaving
[art of the cell which it occupied while fluid, a perfedi
vacuum, at the fame time that thefc pores may cafily be
iiivllible even to common magnifiers; hence the rcfult
will be a mixture of Icfs than the mean fpccilic
[(ravlty.

The change that takes place in the duclility of metals
wlien mixed together is generally brought forwards as one
of the moil llriking proofs of chemical combination ; even
here, however, difficulties occur that have not yet been ex-
jilained. Macquer lays it down as a conftunt fa6t that alloys
are lefs duftile tlian tlie metals of which they are compofed,
and Gellcrt in his C/jimie Mctallur^iquc infers, that the mix-
tare of gold with iilver is not a true alloy on account of its
]unfecl duftility ; from the want of accurate experiments
it is perhaps impoffible at prefent to determine the queftion ;
but, fo far from the pofition of Macquer and Gellert being
iniiverfally true, the general rcfult of the fiifts which have
liL'cn hitherto afcertained, if rightly underftood, feems to
render the direft reverfe highly probable ; and that the
brittlenefs of alloys from duftile materials is in all cafes a
proof of fuperfaturation, or of mere mechanical mixture.
When to any quantity cf pure copper one third of zinc is
added, the alloy called brafs is produced ; and that this is a
chemical combination between the two metals may be in-
ferred from the remarkable change of colour and fufibility
of the mafs ; the duftility however of brafs is fully equal
to that of copper. But if the proportion of zinc is in-
creafed to an equality with the copper, the colour of the
alloy, inftead of being yellow like gold, will be nearly a
medium between that of brafs and of zinc, and its duftility
will be deftroyed ; thus fhewing, that the point of mutual
faturation of thefe metals is between one third and a half of
zinc to two thirds and a half of copper, and alfo that
brafs has little or no affinity with zinc. The duftility of
any metal depends on the ftrong cohefive attraftion of its
particles, which flide upon each other when inipreffed by any
external force inlUad of feparating ; now it may readily be
conceived that two duftile metals being intimately mixed fo
as that every particle of the one is in contaft with a particle
of the other, provided no very powerful affinity fubfiils
between them, may be broken by a blow which would only
liave nightly altered the relative pofition of homogeneous
cohering particles ; and therefore, that a brittle mixture of
two ductile metals does not neceflarily infer a chemical com-
bination between them.

Change of colour, in the few cafes in which it occurs,
provided it is not intermediate between thofe of the elements
of any alloy, may be confidered as a very probable evidence
of chemical union ; of this kind is the golden colour of
brafs, and the filveiy white of arfenicated copper. But the
general fimilarityof colour between all the white metals and
their alloys, confines the apphcation of this external charafler
lo a very few inflances.

One of the moft ftriking proofs of aftual combination
between the parts of an alloy, or at leaft. what is the molt

difficult of explanation upon the thcon' of mere mechanical
mixture, is a remarkable increafe of fufibility ; this, in almoft
all cafes, is much greater than could be inferred from the
mean fufibility of its component parts ; thus equal parts of
tin and iron will melt at the fame temperature as is required
for equal parts of tiii and copper, or bronze, nutwith-
ftanding the great difference between the fufing heat
of copper and iron, when they are each of them pure.
So alfo an alloy of tin, bifmuth and lead, will melt in
boiling water, which is a lefs heat than is ncceffaiy for
the liquefaction even of bifmuth, the moft fufible of the
three.

The oxydability of an alloy is generally either greater or
lefs than that of the fimple metals. Tin and lead for inllance
being mixed together and expofcd to alow red heat take fire
and oxydate almoft inllantaneoufly.

Elective affinity takes place in the combinations of ractals,
as in thole of all other fubllances ; thus an alloy of copper
and filver is dcconipofable by lead. Again certain metals
refill luperfaturation, while others maybe mixed in almoft all
proportions, as cobalt may be combined with a certain pro-
portion of lead, but cannot even be mixed with a larger
quantity. Thefe enquiries, however, though highly interelt-
ing and intimately connefted with many of the ufeful arts,
have been almoft wholly negledled during the laft fifty years ;
and the experiments of Gellert, Kraaft and Lewis, ilill con-
tiiuie to be our only authorities. JVIany peculiar difficulties
attend the inveftigation of the general principles, according
to which metals att on each other, and the general ])henomena
ncceffarily attending fuch aftion ; it is a fubject that may
demand the abilities, and will recompence the attention, of the
grcatefl and moil accurate philofopher, and which unfor-
tunately has hitherto received lefs notice than any other
branch of chemical enquiry.

Alloy of coinage. See Assay.

ALL-SAINTS, \n Geography. See ALV-Saints.

ALL-SEED, in Botany. See Linum and Cheno-

PODIUM.

ALL-SPICE. See Myrtus.

ALLSTADT, or Allstett, in Geography, a very
ancient town of Germany, in the circle of Upper Saxony,
and principality of Eifenach ; 26 miles north of Weimar,
and five fouth-fouth-eail of Sangerhaufen. The emperor
Otho had a palace in this town, and held a diet here in 974,
It belongs to a bailiwick of the fame name, lying bctweea
that of Sangerhaufen in tlie eleftorate of Saxony, the prin-
cipality of Qiierfurt, and the bailiwick of Bocklledt, in the
county of Mansfcld.

ALLUDSJE, a town of Arabia, 14 miles eaft-north-
eaft of Beitel Fakili.

ALLUM. See Alum.

Allv mbaddy, in Geography, a town of Hindoftan, in the
country of the Myfore, 63 miles call of Seringapatam, and
50 fouth of Bangalore.

Allum Bay, lies round the Needles point, or north
eaft from the rocks fo called, at the weft end of the Ifle of
Wight, on the coaft of Hampfhire. It has good anchorage,
and a fufficient depth of water, not far from the bottom of
the bay, and out of the ftrong run of the tide, which is fre-
quently very rapid, and accelerates or retards the motion of
a vefiel, as a fhip falls with or againft its diredtion, to an
aftonifliing degree.

ALLUME'E, Fr., in HeraHry, a term applied to the
eyes of a bear, or other beall, when th-y are drawn fparkling
and red.

7 ALLUMETiE,

A L L

ALLUMETJE, m Jnclent G.^os>-aphy, the name of an
-ancient people of Arabia Felix.

ALLITMINOR, from the Fieiich n/A//H.-r, to hghten, is
ufcd for one who coloiireth or p:iinti.tli upon paper or parch-
ment ; and the rcafun is, becaufe he gives light and or-
niment by his colours to the letters, or other figures. Such
oniaments are ftvled illuminations. The wi-rd is ufed in
ilat. I Rich, ill.' cap. 9. But now fuch apcrlon is called a
Jimnrr.

ALLUMINOUS, any thing that contains allum, or par-
takes of the nature and qualities of that salt.

Crew defcribes fome extraordiiiai7 kinds of allummous
.earths in the repofitorv of the Royal Society.

At LUMINOUS 6%, Earth, and Schyi, in Agiiaillure.
See Clay, Earth, and Schist.

Alluminous ivaters, are thofe impregnated with the
j.articles of that fait.

Jlhim'moiis ivalers make a fpecies of thofe called mineral
or medicinal wateis.

We have alfo factitious waters, under the denomination
of alluminous ; fuch as that called in the (hops aqua ailumhiofa
.tnagijicna/is.

Its preparation is thus: take of rock-alliim, and white
fublimate, ana 3ii. boil them in rofe and plantain water,
.-ana Ifc i. till half is confumed ; filter the remainder, and keep
it for ufe.

This is prefcribed againft deformities of the ll<in, and
often for the itch ; but it is an uncertain remedy, and not to
be ufed without caution.

ALLUSH, or Allush, in Scripturt: Geography, a city
of Idumea, which was one of the ftations of the Ifraelites,
between Dophkah and Rephidim, in their migration from
,the wilderncfs of Sin to that of Sinai. Numbers, xx.xiii.
13, 14. Eufebius and St. Jerom fix Allufli near Gabala, t. e.
Pctra, the capital of Arabia PetiKa. In the accounts of
the empire, it is fituated in the third Paleftine, and by
Ptolemy among the cities of Idumea. It is alfo called
Eluza or Chaluza. The Jerufalem Targum, in Gen. xxv.
18. and in Exod. xvi. 22. tranflates the defeit of Seir by
.AlKifn. Calmet.

ALLUSION, Allusio, formed of aJ, and lujire, to
play, in Rhtt'jric, a figure whereby fomething is applied to,
or underflood of another, by reafon of fome fimihtude of
name, or found.

Camden defines allufioii a dalliance, or playing with words
alike in found, but unhke in fenfe ; by changing, adding,
or fubtradling a letter, or two ; whence words refembling
one another become applicable to different fubjefts. Thus
the Almighty, if we may ufe facred authority, changed
Abram, ;. e. high father, into Abraham, ;'. e. father of

many Thus the Romans played on their tipphng emperor

Tiberius Nero, by calling him Biberius Mero : and thus in
Qninftilian the four fellow Placidus is called Acidns.

Allufion is a fpecies of Comparison, not extending to
a Simile, and confiding chiefly in comparing one faft with
another. The moft fanciful and poetical is, when two fafts,
bearing a remote refemblance in a few circumftances, are
compared ; of which we have a beautiful example in one of
Dr. Ogden's fermons. " If it be the obfcure, the minute,
the ceremonial parts of religion for which we are contending,
though the triumph be empty, the difpute is dangerous ;
like the men of Ai we purfue, perhaps, fome little party
that flies before us, and are anxious that not a ftraggler
(hould efcape, but when we look behind us we behold our city
in flames." Lowth's Leftures by Gregory, vol. i. p. 251.

ALL

Allufior.5 are nearly allied to wliat we popularly call
puns.

ALLUVI.'VL LiMESTOKK, in Agriculture, a fort of foft
limeftoue found in many diftrifts, iuppofed to have been
for.tied in the early ages of the world by the difpoiition of
calcareous matters held in the ftate of folulion in water.
This kind of limellone is fuppofed by Dr. Darwin, in his
Philofophy of Agriculture, to contain magiiefia, which it
probably may have acquired from the fea-water in which it
was originally diffulved. Such limellone as contaiiis mag-
nefia has been found, by the experiments of Mr. Tennaiit,
to be much lefs ufeful when burnt into lime, for the purpofes
of acrriculturc, than fuch as is purely of the calcareous
kind.

ALLUVION, Alluvio, formed of adluo, I luafl} to,
compounded of ad and lavo, in the Ciniil Law, a gradual
addition or accretion made along the fea-fhore, or the banlts
of large rivers.

The civil law places alluvion among the lawful means of
acquifition ; and defines it to be a latent, imperceptible ac-
cretion Hence, where any confiderable portion of ground

is torn away at once, by an inundation, and joined to fome
neighbouring ellate, this is not acquired by right of allu-
vion, but may declaimed ag-jn by the former owner.

Bracton fays, that if an ifliuid arife in the middle of a
river, it belongs in common to thofe w ho have lands on each
iide of it ; but if it be nearer to one bank than the other,
it belongs only to him who is proprietor of the neareft
fhore ; which is agieeable to the civil law. However, if
the whole foil of the river is the freehold of any one
man, as it ufually is when a feveral fifliery is claimed, in this
cafe it feems juft, and fuch is the conftant practice, that the
eyotts or fittle iflands, arifing in any part of the river, fliall
be the property of him who owneth the pifcary and the foil.
But if a new ifland rife in the fea, though the civil law gives
it to the firft occupant, yet ours gives it to the king. And
as to lands gained from the fea, either by alluvion, by the
wafhing up of fand and earth, fo as in time to make terra
firma, or hy iterelillion, as when the fea {brinks back below
the ufual water-mark ; in thefe cafes the law is held to be,
that if this gain be by little and little, by finall and imper-
ceptible degrees, it Ihall go to the owner of the land adjoin-
ing ; for de miiiiinis /ion curat lex : and, befides, tliefe
owners being often lofers by the breaking in of the fea, or
at charges to keep it out, this poffihle gain is therefore a
reciprocal confideration for fucli poiTible charge or lofs. But
if the alluvion or dereliclion be fudden and confiderable, in
this cafe it belongs to the king ; for, as the king is lord of
the fea, and fo owner of the foil while it is covered with
water, it is but realonable he fliould have the foil when the
water has left it dry ; fo that the quantity of ground
gained, and the time during which it is gaining, are the
circumftances that make it either the king's, orthefubiedl's
property. In the fame manner, if a river, running between
two lordlhips, by degrees gains upon the one, and thereby
leaves the other dry ; the owner who lofes his ground thus
imperceptibly, has no remedy ; but if the courfe of the
river be changed by a fudden and violent flood, or other
hafty means, and thereby a man lofes his ground, it is faid
that he {hall have what the river has left in any other place,
as a recompence for this fudden lofs. And this law of allu-
vions and derelictions, with regard to rivers, is nearly the
fame in the Imperial law ; from whence our determinations
feem to have been declared and adopted ; but we ourfelves,
as iflanders, have apphed them to marine increafes ; and
6 have

A L M

hive given our fovcreign the prerogative he enjoys, that
vhatcver hath no other owner is veiled by law in the king.
Blackfl. Com. vol. ii. p. 262, 8vo.

Great alterations are made in the face and limits of coun-
tries, by alluvions of the fea, rivers, &c. Whole plains
;;rc foretimes formed by alluvions. It is controverted whe-
: her alluvions {hould be confidered as fniits, and as fuch ac-
i.iuing to ufufruduaries.

Alluvion of ihe fea, in ylgticulture, fignifies fuch kinds
(.f foil a;' are formed by the depofition of various forts of
i'.atters, held in folution either by the fea, or larger rivers,
:/om their overflowing their banks. The depth of foils
/ormed in this way arc various according to particular cir-
rumftanccs. It is obfervcd by Mr. Young, in his agricul-
iural fui-vey of Lincolnfliire, that the niarlh land iu the
\'icinity of Winteringhame, is a traft of alluvion of the
ilumhtr, depofited to the depth of fix feet, apparently as
'OoJ at the bottom as the top. Soils of this mixture are
. ,olUy produftive, whether grain or grafs be cultivated upon
I hem.

AI^LY, in matters of Polity, a fovereign prince or (late,
that has' entered into alliance with others. See Alliance.

ALMA, in do^raphy, a river of RufTia, that takes its
riie trom the mountains of Taurida.

Alma, in Ancient Geography, a river of Italy, in Etruria.

Alma, or Almus, a mountain of lUyria, in the vicinity
of Serinium. The emperor Probus planted vines on it,
>vhich he conveyed from Italy.

ALMACANTARS, Almacantaras, orAtMicAN-
THARATH, m Aflronomy. See Almucantars.

Al.MACANTARS^/'rt^; ScC Al M U C A N T AR S_y?^^

ALMACARON, or Almazeron, \xi Geography, a for-
tified fea-port town of Spain, in the province of Murcia,
at the mouth of the river Guadalantin, on the Mediterranean,
which has mines of alum in its neirrhbourhood, is fituated
20 miles well of Carthagena. On the weft fide is a caftle,
and on the caft a rock with a watch-tower upon it. N. lat.
37° 28'. W. long. 0° 56'.

ALMADA, a fmall market town of Portugal, on the
gulf formed by the Tagu?, over againft Lifbon. It has a
( huich on the fummit of a hill, and the Englilh hofpital at
the foot of it.

ALMADE, in Sea-langnage, a fmall vefTel ufed by the
negroes of Africa, about four fathoms long ; and made
ufually of the bark of a tree.

The fame name is alfo given to the TcfTels of Calicut in
India, which are eighty feet long, and fix or feven broad,
aid«fquai-e ftenied. Thefe are otherwlle denominated <-«-
thtirl. They go with great fwiftnefs. AVitfen fays, that
they are twelve or thirteen paces long, fharj) at head and
Hern, and that they are moved both by fails and oars.

ALMADEN, in Geography, a fmall town of Spain
\.\ the kingdom of Seville, and province of La Mancha,
i,car which are mines of quiekfilver ; 13 leagues fouth-weft
of Civdad-Rcal.

ALMADIA, a fortrcfs of Afia, in the province of
Curdeftan, 50 miles fouth-weft of Betlis.

ALMADRONES, a town or village of Africa, in
ihe kir.gdom of Eez, near Cape Spartel. The bay faces
tlie Atlantic Ocean, and lies under the lee of Cape Spartel
on tlie fouth. The road is fafe, and has good anchorage,
and is well fiieltered from north and eaft winds, but expoled
to the fouth and weft. When the wind ftiifts to the weft,
and fouth-weft of this point, ftilps fhould be prepared for
putting to fea, and take ihclter round the point in Tangier
bav.

Vol. I.

A L M

ALMiENA. See Almana.

ALMA(iEST, the name of a celebrated work, com-
pnftd by Ptolemy, and confifting of 15 books; being a
colletSion of many of the obfervations and problems of tlie
ancientj, relating both to geometry and aftronomy. It con-
tains a catalogue of tlie fixed ftars with their places,
bcfides numerous records of eclipfcs, the motions ot the
planets, &c. being the fiift work of the kind that has been
tranfmilted to us, it is valuable to aft'onomcrs.

In the original Greek it was called ot/it«Ji: f<>->i;n, q. J.
grealejl conjlrudion, or colleSion : which laft word megljl.;
joined to the particle al, gave occafion to its being called
almageft by the Arabians, who found it at Alexandria, in
Egypt, on their capture of tliat kingdom, and tniiidated it
into their tongue about the year 827, by order of tlic caliph

Ahv.amon The Arabic word is almughe/ii. It was firft

tranflatedinto Latin about the year 1230, by favour of the
emperor Frederic II. But the Greek text was not known in
Europe till about the beginning of the 15th century, when
it waj brought from Coullaiitinople, then taken by theTurks,
by (George, a ir.onk of Ticbizond, who tranflated it into
Latin ; and this trandation has been frequently publidied.

Ricciolus alfo publiflied, in 1651, a body of Aftronomy,
which he entitles, after Ptolemy, the i\c\\ Alinage/l : beings
colkftion of ancient and modern obfervations and difcoveries
in tliat fcience.

We have alfo a hotanicaX Almagifl, compofcdby Plukenet,
being a kind of pinas, or general index ot plants, containing
the proper and defcriptive names of upwards ol fix thouland.
To which, in a fnpplement, fince publilhed by the iamc
author, have been added above one thoufand others. Alma-
geftum Botaiiicum,f!vc Phytographia;Plucnetiance Onomafti-
con, &:c. Lond. 1696. fol.

ALMAGRA, in Natural HiJIory, a name given in later
ages to an earth of the ochre kind, called_^/ <7«/Vwmby the
ancients. It is an ochre of a fine and deep red, with fomc
admixture of purple, very heavy, and of a denfe yet friable
ftruelure, and rough dufty furface. It adheres vciy firmly
to the tongue, and melts freely and cafily in the mouth, and
is of an auftere and ftrongly aftringent tafte ; it ftains the
fkin in , touching it, and -ferments veiy violently with acid
meiiftruums ; by which fingle quality, it is fufficiently dif-
tinguiftied from the fil fyricum, to which it has in many
refpefts a great affinity. It is found in immenfe quantities,
in many parts of Spain ; and in Andalul'a there are in a
manner whole mountains of it. It is uled in painting, and
in medicine, being a vei-y valuable aftringent.

ALMAGRO, Di KGO de, in Biographyawii. HiJIory, oneof
the colleagues and rivals of I'rancifco Pizarro, and Ferdinando
de Luque in the concpicft of Peru, was probably a foundling
of obfcure birth and unknown parentage, and tie. ived his na.ne
from the vi'lage in which he was born, about the year 1463.
AUhough he was uninftruclcd in reading and writing, he
advanced himfelf by mihtary fervicc ; and having acquired
wealth and influence in Panama, he formed an aflbciation
with the pcrfons above-mentioned in 1524, lor difcovery and
conqueft on the coaft of Peru. Each engaged to devote his
talents and his whole fortune to the adventure, and their
confederacy for this purpofe v.-as authorized by Pedrariai, the
governor of Panama. The province alllgacd to Almagro
was that of conducing the fupplics of provifions and rein-
forcements of troops, as Pi/.ano might need them in the
profceutioo of their entcquize. This office he performed
with perfeveriiigafritluity, though their firft attempts In 1525
and 1526 were attended with difficulties, which would have
deterred adventurers lefs ardent than thcnifelvcs from rencw-
5 A ing

A L M

in,7 their efforts. At length, however, they difcovercd t!ie
co.iil of Peru, and landed ;it Tiimbcz, a place of fome note,
about three dt);iecs Couth of the line, dillin;^ui(hcd for its
ftutcly temple, and a palace of the Incas, or fovercijjns of
llie country. Having in I52t! fettled fome preliminaries,
and adjuilcd among ihenifelvcs that Piz^irro fiiould claim the
llation of governor, Almagro that of lieutenant governor,
and Luqne the dignity of bidiop in the country which they
determined to conquer, Pizarro was deputed as their agent
to Spam, in order to negociate and to obtain further powers
and tupplies. In this negociation Pizarro, principally con-
cerned about his own intcreil, neglected his alTociates ; and
though he obtained for Luciue the ecclefiaftical dignity to
which he alpired, bccaufe it did not interfere with his own
pretenfions, he claimed for Almagro only the command of
the fortrefs which flionld be erefted at Tunibez. On his
return from Spain and arrival at Panama in 1530, he found
Almagro fo much exafperated at the manner in which he
h id conducted t!;e negociation, that he refufed to aft with
fuch a perfidious companion, and determined to form a new
alTociatian. Pizarro, however, temporized for the prefent ;
and by offering voluntarily to relinquifh the office of Adelan-
tado, and promifing to concur in foliciting that title, with
an independent government for Almagro, he gradually mi-
tigated the rage of an open-hearted foldicr, which had been
violent, but was not implacable. The confederacy was again
renewed on its original terms ; and it was agreed, that the
enterprife Ihould be carried on at the common expencc of
the alTociates, and that the profits accruing from it fliouId
be equally divided between them. With an armament of
three fmall veflels, and 180 foldiers, Pizarro failed for Peru
in February 153 1, leaving Almagro at Panama with inftruc-
tions to follow him v.-ith fuch reinforcement as he fhould be
able to mufter. Having fucceeded in the province of Coaque,
and obtained from a principal fettlement of the natives rich
fpoil, he inftantly difpatched one of his iliips to Panama,
with a large remittance to Almagro, by which means he
was enabled to complete his reinforcement, which almoft
doubled the number of Pizarro's followers, and to laud with
them at St. Michael towards the clofe of the year 1532.
The Inca Ahatualpa was now in the hands of the Spaniards,
and when they had received the fum which had been paid
lV)r his ranfom, Almagro and his followers demanded an
equal (hare of it ; and in order to fecure this objeit, they
eagerly infilled on putting the Inca to death. Accord-
ingly he was tried and executed. Ferdinand Pizarro was de-
puted to fail for Spain with an account of the fuccefs of
the adventurers, and with remittances of great value ; in
confeqaence of which his brother's authority was confirmed
and enlarged, and Almagro received the honour wliich he
had fo long defired. The title of Adelantado, or governor,
was conferred upon him, with iurirdiftion over 200 leap-ucs
of countiy, ftretching beyond the limits of the province
allotted to Pizarro. As foon as Almagro was informed,
that he had obtained the royal grant of an independent go-
vernment, he attempted to make himfelf mailer of Cuzco,
the imperial refidence of the Incas, under a pretence that it
lay within the boundaries of his territory. This produced
new diffenfions between him and Pizarro ; but a new recon-
ciliation took place, to which was annexed a condition,
that Almagro Ihould attempt the conquell of Chili, and
that if this province did not afford an ellablilhment which
he thought adequate to his merit and expeclation, Pizarro
engaged to yield up to him a part of Peru. Almagro in
^1535 began his march towards Chili, at the head of 570
fccD, and herp-he fuffercd by purfuing a wrong route very

A L M

great hardfiiips and loffes. Whilil he was contending with
a more vigorous refillance than the Spaniards had experi-
enced in other countries, and purfuing his conqutfls, he was
recalled to Peru by the intelligence that Cuzco, as well as
Lima, were invelled by the natives, who had alfembled in
great numbers to refcue themfelves from their opprcfTor?.
In order to liaften his return he purlued a new route; and
in marching tlirongh the fandy plains on the coaft, he luffercd
from heat and drought calamities, though of a difiercnt
kind, little inferior to thofe in v.hich he had been involved
by cold and famine on the fummits of the Andes. He ar-
rived at Cuzco in a critical moment, and refolvcd to occupy
the place both againll the Indians and his Spanifh rivals,
who were preparing to iupplant him. Having gained a deci-
five victory over the Peruvians, he proceeded to the gates of
Cuzco without further inten'uption ; but the Pizarros at-
tempted to obllruft his entry. Almagro, however, whofc
open, affable, generous temper, had gained an acceflion
of many adherents of the Pizarros, who were difgulled with
their harfh domineering manners, advanced towards the city
by night, furprifed the fentir.els, and furrounded the houfe
where the two brothers refided, and compelled them, after
an obflinate defence, to furrender at difcretion. Alma-
gro's claim of jurifditlion over Cuzco was univerfallj ac»
knowlcdged, and a form of adrainiftration eflablifhed jn his
name. This event was the commencement of a civil war ;
and it was foon followed by more bloody fcenes. In the firlt
attack of a body of foldiers, deputed by Francis Pizarro for
the relief of his brothers, and w.iioh were commanded by
Alonfo de Alvarado, whole fidelity Almagro in vain endea-
voured to corrupt, Almagro fucceeded,and took the comman-
der and his principal officers prifoners ; but neglefting to im-
prove the advantages he had gained, he marched back from
this vidlory to Cuzco, and there waited the approach of
Pizarro. Pizarro pratlifed his ufual artifice, and Almagro
was weak enough to fuffer himfelf to be amuftd with a^
profpeft of terminating their differences by amicable accom-j
modation. The negociation between them was protracted,"
and whilll ever)' day was precious to Almagro, feveral months
elapfcd before they came to any final agreement. In the
mean while one of the Pizarros and Alvarado found means
to bribe the foldiers to whofe cuftody they were committed,
and not only fecured their own efcape, but perfuaded 60 of
the men who had ;^uarded them to accompany them in their
flight. The other Pizarro was alfo releafed by the governor.
Whilft Almagro was thus deluded by a pretended treaty,
Pizarro was preparing for open hoftihty, and he determined
to fettle the dominion of Peru, not by negociation, but by
arms. In 1538 an army of 500 men was ready to march for
Cuzco ; and Almagro, inflead of obftrufting their progrefs
in the difficult paffes of the mountains through which they
inarched, waited their arrival in the plains of Cuzco. When
the two armies met, Almagro, worn out with the fatigues
of fervice and declining with age, was unable to exert his ufnal
aftivity ; and obliged to commit the conduci of his troops
to Orgognez, who, though an officer of great merit, did
not poffefs the fame afccndant either over the fpirit or affec-
tions of the foldiers, as the chief whom they had been long
accullomed to follow and revere. The contlicT; was fierce,
and maintained by each party v.'ith equal courage. Orgog-
nez was vi"ounded, and the rout of Almagro's troops became
general. This officer and feveral others were maffacred in
cold blood, and above 140 foldiers fell in the field. Almagro
anxioufly obferved from an eminence, to which he was
conveyed on a htter, the progrefs of the battle, and wlien
he witneffed the total defeat of his ov/n troops, he felt
6 Vhe

A L M

tlie pnfTion.ito imlignntion of n veterp.n lc:idcr,Ionn; acctinumod
to vidlory. Although he eiidcavoi'.ivd to fave hirr.fclf hy
flight, he was taken piifimer; and after remaining for ft-
veral montlis in ciiilodv under all th-; anguifh of fufptnce,
he was impeached ot treafun, formally tried and condemned
to die. Humbled and difpirited in the approacli of an ig-
nominious death, he earnelUy fupplieated life ; Init all his
e'ltreaties, which were ahjeft in a degree unwortliy of his
former fame, and all the argunitr.ts by which they were en-
forced, proved inefFeftual. The Pi/./aros were inflexible.
As foon, however, an Almagro knew his fate to be inevitable,
he met it with the dignity and fortitude of a veteran. He
was llrangkd in prifon and afterwards beheaded. He fufTtred
in his 75tli year, A. D, 153S, and left one fon by an Indian
■ woman of Panama, whom, though at that time a prifoner
in Lima, he named as fucceflor to his government, in pur-
fuance of a po\ver which the emperor had granted him.
Almagro blended with the qualities of intrepid valour, in-
defatigable aftivity and infurmountable conllancy, an open-
liefs generofity and candour, that are natural to men wli'-fc
profefilon is arms ; he was, therefore, beloved by iiis fol-
lowers, his misfortunes excited their fympathy and pity, and
his death was fincerely regretted not only by them, but by
the Indians in general, who regarded him as their protector
againll the rigour of the obdurate Pi/.arro. After his death
the attachment of his friends was transferred to his fon, who
was now advanced to the maturity of manhood, and who
poffelTed all the qualities which captivate the an"eftions of
foldiers. Of a graceful appearance, dextrous at all martial
exercifes, bold, open, and generous, he fcemedto be formed
for command ; and as his father, confcious of his own in-
feriority from the total want of education, had been verj'
attentive to his inilruftion ; and the accomplifhmeiits which
he had acquired heigl'.tened the refpett of his followers, who
were illiterate adventm-ers; urged hkewifeby the feelings of
<iiilrels, as well as by fentin-.cnts of afleftion, they ranged
under his ilandard, and fouglit deliverance by his (Idll and
^•alolu• from the opprcfllons of Pi/arro. Their contultations,
■vviulft Pi/arro confided in his own fecurity, were direfted by
Juan de Herrada, an officer of great abilities, who had the
charge ot Almagro's education, with a zeal and authority
wiiich contributed to their profperovis ifTue. A confpiraey
was formed againft Pizavro, the uccomplidmient of which,
iiotwitliilanding his vigorous refirtanee, terminated in his
death. The afl'aflins, triumphing in their fuccefs and waving
their bloody fword;;, proclaimed the deatl: of the tyrant, and
compelled the magiftrates and principal citizens of I^ima to
acknowledge Almagro as lawful fucceflor to his father in the
government. His triumph, huwever, was of no long
duration. In 1541 Vaca de Callro arrived at (^lito, and
produced the royal commiHion, appointing him governor
of Peru, with the privileges and authority of the deceafed
Pi/arro. His talents and influence overpowered the intereil
of Almagro ; who perceiving the rapid progrcfs of dif-
affedtion to his caufe, and wifliing to check it before the
arrival of Vaca de Caftro, fet out at the head of his troops
for Cuzco, where the moll confiderable body of opponents
had ereiSed the royal fl;andard, under the command of Pedro
Alvarez Holguin. During his march, Herrada, the guide
of his counfcls, died ; and from that time his meafures
were confpicuous for their violence, but concerted with
little fagaeity, and executed with no addrefs. At length
Almagro and Vaca de Caftro met at Chupas, about zoo
miles from Cuzco, on Sept. 16, A.D. 1542 ; and viftory,
after long remaining doubtful, declared at latt for the new
governor. Ahnagro conducted the military optrations of the

A L M

day with a gallant fpirit, worthy of a better caufe and dc-
ferving another fate ; and his followen ditlinguiflud tlitm-
felves by their valour. The carnage was great in proportion
to the numbcrof combatants ; of 1400 men, the total amount
of combatants on both fules, 5C0 lav dead on liic Held, and
the number of the wounded was dill greater, Almngrn
efeaped, but being betrayed by foine of hi? own ofllcers,
was publicly beheaded in Cu'/co ; and in him the name of
Almagro, and tlie fpirit of the party, were exlinft. Moil.
Uu. Hilt. vol. xxxiv, p. 3R7 — 480. Robeitfon's Hift. of
America, vol. iii. p. 4 — 1 14, 8vo.

Almagro, in Gogrnphs, a town of New Cafiile, in
.Spain, and capital of the diftricl: of I, a Mancha, called
Campo de Calatrava, and lituale three leagues ca(l-fouth-call
of Civdad R.al. It was built by the archbifliop Roderic,
of Toledo, who garrifoned it in 121.^, in order to rcllrain
the incurfions of the Moors. Its environs arc level and
fertile, and near it are medicinal fprings-

ALMAGUEIl, a town of Kouth America, in thr
country of Popayan.

ALMA IN, James, in Biogmphy, a fcholaftic divine,
was born at Sens, and became profeflor of di\"inity at tlie
college of Navarre, in Paris, in the year iJoS. He was a
fubtle logician and metaphyfician, and a ftrenuous advocate
for the principles of Scotus and Occam. In 1512 he w3»
employed iis explaining the book of Sentences, and alfo in
writing on behalf of Lewis XII. againft pope Julius II.,
and in vindicating the authority of councils againft a book
publidied by cardinal Cajetan. He died at an early age, in
1515. His philofophital works wire, "A Treatife on
Phyfics," printed in 1505; " lour Treatifes of Ethics,"
printed in 1 5 10; feveral treatifes on fchool divinity, aifd
others concerning the power of the c'.mrch. Lugduneua col-
lefted and publidied them nt Paris in 1516. His fubtlety,
it is faid, was equal to his learning; and his aji^jlication fo
indefatigable, that he never fpent fo much as one hour of a
whole day wilh.out reading, writing or traciiing. Dupin.
16th cent. vol. vi. p. 254. Cave Ilift. Lit. vol. ii. p. 24Z.
Gen. Dift.

ALMAJORIFASGO, in Ccmmeirc,-a.\.nm in the Sps-
nifli American cudoms, denotir.g a duty paid in America
on goods imported and exported, and amounting on an ave-
rage to I J ]ier cent.

ALMALECI, in Maliral Hi/lr.ry, a celebrated work,
containing a fyftem of the ancient Arabian phyfic.
The word imports as much as the l-r>y,il wori.
Concerning the hiftory, contents, &c. of the almaled, fee
Ereind's Hift. of Phyf. p. ii. p. 36.

ALMAMON, Almamvn, or M.-.mon, called alfo Ab-
HALLAH, in Biography, caliph of Bagdad, and an eminent
philofopher and ailronomer, was the fon of the caliph Ha-
run Al Radiid, and great grand fon of Almnnfor. He was
born on the day when his father fucceeJed to the caliphate,
A. D. 7fi6. At the time of his father's death, A. D. 8og,
he was governor of Khorafan ; and he was appointed, by an
cxprefs declaration of Harun, rendered public and folcmn by
being hung up in the Caaba, to be the fucccffor of his bro-
ther Al Amin, who was now caliph. Al Amin, however,
conceiving a prejudice againft him, formed a delign to ex-
clude him from tlie fucceflion, and ordered the forces in Kho-
rafan to mar<h immediately to Bagdad. Almamon, not-
withftanding this unprovoked infidt, was faithfvd to his bro-
ther, and obliged the people of Khorafan to take the oath
of allegiance to Al Amin upon his acceffion. The new ca-
liph addiiftcd himftlf to drunkennefs and gaming, and en-
trufted llie concerns of government to his prime vificr. Miflcd
e A 2 by

A L M

by this m'lnifter, Al Ainin proctedcd to avow his en-
mity againll Jiis brother hy ads of open hollility, and at
Ic igth iiivadtd Khorafaii with an army of 6o,coo men. As
he waa advancing to the frontiers of the province, Almamon
prepared to receive him, and appointed Thahtr tbn Hofein,
one of the grer-.tcll generals of the age, to the command of
his army. The cahph's invading arn-.y was foon difpcrfcd.
Almamon alTumed the title of caliph, and determined to
maintain it. Thaher purfued the war with vigour and fuc-
cefs ; and fnch was the rapidity of his conquelts, that the
provinces of T-gypt, Syria, Hcja/. and Yemen, abandoned
the intcrell of Al Amin, whofc tharadler was generally de-
tailed ; and Almamon was proclaimed caliph in his room.
The dcfertion of thefe provinces was foon followed by a
complete revohition. Al Amin was formally dcpt^fcd at
Bagdad, and afterwards afTafTinated ; and his brother fnc-
ceeded to the caliphate without any farther oppofition, A. D.
8 I J. The coiymcr.ct.:r.tnt of his reign, however, was at-
tended with commotions ; and as he favoured the feci of Ali,
lii'i enemies multiplied, and it was with difficulty that the
d!fafici5lion, wl;ich began to mauifell itfelf, was prevented
from breaking out into a civil war. Whilft the agitation
continued, Thaher, tlie cali])h's general, availed hinifelf of
the opportunity of Almamon's abfeiice to acquire the fove-
reignty of Khorafan, wl.erc he formed a dyiiafty, which fub-
fifted for 60 years. As foon as tranquillity was reftoied,
Almamon presented the plans he had formed for introducing
literature and fcience into his dominions, and for thus laying
the foundation of that dillinguiflied honour with which his
name has defcended to poilerity. Whilft he refided in Kho-
rafan he had alTcmbled a number of learned m.en from va-
rious countries, and formed them into a focitty or college,
over which he appointed, as prefident, Mefue of Damafcus,
a famous Chriflian phyfician. When his father remonllrated
againft. this appointment, becaufe Mefue was a Chriftian,
he repUcd, that he had chofen him, not as a teacher of re-
ligion, but for the inilruftion of his fubjeifts in fcience and
uleful arts, and that his father well knew, that the moil
learned men and llcilful artiils in his dominions were Jews
and Cluiilians. Upon his acceffion to the caliphate, he
made Bagdad the feat of learning, by forming in it an aca-
demy, and inviting thither eminent men from all quarters.
lie likewife caufed tranfiationsto be made into Arabic from
many valuable books in the Greek, Perfian, Chaldean and
Coptic languages, among which were the works of Ariftotle
and Galen. He vifitedthe fchools which he had eftablilhed,
treated the profeflbrs with refpeft, and thus encouraged by
his example and patronage, ever)' fpecies of mental cultiva-
tion. In vanous parts of knowledge, and particularly in
mathematics, aftronomy and philofophy, he himfelf was a
confiderable proficient. He caufed Ptolemy's Ahnagejl to
be tranflated in 827, either by Ifaac ben Honain, according
to Herbelot, or according to OfJicrs, by Alhazen ben Jofeph
and Sergius. He alfo employed the moft fliilful aftrono-
mers to compofe a body of alironomical fcience, which ftill
fubfifts amongft oriental manufcripts, entitled, " Aftronomia
claborata "a compluribus, D.D. jufTu regis Maimon." Hif-
tory records two obfervations of the obhquity of the ecliptic,
which were made either by Almamon himfelf, or under his
immediate aufpices, one at Bagdad, and the other at Damas.
In the former, condufted by Jahia ben Abilmanfor, Sened
ben Alis, and Abbas ben Said, the greateil declination of
the ecliptic \vas found to be 23° 33', according to the report
of Iba Jounis; but according to Alfragan, 23° 35'. The
other obferi'ation was made in the year 233 of the Hegira,
at Damas, by Chalid ben Abdolme'lic, Abultib, Sened ben
Alis, and Ahs ben Ifa, and the refult of it was 23° 33' 52".

A L M

This Caliph alfo einployed able mathematicians to meafure a
degree ofthe meridian, upon an extcnfive plain in Mefopota-
mia, called Singiar or Sandjiar; and they found it to con-
tain 56|. miles, each mile being 4000 coudees or cubits.
But of the precife length of the cubit there have been dif-
ferent opinions. Abulftda fays that this cubit contained
37 inclie.", each inch being determined by fix grains of bailey
placed fideways ; but Tlievenot fays, that 144 grains of b;T-
Icy placed in this manner, would give a length equal to ij
Paris foot, and therefore four cubits would be equal to one
toife and 9 inches, and therefore 4000 cubits, i.e. 56^ miles,
would give 63,750 toifes. But if the ordinary or royal cu-
bit of 24 inches was the meafure to which this calculation is
to be referred, the degree in this eftimate of it would con-
tain 56,666 toifes. But according to Maffoudi's valuation
of a cubit, this meafure would conliit of 53,123 French toifes.

In c<iufequence of the encouragement affoidcd to fcience
by Almamon, the Saracens began to acquire a degree of ci-
vilization and refinement, which diilinguiilicd them at a period
of very general ignorance and barbarity. But the Mahome-
tan zeal;;ts were alarmed ; and the fcientific Almamon 'lias
been reproached by the Sonnitcs, or ortliodox Muffulmen,
as little better than an infidel. It mull be acknowledged
that he manifefled an undifguifed inclination towards the
party of the Moatazalites, who denied the eternity of the
Koran, and maintained the dodlrine of the free-will of man.
Some have faid, that in order to quiet the murmurs which
prevailed againft him on this account, he once determined to
evince his zeal for religion by eftablifhing a kind of inqui-
fition, which Ihould compel all his lubjeits to profcfs illain-
ifm ; but if this were the cafe, his compulfive plan did not
comprehend his Chriilian fubjedls, and the itfue of his expe-
riment was the introduction of univerfal toleration.

In the progrefs of his reiga he afiifted Thomas, a Greek,
who, in 822, made war againll Michael the Stammerer,
emperor of Conftantinople, and befieged his capital ; but
the expedition was on his part unjull, and terminated in the
imprifonment and death of Thomas. In his war againft the
Greeks, in 829 and 830, he was more fuccefsful, took feve-
ral places, and widely ravaged their temtories. In 831 he
made an expedition into Egypt, and there fuppreiled a re-
bellion. Here he difcovered a great treafure which had been,
buried under two columns by Merwan, the lail caliph of the
houfe of Ommijah. He difplayed his love of fcience by
erettmg a new mikias or nilornt r, for meafuring the increafe
of the Nile, and repairing one that was decayed. In his
return from Egypt, in 833, he penetrated into the territories
of the Greek emperor, as far as Tarfus in Cilicia ; and in
his way towards Bagdad, he encamped on the banks of a ri-
ver Badandun, and quenched his thirll by drinking freely of
its cool waters ; and he alfo partook plentifully of fomc dates,
to which he Lad accefs. This repaft brought on a fever
which endangered his life. In the profpeft of diffolution,
he wrote letters to the provinces, declaring his brother Mo-
taflem his fucceffor, and then waited the event which he ap-
prehended. After a long ftruggle, he exclaimed, " O thou
who never dieft, have mercy on me, a dying man!" and
then expired at the age of 48 or 49 years, after a reign
of twenty years and fome months. His body was buried
at Tarfus, and this circumllance fome zealots interpreted as a
token of reprobation.

Science humanized the temper of this Saracen caliph ;
and in contemplating his charafter, we cannot do lefs than
admire his liberality and beneficence. As an inftance of his
clemency and magnanimity, his condudl towards liis uncle
and rival, Ibrahim, deferves to be recorded. When he was
difcovered, after having been concealed for fome years, and

brought

A L M

A L U

biouglit to the caliph, under an unanimous fentcnce of con-
demnation by the council : " Your counCcllors (f.iid Ibra-
him), judged according to the cullomary rules of political
government : if you pardon me, you will not, indeed, judge
according to precedent, but you will have no equal among
fovcreigns." The caliph then tenderly embracing him, re-
plied, with great emotion, " Uncle, be of good cheer ; I
will not do you the leaft injury :" and he not only pardoned
him, but granted him a rank and fortune fnitable to his birth.
Upon being complimented by his courtiers for this generous
aft, he exclaimed, in the fnlncfs of his heart, " Oh 1 did
men but know the pleafurc I feel in pardoning, all who have
offended me would come and confefs their faults !" Modern
Un. Hift. vol. ii. p. 176 — 202. Montucla Hilt, des Ma-
thematiijuts, tom. i. p. 356T— 359.

AI.MANA, in yinatnt Geography,?!, town of Macedonia,
mentioned liy I.ivy, fituate on the river Asius, and probably
not far from Bylazora.

ALMANAC, a calendar or table, in which are fet down
the days and fealls of the year, the rihng and fetting of the
fun, the couric and ph.afes of the moon, the eclipfes of both
luminaries, fee. for each month of the year.

The original of the word is much controverted among
grammarians. — Some derive it from the Arabic particle nl
and iih'tmch, ti count ; whence is naturally enor.gh derived al
manach, the diary. Others, and among them Scallger, rather
derive it from aJ, and ^aia.«o,-, the courfo of the nionths ;
which is contradifted by Goliiis, who advances another opi-
nion. He fays, that, throughout the Eaft, it is the cuftom
for fubjefts, at the beginning of the year, to make prefents
to their princes ; and, among the rell, the aftrologen; prefent
them with their cphemerides for the year enfuing ; whence
thofe ephemerides came to be called ahnanha, i. e. hand-

fcls, or new-year's gifts To fay no more, Verllegan writes

the name almon-at ; and makes it of Saxon original. Our
anceftors, he obferves, uied to carve the courfes of the m,oon,
of the whole year, upon a fquare ftick, or block of wood,
which they called nl-mnnaght , q. d. aU-mooiiheed.

The ufe of almanacs or diaries, containing a great variety
of aftrological and agricultural records,andof othcrsfandfioned
by a prevalent fuperllition, was very common among the
Arabians ; and it is natural to imagine, that from them, by
means of the Saracens, it was introduced into European na-
tions. The prefent form and method of almanacs have been
afcribed to Regiomontanus, who is faid to have firil publifh-
ed, in 1474, an almanac, refembhng that of the moderns, and
containing the charafters of each year and month, predic-
tions of eclipfes and other celellial phafes, calculations of the
motions of the planets, &c.

The modern almanac anfwers to the Fasti of the ancient
Romans.

For the conftru£lion of an almanac: ift. Compute the
fun's and moon's place for each day of the year ; or take
them from ephemerides. 2d. Find the dominical letter, and,
by means of it, diltribute the calendar into weeks. 3d.
Compute the time of Eafter, and thence lix the other move-
able feafts. 4th. Add the immoveable feafts, with the names
of the martyrs. 5th. To every day add the fun's and moon's
place, with the rifmg and fetting of each luminary ; the
length of day and night ; the twilight, and the afpefts of
the planets. 6th. Add, in the proper places, the chief
phafes of the moon, and the fun's entrance into the cardinal
points, i.e. the folftices and equinoxes; together with the rifing
■and the fetting, efpecially heliacal, of the planets, and chief
fixed ftars ; means for each of which will be found under
the proper heads. The duration of the twilights, or the end
of the evening and beginning of the morning twilight ; to-

gelhcj- with the fun's rifmg and felting, and the length of days'
may be transferred Irom the almanac of one year into that of
another ; the differences in the feveral years being loo fmall
to be of any confideration in civil life.

Hence it appears, that the condruftion of an almanac is
neither myllerious nor difficult ; if acccfs be had to the tables
of the heavenly motions.

Some divide almanacs into public and private, perfeft and
imperfeiil, heathen and chridian, book-almanacs and (heet-
almanacs. Public almanacs are thofe of a larger fi/.c, fnch
as (lieet almanacs, ufually hung up for common or family ufe ;
private are thofe of a fmaller form, of which there is a great
variety, to be carried about either in the hand, infcribed on a
ftatf, or in the pocket : perfeft almanacs are thofe which luvc
the dominical letters, a» well as primes and feafts infcribed
on them ; imperfeft are thofe which have only the primes
and immoveable feafts. Till about the fourth century, al-
ir.anacs bear the marks of heathenifm ; from that age to the
ieventh, tiiey are generally divided between heathenifm and
chrifti;\nity ; and from that time they have been altogether
cl'.riftian.

Almanacs vary in their contents and the mode of their
compofition ; fome containing moi-e points, others fewer,.
The eflential part is the calendar of months and days, with
the rifing;- and fettings of the fun, age of the moon, &e. To
thele are added various ])arcrga, afti-onomical, allrological,
meteorological, chronological, and even political, rural, medi-
cal, &c. ; as calculations and accounts of eclipfes, folar in-
greffes, afpedls and configurations of the heavenly bodies,
lunations, heliocentrical and geocentrieal motions of the pla-
nets, pi'ognoftics of the weather, and prediftions of other
events, tables of the planetary motions, the tides, tcnns, in-
tereft, twilight, equation, kings, &c.

Henry HI. of France very prudently decreed, by an or-
donnance of 1579, that ' no almanac-maker fhould prefume
' to give prediftions relating to civil affairs, either of ftatcs,
' or private perfons, in teims either exprefs or covert.

The almanac, annexed to the book of Common Prayer, is
part of the law of England, of which the courts mull take
notice in the returns of writs, &c. For afcertaining many
circumftances relative to a particular day paft, the court hath
determined by an infpedlion of the almanac. Upon a writ
of error fi'om an inferior court, the error afligned was, that
the judgment war, given on a Sunday, the day being 26 Feb.
26 Eliz.; and it appeai-ing, by infpefiion of the alma-
nacs of that year, that the 26th of February actually
fell upon a Sunday, this was held to be a fnffieient trial,
and that a trial by Jury was not neceiTary, although it was
an error in taft ; and fo the judgment was reverfed. But in
all thcfe cafes, the judges, if they conceive a doubt, may or-
der it to be tried by Jury. Blackft. Com. vol. iii. p. 333.
For every almanac or calendar for one year or lefs, the fol-
lowing ftamp duties fliall be paid, viz.
id 9 Ann. c. 23. §. 23.

1 30 Geo. II. c. 19. §. 1.

2 21 Geo. III. c. 56. §. I.
4 37 Geo. III. c. 90. §. I.

In the whole amount the ftamp duty is yd. And for every
almanac ferving more than a year, the fame duty fhall be paid
for each year : but perpetual almanacs pay for three years
only. 9 Ann. c. 23. 30 Geo. II. c. 19. and by 10 Ann.
c. 19. all books and pamphlets ferving chiefly to the pur-
pofe of almanacs, fhall be charged as fnch. If an almanac
contains more than one fheet, one fhcct only need be ftamped ;
and eveiy almanac fhall be fo printed that foinc part of the
print (liallbe upon the ftamp. 9 Ann. c. 23. 1). 26. 21 Geo.
III. c. 56. §. 3. Selling almanacs unftairped incurs a pe-
nalty.

A L M

«aUv, upon convlAioii bcForc one jufticc on the oatli of one
vitnefs, of commitment to tlie hoiife of covreclion for a tL-im
not excecJin;j three montlis ; and the pcrfon apprehend ijig
fue)i an offender, fliall receive a reward of 20 fiiiUings. 1 6 Geo.
J I. c. 26. i. y. 30 Geo. II. c. 19. ji. 26.

In the i'liilofoph. Collcft. we have a perpetual ahnanac,
defcribed by Mr. R.Wood.

Many forms of a head-almanac have been pnipofed in
Jome of our periodical pubhcations ; but the following dif-
ticli will V. !-y well anfwcr the purpofe :

" At DoTcr Dwells Cieorgc Brown Efquirc ;
Good Chriftopher Finch, And David Frier."

The twelve words anfwer to the twelve months ; the firll
letter of each word ftands in the calendar againll the fnll day
of the correfpondiiig month ; and if the dominical letter is
.known, it is eafy to find on what day of the week any day
■of the month will fall throughout the year. In 1802, C
being the dominical letter, Dec. 25 is Saturday, becaufe the
■ilrft day denoted by F is Wednefday.

Almanac, among jinliquaries. See Runic Stqffs.
Almanac, H<!;///Vrt/, vcadi ajlronomical ephemerh, is a kind

-of national almanac, publilhed annually, by anticipation,
under direction of the commiffioners of longitude. Befide
•every thing elfential to general ufe that is to be found in
any almanac hitherto publilhed, it contains many new and
intererting particulars ; more efpecially, the diilances of the
moon from the fim and fixed ilars for every three hours of
apparent time, adapted to the meridian of Greenwich, by

.comparing which with the diilances carefully obferved at fea,

■ the mariner may readily, and with little danger of miftake,
.infer his longitude to a degree of exatlnefs, that may be

thought fufficient for mod nautical purpofes. And the
.publication of it is chiefly deligned to facilitate the ufe of

Mayer's lunar tables, by fuperleding the neceflity of intri-
-cate calculations, in determining the Lo.s'Gitude at fea. It

began with the year 17^7, has been continued ever fince, and

■ greatly contributes to the improvement of aflronomy, geo-
graphy and navigation. In this almanac the fun's longi-
tude, and every thing relating to it, have been always
inferted, as computed from Mayei-'s tables, printed under
the infpcftion of Dr. Matkelyne, the ailronomer royal,
and pub'ilhed in 1770; and both the fun's place and the
moon's place are inferted in the almanacs from the vear
1791, as computed from Mayer's tables, and Mr. Ma-
fon's tables of 1780, duly correfted. In the ephemeris
of 1803, the latitudes as well as longitudes of the ftars are
propofed to be thoroughly con-efted ; and the moon's dif-
tances from them computed by the late tAr. Taylor's accu-
rate tables of logarithmic fines and tangents to every fecond
of the quadrant. The calculations of the planets' places
have been made for every ephemeris, beginning with that of
1 780, from M. De la Lande's tables, contained in the fecond
edition of his aftronomy ; and thofe of the echpfcs of Jupi-
ter's fatellites were made from Mr. Wargentin's tables, an-
nexed to thofe of De la Lande, thofe of the fecond fatellite
excepted, which are inferted from new tables of Mr. Vr'^ar-
gentin annexed to the nautical almanac of 1779. To the
nautical almanacs from 1795 '° 1804, both inclufive, are
added the eclipfes of Jupiter's fatellites, computed to mean
time, from M. De Lambre's new tables, annexed to the third
edition of M. De la Lande's aftronomy. To the almanacs
of feveral years, fmce the commencement of this ufeful pub-
Jication, many valuable papers have been added, which are
more direftly or indirectly connedted with its general con-
tents and principal objeft. The articles of the ephemeris
axe. enumerated, and explained, together with thofe of the

A L M

" Reqi'Ifitc Tables," connected with them, but fep.nrntely
publiihi.;'., and examples of their ule are adduced in the ap-
pendix annexed to thtm. See Longitude.

ALMAN.,:\.R, in the Arabian yljtrology, denotes the pre-
eminence, or prevalence of one planet over another.

ALMANDIN, or Alabaxdin, a precious ilone of the
RuuY kind, fomething fofter than the oriental rubby ; and,
as to colour, partaking more of that of the gi anile than the
ruby.

It is ranked am.ong the licheft of ftoncs, and takes its
name from Alabanda, a city of Caria, whence Pliny fays it
was brought.

ALMANSOR, Almansur, or Almanzor, the Vif.o-
rions, in Biography and Hifiory, the fin-name of Abu Jaafar,
fecond caliph of the houfe of Al Abbas, or the Abaffides, fuc-
ceeded his brother Abul Abbas Al Saifali, A.D. 753, in the
year of the Hegira 136, and was inaugurated at Al Haflic-
miyah in the following year. His right of accefhon, though
Al Saffah had declared liim prefumptivt heir of tiie crown, and
he had been proclaimed cali{>h in the imperial city of Anbar,
then the capital of the Mollcm £mpire, was, immediately
upon his inauguration, difputed by his uncle Abdallah ebii
Ali, who caufed himielf to be lecognized as caliph at Da-
mafcus. In order to fupport his pi^tenfior.s, he colkfted
a num.erous army m Arabia, Syria and Mefopotamia, and
marched to the banks of the Mafiu.;, near Nifibis, where he
encamped. Here he was harafled for five months by Abu
Moflcm, who had the command ot Almanfor's forces, af-
fembled in Perfia, Khorafan and Irak ; and al length, A. D.
754, totally defeated. Alter this viftory, and notwithftand-
ing the fervices which Abu Moflem had rendered to the fa-
mily of Al Abbas, he became an objeCl of jealoufy, and was
aflairmated by order of Ahr.anfor in his own prefence. See
Abu Moslem. The death of Abu Mollem was fucceeded
by the rebellion of Sinon, a magian, who having fciztd on
the treafures of the deceafed governor of Khorafan, excited
the people of that country to a revolt ; but this infurrettion
was loon quelled by Jamhur ebn Morad, the general of Al-
manfor. The fpoii obt;uned by this victory was avaricioufly
feized by the caliph, and the outrage fo inceiifed Jamhur,
that he immediately turned his arms againft his mafter ; but
he was foon defeated by the caliph's forces. About tin's
time Tlieodorus, patriarch of Antioch, having been detected
in an illicit conefpondence with the Grecian emperor, was
banifhed into an obfcure part of Paleiline, and the Chriftians
in the dominions of the caliph were prohibited from building
or repairing any churches, and laid under feveral other re-
flraints.

In 757 Almanfor fent a large army into Cappadocia, forli-
fied the city of Malatia or Melitene, garrifoned it with 4COO
men, and depofited in it a great part of his treafures. But
in this year he was attacked by the Rawandians, a fedt of
believers in the Metempfychofis, fo called from their head
or founder Al Rawand. The followers of this chief alTem-
bled at Al Plafhemiyah, where the caliph refided, and by
.tl;e ceremony of going in proceffion round his palace, as the
religious Modems go round the Caaba, intimated their pur-
pofe of invoking him as a deity, and paying him divine ho-
nours. The caliph provoked, as it is faid, by their impiety,
ordered feveral of thefe fectarics to be in;priioned ; upon
which their refentment was roufed, and thev formed a de-
fign of affafTmating him. Their intention, however, was de-
feated by the generous interpofition of Maan ebn Zaidct, an
Ommiyan chief, who had been under a neceffity of conceal-
ing himfelf from the caliph's refentment. Kotwithflanding
his refcue, the infult he had received in his capital induced
hiirl to build a new city on the banks of the T- ^ris, and there

tQ

A L M

A L M

to (ix liis refidence. This circiimftance gave occafioii to his
Iniilding ihe city of Bagdad, A. D. 762. In tlic preceding
year he received infoniiatioii that a dcTign liad been formed
to dethrone liim ; but the plot being difcovered, all who
were direflly'or indircftly concerned in it were feverely pii-
nilhed ; and moll of them were by cruel treatment put to
death. His uncle Abdallah fliared the fate of other rebels ;
for having been allured to his court bv affuranecs of pardon
Rnd protection, he placed him in a building, which was fo con-
ftrufted, that it fell and cruflied him in its ruins. Soon after
Almanfor h.ad iixed hii relidence at Bagdad, A. D. 768, he
was cured of a dangerous diforder by the advice cf a famous
Chrillian phyfician, whofe name was George ebn Bahtifliua
Al Jondifaburi. The caliph, as a recompence, prcfeiiied
him with three beautiful Greek girls, and a confiderable fum
of money ; but the girls were fent back, with a declaration
on the part of George, who was married to a wife old and in-
finn, of which Almanfor was previouHy apprifed, that it was
not lawful for a Chrillian to have more than one wile at a
time. The phvlician's conduiS; on this occafion, whilfl it
furprifed the caliph, raifed him in his efteem, and was fol-
lowed by a profufion of favours. Almanfor in his fucceeding
inilitary tranfaftions was generally viflorious. Towards his
Chriftian fnbjccls he exereifed much feverity. In the year
744 he fet cut on a pilgrimage to Mecca ; and being feized
on his journey with a dileafe which threatened danger, he
fent for his fon and intended fncceiTor, Al Mohdi, and gave
him falutary advice. " I command you," faid he, " to treat
publicly your relations with the grcatetl marks of diflinftion,
llnce this conduft will refieft no fmall degree of honour and
glory upon yourfelr. Licreafe the number of your frted-
men, and treat them all with kindnefs, as they will be of
great fervice to you in your adverhty : but neither this, nor
the other injunction will you fulfil. Enlarge not that part
(if your capital erefted on the eallern bank of the Tigris, as
you will never be able to finilh it ; but this work 1 know
you will attempt. Never permit any of your women to in-
termeddle in affairs of ilate, nor to have too much influence
over your counfcls ; but this advice I know you will not
take. Thefe are my laft commands ; or, if ycu pleafe, my
dying advice ; and to God I now recomni! nd you." They
then parted, and were both in tears. He purfued his journey
to Bir-Maimun, /. e. the well of Maimun, where he expired,
in the 63d year of his age and 20th of his reign. His re-
mains were interred at Mecca. The charadler of Almanfor
feems to have been formed of very heterogeneous and even
contradielory qualities. In private his temper was mild, and
couciliated affeftion and attachment ; but in public, his
afpett and demeanour infpired terror. He was prudent and
brave, engaging in difcourfe, converfant in all the atts of
government, and addifled to fludy and literature, and par-
ticularly to philofophy and aftronomy ; but he was extremely
covetous, perfidious, cruel and implacable. Mod. Un. Hill,
vol. ii. p. I0C3 — 135.

Almansor, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the
kingdom of Fez, fituate on the river Guir.

ALM ANSPACH, a fmall town of the circle of Suabia,
between the lake of Zell and that of Conftance.

ALMANZA, a fmall town of Spain, in New Caftilc, en
the frontiers of Valencij, fituate in N. lat. 38" 54'. W. long.
1° 21'. In the plain adjoining to this town marflial Ber-
wick defeated the allies in 1707, under the marquis de los
Minas and the earl of Galway.

ALMARAZ, a town of Spain, in the province of Ef-
tremadura, fituate in a fine plain, on the north fide of the
Tagus, eight leagues eaft-fouth-eaft of Coria.

ALMARIA, or Armaria, in our j^ridtrU Rcconls, dc«
note the archives of a church, or library.

Almaria, in Giography. See Villa Rica.

ALMAS, or Ai.MAECH, a fmall town of Hun-
gary, in Tranfylvania, will) a diilrici dependent 011
Claufenbourg. The dilhidt lies bctvccn Inirgh s and
Claufenbourg, and confitls of mountains, in wiiich arc
found many caverns. Almas is a fmall place, giving
name to the adjacent countiy in the bannate of Tc-
mefvar, and alfo a river upon which is fituated the fortrcfs
of Sigeth.

ALMAZAN, a fmall town or village of Spain, in Old
Callile, at the foot of the frontier mountains of the province
of Aragon, where is Ihewn a relic, which is the objett of
devotion, as the head of the proto-martyr Stephen, and near
which was fettled the treaty of peace between Henry, king
of Cailile, and Peter IV., king of Aragon, in 1375. N.
lat. 41° 30'. W. long. 2° i6'.

ALME, a river of Germany, which runs into the l^ippe,
near Elfen, in the billiopric of Paderborn.

Alme, in Modern NlJIory, finging or dancing girls in
Egypt, who, like the Improvifatori of Italy, can ccca-
fionally chant unpremeditated verfe. They are thus called,
becaule they have received a better education than other
women, and they form a celebrated fociety in this country.
The qualiiications for admiffion are a good voice, a know-
ledge of the language and of the rules of poetiy, and an
abil ty to compote and fing couplets on the fpot, adapted
to the circumflances. The alme know by heart all the new
fongs, and their memoiy is furiiiflied with the moll beautiful
moet:, i. e. elegiac hymns, bewailing the death of a hero or
the misfortunes incident to love, and the prettiell t;Jc;?.
They attend evci-y fellival, and, placed in a rollrum, fing
during the repafl ; and then defcendiug into the faluon,
dance a kind of pantomime ballets, that reprcfeiU the ordinary
occurrences of life, and the mylleries of love. Their bodies
are furprifingly fupple, and their features fo flexible, that they
can exhibit at pleafure the different charafters they alTume.
I'he indecency of their attitudes and of their drcfs is often
carried to cxcefs; their Heps are regulated by the found of
the flute, of callanets, the tambour de bafqiie and cymbals,
which accelerates or retards the meafure ; and tliey are alfo
animated by words adapted to the fcenes. They appear in
a Hate of intoxication, and are the bacchants in a delirium.
Thefe alme are fent for into all the harams, where they teach
the women the new airs, amnfe them with amorous tale;;,
and recite poems, rendered interelliiig by furnifliing a li\eTy
pifture of their manners. By tliefe they are initiated into
the myfl;eries of their art, and taught lafcivious dances. Ai
their underftandings are cultivated, their converfation is
agreeable. They alfo fpeak the language with purity ; and
habituated to poetry, the foftell and moll generous exprcf-
fions are familiar to them. They repeat with mucli grace,
follow nature in finging, and excel in the jxitlictic. Even
the Turks pais whole niglits in hearing them. When two
fing togetiier, it is always with the fame voice ; and in the
orchcllra, all the in'lruments playing in unilon execute
the fair.e part. Thefe alme affill at the marriage ceremonies,
and march before the bride playing on inllruments ; and they
attend funerals, accompanying the proccfnon and finging
forrowful airs. They are paid at a high rat^, and fcldoui
appear except among the grandees and rich men. However,
tlie common people have alfo their alme, who are girls of an
inferior clafj, and llrive to imitate the former, without their
knowledge, elegance and graces. The pubhc places and
walks about Grand Cairo abound with theia : nor will de-
cency

A L M

eency Jlow an account of their licentious geftures and atti-
tudes Sav;irv's Letters, vol. i. p. 176 — 184.

ALMEDINA, in C.-o^rj/thy, a town of Africa, in the
empire of Morocco, between A/amcr and Safse, on the
ed"-e of Mount Atlas. It was once rich and populous, but
now li-.s in ruins.

A LMED ESSOS, in Mcunt Geogmphy, a city of Thrace.
Plinv, iv. iS.

ALMEHRAB, among M.ihometans, denotes a niche in
their mofques, wiiich directs to the kcbla, that is, to the
temple of Mecca, to w hich they are obliged to bow their
faces in praying.

ALMEIDA, or Almeda, in Geography, a fortified
town of Portugal, in the province of Beira, on the river Coa,
on the frontiers of the kingdom of Leon. It is feven leagues
from Civdad Rodrigo, and four foutli-ealt of Pirdiel. N. lat.
40^^ 5'. W. long. 6-= 24'.

ALMEISAR, a celebrated game among the ancient
Ai-abs, performed by a kind of calling of lots, with arrows,
ftriiflly forbidden by the law of Mahomet, on account of the
frequent quarrels occafioned by it.

The mar.ner of the game was thus : a young camel being
brought and killed was divided into a number of parts. The
adventurers, to the number of fevcn, being met, eleven ar-
rows were pro\ided without heads or feathers ; feven of
■which were marked, the firll \\ ith one notch, the fecond
with two, the third with three, &c. the other four had no
riarks. Thefe arrows were put promifcuoufly into a bag,
and thus drawn by an indifferent perfon. Thofe to whom
the marked arrows fell, won fhares in proportion to their lot ;
the reft to whom the blanks fell were entitled to no part of
the camel, but obliged to pay the whole price of it. Even
the winners tailed not of the flelh themfelves, more than the
lofers ; but the whole was dillributed to the poor.

ALMELILETU is ufed, by Avicenna, for a preterna-
tural kind of heat, a degree more remifsthan that of a ferer,
and which fometimes remains after a fever is gone.

ALMELOO, in Geography, a town of the L^nited Ne-
therlands, in the countr)' of Overyffel, fituate on the Vecht,
not far from the Regge, eight leagues eaft-north-eaft of De-
venter. N. lat. 52° 25'. E. long. 6° 22'.

ALMELOVEEN, Theodore Jansln, in Biography,
born in the year 1657 in the province of Utrecht, was origi-
nally intended for the church ; but difgufted, we are told, at
the difputcs among the clergy, which at that time ran very
high, he applied himfelf to the ilndy of medicine, in which
he was made do&or in the year 1681, and in 1697 profefTor
of the Greek language, of hiltoiy, and of phyfic, at Har-
derwick. He becaine more known, iiowevcr, from fome ex-
cellent works he publifhed, as editor or author, than from
his praftice of medicine, which does not appear to have been
ever extenlive. The principal of his works are, " De vitis
Stephanorum," firft printed at Amllerdam in 16S3, l2mo.
" Onomafticon rerum inventarum," Catalogue of Inven-
tions in 1694, i2mo. " Bibliotheca promiiTa et latens,"
The promifed and concealsd Library, in 1692, l2rao.
" Amosnitates theologico-philologicie," in 1694, 8vo.
" Fafti Confulares," Amft. 1740, 8vo. " Plagiarorum
Syllabus," Lift of Plagiaries. He alfo pubHflied editions of
the Aphorifms of Hippocrates, of tlie works of Celfus, and
of Cxlius Aurelianus, which are held in very high eftimation.
He died in the year 1712, not 1742, as itated by miftake in
the Biographical Diclionary, and in the General Biography
now publilhing, as may be leen by referring to a later edition
of Celfus, publiihed by Vulpius, at Padua, in the year 1722,
founded on that edited by Almeloveen. As he had no children,
ie left hii collection of the different editions of Q^uincttlian to

A L M

^he Univcrfity at Utrecht. His library, which was exten.
five, was fold the following year at Amfterdam. See Hal-
ler's Bib. Med.et Anat. Eloy Dicl. Hiftor.

ALMEN, in Geigrapl.y, a town of the United Nether-
lands, in the country of Zutphen, fitnate on the Berckcl,
two leagues eaft of Zutphen.

ALMENAR, John, M. D. in Biography, a Spaniard,
publifhed in 15 12, " Libellum de Morbo Gallico, fepteni
capitibus abfolutum," which has fince pafFed through leve-
ral editions, and is included in the colleclicn of trcatifcs on
the fubjcA by Luifmus. He is the firft Spanilh author who
wrote on the difeafe, in which he appears to have had confi-
dcrahle experience. He depended, for the cure, on wann
bathing and Mercurial frictions, intci-pofing, on the days the
fri(£lions were not ufed, an alterative fyrup. The difeafe
might be occnfioned, he fays, eitiier by the influence of a
contaminated and corrupted atroofphere, to which caufe we
ought to attribute it, when it affetted perfons dedicated to
the church, (Aphrodis. Luilin, p. 361,) or by contaft ; in
either cafe, however, the fame procefs is recommended in the
cure. When fahvation arifcs from the ufe of the mercurial
friftions, he diredls it to be checked and moderated by the
exhibition of glyfters and purgatives, ^j./c Aphrodis. five
de Morbo Gallico, Luifino, p. 360. Aftruc de Morbis
Galhcis, p. 614. Haller, Bib. Med. &c.

ALMENARA, in Geograpliy, a fniall town of Spain, in
the province of Valencia, near the river Polencia, and not far
from the fea. N. lat. 39° 41'. W. long. 0° :6'.

ALMENDRA, a fmall place of Portugal, in Beira, con-
taining about 750 inhabitants.

ALMENDRO, a town of Spain, in Seville, fix leagues
north-north-eaft of Ayamonte.

ALMENDROLEJO, a town of Spain, in the province
of Eftremadura, four leagues fouth of Mcrida.

ALMENE, a name given, by fome of the Arabian wri-
ters, to the prickly lotus of Africa, called by fome of the an-
cients lotus acanthos, and by Virgil acanthus only.

Almene, in Commerce, a weight of two pounds, ufed for
weighing lafFron in feveral parts of the continent of the Eaft
Indies.

ALMENHAUSEN, in Geography, a town of Prufiia,
in the province of Natangen, five leagues fouth-fouth-eaft of
Koniglberg.

ALMERIA, a fea-port town of Spain, in the province of
Granada, agreeably iituated on a fpacious bay, fometimes
called Helena Bay, at the mouth of the river Almeria, in
the Mediterranean, the fee of a billiop, futfragar. of Granada.
N. lat. 36° 51'. W. long. 2° 15'. The country about it is
fertile, particularly in fruits and oil, and near it the land pro-
jedis eaftward into the fca, forming a cape called by the an-
cients Charidame, and by the moderns Cabo de Gates. Al-
meria is fuppofed to have rifen upon the riiir.s of the ancient
Abdera, and was forrr.crly a place of great importance.^
It was taken from the Moors by the emperor Don Alonio, .
in 1 147, witli the afTiftance of the French, Genoefe, and
Pifans. At that time it was the ftrongeft place bc-longing
to the Moors in Spain ; and its privateers, which were nume-
rous, not only troubled the coails inhabited by their Chrif-
tian neighbours, but gave equal difturbance to the maritime
provinces of France, Italy, and the adjacent iflands. When
the place, which was ftrongly fortified and garrifoned, was .
taken by ftorm, the beft part of the plunder was diftributed
an-.ong the aUies, and all the inhabitants, who were found in
arms, were put to the fword. The Genoefe particularly ac-
quired here that emei-ald vefFel which ftill remains in their
treafury, and is deemed invaluable. After its reduftion by
the Chriftians, Almeria became a bifhopric ; and though
7 frequent

A L M

fi-.'quent mention of it occurs in tlie liiflory of Spain,
it gradually fuiik in coiifcqueiice, and rctaiiii t'tw traces
of its ancient grcatiicfs. Its iituatioii and cli.'iiiite, ahd the
various vegetable and mineral produftions of its environs,
have been higlilv extolled by ancient and modern travellers.

ALMERICANS; in Ecchjlnjlkal HWory, were the fol-
lowers of Almeric, or Amauri, in the thirttcnlU ccnf.ir)-.
They malnlaincd that every Chrlftian was obliged to believe
liirafclf a member of Jefus Chrill, and attached fome extra-
vagant and fanatical ideas to this opinion ; and alfo that the
power of the Fatlicr continued no longer than the Mofaic
difpenfation ; that the empire of the Son extended only to
the thirteenth century ; and that then the reign of the Holy
Ghoft commenced, when all facraments and external worfhip
were to be aholifhed, and the falvation of Chrlllians was to be
accomplidicd merely by internal acis of illuminating gi-ace.
Their morals were as infamous as their doctrine was ab-
fiird ; and under the name of charity they comprehended
and committed the moft criminal acts of impurity and licen-
tioufn^fs. Their tenets were reprobated by a public decree
of the council of Paris, in the year 120c;, when many perfons
of this feci were condemned, and aftcnvards burnt by the or-
der of king Philip. Dupin 13th Cent. vol. v. p. 144. Mofh.
Eccl. Hitt. vol. iii. p. 157.

ALMERY. SeeAMBRv.

ALMEYDA, Dos Francis, in Biography and Hijiory,
Count d'Abrantes, having ferved king Ferdinand of Callile
with great reputation, was nominated by king Emanuel of
Portugal, firll viceroy and governor-general of the newly
conquered countries in the Eall Indies ; and had alligned
him guards for his pcrfon, a number of chaplains, and eveiy
other appendage to his office, which was thoxight neceffary
to give it dignity and influence. He fet fail with a fleet from
Lifbon in March 1505-6, touched at the Cape Vcrd iflands,
doubled the Cape at a confiderable dillance to thefouth, and
anived fafely at Guiloa. From thence he proceeded to
Morabaza, a fmall, v.cll fortified city in an ifland, which he
reduced ; he proceeded to the Angedive iflands, not far from
Goa, where he built a fort ; he alfo erected and garrifoned
another fort at Cannanor ; and, arriving at Cochin, fecured
it in the iutereft of Portugal. At this time the ifland of
Madagafcar was difcovered ; and, during his government, his
fon Don Lorenzo Aluieyda furveyed the Maldive iflands,
and difcovered the great ifland of Ceylon, the chief monarch
of which he compelled to fubmit to the protection of Portu-
gal. This young warrior, after returning from this expedi-
tion, was employed in the fleet deftined againft Calicut, but
loft his life in a naval engagement againft the Samorin, on
which occafion the viceroy behaved with great heroifm, ac-
quiefcing in the diftreffing event with this reflection ; " All
men mull die, and Lorenzo could not die better than in the
fervice of his country." Almeyda, however, manifelled an
unbecoming jealoufy on the arrival of Alphonfo Albu-
querque, who was appointed as his fucceflbr, and confined
him in the citadel of Cannanor, under pretence of mifcondutt.
Before he furrendered his command he engaged the whole
power of the Mahometans at fea, and gained a compl„te vic-
tor,', by which he cimtributed in a great meafure to break
that formidable league, from which the Samorin was in hopes
of compelling the Portuguefe to abandon their Indian con-
quefts, and to facilitate the enteqirifes of Ai.BU(iUER(y r,
his fncceflbr. In his return home with the wealth he had
acquired, he touched at Saldanha point, on the coaft of
Africa, in order to procure fome frefh provifions ; and fome
of his failcrs, quarrelling with the natives, occafioned a fray,
in which Almeyda was induced imprudently to interfere.
When his officers urged him to go afttore on tJiis hazardous

Vol. L

A L M

cnlcrpriff, " Whither do you curiy my 60 years:" faid AI-
meyda, on ftcpping into his boat. Tlie natives ajrembltd in
a very numerous body, and Almeyda, with 57 of the 150
men who accompanied him, fell victims to this rafli and un-
juft attempt. Mod. Un. Hill. vol. viii. p. 40—43.

ALMEYRIM, or Almerin, in Geography, a town of
Portugal, in the province of Eftrcmadura, one league fouth-
caft of Santaren.

ALMIA, in Ancicit Geography, a town placed by Pto-
lemy in Afiatic Sarmatia.

ALMIGGIM, or Almvgcim <winit, a word ufed in
the Scriptures to fignify a beautiful and light fort of wood.
It has been conjetlured to be feveral forts of woods now
in ufe ; others think it has been loft long fince. Meibo-
mius infers, from the accounts of Jofcphus, that it was the
wood of the Indian pine-tree, or fir-tree. But it has been
alledged, that as this tree was common in Judea, it could not
have been fearched for as far as Ophir. The Vulgate ren-
ders it lignum thyinum ; and, according to Theophraftus, the
thyon-trcc grows in Africa near the temple of Jupiter Am-
mon, and refembles the cyprefs. It was much efteemcd
ajnong the Heathens for doors and images, becaufe it would
not rot. Dr. Shaw (Travels, p. 422.) fuppofcs that the al-
mug was the cyprefs, and he obferves, that the wood of this
tree is ftill ufed in Italy, and in other places, for violins,
harpfiejiords, and other ftringed inftruments. Hiller, in his
Hierophyticon, confidcrs almuggim as a general name for
the wood of the gum-bearing trees, and for the trees them-
felvcs. But as the cedar and fir-trees are joined w ith the al-
mug-trees, it is more probable that fome particular fpccies, ra-
ther than the whole gentis, was here intended. This wood
was excellent for its whitenefs, as well as remarkably light,
and tiiercfore was ufed in mufical inftruments.

ALMINA, in Ancient Geography, a country of Epinis,
according to Ptolemy, between Thefprotia to the weft, and
Dolopia to the north.

ALMINIA, Amissa, the fame with Peguntium. See
Almissa.

ALMIRA, a town of Phoenicia of Libanus.

ALMIRiE, or Almyr^e, a diftriift of Africa, ia the
Marncoti', according to Ptolemy.

ALM'iRANTE ijlands, in Geography, are a groupe of
finall iflands in the South Indian ocean, off the coaft of Zan-
guebar in Africa, extending from weft-fouth-weft to eaft-
north-eaft, from S. lat. 5° 45' to 5^ 30', and from E. long.
51° 40' to 52° 50'.

ALMIRON, a town of European Turkey, in the ifle
of Candy, fix miles north-weft of Retimo.

ALMISSA, Almisivm, the ancient Pcgunlium, an
cpifcopal city of Dahuatia, is fituated in the duchy of
Chulni, on a rock betwixt two high mountains, at the mouth
of the Tettina, and was formerly notorious for its piracy. It
has been reduced by the Venetians. It is 20 miles eaft of
Spalatro, and called by the Turks Omiic. E. long, 18° 14'.
N. lat. 43° 50'.

ALMO, or Almow, in Ancient Geographiy, a river of
Latium, which rifing near Bovilloe, took a northern di-
rection, and difcharged itfelf into the Tiber, to the fbuth-
weft of R(mie. The I>atln poets, perfonifying this river,
gave it a daughter named Lar, who, divulging the amours
of Jupiter with the naiad Jutuma, was condemned to eter-
nal filence, and difmifted to the infernal regions. In her way
thither (he attached the affection of Mercury, and became
the mother of two children, under the appellation of the Dti
Lares, and the mother was called the goddefs Mutttu, or
Mula. This river is now Dachia and II rio d'Appio, as it
runs from the Appian way into the Tiber, or fiom a corrup-
5 B tion

A L M

tron of Aquataccio, or Aqua d'Acio. On the" place where
this river crofTed tlie Appianway, the priefts of Cybtle per-
formed the annual ceremony of wafliing the ftatue of tlie
goddefs, and their implements of facrifice. Ovid defcribes
this ceremony ; Faili iv. 337.

" Ell locus, in Tibcrin quE lubricus influit Almosi,

Et nomen niagno perdit in anine minor,

]llic purpurea caiius cum vefte facerdos

Alraonus dominam, faeraque lavit aquis."

ALMOBARIN, a fmall to-.vn of Spain, in New Caf-
tilc, north -north-caft of Merida, and fouth-eaft of Alcan-
tara. N. lat. 39" 10'. W. long. 14'' 46'.

ALMODAVAR, or Almudf.var, a fmall town of
Spain, in Aragon, three leagues fouth-weft from Huefea.
The adjacent country abou.ids with grain, wine, and
faffron.

Almodavar del Cawpo, a town of Spain, in New Caf-
tile, fituate in a pleafant valley at the foot of Mount Mo-
rena, and defended by a caftle, fix leagues fouth of Civdad
Real.

Almodavar, a town of Portugal, in Alentejo, contain-
ing within its diftiicl five pariflies.

AI.MOENA, in Ancient Gcogrciphy, a town of Africa,
placed by Ptolemy in Bizacium, ten leagues to the eail-
fouth-eali of Tichufa. Almoena is now Telemccn, and Ti-
chufa, Tegewfe. Shaw's Travels, p. 126.

ALMOGIZA, among Arabian JVriters, denotes the
limb or circumfe;. uce of the astrolabe.

ALMOHARRAM, in Ancunt Chronology, wasthe firft
month of the Arab vear. On fome occafions the obiervance
of this month was put off to the following month Safar.

ALMOHEDES, in Hijiory, the name of an African dy-
nafty which fucceeded that of the Almoravides in Bar-
bary, in the commencement of the lith century. It took
its rife in the 25th year of the rtign of Al Abraham, or
Brahem, who fucceeded his father Ali, A. D. 1 1 15; and
der'.ved its name from an obfcure founder, called Al Mo-
hedi, or Al Mohedes. This perfon was a Berber, of Uie tribe
of Muzamada, named Abdallah, and was a famous preacher
among thofe ofhis tribe, who were feated along Mount Atlas.
In order to fecure fuccefs to the defign he had conceived, he
affnmed the title of Mohdi, or Mohedi, and fet up for the
htad or leader of the Orthodox, or Unitarians, who were
now become fo numerous by his preaching, that he pre-
fumtd to bid defiance even to his fovereign. Brahem was
too much immerfed in pleafure to regard the revolt, and too
confident of his own fecurity to apprehend any danger from
the infurreftion of a party compofed of perfons whom he
looked upon with contempt. But their unexpefted increafe
alarmed him, and he prepared for fubduing them. His force,
however, was infufiicient for the purpofe, and in his firft en-
gagement he was totally defeated. Abdallah was wary, and
fecured the capital ; fo that Bi-ahcm, purfued as a fugitive
by Abdolmumen, one of the party, was obliged to feek re-
fuge in the city of Fez. But the gates of the city were not
only (hut againlt him, but opened to receive his pnrfuers.
The next place to which he lepaired was Auran, or Oran,
but the city was foon invefted by Abdolmumen, and threat-
ened with fire and fword. The magiftrates, unable to de-
fesd themfelves, and dreading the confequences of an hollile
attack, urged him to leave the town. Under the (helter of a
dark night he, with his favouritewife on horfeback behindhim,
fet out from Oran, but ihey were difcovercd and purfued ; and
fearing to fall into the hands of their enemies, he fpurred
bis horfe in a fit of defpair, and leaped down a precipice,
■where he and his wife were dalhed to pieces. Such was the

A L M

fatal end of this prince, whofe death put a final period to
the empire of the Almoravides. As foon as Abdolmumen^
vulgarly called Abdiihnan, was apprized of Brahem's death,
he Iraverfed the kingdom of Tremecen in his way to Mo-
rocco, where, Abdallah being dead, he was declared his luc-
ceffor by the chiefs of tlv; party, and proclaimed king of tlie
Almohedes, under the title of Al Emir Al " 'umin Abdallah
Mohammed Abdal Mumen Ebn Abdallah Ibni Ali, t. c.
thief or emperor of the true believers of the houfc of Mo-
hammed Abdul Mumen, the fiui of Abdal Mumen, the fon
of Abdal! ih of the hneage of Ali. A'jaalbh's r^ign was
long enough to allow his enafting fome prudei;lial .^,;ala-
tlons for the eftabliilmient of his feft aid : new kingdom,
which he left behind iji his will. He appointed a council of
40 difciples of his fe-^l, all of whom wt-re prcubers ; lome
of thefe were commifiioncd to regulate all pub':C affairs, and
at proper feafons to be itinerant prcnehers in the country,
for the diffulion of their doftrine ; and others of them, to
the number of 1 6, were to acl as fecretaries. From the
former of thefe two claffes the fuccefib;s to the regal and
pontifical throne were to be elefted, for both thefe dignities
and titles were to be united in the iame pc Ion. '1 he difci-
ples of this fedl were denorrii.ated Muhameddin, or Al
Moliaddin ; but by the Arabian writers they are ilyled only
preachers, and by the Spauilh, Al Mohedes ; and the de-
fcendants and fuceeffois of that tribe continued to retain the
appellation of Emir Al Mumenin, or chiefs oi the faithful
or true believers, as long as their dynally lailed ; and they
becam.e vei-y powerful both in Africa and Spain. As to
their religious tenets, if we except their fpecious pretence
to orthodoxv, and ftricl adherence to the doftrine of the
unity of God, which they zealc.ifiy inculcated, they had
little or nothing peculiar to themfelves ; but they were loud
in their reproaches againft the tyranny of the Almoravides,
and in their clamours for liberty ; and thus they allured the
greatell; p.art of the kingdom to revolt, and to embrace their
left and doftrine.

The new fovereign, on his acceflion to power, extin-
guilhcd the Almoravidic line by tlrangling Ifaac, the fon of
Brahem, and extirpated all the unhappy remains and adhe-
rents of this race. During the progreis of this revolution,
fevcral of the Alinoravide governors, availing themfelves of
the diftraftion and tumult that prevailed, ercftcd their go-
vernments into independent principalities and petty king-
don-'S : and thofe who inhabited the mountainous parts ef-
tabliiTied a variety of lordfliips under their own cheyks. The
Nubians and Libyans took the lead, and others followed
their example ; particularly the ftates of Barbary, Tripoli,
Kairwan, Tunis, Algiers, Tremecen and Bugeia, each of
whieli had its own fovereign. Abdolmumen, however, pur-
fued his conquefts v.'lth fucccfs, and in a few years reduced,
the Numidians and Galatians in the weft, and the kingdoms
of Tunis, I'remecen, and the greateft part of Mauritania
and Tingitana, under his fubjettion. He likewife difpofTefled
the Chrillians of Mohedia, the chief city of Africa, and fome
others on the fame coaft, and made other conquefts both ia
Spain and Portugal. He died in the feventh year of liis
reign, and was fucceeded, A. D. 1 156, by his fon Yufef, or
Jofeph. Yufef was a valiant and martial prince; and having
cftabliihed the kings of Tunis and Bugeia in their rcfptc-
tive kingdoms as his iributaries and valTals, he prepared to
embark for Spain to afiift the Moorlfn princes, who folicitfd
his proteftion and fuccour. Yufef was fucceeded by Yakub,
or Jaacob, furnamed Al Manfur, or the conqueror, who, after
fecaring himfelf againft both the revolted and the plundering
A.rabf, purfued his conquefts with fuch fpced and fucceis,
that in a little time he becanje mafter of the whole country

lying

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lymg between Numidia inclufive, and tl\e entire Icngt'i of the
Bail^aiy coafts from Tripoli to the kingdom of Moroceo,
comprehending a!fo thofo of Fez, Trcmecen, Tiiin';-, and
Tilpoli, and extending above 1200 leagues in length, and in
depth from the Mediterranean to the fandy defcits of Libya,
above 4S"o, exclufively of his Spanifli dominions, where he
was acknowledged as fovereign by moll of the Arabian
M'xiriOi princes. The clofe of this prince's hillory is wrap-
ped up ill obfcurity ; for about the year 1206, having
^^nelled a revolt in Morocco, and violated his faith with the
governor of the capital which he reduced, and his adherents,
in the moll perfidious and cruel manner, he difnppearcd ;
and, as it is laid, touched with remorfe in the recolleCV'"!! of
liis condncl, wandered about obfcure and unknown, and at
lall died a poor d^'fpiled baker at Alexandria. He was fuc-
ceeded in the kingdom by his fon Mohammed, fnrnamed Al
"Nakcr, who, on his accefiion to the crown, parted over into
Spain with a very large army, coufiiling of more than
.120,000 horfe, and 300,000 foot, and engaged the whole
force of the Chrillians on the plains of Tholofa, where he
was totally defeated with the lofs of above 150,000 foot,
30,000 horle, and 50,000 prifoners. This famous battle
was foxight, according to fume Arabic writers, in the year
of tlie Hegira 609, A. D. 121 2; but, according to the
Spanifh and other liillorians, in 617, A. D. 1220. After
this defeat he returned to Africa, where he was received
with coldnefs and dilgud, and foon died of vexation, having
appointed his grandimi Zeyed Arrax to fucceed him. Al
Zeyed was foon aflairniated by order of Gamarazan Ebn
Zcyen, of the tribe oi the Zeneti, a defcendant of the Ab-
dolwates, ancient monarchs of the kingdom, but at this time
vaffals to the Almohedes ; and with him terminated tlie dy-
nalty or government of the Almohedes, after having held it
for about 170 years ; which was fucceeded by that of the
Benimerini, another brancli of the Zeneti. Thefe laft, hav-
ing held the government during the fpace of i i 7 years, en-
larged their conqueils, and enriched themfelves by frequent
incurfions not only into all the neighbouring kingdoms ;
but even Nubia, Libya, and Numidia were at length fwal-
iowed up by the general inundation of Mohammedilm. Mod.
Un. Hift. vol. xiv. p. 301 — 316.

ALMOL hi Geography, a town of Pruflia, in the pro-
Tince of Natangen, eight leagues fouth-weft of Raften-
turg.

ALMOIN, in Law. See Frank Almoin.

ALMON, in Ancient Geography, z. town of Judxa, in the
tribe of Benjamin, alTigned by Jofhua to the Levites of this
tribe who were of the family of Aaron.

Almon, a town of Greece, in Ba:otia ; and alfo a town
or diftrift of ThcfTaly.

ALMONACID, in Geography, a town of Spain, in
Old Caftile, three leagues fouth-eaft of Toledo.

ALMOND, African, in Botany. See Brabeium.

Almond, Dmar-find Tree. See Am vgdalus.

Almond, in the ALUeria MecUca, is a kind of fruit which
is the produce of the almond-tree, or Amygdalus Communis.
There are two principal varieties of this tree, diftinguilhed by
the quality of the fruit ; and hence we obtain two kinds of
almonds, 'oi-z,. the fweet and the bitter. Neither the kernels
themfelves, nor the trees that produce them, allowing for
fomc difference in the iize of the flowers and fruit, are dif-
tinfr.ilhable by the eye ; and it is faid that the fame trees,
which in a wild ftate bore bitter almonds, have, when culti-
vated, afforded the fweet kind ; and that the fweet, for want
of culture, have degenerated into bitter. The almonds
which we receive from Barbary, where the tree is indigenous,

A L M

are bitter; snd thofc of Europe and of other parts, where it
is cultivated, arc in general fweet. In the choice of thefo
kernels, particularly thofc of the fweet fort, care fliould he
taken, as they arc very apt, on account of the oil with which
they abound, to become rancid in kce]>lng, and to be preyed
upon by an infert, which cats out the internal part, and
leaves tlic almond apparently entire.

S'u<ei-I ahnoiids are, lor moll purpofes of medicine and diet,
blanched, or freed from the outer, thin, acrid (kin, by ilcep-
ing them in hot water till it is fufhcienlly foftened to be
peeled off. Sweet almonds are more ufed as food than as
medicine, and like others of the nurts ohnf-, or oily nuto,
they are confiderably nnti-itious ; but they are faid to be of
difficult digellion, unlefs they are extremely well commi-
nuted. Dr. Cullen GiggeRs, that this inconvenience, no-
ticed by Dr. Lewis, may be in a great meai'ure obviated by
a very diligent triture, uniting veiy intimately the farinaceous
and the oily part. As medicines, they contribute, by their
foft unftuous quality, to blunt acrimonious humoui-s in the
firll padages, and thus fometimcs give prefent relief in
heart-burns and limilar comjilaints. Their medicinal quali-
ties depend upon the oil which is blended with the farinaceous
matter, and which they yield, on cxpreflion, nearly in the
proportion of half their weight. Murray fays, that 5^
pounds of wnpeeled almonds have yielded, by cold expref-
lion, one pound fix ounces of oil ; and afterwards, on heal-
ing the almonds, three quarters of a pound. I'his oil is more
agreeable to the palate than moll other cxprcfFed oils, and is
therefore preferred for iuternal ufe, in order to obtund
acrid juices, and to foften and relax the folids, in tickling
coughs, hoarfenefs, coltivenefs, nephritic pains, &c. and ex-
ternally in tenfion and rigidity of particular parts. The
milky folution of almonds in watery liquors, ufually called
emulfions, polFefs in a degree the emollient qualities of the
oil, and are prefcribed with the fame intention, particularly-
in heat of urine and llranguries ; and they are alfo given as
diluents in acute difeafes, and for fupplying the place of ani-
mal milk, to which they bear a great analogy. Thefe emul-
fions are formed of a due confiftence, with tlie proportion of
an ounce of almonds to a quart of water, which fliould be
gradually poured in after the almonds have been firil tho-
roughly pounded ; and the London College direfts the ad-
dition of gum arable, which renders it a ilill more ufeful
demulcent in catarrhal affcftions, llranguries, &c. But if tl c
water is heated for hallening the folution of the gum, it
Ihould ftand to grow cold before it is poured on the almondr,
otherwife the emulfion will be impeifeft. Sugar, or fomc
other grateful material, is commonly added, in order to
make the hquor more palatable. The oil, after being ex-
pofed for a few days in a heat equal to that of the human
body, becomes rancid and acrimonious. Emulfions, on
Handing for fome hours, throw up a white cream on the
furface, and the whey-like liquor underneath grows not ran-
cid but four. The latter are therefore prefeired in inflam-
matory diftempers, becaufe they are not fubjeft to become
acrid and irritating by tlie heat of the body, but tend rather
to a ftate in which they may fen-e to abate inflammation.
Acids, mixed with emulfions, feparate the oily and feiou*
parts, and produce a thick curd, much after the fame man-
ner as they do in mUk. A more permanent emulfion may be
formed by triturating the pure oil with a thick mucilage of
gum-arabic, from which the oil will not feparate on llandiuf
for fome days, nor on the addition of acids, though it mav
be fpecdily difengaged by alkalies, both fixed and volatile.
One part of gum, made into a mucilage with an equal
quantity of water, is fufBcient for four parts <jf the oil. The
5 B 2 wliite

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wliite or volk of an egg, and a mixture of fynip, with a fmall
tjuaiititv of volatile Ipirit, will render the oil in ioine degree
toluble in water. Several lubllances, not mifeible of them-
felves witli water, may, by trituration with almonds in the pro-
portion of about fix times their quantity, be mixed with it,
and thus fitted for medicinal ufe, as camphor, and various
refms, and unduous fubftances. Some reckon two knuls oJ
fweet almonds. I. Jordan, which are the larger, longer,
and dearer kind, chiefly fold to be eat with raifins. 2. Va-
lencian and Barbaiy almonds, or thofe from which the oil is
produced. Houghtcm Collect. N"^ 474. toni. ii.

Bhier almouJi yield a large quantity of oil iimilar to that of
fweet almonds, and they are ahke mifeible with water into an
tmulfion. The oil has no bitternefs, and that of either fort
IB ufed indifferently for medicinal purpofes; but the matter
remaining, after the exprelTiou of the oil, is more powerfully
bitter than the almond itfelf. Great part of this bitter mat-
ter diifolves by the affillance of heat, both in water and in
reftified fpirit, and a part alio arifes with both menilrua in
diilillation. Thefe almoads, and emuliions of them, have
been recommended as aperients, refolvents, diuretics, and an-
thelmintics ; but though they may in thefe refpedts be of
feme ufe, they are remedies of too dangerous a kind for com-
mon practice. When taken freely in fubllance, they occa-
fion ficknefs and vomiting ; and they have been long known
to be poiionous to various brute animals, as wolves, foxes,
dogs, cats, and fcvtral forts of birds ; and from the fudden
cft'ec\s whioh this poifon produces, and the convulfions and
fpalms that follow the exhibition of it, there can be no doubt
of its acfing directly on the nervous energy. Some authors
have alledged, that they are alfo deleterious to the human
fpecies. However this be, as their noxious quahty feems to
rcuJe in that matter from which they derive their bitternefs
and flavour, it is probable that when this is feparatcd from
the farinaceous iubilaiice by diilillation, and taken in a fuffi-
ciently concentrated Hate, it may prove a poifon to man, as
is the cafe with the common laurel, to which it appears very
analogous. One fmall diog of this effential oil convulfed,
and in two minutes killed a fparrow. Thefe almonds were
formerly eaten to prevent the intoxicating efltfts of wine ;
and Plutarch (Sympof. lib. i. apud op. torn. ii. p. 624.) re-
lates, that the phyfician ox Drufus, the fon of Tiberius, took
five or fix hitter almonds for this purpofe. John Bauhin,
from experiments made on purpofe, denies their having this
power; and from twelve of them, w« are told, that Lony
(De Venenis, p. 17.) experienced the fenfe of inebriation.
They are highly commended bv Tliebefius (Nov. Act. Nat.
Cur. tom.i. p. 181.) for the cure of hydrophobia from the
bite of a mad animal, who found them effectual in 12 cafes,
in which fome were eaten every morning lor one or two
■weeks. Bergius fays, (Mat. Med. p. 433.) that bitter almonds,
in the form of em.ulfion, cured obftiuate intermittents, after
the bark had failed. Having diffufed two drams of loluble
tartar, and an ounce and a half of honey in a pound of wa-
ter, he made an emuliion with this water, and one ounce of
bitter almoDds. Of this emulfion he gave, during the iater-
mifTion, a pound or two every day, ar.d fays, tiiat by this
remedy, the recurrence of the fits was prevented. In cafes
where this failed, and in which he had recourfe to the bark,
hi mixed with the decoclion of the bark the bitter emuliicn ;
and he adds, that he had feen intermittent fevers frequently
recurring, and which had entirely refilled the bark, at length
totally cured by the bitter eraulllou alone. This is a remedy,
l^owever, which Ihould be ufed with great caution. JLewis,
CuUen, Murray, and Woodville.

The kernels of bitter almonds give much the fame relifh in

A L M

diflillation as the kernel of the cherry ; on which account •
fome have ufed them in making a counterfeit cherry brandy.
They arc alfo frequently ufed inflead of apricot i.ernels in
ratafia.

Almonds give the denomination to a great number of pre-
parations in confectionary, cookery, &.c. of which they are
the bafls ; as almond-cakes, almond-cream, crifped-almonds,
almond-milk, almond-pafle and powder, almond-fnow, &c.
Almond-milk is an emulfion or mixture made of one and a
lialf ounce of fweet almonds, half an ounce of double refined
fugar, and two pints of diftilled water. The almonds are
beaten with the fugar, then rubbing them well together, add
the water by degrees, and flrain the liquor. There is a
preparation alfo called almond-butter, made of cream and
whites of eggs boiled, to which are afterwards added blanched
almonds, and the whole is fet over a flow fire till it becomes
thick.

Almond, in Geography, a river of Scotland which rui.s
into the Frith of Forth, five miles weft from Leith.

Almoxd, in Commerce, a meafure by which oil is foldJn
Portugal, 26 almonds making a butt or pipe.

Almond is alfo a fruit which fcrves inftead of fmall
monev, in feveral parts of the Eafl Indies ; partienlarlv
wlicre the co-wries, thofe fmall Ihells which coir.e from the
Maldives, are not current.

Almonds, amygilaU, in AnatODiy, denote two mucous
glands, in fize, fliape, and inequality of furface, not unhke
a fmall almond. They ve fituated in the pollerior aperture
of the fauces, or the opening by which the cavity of the
mouth communicates with the bag of the phaiynx. They are
more commonly called toniih, to which title we refer for
further information.

Almond, or r^i.'^Kti-furnnL-e, fuurneau d'Jlllrmagne, the
common melting furnace of the German refiners. See Fur-
nace.

Almonds, amandes. Thus the French lapidaries and
looking-glafs makers call thofe pieces of rock cryflal, or
cull cryflal, which they cut with a wheel, giving them a
figure fomething like that fruit. They are ufed to adorn
brancli-candlefticks, and other furniture made of glafs or
cryftal.

ALMONDBURY, in Geogrnphy, a village of the Weft
Riding of Yorkfliire, to miles from Halifax, and 185 from
London.

ALMONDSBURY, a village in GloucefterfluVe, where
Alemond, father of Egbert, the firll fole monarcli of Eng-
land, is faid to have b«;n buried. It has a Saxon fortifica-
tion, with a double ditch, which commands an cxtenfive view
of the Severn. It is eight miles from BriftoU

ALMONER, anciently alfo written Amner, an officer
in a king's, prince's, or prelate's houfliold, whofe bufinefs
is to diftribute alms to the poor.

Thz lord almoner, or lord high almoner, of England, is an
ecclefiaftical officer, ufualiy a bifhop ; who is to vifit and re-
lieve the fick, poorw-idows, prifoners, and others in neceffily,
for which purpofe he has the forfeiture of all deodands,
and the goods d feloj de Ji, which he is to difpofe of to the
poor.

He has likewife, by an ancient cuftom, a privilege to give
the firft dilh, froBi the royal table, to whatfoever poor per-
fon he pleafes ;. or, infttid thereof, an alms i.i money.

He alfo dillributes to twenty-four poor men, nominated
by the parifhioners of the parifh adjacent to the king's palace
of refidence, to each four pence a day in money, and an
alms of bread and fmall beer ; each perfon firft lepeathig
the Creedj and the Lord's prayer, in prefeiice of one of the

king's

A L M

A L M

king's chaplains, dcp-.ited by the lord jhr.oner to be his fub»
ahiioncr, who is alfo to fcntter new-coi)iailtwo-pences in the
towns and places through which the king palics in his pro-
grefs. See Maundy T'ljurfilaw

He has alfo the charge of feveral poor pcnfioners to the
crown below ftairs ; confiding of fuch as liavt fptnt their
youth, and become fuperannuated, in the king's fcrvice ;
or the widows of fuch hou(hold fervants as died poor, and
were not able to provi.'e for tlieir wives and children, whom
he duly pays. Chamberlayne's State of Great Britain,
p. 98.

Under the lord almoner, bcfides the fub-almoner, there is
a yeoman, and two grooms of the almonry, chofcn by his
lordfliip.

The French kings ufed to Iiave their great almoners, firft
almoners, ordinary or quarterly almoners, &c.

Great almoner, grand almoiiler, was the higheft eccleflaf-
tical dignity in that kingdom. To him belonged the fu-
pcrintendcncy of all hofpitals, and houfes of lepers. The
king received the laerament from his hand. He faid mafs
before the king, in all grand ceremonies and folemni-
ties.

Almoner is alfo applied, in Ecckjutjikal JVriters, to the
BEACONS of churclies.

Almoner is alio ufed, in H'lftor'tans of the Middle jige, for
him appointed by a perfon to dillribute his alms to the poor.
In this fcnfe, almoner amounts to much the fame with what
has been fmce denominated executor.

Almoner is alio fometimes ufed for a perfon who left
alms to the poor, by his laft: will.

Almoner is alfo fometimes ufed for a legatee.

In this fenfe, it is the rule, that the fame perfon could
not both be almoner and heir.

Almoner is alfo a more fafliionable title given, by fome
writers, to chaplains. In this fenfe we meet with almoner
of a (hip, almoner of a regiment.

ALMONRY, or Aumbry, the office or lodg-ings of the
almoner ; alfo the place where the alms are given. See
Ambry.

ALMONTE, a neat town of Spain, in the coimtry of
Seville, environed with a foreft of olives ; 1 3 miles fouth-
eall of Moguer.

Almonte, a river of Spain, which runs into the Tagus,
not far from Truxiilo.

ALMOPIA, in Anc'iait Geography, a country of Ma-
cedonia, inhabited by tlie Almopians, in which ftood tlie
cities of Europus, Albanopulis, and Apfalus. Thucydides
mentions Almopia, and Pliny the Almopii ; and it is laid to
have derived its name from Almops, fon of Neptune and
Hellc, the daughter of Athamas.

ALMORA, in Geography, a country of Afia, between
the mountains of Thibet and Hindoltan, north of the pro-
vince of Rohileund. The principal towns are Rampour
and Coflipour.

ALMORAVIDES, in Hijl ry, a name given by the
Spanifli liiftorians to an Arab tribe, which took pofreffion
of a dillriCl of Africa inorder to live at their eafe, and in a
ftate of retirement, as they pretended to follow the dictates
of the Koran more clofcly than others of tlieir feft, fiom
whence they took the name oi Morabites, which the Spa-
niards changed into tiiat of Almoravides. The firil prince
or chief of tliis nation was Abubeker Ben Omar, who is
commonly called by Spaniih authors Abu Texfien or Texi-
fian. This prince founded the dynafty of the Almoravides
in Barbary, A. D. 1051, by the aid of a powerful army of
malecontcnts in the provinces of Nuniidia and Libya, affem-
bled by the influence of the Marabouts or Morabites, whence

the appellation was derived. Texefian, as wc have (liewn
in the hillory of Algiers, was fucceeded by liis fon Yufei,
or Jofcph, who, after having extended his conqiiclls 111
Africa, and reduced the kingdoms of Tremecen, Fe/., and
Tunis, to a (late of tributary vailalage, took advantage of
the intefline wars in Spain, and paffed over, with a view of
enlarging his conquells, into that country. Here he re-
pulfed tne Chriflians with great vigour ; and though the
Moorifii princes did not afford him the affidance which he
expeftcd, he reduced the gieateft parts of the kingdoms of
Murcia, Granada, Cordova, Juen, and fome few places in
Valencia ; and then returned into Africa, leaving his con-
quered dominions under the government of his nephew Mo-
hammed, witli a conilderable part of his army. As foon as
he arrived in Africa, he publifiicd a general gazie, or reli-
gious war, and with a frclh and numerous army embarked at
Ceuta for his Spanifli conquells, and foon rejoined his iitphew
in Andalufia, which they ravaged with fire and fword. In
1 107, five years after their affault, he made another defcent,
penetrated into' Portugal, and reduced the city of Lilbon,
with a great part of the kingdom, but loll the cities of A!-
gua/ir and Gibraltar, which he had talccn before. Having
been defeated at fea in his way to liarbary, he propofed a
truce,' which was agreed to on condition that he fliould fub-
mit to become the tributary of the Spaniih monarch.
Yufef, the Almoiavide prince, was fo exafperatcd that lie
vowed never to defift until he had utterly extirpated Chiil-
tianity in Spain. Accordingly he prepared for a frefh de-
fcent ; and landing at Malaga, led his army into the enemy's
counti-y with great fury and little prudence. The couie-
quence of this hally meafure was a battle, famous in hiliory,
called the Battle of the Seven Counts, in which, thoiigli
after great (laughter he gained a viftory, he loft fo great a
number of his own men, that he was obliged to return tf>
Africa, where he died foon after, at his capital of Morocco,
leaving the fovereignty to his fon All, A. 1). mo. This
prince, lefs warlike than his father, employed his thoughts
in erecting fumptuous buildings, and in particular the great
mofque of Morocco, whilft he neglefted his Spanifli con-
quells. Alphonlo, king of Aragon, was daily recovering
fome conilderable cities from him ; and he was at lad re-
duced to the neccflity of paffing over to Spain, for the fuc-
cour of the Moorilh princes. But he was nnfuccefsful in
feveral expeditions ; and in his laft enterprife, though he had
the vigorous concurrence of the Moorifii chiefs, he was de-
feated and flain by king Alphoufo, with the lofs of c;o,ooo
men, in the fixth year of his reign. He was fucceeded by
his fon Al Abraham, or Brahem, who purfued his plca-
fures, and oppreffed his fubjecls with taxes, which occa-
fioned diffatisfadlion and complaint, and foon terminated in a
revolution, by which the government was transferred from
the tribe of the Almoravides to the Almohedes, in the
25th year of his reign. Mod. Un. Hift. vol. xiv. p. 296 —
301.

ALMOUT, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the pro-
vince of Taberiftan, 32 leagues fouth-weft of Ferebad.

ALMS, eleemofyna, fomething given out of charity or pity
to the poor.

The ecclefiaftics anciently fubfifted wholly on alms. — The
alms of the primitive Chriftians were divided into three parts;
one wheretif belonged to the bifliops, another to the pri'efts,
and a third to the deacons and fub-derxons. — Sometimes they
divided them, ir.to four ; the lall of which went to the poor,
and to the repairing of churches.

The Romanifts extend the term alms to that which \%
given to the church, or to other pious ufef. — Hence, what
the church holds on this footing is called tenure in alms.

Alms

A L M

A L M

Jilmt arc oT divers kinds.

Alms, pafchal, ekcmofyn^ pafchahs, wer« tliofe diftributed
at the folemiiity of Eailt;r, attended, in fomc places, with
other afts of humility, as wafliing of feet, &:c.

Alms, rcafonahle, eleemf.fyna mlionaHs, a certain portion
of the cffeds of perfons dying intellatc, fet apart for the ufe
of the church and the poor.

Ax.i'M of plough-tiinih, eleemofyra carucariim, or tlifemnj'yna
pro mains, was a tax anciently paid for the benefit ot the
poor, at the rate of a penny for each plough-land.

Alms of the king, denote xvhat was othei-wife called Pcter-
tcncc,

Thcfe were fomctimcs alfo called alms of St. Peter.

Alms arc divided by Mahometans into 'ooluntary ixA.
legal.

Alms, -voluntary, are thofe left to ever)' man's difcretion,
to give more or lefs, as he fees fit.

The voluntary alms arc properly denominated by the
Arabs faclalat, bccaufe they are.a proof of a man's Jinccr'ity
in the worfliip of God.

No religious t'yftem is more frequent or%vann in its exhor-
tations to alms-giving than the Mahometan. The Koran
reprefents alms as a necfffary means to make prayer be
heard ; for which reafon the Caliph Omar Ebn Abd'alaziz
iifed to fay, " that prayer carries us half way to God, fall-
ing brings us to the door of his palace, and alms procure
for us admilfion." The Mahometans ellcem alms-deeds to
be highly meritorious, and many of them have been illuf-
^rious examples of it. Hafan, the fon of Ali, and grand-
fon of Mahomet, in particular, is related to have thrice in
■his hfe divided his fubllance equally between himfelf and
the poor, and twice to have given away uU he had ; and the
generdity are fo addicted to the doing of good, that they
extend their charity even to brutes. Alms, according to
the prefcription of the Mahometan law, are to be given of
five things, vi-z. cattle, ;'. c. camels, kine, and (heep ; money ;
corn ; fruits, ;'. e. dates and raillns ; and wares fold. Of each
of thefe a certain portion is to be given in alms ; and that
portion was ulually one part in 40, or 2| per cent, of the
value. But no alms are due for them, unlefs they amount
to a certain quantity or number, nor till they have been
in poffeffion 1 1 months ; nor are alms due for cattle era-
ployed in tilling the ground, or in carrying of burthens.
However, at the end of the feaft of Ramadan, every Mof-
lem is obliged to give in alms, for himfelf and every one of
his family, a meafure of wheat, barley, dates, raifins, rice,
or other provifions commonly eaten.

Alms, Ic^al, are thofe of indifpenfable obligation, as being
commanded by the law, which direfts and determines both
the portion to be given, and the kind of tilings of which it
is to be given.

The legal alms are properly called by the Mahometans
xacat, either on account of their increafmg a man's ftore, or
of their purifying the remaining part of his fubllance.

Some writers have given thefc the denomination of tithes,
but improperly ; fince, in fome cafes, they fall (hort, and in
others exceed the proportion of a tenth. Thefe legal alms
were firll collefted by Mahomet himfelf, and employed, as
he thought fit, in relieving his poor relations and followers,
but chiefly in maintaining thofe who ferved in his wars, and
fought, as he termed it, in the way of God. His fucceifors
continued to do the fame, till, in procefs of time, other
taxes and tributes being impofed for the fupport of the go-
Tcrnment, they feem to have been weary of atling as almon-
ers to their fubjefts, and to have left the payment of them
to their own confciences. In the Mahometan rules and prac-
iice with regard to alms, we may difcovcr obvious traces of

the refembla-nce of their fyftem to that of the Jews. Sale"**
Koran, preface, p. no.

Alms, charier of, charta chemofynana, that whereby <t
thing is given to the church.

Alms, aiimone, among the French, is alfo ufed for a
compulfoi7 payment, impoled by way of punifliment, to be
converted to pious or charitable ufes.

In all adjudications to the king's right, there is an alms
refervcd. This amounts to what among us is ufually called
forfeiture to the poor.

ALMS-io.v, or chfl, a fmall cheft, or coffer, wherein an-
ciently the alms were collected, both at church and at private
houfes. This is alfo in common ufe in feveral places.

The alms-chell, in churches, is a ftrong box, with a hole
in the upper part, having three keys, one to be kept by the
parfon, or curate, the other two by the church-\\ ardens.

The erefting of luch alms-cheft in every church was intro-
ducid by an act in 27 Hen. VIII.-; and it is enjoined by the
Book of Canons, as alfo the manner of dillributing what is
thus collected among the poor of the parifli.

ALMSFEOH, or Almesfeoh, among our Saxon an-
ceftors, alms-money ; that is, Peter-pewck, anciently paid
in England on the firil of Atigull^ called alfo romefoeh^
romefcol, and heart h-pemng,

ALMSHADEN, in Geography, a town of Arabia, 80
miles north-eail of Hagiaz.

ALMS-HOUSi', a petty holpital ; or an edifice built
by a perfon in a private capp.city, and endowed with a reve-
nue, for the maintenance of a certain number of poor, aged,
or difabled people.

ALMSTAD, in Geography, a town of Siveden, in the
province of Smaland, three miles from the Baltic, and four
eali from Chrillianlladt.

ALMUCANTARS, or Almicantars, formed of the
Arabic almocantharat, in Aftrimomy, are circles parallel to the
horizon, imagined to pafs through all the degrees of the
meridian.

As the meridians pafs through the feveral degrees of the
equator, the almucantars pafs through thofe of the meridian
of any place, and they are the fame with regard to the azi-
muths and horizon, that the parallels are with regard to the
meridians and horizon.

They ferve to fhew the height of the fun and ftars ; and
are defcribcd on many quadrants, &c. being alfo called pa-
rallels of altitude.

Almucantars ^/7^ an inflrument ufually made of peaiy
tree or box, having an arch of fifteen degrees ; formerly ufed
to take obfervations of the fun, about the time of its rifing
and fetting, in order to find the amphtude, and confequently
the variation of the compafs.

ALMUCIUM, orALMUTiuM, \n M'lddk-Age Writers^
denotes a kind of cover of the head, part of it pendant over
the neck and (boulders, worn chiefly by the ancient canons
and monks.

The word is alfo written almucia, aumucia, almucella, ar-
miitia, and amcc'ia.

The almuciiira appears to have been much the fame with
what is otherwife denominated caput'ium. The almucium,
though proper only to religious, was fometimes alfo affumed
by laymen, princes, and even women of quality.

The part which covered the head was of a fquare form,
making, as it were, four horns, as may be feen from the an-
cient pictures of canons. Hence appears the origin of the
fquare caps, bonnets, &c. ftill retained in cathedrals anduni-
verfities, which are no other than the upper part of the almu-
cium, without the lower.

Almucia is alfo ufed, in fome y^/iaV/i/ Writers, for the
3 furs

A L N

A L N

fure or Hviiis worn by ilie canons, on tlieii- left arms, in the
manner of muds.

ALMUDIiEBIS, in tlie ArMm yljlrokgy, a kind of
dignity, or pre-eminence, riccruing to a planet in i'omc place,
eitlicrlrom its dilpoiitiim or benii;n afpert.-

ALMUG-Zrir, a kii'.d of wood mentioned in Scripture,
imported by Solomon from Opliir, and ufcd in tlic making of
rails, or pillars of the tLnipIe. I Kings, ch. x. ver. ii, 12.
2 Cluon. ch. ii. ver. S.- See Almiggim.

ALMUGEA, in /ifrology, denotes a certain configura-
tion ol the planets, in relpcft to the fun and moon, cor-
rclpondent to that which is between the hours of thofe pla-
nets, and the fun's and moon's hours.

Thus Saturn would be in the ainiiigca of the fun, when
dlftant from him the fpace of live figns in fucccfllon, or in
the almugea of the moon, when he is at the fame dillance,
I only contrary to the fucceffion of the figns.
' ALMUGNA, in Geography, a large handfome village of
Aragon, in Spain, fituate at the junction of the Grio with
the Xalon.

ALMUGNECAR, a fea-port town of Spain, in the
province of Granada, fituate on the Mediterranean, with a
good harbour and ilrong citadel, eight leagues foutli of Ai-
hama, and 18 eail of Malaga. N. kit. 36^ 50'. W. long.

AEMUM, in Jiiaati Geography, a diftrid of Mx-fia,
upon the DLUiube.

ALMUS. See Alma.

ALMUTAZAPHUS, a msgiilrate of Aragon, whofe
office is to fearch houfes for ftolen goods, weigh the bread,
meaiure the wine, S:c.

ALMUTHl'lN, in the Arabian JJlrology, the planet
v.'hich has the difpufal of a place, that is, furpaifes the rell
in the number and efficacy of dignities, regard being liad to
the effential points, viz. exultation, ierms,irtgons, and phafes.
This is otherwile called dhnujleiili.

ALNABATI, in the Materia Medlea, a name given,
by Avicenna and Serapion, to the siliqj.ia dukis, or carob-
Ivee. . They calkd both this and the acacia by the com-
mon name charnub, or chanib ; but they fufficiently dif-
tinguilll this, not only by this appellation, but by tell-
ing us it was a gentle purge, whereas the other was allrin-
gcnt.

ALNAGE, orAuLVAGE, French, formed of aan^, or
a'.m', an ell, q. d. ell-meafure ; .the meafuring of woollen ma-
nufactures with an til, and the other functions of the al-

M ACER.

All the attempts which our forefathers made for regulat-
ing inanufaclures, when left to the execution of any parti-
rub.r ofticer, in a fhort time refolved into a tax on the com-
inodily witiiout refpeft to the goodnefs thereof.— As is moft
notorious ill the cafr of aulnage, which was intended for a
f ruof of the goodaefs of the commodity ; and to that pur-
pofe a feal was invented, as a fignal that the commodity
was made according to their ftatute ; which feals, it is faid,
may now be bought by thoulandi, and put on what the buy-
ers pleafe. Sir Jof. Child's Difc. on Trade.

It is probable that t!ie abufes here mentioned by Sir Jofiah
Child did, among other reafons, give occafion to the claufe
II and 12 Will. III. cap. 20. by which aulnage duties are
wholly taken away.

ALNAGER, Alneger, or Aulneger, q. d. mea-
furer ly the ell, fignifies a fworn public officer, who, by him-
felf or deputy, \» to look to the aflize of woollen cloth made
tliroughout the land, i, e. the length, width, and worlc
thereof ; and to the feals for that purpofe ordained. The
of&ce of king's aulnageriJeems to have been derived from. the

ftatute of Richard I. A. D. 1197, which ordained, that
there fiiould be only one weight, and one meafure, through-
out the kingdom ; and that tiie cidlom of the alfize, or
ftandard of weights and meafurcs, fnould be commiued to
ceitain perfons in every city and borough. 'I'hls office is
firft mentioned in the Ratute-book, A. D. 132S ; but it ap-
pears to have exifted under this appellation, and to have been
ordilncd by letters patent as far back as the ijtii )earof king
Edw. II. A. D. 1322. His huliiicfs A'as, for acertain fee,
to meafure all cloths made for fale, till the office was abo-
lilhed by the llatute 1 I and 12 W ill. III. cap. 20. In more
modern times, inllead of the aulnager, they have in every
clolliing town and pirlfli proper perfons called fearchcrs, ap-
pointed by the clothiers themfelves, who examine the qua-
lities and dimenfions of the feveral kinds of cloth, agreeably
to the ftatute of the ytli and 6th year of king Edward V.
cap. (•>. Anderfon's Com. vol. i. p. 181. fol.

ALNAPEST, in Geography, a mountain of Ireland, ia
the county of Donegal, 19 miles north-north-eail of Bally-
fliannon.

ALNASI, in the Mahometan Law, the transfeiring the
oblervation of a facrcd month to a profane month.

ALNE, in Geography, a river of England, which runs into
the Stour in Warvvicklhire, on the borders of Worceiler-
fliire, four miles nortli-eall of Evelham.

Als.]; is alfo a river which runs into the north fea at
Ahiemouth.

ALNEMOITTH, or Alemouth, a fca-port town of
England, for fmall veffels, in the county of Northumber-
land, which carries on a confiderable trade with Holland,
four miles fouth-eaft of Alnwick, and 15 north of Morpeth.
N. lat. ^^^ 25'. W. long. 10° 35'.

ALNEY, an^ Englilh iiland, in the river Severn and
county of Gloueeller, near the city of Gloucciler, remark-
able for aa interview between Canute the Dane and Edmund
Iron fide.

ALNIDENA, in ylnclcnt Geography, a town of Caria,
mentioned in the council of Chalcedon.

ALNI EFFIGIE, in Botany. See Cratsgus and
Mespilus.

ALNIFOLIA. See Clethra.

ALNI FRUCTU. See Conocarpus and Theo-

BROMA.

ALNUS, XktalJer. See Betula and CoNOCARPt;s.

Alnus nigra et hacciferi^ See Rhamnus.

Alnus alfo denotes a part in the ancient theatres, at the -
greateft dillance from the ilage.

ALNWICK, in Geography, amarkettown of England and
county town of Northumberland, fituate on the iide of a hill
near the river Alne. The town is populous, and ingeneralwtll
built : it has a large town-houfe, where the quarter-fcllions
and county-courts are held, and members of parliament are
elected. Its principal ornament is an old Gotliic caille, be-
longing to the Percy family. It (lands on the brow of a liill .
above the river Alne, fronting the north, and having the
town immediately behind it. The late Duke of Northum-
berland, after his marriage with the hcirefs of this noble
family, refcued this caftle from its decay, and reilored it
to more than its former fplendour. He repaired the fur-
rounding towers, and fupplied thofe that were wanting in
all the feveral courts that encircle the manfion. He rebuilt
the citadel in its original form, and converted it into a very
fuperb palace, obferving the Gothic exterior in every com--
partment, and uniting it with all the magnificence of the
modern. The approach is extremely grand, through three
gateways and two fpacious courts, environed by the out-
works, into a third court, wliich appears immured within

the

A L O

\}\e citad>;l. A light and ck<;int ftaircafc, fpi'cadlng In llic
form of a fan, i;itroduce5 to t!ie grand rangi; <jf apartnieiits,
which me admirably contrived. The diuing-:x)om, draw-
iiig-rooni, faloon, and library, are very noble rooms ; and
they are fitted up in a llyle which admirably corvefponds
wild the llrufture. The richly oniameiUed chapel forms a
fl)lei;did appendage to the calUe. The ground in front of
tliis building is well difpofcd, on each fide of the Alne,
which is crofled in fight by two handfome bridges, and the
neighbouring hills are cloth.d with woods of the Duke's
crtation. On one of the higheft tminences he has eitcled
Bridey tower, commanding an txlcnfivc profpect over a bleak
country towards the Cheviot hills on one fide, and the coall
on the other. Hulne Abbey hangs beautifully over the
river, and feveral neat apartments arc intermixed, with judg-
ment and tafte, among the ruins. This town has been noted
for a fiiigular cuilom, which thofe who take up their freedom
are faid to be under a necefiity of obferving, which is that
of jumping into a muddy well, called Freeman's Well ; and
this ceremony is condudcd in a manner as fmgular. The
freemen, on their return from this whimfical exourilon, are
received into the town by a proctfTion of women drelTed in
ribbons, with bells and garlands, iinging and dancing. This
ceremony is faid to be eltablilhed by king John, who was
mired in this well, as a puniflmient for their not keeping the
roads in good order, and made a part of their charter. In
this town'Malcolm, king of Scotland, in his incuifion into
Northumberland, \^as killed, together with Edward his fon,
when his arn-.y \vas defeated by Robert Mowbray, earl of
this county, A. D. 1092 > and William, king of Scotland,
when he invaded England in 1 174 with an army of 80,000
men, was routed in this place, and made prifoner. The
weekly market is on Saturday. The diftance of Alnwick
from London is 308 miles, from Moi-pcth 19, and from
Berwick 30 miles. N. lat. 55° 24', E. long. 1° io'._

ALO, a place fuuate, 'according to Ptolemy, in the
Marmarica.

ALO A, in Jiilijuity, a Grecian feaft, celebrated in the
month Pofidason by the Athenian hu/bandmen, in honour of
Ceres, as inventrefs and proteftrefs of corn and tillage, or
in honour of Ceres and Bacchus, by whofe bleffing the huf-
bandmen received the recompence of their labour. Their
oblation was the fruits of the earth. Some fay it was in
comniemoration of the primitive Greeks, who lived £v rait
a.Xiio-1, in their corn fields and vineyards. Harwood's Gre-
cian Ant, p. 217.

The word is tx/jxx, and formed of a?.i.;, grange, or lurn ;
it being in thefe places that much of the folemnity palled.

Authors are not agreed as to the time or occafion of the
celebration of the aloa. Some fuppofe it to have been be-
fore the beginning of harvell ; others will have it to have
been a rejoicing after harveft, not unhkc our harvest-
hoinc.

ALOCIV^ INSULjTl, in Geography, iflands placed by
Ptolemy to the north of the Cimbric Cherfonefus, or Jutland.

ALOE, a town of India on this fide of the Ganges.

ALOE, in Botany, a genus of the hexandr'ia monogyma
clafs and order, of the natural order of Lilia or Ltliace.t,
Coronaria of Linn, and JfpbocMi of Juflieu. Its charafters
are, that it has no calyx ; the corolla is one-petalled, ereft,
IVxfid and oblong, tube gibbous, border fpreading and
fniall, neetareons at the bottom ; the Jlamina have awl-
fhnped filaments, as long as the corolla or longer, inferted
into the receptacle, the anthers oblong and incumbent ;
the pyiilhim is an ovate germ, the ftyle fimple, of the
length of the (lamina, the fligma obtufe and trifid ; the
prricarpiiim is an oblong capfule, three-furrowed, three-

ALO

celled, and threc-valvcd ; xhefteJs art? feveral and angular,
Martyn emimcrales 14 Ipecies with leveral varieties, Gme-
lin 16, and Willdcnow 17. Tiicy are as follow, ws. 1.
A. clichotoma, finooth-ftem'd tree aloe, with branches dicho-
tomous, and leaves fwurd-lhaped, and ferrate, paniculated
flowers, and ftamina longer than the ovated corolla. The
trunk is round, upright, very lUiF, a(h-coloured and imooth,
two fathoms in height, and of the thicknefso'a man's thigh,
This is a native of the Cape of Good Hope on the moim-
tain culled Dockland, and was introduced hito Kew Garden
in 1780, by Mr. William Eorfyth. 2. A. perfoliata, per-
foliate A. with item-leaves toothed, embrncing, fliaathiiig,
flowers in cor)-ml)S, drooping, pcdimcled, and iubcyUudric :
of this fpeeies there are the following varieties ; •vi~. a. A.
arborejccr.s of Miller, with leaver embracing, reflex, toothed,
flowers cylindrical and Hem ftuubby. This grows to the
height of 10 or 12 feet, with a. llrong naked ftem, em-
braced by the leaves which grow at the top, and are of a
fea-green colour, and very liicculent. The flowers are in
pyramielal fpikcs, of a bright red colour, and are in beauty
in Novembei- and December. /3. A. Afr'scana of Miller,
broad-leaved fword A. with leaves broader, embracing,
thorny on the edge and back, flowers in fpikes, and ftcia
flirubTJy. y. A. Barhadenjts, Barbadoes A. with leaves
toothed, upright, iucculent, and fubulate, flowers yellow,
hanging down in a thyrfe. The leaves are about four
inches broad at their bafe, and near two inches thick, of a
fea green colour, and when young, fpotted with wliite.
The flower fl;em rifes near three feet in height, and the
flowers form a flender loofe fpike, and are of a bright
yellow colour. This, though generally known in the
fhops by the name of Barbadoes aloe, is very common in
the other iflands of America, where the plants are propa-
gated on the poorefl land for obtaining the Hepatic aloes.
o. A. fuccotnna, A. vera of Miller, with leaves very long
and narrow, thorny at the edge, and flowers in fpikes. This
is the true fuccotrine aloe, which yields the bell fort of
aloes ufed in medicine. It grows in India, and particularly
in tlie ifland of Socotora, in the Straits of Babelmandel.
Its leaves are long, narrow, and fucculent, and form large
heads, about eighteen inches long, and an inch and a half
at their bafe ; the ilalks rife to the height of three or
four feet, and have two, three, and fometimes four of
thefe heads branching out from them ; the flowers grow
in long fpikes upon Ilalks about two feet high ; they are
of a bright red colour, tipped with green, and generally
appear in the winter fealon. e. A. purpurafciiu, white
fpined glaucous A. with leaves purplifh beneath, with fmall
roundifli fpots, at bottom, f. A. glauca of Miller, red-
fpined glaucous A. with fl;em ftiort, leaves embracing.
Handing two ways, fpines on the edges ereft, and flowers
growing in a head. »i. A. Uneata, red-fpined flriped A.
5. A. ferox, great hedge-hog A. with leaves embracing,
very dark green, befet with fpines on every fide. I^a
Marck makes this a diilinft fpeeies. It rifes to the height
of eight or ten feet, with a ftrong ftem ; the leaves grow
on tiie top, and clofely embrace the ftalk ; four inches
broad at the bafe, and diminilhing gradually till they ter-
minate in a fpine ; they are of a dark green colour, and be-
fet with fpines, which are red or purple. This plant grows
naturally in Africa, but has not flowered in England, and
as it does not put out fuckers, it does not admit eaCly of in-
creafe. 1. A. fuponnrla, great foap A. feldom rifes above
two feet high ; the leaves are broad at their bafe, clofely
embracing the flalk, and gradually decreafing to a point ;
their edges are befet with fpines ; the under leaves are ho-
rizontal, of a dark green colour, fpotted on the fide, re—
\ feinbhng

A L O

A L O

fembling tlic colour of fuft foap ; the flowers are of a hoaii-
tiful red colour, and appear in Angutl and titptcnilKT.
X, A. ohjciira, common foap A. with leaves, broader, Ipotted,
thorny at the edge, and flowers in fpike.-i. This has broader
leaves of a lighter green, with the edges and fjiines copper-
coloured, &c. \. A. ferrulala, hollow-leaved perfoliate A.
with leaves fpotted, fniely ferratcd at the edge and the tip
of the keel. fx. A. fubcretla, upright perfoliate A. with
leaves flat almoft upright, thorny at the edge, and on the
lower furface. v. A. dipnjfa, fliorl-leavcd perfoliate A.
with leaves embracing, thorny on both fides, and flowers in
fpikes. This feldom lifes more than a foot high, and the
leaves grow near the ground ; they are of a fea-green co-
lour, with fome white fpots ; their edges are befet with
(harp fpines : and the flowers grow in loofe fpikes, the tubu-
lous part being red, and the brim of a light green colour.
|. A. hunil'n, dwaif hedge-hog A. with leaves upright,
fubula'-C, radicate, with weak fpines all round. This plant
is low, and never rlies into ilcm ; the leaves terminate tri-
angularly, and are b.'fet on their edges and furfaces with
foft fpines, whence the name of hedge-hog aloe. The
flowers are leldom a foot high, below of a tine red colour,
and of a pale green above. Willdenow makes a diiUniil
fpecics of this ; llemicfs, with leaves trigonous, fubulate,
a»d aculeate, and flov.-ers racemous, reflex and cylindric ;
and he makes two varieties, o. A. milrd^formis, great mitre
A. grows to the height of five or fix feet ; the leaves con-
verge tov.ards the top in the form of a mitre, are fucculent,
of a dark green colour, and have f)"ies on their edges,
with a few on the upper furface : tne flower ftem rifes
about three feet high, and the flowers form a globular fpike
at the top, which becomes cylindrical : they have long pe-
duncle?, and the flowers hang downwards ; they are cut to
tlie bottom into fix unequal fegments ; three of the llamens
are as long as the tube of the corolla, the other three are
fhorter : the tube is of a fine red colour, and the brim of a
pale green, v. A. brevifalia, fmall mitre A.

3. K.arachnoidcs, cobweb A. ftemlefs,leaves three-cornered,
cufped, ciliate, flowers in a fort of fpike, upright, cylindrical.
The varieties are ; a. A..arachii. communis, A..piimila,^. of Linn.
fp. pi. 460, common cobweb A. with leaves fliort, plane,
flefliy, triangular at the end, and borders fet with ioft
fpines. This never rifes from the ground, but the leaves
fpread flat on the furface ; the flower ftem rifes about a
foot high, and has three or four fmall diilant herbaceous
flowers. /3. A. arachit. piimila, A. hcrlacea of Miller, A.
pum'da, E. of Linn. 460, with leaves ovate-lanceolate, flefliy,
triangular at the end, with numerous foft fpines. This
plant grows near the ground, the leaves are almoft cylin-
drical at their bafe, and angular near their ends, of a darker
green colour than thofe of the former ; and produces many
fuckers on every' fide. From the feed of this Mr. Martyn
has raifed a variety, which has fhorter, whiter, and fmoother
leaves.

4. A. margarltifera, A. pearl, A. pum'ila, a, (3, y, of
Linn. 460, llemlefs, with leaves three-cornered cufped
papillofe, and flowers in racemes drooping and cylindrical.
The varieties are, a. A. marg. major, great pearl A. /3. marg.
minor, and y. A. marg. minima, leaft pearl A. The pearl
aloe is of humble growth ; the leaves come out near the
ground, and they are clofely ftudded with white protuber-
ances, whence the name. Thefe plants flower in feveral
feafons of the year. 5. A. verrucofa, A. dijlicha, /3 of
Linn. 159. warted or pearl-tongue A. ftemlefs, with leaves
fword-ihaped, acute, papillofe and diftieh, and flowers in
racemes reflex or club-fliaped. 'J'his Ipecies has long nar-
row tongae-ftiaped leaves, hollowed above, and kecl-ihaped

Vol. 1.

below, clofely ftudded with white protuberances; the
flowers form loofe fj'ikcs, and are of a beautiful red colour,
tipjied with green. It flowers at diflfercut feafons, and pro-
duces plenty of o(T-fets. 6. A. carinaia, A. dijlicha y
of Linn. 459, ftemlefs, with leaves acinacifoiin, papillofe,
and flowers in racemes, droopinr, curved. The leaves arc
broader and thicker, not fo concave, and with lefs protu-
berances than the laft ; the flowers are of a paler colour,
and the leaves (horter. 7. A. wacidala, fpotted A. almoft
ftemlefs, with leaves acinaciform, fmooth, painted, and
flowers in racemes drooping, curved. There are two va-
rieties, a,. A. mac. pnlchra, narrow-leaved, fpotted A., with
leaves fliarp, and jS. A. mac. oiiH(jtm, broad-leaved fpotted
A. with leaves blunt with a point. This fpecies varies,
with large, oblong, white confluent fpots, and with fmall
ones. It is a native of the Cape of Good Hope, and flowers
in Auguft. 8. A. lingua, or lingmrformis, tongue A. almoft
ftemlefs, with leaves tongue-flia]>ed, tooth-letted, fmooth,
diftieh, and flowers in racemes, upright and cylindrical.
There are two varieties: a. A. lingua angnjlifoliti, A. dif-
ticha, a, Linn. 459, common tongue A. with leaves nar-
rower longer; and /9. A. lingua craj/ifoliu, thick-leavtd tongue
A. This grows with its leaves, wliieh are about fix inches in
length, near the ground. The flowers are red below, and
green above. It is a native of the Cape of Good Hope.
There is a variety, with leaves much more fpotted. 9. A .
plicatilis, A. dijlicha, i. plicatilis of Linn. 459, Kumara
dijlicha Medic. Theod. fan A. almoft ftemlefs, with leaves
tongue-fliaped, even, diftieh, and flowers in raceme?, pen-
dulous and cylindrical. It grows to the height of fix or
feven feet, with a ftrong ftem, on the upper part of which arc
produced, two, three, or four heads compofed of long,
compreflcd, pliable leaves of a fea green colour, which are
placed in a double row : the flowers are red, and appear at
difl'erent times of the year. 10. A.varicgain, partridge -
breaft A. almoft ftemlefs, with leaves in three ranks,
painted, channelled, angles cartilaginous, and flowers in
racemes, cyhndrical. This is a low plant, feldom rifing
above eight inches in height : the leaves are triangular and
reflex at their extremity, flefliy, with their edges flightty%
ferrated, curioufly veined and ipotted, like the breaft of the
partridge, whence the name. The flowers which grow on
ttalks about one foot high, are of a fine red colour, tipped
with green. A variety of this was raifed by Martyn, from
feeds received from the Cape of Good Hope, with broader
leaves, and not fo beautifully fpotted, with the flower ftalks
much taller. It is found in the clayey grounds of Ethi-
opia. II. A. vijlojii, upright triangular A. fub-caulefcent,
with leaves imbricate, in three ranks, ovate, and flowers in
racemes, drooping, and cylindrical. It grows near a foot
high, with triangular leaves from the ground upward, of
a dark green colour, and the flowers are of an herbaceous
colour, with their upper part reflex. It is a native of the
fields of the Cape of Good Hope. 12. A.fpiralis, fpiral
A. fub-caulefcent, with leaves imbricate, in eight ranks,
ovate, and flowers in racemes curved back. There are two
varieties ; a. A.fpir. imbricata, imbricated fpiral A. and /S.
A. fpir. pentagona, five-fided fpiral A. This grows like the
nth, with rounder leaves, ending in fliarp points, and llie
flowers grow upon taller ftems ; a variety of this has been
raifed from feeds, much larger, with thicker leaves and
taller ftem. It is a native of the fields of Africa. 13.
A. retufa, cufliion A. ftemlefs, with leaves in five ranks del-
toid. Thefe are fliort, thick and fucculent, and compreflcd
above like a cufliion, whence the nam*-. It grows clofe to
tiie ground, and puts out fuckers on every fide ; tlic Jlowers
are of an herbaceous colour, and much rcfemblc thofe of
5C the

A L O

the fourth fptcies. It grows in the clayey roil of Afnca.
14. A. y/>ytv;/i7, fpiked A. with flowers in fpikes horizon-
tal, bell-lhaped, and ilcm-lcavts, flat, embracing, and toothed.
This much rclcmbles the fccond fpecies, but is very differ-
tnt in the fpike and figure of the flowers. The flower is
full of a pui-ple honey juice. The belt and purefl: hepatic
aloes is obtained from this fpecies. It is found in the in-
terior regions of the Cape of Good Hope. 15. A. pic! a,
painted A. caulcfcent, with leaves fword-lhaped, toothed,
painted and patent, and flowers in racemes, reflex, and cy-
lindrical. There are two varieties ; a. A. major, A. per-
foluila, 3 and X Linn. 45S. /S. A. mkor, A. perfoliata /x,
Linn. 458, A. pafoliala, 1 faponaria Aiton, Kew. i. 467.
It is a native of the Cape of Good Hope. 1 6. A.finuata,
caulefctnt, with leaves fword-fliaped, hnuate-ferrated and
reflex, and flowers in racemes, ereft and cylindrical. This is
the A.perfo/hi/a | of Linn. 458, and it is fuggefted by Will-
denow that it is the A. pc rfo/iala y.barbmlenfisui Aiton, Kew.
I . p. 466, aiid the narrow-leaved fpinofe, A./iucolr'ma of Com-
mel. Hort. i. p. 91, and the A. Americana, with the reddifli
flowers of anana, of Phikenet. It is a native of Bar-
badoes and the Cape of Good Hope. Wartyn's Miller,
Gmelin's Linnaeus, AVilldcnow.

La Marck enumeiates 31 fpecies, vrz. A. purpurea,
or A. of Bourbon, originally brought from that iiland :
when the leaves are cut, they yield a juice of a foetid
finell. 2. A. fucco'.rina. 3. A. vulgaris, Kadanaku or
Catevala of Rhetd, growing in the fandy ilony foil of
Milabar, and many parts of India, and alfo in feveral
provinces of America, as Mexico, New Spain, Brafd and
Barbadoes ; and yielding, by its purified juice, hepatic
aloes, and from its dregS a Icfs pure extract, called Cabal-
line aloes. 4.. A. vera, growing in India, of which the A.
vacULins of Forlk. Egypt. 74, n" 34. is a variety. 5. A.
Abvfinica, brought from Africa by Bi'uce, and larger and
moie refinous than the preceding fpecies. 6. A. fruticofa,
or arborefcens of Miller, l- A.ferox. ^. A. mkrsfonnis,
of w^hicli there is a variety, A. milrafonnls angujiior. 9. A.
maculofa, or the A. pi3a above mentioned. lo. A. teniiia-
fol'ia. 11, A. purfoliata, ai which are reckoned two varie-
ties, one commonly called A. with red fpines, and the other
artichoke A. 12. A. /ju;«;7;V, or A. with foft fpines. 13.
A. arachuo'tdea, with a variety commonly called the leall
aloe, growing in the fields and uncultivated parts of Ethi-
opia. 14. A. margaritifcra. 15. A. retufa. 16. A. ve-
nnfa. ly. A. marginata. Thefe are the A. africana, humilis,
&c. of Comm. Prjel. The former yields an aqueous infipid
juice. They are natives of Africa. 18. A. triangularis, or A.
vifcofa of Linnsus, a native of Ethiopia. 20. A. -varie-
frala of Linn ; the tnoft beautiful of the genus, a native
of Ethiopia. 21. A. acuminata, or A. verrucofa above-
mentioned. 22. A. carinata. 23. A. linguiformis, or A.
lingua. 24. A. pitcatilis. 25. A. longifolta, or aletris
waria of Linnseus, which La Marck thinks is enoneoufly
referred to that genus, of which it has no character. 26.
A. fpicata. 27. A. racemofd, which is a flrrub five or fix
feet high, obferved at the Cape of Good Hope, by Thun-
berg, and which, as La Marck fuggefts, may be the fame
^■ith the 24th fpecies. 28. A. (hcbotoma. 29. A. Arabica,
er A. •uariegata, called in Arabia Bcfafil or Befelil. 30.
A. depenJens, found by FortTol in Arabia. Gmelin queries
whether this be a diflinft. fpecies. 31. A. inermis, found
by Forflt. in Arabia, but akin to the 17th fpecies. Encycl.
Method. Bot. torn. i.

All the aloes are natives of hot climates ; and the place
«f growth of nioft of them is the Cape of Good Hope.
The Hottentots hollow out the trunk of the firA fpecies, or

A L O

A. dichotoma, to make quivers for their arrows ; and feve-
ral of them are ufcd for hedges. Among the Mahometans,
and particularly in Egypt, the aloe is a kind of fymbolic
plant, and dedicated to the offices of religion : for pilgrims,
on their return from Mecca, fufpend it over their doors as
an evidence of their having performed that holy journey.
The fuperllitious Egyptians imagine, that it has tlie virtue
of keeping off apparitions and evil fpirits from their houfes,
and it is hung over the doors of ChrilUans and Jews in
Cairo for this purpofe. They alfo dilli! from it a water,
which is fold in the fhops, and recommended in coughs,
afthmas, and hyfterics. HafTelquift; mentions a perfon who
was cured of the jaundice in four days by taking four tea-
cupfuls of it. Tlie Arabians call \\.J'ahbara. The negroes,
as we ai-e informed by Adanfon, in his voyage to Senegal,
make very' good ropes of the leaves of the Guinea aloes,
which are not apt to rot in water. M. Fabroni, as we
learn from the Annales de Chimie (vol. xxv.) procured
from the leaves of the aloe fuccotrina angujlifolia a violet
dye, which refiils the aftion of oxygen, acids, and alkalies.
This juice, he fays, produces a fuperb tranfparent colour,
which is highly proper for works in miniature, and which,
when diffolved in water, may fcrve either cold or warm, for
dying filk from tlie lighteft to the darkeft fhade : and he
reckons it one of the moft durable colours known in na-
ture. Aloes was ufed among the ancients, in embalming,
to preferve bodies from putrefaction. Of this aloes, inter-
preters underftand that to have been which Nicodemus
brought to embalm the body of Chrift. John, xix. 3.

Aloes, whofe refinous part is not foluble in water, has
been ufed as a prefervative to fliips' bottoms againft, the
worms, to which thofe that trade to the Eaft and Weil
Indies are particularly fubjeft. One ounce of aloes is fuf-
ficient for two fuperficial feet of plank ; about 12 lb. for a
vefTel of 50 tons burthen, and 300 lb. for a firft rate man
of war. It may be incoi-porated with fix pounds of pitch,
one of Spanifh brown, or whiting, and a quart of oil ; or
with the fame proportion of turpentine, .'jpanifh brown, and
tallow. Such a coat, it has been faid, will prefer\e a fnip's
bottom eight months, and the expence for a firil rate (hip,
will be about 18/. The fame compofition may be ufed in
hot countries for prcfer\'ing rafters, &c. from the wood-ant.
The efficacy of aloes, as a defence againtt worms, has been
controverted. See aloes, infra.

Propagation and Culture. — The foil in which thefe plants
thrive belt, is one half frelh, light earth, from a common ;
and if the turf is taken with it, and rotted, it is much bet-
ter ; the reft fliould be white fea-fand, and fifted hmc-rub-
bifti, each of thefe two, a fourth part ; mix thefe together
fix or eight months at leaft before it is ufed, obferving to
turn it over often in this time. The middle of July is a
verj' proper feafon to fliift the plants ; at which time you
may take them out of the pots, and with your fingers opea
the roots, and fl^.ake out as much of the earth as polfible,
taking off" all dead or mouldy roots, without wiunding the
yoiuig frefh ones : then fill the pot about three parts full of
the above mentioned carfh, putting a few Hones at the
bottom of the pot to drain off the raoiflure ; and after dif-
pofing the roots in Inch a manner as to prevent their in-
terfering too much with each other, put in as much of the
fame earth, as to fill the pot almoft to the brim, fliaking
the plant fo as to let the earth in between the roots, and
fettling it clofe to the roots with your hand to place
it fl:cady in the pot ; then water them gently, and fet
them abroad in a fliady place, where they may remain for
three weeks, giving them gentle waterings, if the weather
be hot and dry.

Toward

A L O

Toward the latter end of September, in a dry day, re-
move them into the lioufe ag:iiM, ohAirviiig to give them
as much free open air aa ponible, while the weather cou-
tiiuies warm : but if the nights are eool, you mult Ihut up
the glaffes, and give them air only in the day ; and as the
cold increafes, you muft difcontinue opening the gliilies,
only giving them gentle waterings till the middle of Odo-
ber, when yon mult abate them according to the heat of
the houfe in which they are kept. For thofe plants wliieh
are placed in a ftove will require to be watered at leall
once a week, mod part of the W'iutcr, whereas thofe
which are kc])t in a green-houfe, without artificial lieat,
fhould not be watered in the W^inter oftencr than once in
n month, and in Summer they (liould not receive too nuich
nioilture.

The tender forts, as the vifcofa, ferox, and cobweb aloes,
fhould conftantly remain in the Itove, or be removed in the
Summer to an airy glafs-cafe, where they may have free air
in warm weather, but be protefted f-.om the rain and cold.
With this management tlie plants will tlu-ive and increafe ;
and fuch of them as ufually bear flowers, may be expccled
to produce them in beauty at their feafons.

Moll of thefe aloes are increafed by off-fets, taken from
the parent plant when they are fliifted, and planted in fmall
fpots filled with the earth prepared for the old plants ; and
thefe fuckers (hould be quite dry when they are planted,
I otherwife they will rot. After remaining in the fhade for
a fortnight, the tender kinds (liould be removed to a veiy
moderate hot-bed, fhading the glalfes in the day, and giv-
ing them much air. Towards the middle of Auguft, the
young plants may be hardened by taking off the glades in
good weather, and admitting the air ; and they (hould be
removed into the houfe towards the end of September, and
managed like the old plants. The African aloes generally
afford plenty of fuckers for increafe : moll of the others
may be propagated by taking off fome of the under leaves,
laying them to dr)' for ten days or a fortnight, and then
planting them in the foil already mentioned, by putting
that part of the leaf which adhered to the old plant, about
an inch or an inch and a half, into the earth, and fettling
the earth about them with a little water : the pot (hould
then be plunged into a moderate hot- bed, preferved from
the fun, and refrellied with water once a week. The bed
feafon for this operation is June." The method of cultivat-
ing the aloe in the ifland of Barbadoes, defcribed in the
Medical Journal, (vol. viii. art. 8. p. 422.) is as follows. The
ilony and lliallow foil, which is in the vicinity of the fea,
and fubjeft to drought, and in which the fugar canes will
not thrive, bell fuits the aloe plant. When the ftones have
been picked up, and laid around the field as a fence, or
piled in heaps upon the mod barren fpots, the land is lightly
ploughed and cleared from weeds ; then lined in rows at
the dillance of a foot from one another, and the young
plants are fet like cabbages, about five or fix inches apart
from each other. By being thus fet, they are eafily kept
free from v7eeds, which would obtlru6l the produce. They
may be planted even in the dried feafon ; as they need
little or no rain ; but the ufual time is from April to
June.

Aloe, African. Sec Crassula.

Aloe, American. See Agave.

Aloe, Bajlard. See Alutris.

Aloe, Purpurea. See Dracaena.

Aloe, Uvaria. See Aletris.

Aloe, JValer. See Stratiotes.

Aloe, 7'ucca follis. See Yucca.

A L O

Aloes, in MeJi,inr awA Phannary, the infpilTated juice
of various fpecits of the Aloe above defcribed. Of this
there have been ufiuilly reckoned three kinds, wz. tlicyf-'O-
lor'hie, hepatic, and calallir.e. I. Socilirine alofs, fo called
from tlie ifland Socotora, from which it was firll brought,
though it was probably imported from the Cape by the
Dutch Ead India Company, is obtained from a variety of
the A. pt-rfolhila of Linnx'US. I'his fort is the purell and
molt tranfparent : it comes to us wrapt in (Icins, and is of
a bright fm-face, and in fome degree pellucid ; in the lump
of a yeilowifii led colour, with a purplifli call; when re-
duced into powder of a golden colour. It is hard and fri-
able in the Winter, fomewiiat pliable in the Summer, and
fofteus between the fingers. Its bitter tadc is accompanied
with an aromatic flavour, but not fufiicient to prevent its
being difagreeable ; the fmell is not very unpkafant, and
fomewhat refembles that of myrrh.

2. Hepatic, Barladoes, or common aloes, is obtained from
another variety of the fame fpecics, viz. A. vera, "vulgaris,
foUrs fpinojis conf.rtis dciitatis •vuginaiilihus plants maciilatit,
called by Rheed kadanahu or calcvala, and reckoned by
La Marck a diftinft fpecies, and is afually brought to us
from Barbadoes ; that of the bell fort in large, gourd fliells,
an inferior kind in pots, and a ilill worfc in calks. It is
of a darker colour than the former, and not fo clear or
bright ; generally drier and more compaft ; of a dronger
and more difagreeable fmell, and of an intenfely bitter taile,
with little or nothing of the aromatic flavour of the other.
A traCl of mountains about 50 miles from the Cape of
Good Hope is wholly covered with the aloes plants, which
renders it unnecefTary to plant them there ; but they are
now cultivated in Jamaica and Barbadoes, having been fird
brought to the former of thefe illands trom Bermuda. They
require two or three years Handing before they yield their
juice in perfeiflion : and it is procured, fays Dr. Browne,
(Jamaic. p. 1 98.) in the following manner. The labourers
go into the field with tubs and knives, and cut off the
larged and mod fucculent leaves dole to the ftalk : thefe
they put into the tubs in an upright pofition, that the loofe
liquor may be drained from the wound. When this is a!"
mod wholly difcharged, the leaves are taken out fmgly,
and cleared of any juice that may adhere to them ; and the
liquor is put into fliallow flat-bottomed vcffels, and dried
gradually in the fun, till it acquires a proper confidence.
What is obtained in this manner is called focotorins aloes,
and is tiie cleared and mod tranfparent, as well as the
highed in edeem and value. In the ifland of Barbadoes-,
according to the account of Mr. Millington (Ptk-d. Journ.
vol. viii. p. 422.) after a fufficieut quantity is drained from
the leaves to m.ake it an objcft for the boiling-houfe, and
the juice with this view may be preferved for fome weeks,
without injury, three boilers of iron or copper arc placed
by one fire, though fome have two and others only one ;
thefe are filled with juice, and as it is gradually infpiflTated
by a regular fire, it is ladled from boiler to boiler, and freflt
juice is added to that which is farthcd from the fire, till the
juice in that which is neared to the fire, tae fmalleft of the
three, and called tatch, becomes of a proper confidence to
be (hipped or ladled out into gourds, or other fmall veffels,
placed for receiving it. The proper time for ladling it
out of the tatch is when it is arrived at a rcfin height, as it
is termed, or when it cuts freely, or in thin flakes from
the edges of a fmall wooden flice, that is dipped from time
to time into the tatch for that purpofe. A lilUe lime-water
is ufed by fome aloe-boilers during the procefs, when the
tbulUtion is too great. This author adds, as to the fun-
5 C 2 dried

A L O

dried alofS, which is moft approved for medicinal piirpofcs,
vcr)' httle is made in Barbadoes. The procefs, however, is
very fimpic, though veiy tedious. The raw juice is cither
put into blp.dders, left quite open at top, and fufpcnded in
the fun, or in broad Ihallow trays of wood, pewter, or tin,
cxpolcd alfo to the fun every dry day, until all tlie fluid
parts are exhaled, and a perfedl: reiln formed, which is then
packed up for ufe, or for exportation.

Dr. Wright (Med. Joiirn. vol. viii. p. 219.) gives the
following account, fomewhat different from the former, of
the method of preparing hepatic aloes in Jainaica. The plant
is pulled up by the roots, and carefully cleaiifed from earth
or other imp-.i:ities. It is then diced and cut in pieces into
fniall haud-bailvcts or nets. Thefe nets or balkets are put
into large iron boilers with water, and boiled for ten minutes,
when they are taken out, and frefli parcels fupplied till the
liquor is ftrong and black. At this period the liquor is
thrown through a ib-ainer into a deep vat, naiTow at the
bottom, to cool, and to depoiit its feculent parts. Next day
the clear liquor is drawn oti" by a cocl:, and again committed
to the large iron velTels. At firfl it is boiled briflcly, but
towards the end the evaporation is (low, and requires con-
llant ftirring to prevent its burning. When it becomes of
the confillence of honey, it is poured into gourds or cala-
badies for fale. The jheotorine aloes, he fays, may be pre-
pared in the fame maimer.

3. CabjUine, or horfe aloes, obtained, as fome fay, from
the faeces of the hepatic aloes, and according to others from
a dillincl variety of the aloe peiioliata, denominated A.
guitieeiijis raballina vulgari fimllis fed tola tnaculata, is eafdy
dilliuguifhed from the two former by its llrong rank fmell.
In other relpefts it agrees pretty much with the hepatic,
and is not unlrequently fold for it. Sometimes it is pre-
pared fo pure and bright as fcarcelv to be dillinguilhable by
the eye, even from the focotorine, but its offenfive fmell
foon betrays it ; and if even this fhould be dilTipated by art,
its wanting the aromatic flavour of the finer aloes will be a
fufficient criterion. Some fay, that its colour is alfo much
darker, indicating a mixture of fordes and fand, and that it
is of courfe much more compaft and heavy. Ti\is aloe is
not admitted into the Materia Medica, and is employed
chiefly by Farriers. From the obfervations of Profeflbr
Murray it appears probable, that different fpecies as well as
varieties of aloe would furnifh the various kmds of this drug,
and that Linnxus by referring thefe forts to thofe plants,
the recent juice of which feemed to correfpond refpectively
the nearell to them in tafl:e, might eafily be mifled ; for
Murray, upon tailing the frefn juice of many different fpecies
of aloe, fometimes found it bitter, and at other times totally
devoid of bitternefs. This author found the bittereft fpecies
to be the following, lire. \. Aloe elongala, floribus fpieatis
tubulofo-triquetris fubringentibus obhque dependentibns,
fuliis aggregatis dentato-fpinofis ; and he queries whether
this is not the variety t of the A. perfoUata of Linn. Spec,
p. 458, and the aloe mentioned by Hughes and Browne. 2.
A. Sp'.catn, which is faid to afford ttie beil liepatic aloes.
3. A. linguaformis, which in the interior parts of the Cape
is felefted by fome as producing the beft and purell aloes.
M. JufTieu, who faw the three varieties of aloes prepared at
Mon-iedro, in Spain, affures us (fays Chaptal, Elem. Chern.
vol._ iii. p. 86), that they are all obtained from the aloe vul-
{;aris. The firfl variety, or focotorine aloes, is obtained by
making inciilons in the leaves. Time is allowed for its
impurities to fubhde perfectly. The fluid is then decanted
from the dregs, and left to become thick ; after which it is
put into leathern facks for fale, under the name of focotorine

A L O

aloes. A Juice of the fame nature is obtained by exprcfSon

from the lame leaves, which, when clarified in the fame
manner, forms the hepatic aloes ; and the caballine aloes is
obtained by a flrgnger preifure.

Aloes is mentioned neither by Hippocrates nor Theo»
phrailus ; Diofcorides mentions two kinds, and Avicenna
tells us, that of the difierent kmds, without naming themj.
the focotorine is the beft. Celfus, who frequently mcritions
aloes, and recommends it to be mixed with all cathartics,
does not dillinguifh it by any epithets. If, indeed, the
account of J. Bauhin (Hill. Plants, torn. iii. p. 697.) be
true, that the juice of the leaves forms itfelf fpantaiieoufly
into three flrata, the upper being the focotorine, the middle
the hepatic, and the lowefl or fices the caballine ; there may
be fome reafon for the diflinftion of the tliree names, that
have been imiformly appropriated to them.

All the kinds of aloes agree in this, that they confift of
a refinous matter, and a large proportion of a fubfiance called
gum ; and tliat they difiolve m pure fpirit, proof fpirit, and
proof fpirit diluted with half its weight of water, the im-
purities only being left ; and in boihug water they alio dif-
folve, but when the liquor becomes cold, the refinous parts
fubfide. The quantity of refin in hepatic aloes appe;ired in
experiments of Dr. Lewis to be jd, in focotorine aloes ith, and
in the caballine |-th. According to Boulduc, the focotorine
aloes contains no more than ith of reun, and tlie hepatic
aloes contains half its weight ; and thtrefore the hepatic
aloes contains more refin and lefs gum than the focotorine,
and this than the caballine. The reiins of all the forts,
purified by folution in fpirit of wine, have littL fmell ; that
of the focotorine has fcarcely any perceptible tafle ; that of
the hepatic a flight bitterifli relilh ; and that of the caballine
a little more of the aloetic flavour. The gummy extiaifls
are lefs difagreeable than the crude aloes ; that of the foco-
torine aloes has very little fmell, and its tafle is fcarceiy
unpleafant ; the fmell of the extraft of the hepatic is foine-
what flronger, but its tafle more agreeable than that of the
focotorine ; the gum of the caballine retains a confiderable
fhare of the rank fmell of this fort of aloes, but its tafte
is not more unpleafant than that of the extrafts of the other
kinds.

Aloes is a well known purgative ; and it afts not only
when taken internally, but v.lien externally applied ; and its
cathartic quality reiides chiefly in the gummy part, for the
pure refin has little or no purgative virtue. Boerliaave
declares it to be an effectual and fafe cathartic ; neverthelefs
in large dofes it produces much heat and irritation, particu-
larly about the reilum, from which it fometimes occafions
a bloody difcharge. To thofe, tlicrefore, who are fubjcft
to piles, or of an haemorrhagic diathefis, the plethoric and
bilious, or even in a flate of pregnancy, the exhibition of it
has done much harm ; but it is particidarly adapted, by its
flimulating quality, to perfons of a phlegmatic temperament
and fedentarv life, to cachectic indifpofition, and oppreflions
of the flomach by vifcid crudities contraftcd from irregu-
larity. Although in purging dofes, of half a dram or two
fcruples, it produces irritation about the anus and fometimes
a difcharge of blood, yet in fmaller dofes of 10 or J 2 grains,
repeated once or twice a day, it not only unloads the firfl;
paifages, but attenuates and diffolves vifcid humours in the
remoter parts, warms the habit, quickens the circulation,
and promotes the menflvual and hamorrhoidal fluxes ; and
its continued ufe renders the blood ienfibly more fluid. This,
fays Dr. Cullen, {uii hifia), appears to me improbable. We
have frequently fecn the blood drawn from perfons ufing a
good deal of aloes, and never could difcover any change of

its

A L O

A L O

itsconfifttfnce ; and if tl\c expcriments-of Schwenkc may be
trutled, alDCs ;uldcJ to tlic blood drawn out of the- veins
feems to coagulate rather than to diliblvi; it : belides the
quantity of aloes taken in ean hardly have any leniible effcit
upon the whole nials of blood. It has been urged, liow-
ever, that by its dilfolving power it proves an emmenagoguc,
and i,; hurtful in all morbid hiTrmorrhages. Dr. CuUcn ob-
icrves, liiut he Ivas leldom found the emmenagogue powers
of this lubllancc if ever there be any appearance of fuch
3 power, it is probably to be afcribed, in his opinion, rather
to its operation on the reohnn, communicating a llimulus to
the vefliils of the uterus, than to its action on the mals ot
blood. When aloes is not deligned to act as a purgative, il
has an aclion upon the llomach ; and it has frequently been
found an antifpafmudic, in relieving pains of this organ.
It is alfo ufeful in habitual coltivencfs, when taken in
fmall doles. With refpetl to its ordinary operation, Dv.
Lewis alledges, that its efieds are moi-e permanent than
thofe of any other purgative ; this Dr. Cullen ( Mat. Med.
vol. ii. p. ^z^.) docs not admit ; for we commonly find, he
favs, that notwithllanding the ufe of aloes, the Ihite of
coilivenels will return at its ulual period, and that it is often
receirary to anticipate this by the ufe of the aloetic. This
bitter juice has been accounted deilruClive to worms, or to
the matter which favours their production, either taken in-
ternally or applied in plailers to the umbilical region ; and
from its imagined efficacy in this refpect, it has been uiedto
preierve (hips againll: the attacks of worms. But its an-
thelmintic virtue has been difputed by iVIurray, who fays
that worms have lived for 20 hours in the bitterell fol>ition of
focotorine aloes, and for many days afterwards in earth mixed
with powder of aloes. In another experiment four worms
were not deilroyed on the fourth day. It is powerfully an-
tifeptic ; and commonly makes an ingredient in tinftures
and balfams for cleanhig and healing wound'ior putrid forss.
As to the choice of the difl'erent kinds of aloes, it may be ob-
ferved, that the focotorine, which contains more gummy
matter than the hepatic, purges with more certainty and
greater irritation, and is therefore mod proper where a fli-
mulus is required, or for promoting the uterine difcharge ;
but the hepatic is better calculated for the purpofe of a
common purgative ; and as it contains more relln, anfwers
better as a vulnerar)-, for external ?pplication. Aloes is
feldom given alone. Aloes, fays Dr. Cullen, atts as readily
in fubllance as in any folution ; and therefore this is never
to be praftifed but for the fake of more convenient exhi-
bition ; and it has been found to operate in fubllance in a
fmailer dofe tjian in the vinum aloeticum. Aloes hardly
receives improvement by any addition ; and the vulgar find
ss much effcA from the aloes alone as from the pilulas aloe-
tica;. Some benefit; however, is obiained by fome divifion
of the aloes before it is taken into the body, ai.d the extract
of gentian is properly enough employed ; but Dr. Cullen is
perluaded, that the Edinburgh college have not done right
in withdrawing the whole of the fal polychreftnm from the
aioctic pill. In the pilula' rufi the myrrh may be ufeful in
dividing the aloes ; but the addition of the fafFron is infig-
niiicant. Rhubarb added to aloes can anfwcr no good pur-
pofe. In the piluls ftomachicas Ph. Ed. and in the chxir
facrum, the rhubarb, fays Dr. Cullen, is an ufclefs addition.
The aloes, continues this author, is never properly joined
with the draftic purgatives, as in the piluloe colocynthidis
cum aloe, and in the extrailum colocynthidis compofitum ;
for if fuch a medicine is intended to produce a hquid eva-
cuation the aloes is fuperfluous ; and if it is intended only
X<3 open the belly, the draftics arc unnecefiary. In the elixir

proprietatis, the fuTron is an indgnificant ingredifnt : and
on account of tlie inenllruum employed by llie Edinburgh
college. Dr. Cullen fays, he has never employed it as an
cvacuant, but he often ufed it with fuccefs in cuilng fpaf-
modic pains of the llomach ; and for fuiling it better to liiis
purpofe, the I'^dinb.ugh college have impiMved it much,
by the menllruum they have employed in their elixir aloes
vilriolicum. Several preparations of it are direfted in the
phaimacopjcias, for which fee Elixir, Extract, Hikra-
PICRA, Pn.i,s, PowDiiR, TiNCTUKE, and Wink. Lewis.
Murray. Woodville.

Aloe rcf.ila, is a preparation of the focotorine aloes,
made by difiolving it in juice of damafli rofes, and evaporat-
ing it to the coiilillenee of a palle. Then more juice is
added, and the evaporation repeated, again and again. —
This has been held a gentler and fafer cathartic than the
aloes alone. If this he diffolved in a good quantity of the
frefh juices of rofes, violets, borage, and buglofs, mixed in
equal proportions, and afterwards reduced by evaporation to
its former conllllence, the extrad, thus prepared, is called
aloe infuccala, and with the addition of one tliird its weight
of cream of tartar, aloe hifuccala tartaiixata.

Aloe molata, is prepared by means of the exprcffed juice
of violet flowers ; and mixed with half its weiglit of cream
of tartar, it is called aloe violatu tartaiea. But preparations
of this kind are obfolete.

Aloe is applied by fome writers, to a kind of mineral
juice produced in Judea.

This is called foffile, mineral, or metalline aloe. — Some
difpute the exilltnce of any lueli aloe. Others iupjKjfe it
to be no other than the asphaltus.

Aloes, lignum. This wood, by the Indians and Portu-
guefe, is called calamba, or calamlac, being the fame with
what is otherwife called by medical writers .xyloalots, and
agallochum.

This wood is referred by Loureiro, as we have ob-
ferved under the article Agallochum to a dillindt genus
called aloexylum, belonging to the order of decandria ;
but it approaches fo nearly to that of the Excoecaria
agallocha of Linnaeus, that the latter has been fold for it.
The tree grows in Cochinchina, the Molucca iflands, and
feveral other parts of the Eafl Indies ; and was formerly
held in very high eftimation, on account of its fragrant
odour, as a perfume, for which purpofe it was applied to
cloaths and apartments, and as a cordial medicine in fainting
fits, and in cafes of paralytic affection. It is faid alfo to be
etfeClual in deflroying the tinea; and afcarides in children.
By the Chinefe and Pleathen Moors it was ufed 2S incenfe ia
their facrifices ; and employed for letting the moil precious
jewels that are wrougiit in the Eaft Indies. It was formerly-
deemed in that part of the world of greater value than gold
itfelf; and various fables have been invented as totheorigia
of the tree that yields it. Some have feigned, that it grew in
Paradife, and that it was conveyed from thence by the rivers,
which overflowed their banks and fwept off tl'.e trees in their
way. Others pretend, that it grows on inacceflible moun-
tains, where it is guarded by wild bcafts, &c. The Siamefc
arabaffadors brought a prefent ot this wood from their em-
peror to the court of France in 1686 ; and thus it became
known,. Banhin and many others reckon three forts ef it ;
•VIZ. two kinds of Calambac and the aloes-wood, the
agallochum of the fliops, the tchinhiang of the Chinefe,
thimhio of Camelli, pao de aguila. of the Portuguefe, and
frequently called eagle-wood. This is oily, rehnous, com-
paft, heavy, of a brown reddidi colour, marked with grey
veins, and often pierced with fmall holes, as if it were worm

«atcn»

A L O

eaten. TliU wood ia not fo dear as the culamk^i:, and is more
. cominonly found in the (hops. It is bi light from Cochin-
chiMa, and appcUiS to be the produdlion of the fame tree.
This tree bears a great rcfemhlance to the aga'lochum ft-cun-
diuiuin of Ruir.pliiiis, the finkoo of Ksempfer, and the
eagk-wood of Sanncnit ; and is denominated nquiliiria
vmliucenjis and ^iiro of Malaca. The wood of the branches
of this tree is white, inchning to ycUow ; and the bark is of
B grey-reddifh colour, and its furface is roughifh and liairy.
The leaves are alternate, ovate-Ianccolated, entire, much
acuminated, about 3I inches long and two wide, with a
fmooth and green furface, and appearing like fattin ; each
. of them is fupported by a petiole about two French lines
long, and have their holders garniflitd by fhort hair ; the
young leaves are haiiT and almoil white before they are un-
folded. The (lowers, according to Sonnerat, are fmall and
have no calyx ; the corolla confills of one piece, and half-
divided into five oval parts, pointed and ftar-like ; and at the
interior bafe of each divifion of the corolla are two fmall
fcales, which are there infcrted,and format the commencement
of the flower a crown, compofed of 10 neftaria, as Sonnerat
defcribes them. The ilamina are 10, (hort and attached to
the corolla between the feftions of the nettaiia. The pillil
is formed by a fuperior ovaiy, which is oval, without aUyle,
and crowned by a fimple, very fmall ftigma. This ovary
changes into a pyriform capfule, about an inch long, and
opening naturally into two partitions, and within it has two
ceils, each containing a black, sval, pointed, fmall feed,
■ one of which is almoil always abortive. At the bottom of
each feed is found a fpungy fubftance, which feems to oc-
cupy the place of another abortive feed. Whether this tree
be of the fame genus with the calambac or agallochum of
the ancients, it is not eafy politively to afcertain ; but it
agrees with the defcriptioB given of it by Kasmpfer and by
Cunningham, in Geoffroy's Materia Medica. If this be
the cafe, it mufl be of a different genus and family from
the agallochum of Amboina, which belongs to the euphor-
bix. Encycl. Method, tom. i. p. 49. Sec Agallochum,
Calambac, and Excoecaria.

Grew defcribes a piece of lignum aloes, with its own gum
growing on it in the repofitory of the Royal Society. See
Grew, Miif. Reg. Soc. p. ii. c. i. p. 179.

ALiOEDARY, aloedar'mm, aXowapiov, denotes a purging
medicine, wherein aloes is an ingredient.

This amounts to the fame with what we otherwife call an

ALOETIC.

Aloedary is alfo ufed for a hiftory of the clafs of plants,
.under the denomination of aloes.

ALOEPHANGINA, in the Materia Medka, denote
medicines fonned by a combination of aloes and aromatics.

ALOETICS, medicines wherein aloes is the chief, or
fundamental ingredient.

Aloetics open the orifices of the vefTels, and are on this
account found hurtful in cafes of hxmorrhagcs, particularly
at the nofe ; alfo in the tenefmus, hemicranuim, &c. The
immoderate ufe of aloetics tends to produce hxmorrhoids,
hypochondriac pains, and inflations.

ALOEUS, in Entomology, a fpecies of fcarabsus, or
beetle, with a three-horned thorax, the intermediate longer
and fimple, the head fubmuticous, and the elytrse uniftriated ;
found in America.

ALOFT, a fea-term, fynonymous with up in the tops,
at the maft-heads, or any where about the higher rigging.

ALOGIANS, Alogi, or Alogiani, compounded of
the privative «, and ?.t/-/or, q. d. without Logos, or lyord, in

A L O

Ecibfajl'tcal H'l/lory, a feft who denied that Jefus Chrift was
the I.og'is, or eternal Word ; and on this ground alfo re-
jetted the Gofpel of St. Johii as ipurious, and alfa the Re-
velation.

Some afcribe the origin of the name, as well as of the
fedl of Alogians, to Theodore of Byzantium, by trade a
currier ; who, having apoftatized under the perfeeution of
the emperor Severus, to defend himfelf againll lii'.fe who
reproached him therewith, laid, that it was not God he
denied, but only man. Whence his followers were called
in Greek aXoyoj, becaufe they rejected the ^Vord. But others,
with more probability, fuppofe the name to have been firll
given them by Epiphanius in the way of reproachi They
made their appearance towards the clofe of the fecond
century.

Philafter has alfo mentioned a herefy that rcjeilied John's
gofpel and revelation, and afcribed both to Cerintiius. Dr.
Lardner is of opinion that this is a fitlitbus herefy ; and
thit there never were any Chriftians who rejected John's gof-
pel and firll epittle, and yet received the other golpels, and
the other books of the New Teftament. No notice is taken
of fuch by Irenasus, Eufebius, or any other ancient writer,
before Philafter and Epiphanius ; nor has Theodoret given
any account of this herefy. ' This herefy, fays this inde-
fatigable inquirer and impartial reporter, was, as he con-
ceives, invented upon the oecafion of the controverfy of
Caius and Dionyfius, and others, with the Millenarians in
the third century ; fome of whom difputed or denied the
genuinenefs of the book of Revelation, and afcribed it to
Ccrinthus. Hence fome faid that thofe enemies of the
Millennium might as well fcjeft alfo St. John's Gofpel, and
others faid, that they actu;dly did fo, though they did not.
In Philafter's catalogue this herefy follov.'S next after the
Millenarians, or ChiUonetites, as he calls them, and the
order in Epiphanius leads us to the fame time. Lardner's
Works^ vol. ix. p. 515.

ALOGONIA, in Ancient Geography, ■a. town of MefTenia,
fouth-eall of Gerenia : north-eaft of which were a temple
of Bacchus and another of Minerva.

ALOGOTROPKIA, among Phyfcmm, an irregular
nutrition of fome part, attended with a vicious figure or
conformation thereof, as in the rickets.

If the bones of the vertebrse of the back receive too
much nutriment on one fide, as fometimes happens in children,
an incurv-ation necefTarily enfiies, which, as Charleton ex-
preffes it, is produced by an alogotrophia.

ALOIDES, in Botany, a name ufed by fome for the
aloe palujlris, or frefli tvater aloe, called in fome parts of
England, tvater-Joldicr ; and by Linnasus, ^rrt/.'dte.

ALOIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Tr.elTaly, ,
near the valley of Tempe, and founded, fays Steph. Byz.
by the Aloades.

ALOMAYO, in Geography, a town of South America,
in the country of Peru, and jurifdiction of Guamahes.

ALON, in Biography, a celebrated perfonage whofe
memory is preferved in the Triads of the WeKh Bards ; and
who flourifned among the firft colonies of this iOand, if not
among the Cymry before their arrival here. This Alon,
with Plennvdz ai'd Goron, are recorded as the three who
combined the inftitutes and privileges of the bards, druids,
and ovates, into a regular fyltem, under the fanftion of a na-
tional law. This event is faid to have taken place in the
time of Pr\'dain, who is mentioned in the fame Triads, as
the firft who digefted a national conftitution for the Cymiy
or Britons. Be this as it may, there is great reafon to con-
clude.

A L O

A L O

elude, that Alon istlie fame pcrfonwho is called Olcii, Olcnus,
Ailiiius, or Linus, among the different people of Greece
and the adjoining countries, and even in Egypt ; for it is
remarkable that limilar attributes are aferibed to him by
thofc ancient nations, as in our Ti iads : according to Pau-
fanias, Olen the hyperborean is faid to have been the full
prophet of Delphi : Bcco the female liierophaut is made to
ilng of Olen, as the inventor of verfe, and the moll ancient
pricfl of Phosbus ; and, indeed, all Greece chaunted the
iong of Olen ; and this more particularly occurred in cele-
brating the completion of the vintage ; for thus it is faid by
Homer, (II. lib. xviii. v. 570, &c.) in the defcription of the
fliicld of Achilles :—

" In the proceffion of the vintagers were groupes of
young damfels and youths, carrying bafl<ets curioully en-
twined, filled with prefents of the moft delicious fruits. In
the midll of thefe was feen a young man ilriking from his
lyre harmonious founds ; he fang the fong of Linus, with a
voice moft fweet; and the company joined with chaunts and
fhouts of joy, beating the earth in cadence with lively fleps."

Alon, in Anc'iinl Gengraphf, a river of Cilicia, near
Sebafte or Eleufa, a fmall ifland.

ALONA, or- Alone, a town on the eaftern fide of
Spain, louth of the mouth of the Tuder.

ALONE, or Halone, one of the jEolian iflands.

Alone, or Halone, a fmall ifland of the Propontis,
fouth of the ifland of ProconeiTus, and north-weft c/f Cy-
y,ic\UTi. The name was given to it, fays Steph. Byz. bccaufe
its inhabitants had found out the art of making lalt. This
author fays, that it was alfo called Neuris and Procona ; but
Pliny diflinguiflies the lafl of thcfe two iflands.

Alone, a town placed by fome writers in Paphlagonia.

ALONG-SIDE, in Sca-la-.guage, exprtffes fidc-by-fide,
or joined to a fliip, wharf, cS:c.

ALONG-SHORE, a nautical phrafe exprcffing along the
coaft, or a courfe which is in fight of the fhore, and nearly
parallel to it.

Along, Ly'ing, denotes the flate of a fhip that is prtffcd
down fideways by the weight of fail.

A.LONI, in Ancient Geography, a town of AfTyria,
fituate on the eaftern banks of the river Zabus, near its en-
trance into the Tigris.

Aloni, a people joined by Pliny to the Gordlans, and
placed near the Tigris.

ALONIS, a town and ifland of Gaul, which Martin
imagines to have been the town and ifland of Magdelona,
formed by the retrenchment of the fiift Celtic fyllable Mag.

ALONIUM, a place of the ifland. Crete, in the territory
of Gortyna.

ALONSO, in B'wgraphyawA Hi/lory. See Alphonso.

ALONTA, a river placed by Ptolemy in Afiatic Sar-
iratia.

ALONTIGICELLI, a people of Boetica, near the
river Menabas.

ALONTiUM, Aluntium, orHALUNTiuM, a town
of Sicily.

ALOOF, in Sia-Latiguage, denotes at a diftance. See
Luff.

ALOPE, in Entomology, a fpecies of the Sphinx, with
dentattd brov^'n wings, the pofterior being yellow and black
at the apex, -black abdomen, and intci'rupted pale-coloiued
bands, found in India.

Alope, or Alopa, in Ancient Geography, a name given
to feveral towns. Alope was a town of Theftaly. Homer
mentions a town of this name, fuppcfcd to be the fame
place, as he names it after Aks, a town of Phti«tis : it is
fuppofcd to have been fo called after Alopa, the daugliter
6

of Ccrcyon, or of Aftor. Alope was alfo a town of Attica,
and alio of Pontus, between Myfla, Caria, and Lycia ; ano-
ther in Phocis, and another among the Locrians.

ALOPECE, an ifland near the coall of Alia Minor, not
far from Smyrna.

Alopece, or Alopece, was alfo a dillriA of Attica,
near Cynofarges, and diftant about li or 12 ftadia from
Athens. The Lacedemonian general Anchimolius, who, by
the liiggellion of the oracle of Delphos, had been fent to
drive the Pifilhatidesfrom Athens,dledandwas buried in tliis
place; and Herodotus (lib. v. § 3.) fays, that his tomb was
near the temple of Hercules. This was alfo the birth-place
of Arillides and of Socrates. Alopecia was alfo an ifland
placed by Strabo in the Palus-Mseotis, and by M. d'An-
ville, near the mouth of the Tanais.

ALOPECIA, in Surgery, baldncfs in any part of the
body, arifing from difeafe, or from a natural defect of growth
in the hair. This deficiency is fometimes produced by ex-
ceflive venery, and has been known to be remedied by a per-
fon becoming challe in his habits ; but more frequently it is
not connected with any evident external canfe, and only indi-
cates a faulty ftate of the fluids at the roots of tiie hair, or a
want of due nourilhment and moiilure. Alopecia was for-
merly a common fyrnptom of the liies 'venerea, but is now very
rarely obfcrved to occur in lueli cafes.

Oily and gently ftimulating applications to the head, with •
repeated ihaving, are proper againllthe defcft in queflion.

Alopecia is alfo ufed by Galen for the change of the
hair to another colour.

ALOPECIAS, in Ichthyology, a name of the viilpcs ma-
rina, or fea-fox.

ALOPECONESUS, in Anchnt Geography, a town of
the Tiiracian Cherfonefus, north of and near the gulf of Me-
Innos. It v/as peopled by the iEolians, and taken by Philip,
king of Macedon.

ALOPECOPiTHECOS, in Zoology, a name derived
from the Greek, and given by Aldrovaud and others to the
Opossi'M.

ALOPECOS, in Ancient Geography, a hill of Bocotia,'.
in Greece, called alfo Orchalis.

ALOPECURO-VERONICA,injSo;a«jr.SeeMENTHA.
ALOPECUROS. SeeBETONicA.
ALOPECURUS, AXi'TTtKo,- ovfo., fox-tail, 2l genus of the
triandria digytiia clafs and order, and of the natural order of
gramh'.a, or graffes : its characters are, that the calyx is a
glume one-flowered, two valved ; the valves ovate-lanceo-
late, concave, compreffed, equal, connate at the bafe; the corol-
la one-valved, valve ovate, lanceolate, concave, with the edges
united at the bafe, a little fliorterthan the calyx, awn twice as
long, with a bent joint, inlerted into the back of the valve near
the bafe, no nedtary ; ihejiamina have three iilanitnts, capil-
lary, flattifh at the bafe, longer than the calyx, anthers forked
at each end ; the p/r/Iillum is a roundilh germ, the ftyles are
two, eapillaiy, united at the bafe, longer than the calyx, and -
flignias villous ; no pericarpiiim, the coi'olla invelling the
feed ; the feed ovate and covered. Martyn and Willdenow
enumerate eight, and Gmelin 12 fpecies. i. A. indiciit.j
panicum indicum of Miller, panicum alopecuroideum of
Linnzus, Spec. pi. 82. Indian fox-tail grafs, with eyliiulrical
fpikes, involucres fetaceous, faltlculate, two-flowcri;d, and
villous peduuLles, a native of the Ealt Indies. 2- A. Iwlbo-
pl.t, A. geniciilatus /3. Hudfon, gramen myofutoides nodo-
fum of Dillenins, bulbous fox-tail g. with cukn crcft, fpike
cylindrical, (very fimple, atte.vjated, Imooifi, glumes of the
calyx diilinft and villous. Smith) and root bulbous. The
bulbous ccfpitofe root emits fibres f'.^m its lower part, and'
has a hrowu, llriulcd, tunicated membrane. The culm is fo-

litaiyj

A L O

A L O

litar)-, fcarcily a foot long, very finipk.-ercft, a liltlo decum-
bent at the bafe, foliofe, binojial, Itiiatid, and fmootli ; the
leaves fmooth ; tlie radical few and (liort ; the cauline almoft
linear, patent, and of the length of the llieaths ; the ftipula
fhort and ilriated ; the fpike fefqniuncial, fomewhat ered,
very fimple, flender, acute, and many-flowered ; the glumes
of the calyx a little iiiicqual, acute, avvnlefs, altogether lepa-
i-ate at the bafe, villous in the nerves, and undilatcd carina ;
the glume of the -corolla emarginatcd and awned at the bafe.
Thi^ fpecies is very different from tlie A. geniculatus, and has
florets, faysDr. Stokes, longer,narrow< r,and much lels hair)- ;
and Dr. Smith obferves, that in its fpike, and the ftrufture
of the flowers, it is more nearly alUed to the A. agreilis. It
is found rarely in fait marflies ; in thofe near Yarmouth, in
the marflies of Cardiff ir. Glamorganfhire, and near the Auil
paffage, and in the vicinity of Northfleet, in Kent. It is
pereiniial, and flowers in July. 3. h.. iratenju, meadow fox-
tail g. with the culm ereft and fmooth, fpike lublobated, and
the glumes of the calyx villous and connate at the bafe. The
root is fibrous ; the culm two feet high, ereCl, foliofe,
fmooth ; the leaves fomewhat fmooth and glaucous, with a
ftiort, fubpubefcent ftipula ; the fpike fomewhat fimple, fcaree-
ly paniculated, denfe, ereft, about two inches long, foft, and
many-flowered ; all the glumes are equal, lanceolate, com-
prcffed, white, marked on both fides with two green longitudi-
nal lines ; thofe of the calyx, efpecially near the keel, filky-
villous and awnlefs; the glume of the corolla fmooth, except
toward the apex uf the keel, awned at the bafe, the awn ge-
niculated, twice longer than the flower, and naked. This is
a native of molt parts of Europe, from Italy through France,
Germany, Holland, Great Britain, to Denmark, Norway,
Sweden, and Ruffia ; and alfo in Siberia. It is found with
us very common in paftures and meadows. It is perennial,
and flowers in May. This is the beft grafs to be fown in
low meadow grounds, or in boggy places which have been
drained. Sheep, horfes, and goats eat it. Cows and fwine
are not fond of it ; but Dr. Pulteney fays, this is the moft
grateful of all the graffes to cattle. It poffeffes, fays Pio-
feffor Martyn, the three great requifites of quantity, qua-
lity, and earlinefs, in a degree fuperior to any other, and is
therefore highly deferving of cultivation in lands that are
proper for it. The feed may be eafily collected, as it does
not quit the chaff, and the fpikes are very prolific. But the
larvse of a fpecies of mufca;, which are themfelves the prey
of the cimex campeftris, devour the feed fo much, that in
many fpikes you will fcarcely find one perfeS. Lewis Ma-
jendie, Efq. at Hedingham, has cultivated it on a confiderable
fcale, and found it to be an excellent grafs. 4. A. /Igrejlis,
field or flender fox-tail g. with culm ereft, roughifli, fpike
very fimple and attenuated, glumes naked, connate at the
bafe, and dilated at the keel. The root is fibrous and fmall ;
the culm half a foot long, ereift, foliofe, naked at the apex,
and roughilb ;; the leaves rough above, the ft;ipula lanceolate
and pubefcent ; the fpike almoft three inches long, ereft,
flender, acute, manyflowercd, and of a purplifli colour ; the
glumes fubequal, larger than the preceding, and lefs pubef-
cent, varied with white and green, and nerves prominent ;
thofe of the calyx villous at the bafe, connate, with a dilated
fubpubefcent keel, and awnlefs, the glume of the corolla
fmooth, awned at the bafe ; the awn geniculated, twice
longer than the flower, rough and recurved in drying. This
grafs is a troublefome weed in cultivated ground ; and among
wheat it is execrated by the farmers, under the name of
Hack bent ; it is alfo common by way-fides as well as in corn-
fields, and in paftures in the Ifle of Wight. It has ac-
quired the name of moufe-tail grafs in Engliih, and Myofu-
roides in Latinj from the great length and llendernefs of the

3

fpike, wliich rcfembles the tail of a moufe. It is annual,
floweis in July, continues flowering till Autumn, and comes
into bloom vciy foon after being lown. There is a variety,
with a fliorter fpike, and recurved awns. It is fmall and
brown, on account of its barren and funny fituation. 5. A.
gen'icublus, gramen fluviatilefpicatum of Gerard, g. aquati-
cum fpicatum of Parkinfon, and ^. alopec. flav.gtnicul. pro-
cumbens of Morifon, floating fox-tail g. with culm afcend-
ing and geniculated or knee-jointed, fpike fublobate and cy-
lindric, and glumcb blunted and haiiy. The root confills of
very long and fimple fibres ; the culms natant, very long,
geniculated, radicating m the inferior geniculi, affurgent in
the apex, foliofe, ramous, and fmooth, the leaves fmoothifli,
the ftipula whltifli and veiy flender, the fpike cylindric,
fhort, fomewhat obtufe, diviiible in lobes, many-flowered,
purphfli, and in the variety /3 whitifli ; the glumes twice lefs
than the preceding, fubequal, and \crf obtufe, thofe of the
calyx longer, hairy ; thofe of the corolla crenated, fmooth,
awned toward the bafe, the awn geniculated, and of various
length ; the root in dry places is bulbous, with a culm fome-
what ereit ; and this variety Hudfou has confounded with the
A. bulbofus. Dr. Smith mentions two varieties, ti/'z. /S. g. flu-
viatile album of Dillcnius, and y. with a bulbous root of Hud-
fou and Withering. This fpecies is eafily known in its common
ftate, by pools and in wet meadows, by the frequent joints of
the culm or ftem changing their tiireftion, and appearing
broken. It often puts out roots under water from thejoints,
and thus fpreads itlelf ; the leaves floating on the iurface.
From the deep colour of the fpikes, it is called in forac
places hhich-grafs. It fometimes occurs in dry paftures, and
tlien, according to Mr. Curtis, grows more upright ; the
Ipikc is much more fltr.der, and the bafe of the ftiJk fwells
out into a kind of bulb. It is perennial, and flowers in July.
Cattle eat it, but it is not eileemed .. profitable grafs. The
variety y is found in walls and a dry fterile foil. Dr. Wither-
ing mentions four varieties ; one of which, with awns,
very fine and foft, not longer than the calyx, fruit little,
ftalks branched, a fibrous rooc, and found in a marfhy place
near the Stews, in Edgbafton park, he fufpefts to be a dif-
tinft fpecies. 6. A. Hordeiformu, barley-like fox-tail g. with
fimple raceme, and flowers intrenched with awns. This is
an Indian grafs, and refembles hordeum murinum, or barley-
grafs. 7. A. Motifpelienfs, A. Ariftatus of Hudfon, &c.
phleum crinatum of Schreber, bearded fox-tail g. with pani-
cle fubfpiked, rugged calyxes, and awned corollas. This
refembles A. paniccus, but is three times as large ; the calyx
has a tubercle at the bottom ; the corolla, which has two
valves, is Ihorter than the awn, the culm and leaves are ftiff,
the glumes rough, but fmooth at the edge, both valves are
awnedj and the awns of the corolla are much fliorter than
thofe of the calyx. It grows wild in marflies and wet paf-
tures, at Purfleet in Effex, and at Drayton, about two miles
from Portfmouth, is annual, and flowers in June and July.
See Agrostis. 8. A. pan'iceus, hairy fox-tail g. with pa-
nicle fubfpiked, villous glumes, and awned corollas, very
much refembles the laft fpecies, but the whole plant is foft,
and only five or fix inches high ; the glumes downy, woolly at
the edges ; the awns of the corolla fliorter than thofe of the
calyx ; the corolla has two valves, as fhort again as the ca-
lyx, hollow and fmooth ; the outer three times as broad as
the other, roundith-ovate, blunt, with four teeth, with awn
longer than the valve iffuing from below the point ; inner
valve ovate-lanceolate, pointed, with two teeth ; the calyx
ending at the bafe in a hard tubercle. This fpecies grows
on dry foils, is annual, and flowers in July. See Agrostis.

Gmelin refers to this genus the following fpecies, be-
fides thofe above enumerated, vi%. A. (Hiatus, with a culm

fpiked

A L O

f;)Ikcd and tre&, ,and ciliated glumes. A. cnro/iiii^nttsi
v.'ith radicating culm, fublpiked panicle, fmooth glumes,
and awiicd coroUx. A. lyphoiJfs, vvitli limple raceme, and
avvuk-fs flofcidi. A. caudalus, with fpiktd caudiitcd panicle,
and flofculi intrenched with awns. A. Oviilus, with panicle
ovated, contradled, refembling a fpike, and exterior petal
awned before the apex. Wilidenow, bcfides the A. iiidicus,
A. biilbofus, A. pratenfis, A. agreftis, and A. geniciilatus,
defcribes the following fpecics, -viz. A. capcnfis, with cylin-
dric fpike, and fmooth awnlefs glumes, a native of the Cape
of Good Hope. A. antartlicus, with creft culm, ovated
fpike, hairy glumes and awncd coroUae, the awns being
longer than the calyx ; brought from the Straits of Magel-
lan. A. ech'iimttis, with fpiked, oifated panicle, punctated,
ciliated glumes, and genieulated culm, a native of the Cape
of Good Hope. For the propagation and culture of this
genus, fee Grass. Maityn's Miller, Gmelin's Liiinn;us,
Withering, Arrang. vol. ii. p. 419. Smith's Flor. Lrit. vol. i.
72. Willdenow's Liim. tom. i. p. 356.

ALOPES, in Ancient Geography, one of the ancient
names of Ephefus.

ALOPEX, in Entomology, a fpccies of the Scarab.'EUS
Melohntha, with yellow hair, the clypeus reflex and tmargi-
nated, and the elytra; fmooth and bkick ; found at the Cape
of Good Hope.

ALOPEX,in Zoo//)j-j', afpeciesof the can is, with a tail ftrait
and black at the tip. This is lefj than the comi.''on fox, and
lias a thicker and dufl<ier fur, though it is fometimes brighter
and redder than that of the fox. A Penufylvanian brant-
fox, defcribed by Mr. Pennant, was fcarcely half the fize of
the common fox ; with the nofe black and (harper, the
fpace round the eyes ferruginous, the forehead and upper
parts of the body black, mixed witli red, a(h-coIour, and
^lack, and by the predominance of the a(h-coI(.)ur, appearing
hoaiy, the belly ydlowifli, the tail black above, red beneath,
and on the fides afli-coloured. The Britifli variety of the
fox with a black tip on the tail, fays Mr. Pennant, is un-
known in America ; and therefore his brant-fox miift be ei-
ther a variety of the other, oradiftintl fpeeies. This fpccies
is found in Europe, Afia, and America. The alopcx curo-
pseus, or coal-fox, the charbonnier of Buffon, is reckoned
another variety. It inhabits Burgundy, is of a filver-grey
colour, and the tail tipped with white like the common fox;
but from the remarkable blackncls of its feet and legs, feem-
ing to have been produced by chai coal-dull, it is called char-
bonnier, or coal-fox.

ALOR, in Ancient Geography, a river of Macedcuiia.

ALORIT/E, a people of Macedonia.

ALORUS, a town of Macedonia, north-weft of the
Thermaic gulf, placed by Ptolemy in Pxonia, and by M.
d'Anville in Pleria.

ALOS, or Alus, a town of the Phthiotis in ThefTaly,
eaft of the Pelafgic gulf, at the foot of Mount Othrys, upon
the little river AmpliryfTus. It was built by Athamas, and
fo called in honour of one of his female domeftics.

Alos was alfo a town of Peloponnefus, in the Argolid.

ALOSA, in lehihyology, a fpeeies of the Clu pe a, having
the fides fpotted with black, and the upper jav>' bifid. It is
the thriffa of Arillotle, Rondeletius, and Aldrovand, the
alaufa of Gefner, the clupeaof Willugliby and Ray, and our

S.HAD.

ALOSANGA, in Ancient Geography, a town of India,
beyond the Ganges, according to Ptolemy,

ALOST, in Geography, a town of Flanders, fituate on
the river Dender, ten leagues fouth of Antwerp. 'Jliis town
contains a collegiate church, and feveral convents, in one of
which, vi%. that of Guillen-.ins, is the tomb of 'I'hcodore

VoL.-i.

ALP

Martin, who brought the art of printing out of Germany
into the Low Countries. He was a fritud of Ei-afmus, wh»
wrote his epitaph.

This town, which is the capital of a county, was taken
anddifmanlledby M. Turenny, in 1667 ; and abandoned to
the allies, in 1 706, after the battle of Ramillies. N. lat. 49*
SS'- E.long. fjG.

ALOUAl E, ill Zoology, a name given by BuETon to the
Sim I A Seniculus, or long-tailed, bearded, red monkey, withi
prehenfile tail, of the Liniixan 1;. ftem ; the arabuta of Gu-
niilla, Oronoko, torn. ii. p. 8. and the roy.il monkey of Pen-
nant. Some have conlidertd this as a variety of the Si mi A
Beelzeliil, from which it differs by its very bright bay colour ;
but Dr.Shaw (Zool. vol. i. p. 71.) is of opinion, that it is a
dilUnft fjiccies. From young animals in the Levcrian Mu-
fcum, he defcribes it as being about the fizc of a fquinel,
and entirely of a very bright, ferruginous, or rcddifh chefnut
colour, with the face iiakid and black, furrounded on the
lower parts by a ilraggling beard of black hairs, and the tail
ilrongly piifliciifile. This fpeeies is faid to be rare in Braiil,
but very common in Cayenne. Its voice and manners arc
the fame with thofe of the Simia Beelzebul, which is com-
mon in Brafil, but nut found in Guiana. By an account of
a perfon who kept tliefc animals at Cayenne, it appears that
the allouates, or howlers, as they are called, inhabit the moifl
forells in the neighbourhood of waters or marflies. They
are commonly found in the woody illets of large flooded fa.
vannahs, and never on the mountains of the interior of Gui-
ana. They go in fmall numbers, often in pairs, and fome-
times fingly. Their cry or horrible fcream may well infpirc
terror, for it feems as if the forells contained the united
bowlings of all its favajre inhabitants together. This cla-
mour is ufually made in the morning and evening ; but it is
repeated in the courfe of the day, and fometimes in the niglit.
The found is fo llrong and varied, that one would imagine it
to be produced by feveral animals at once, though it is emit-
ted by only two or three, and fometimes one. In a ftate of
captivity the animal lofes its voice, or does not exert it
in the fame manner as he does when wild, and in this
ftate he fcldom lives long. The male is larger than the
female, and tlie latter always carries her young on her back-
In order to kill thcfe animals it is nccellaiy to fire feveral
times ; while any life ivmalns, and after they are dead, they
will remain clinging to the branches by the hands and taiL
Their flefh, after all the trouble of poftefTing them, is not
good; it is always tough, and never admitted to any tables
but to thofe of indigent inhabitants and travellers, to fupply
the want of other food. This animal is faid to be as large as
a calf, and to live on the fruit of the banana-tree.

ALOUCHI, a kind of fweet-fcented gum which run*
from the tree that produces white cinnamon.

ALOUETTE de Mer, in Ornithology, a name given by
Buffon to the Tringa Hypoleucos, or common Sandpiper.

ALOUETTE, is alfo the name of the Alauua Ar-
•venjis.

ALOUS, in Ancient Geography, a town mentioned by
Stcph. Byz. and whiih belonged'to Illyria.

ALP, in Ornithology, an Englidi name ufed by fom8 /or

the BuLL-FINCH.

AI-PAGE, alpagiiim, in Ancient Writers, denotes the
privilege of feeding cattle on the Alps or high mountains,
or a funi paid for the purchafe of fuch a right.

Tliiii is othcrwife called Alpatictim.

ALPAGNA, in Zoology, the Camelus Paco of ths
Linns-an Syftem, and the Pacos of Pemuuit.

ALPAM, in JJotjny. SeeApAMA.

ALP ARSLAN,' ill Biography and Ni^oiy, fecond

f D • ' fult;.«

ALP

fultaii of tht dynady of Stljiiks, in Jran or Put".;!, the fon of
l);ivid or Jaffar Peg, and prent grandfun of Siljuk, wlio
founded this dyr.iil'y, was born in t'-.t year of the Hcgira
421, A. D. 1030. He fuccetdcd his uncle Togrul Bet,',
A.I). 1063, and united in his perfon the two kingdoms of
Khorafan and Irak, with tlieir dependencies; fo that, .'.t
(he comirenccment of his reign, he was fole nionarcli of all
the roiiiitries lying between the rivers Jihun, or Amu, and
the Djilat or Tigris ; that is, of all Inn, or reilia, in the
i-oiiquell of which he bore a confiderablc fiiaro. Btlore he
embraced Mahomctanifm he was called HVacl, and after-
wards he afTumed the name of Mohammed, or Abu Slujah
Mohammed ; and his furname was Alp Arflan, which lig-
nifies in Turkifti, " the v?.l:ant lion." He was alfo dilUn-
gui(hed, on account of his power and merit, by the appella-
tion of^Azzaddin, or Adhadoddin, denoting, " the protec-
tor of the religion." He began his reign by fnbduing fe-
veral rebellions among his fubjcCis ; and he derived great
slTiftance from his vifir Nadham al Molk, or Nezam
el Mule, who was reputed to be the greatell man of his
time, and who admiaillered the affairs of the kingdom, in
the reign of this prince and his fucceffur, with the greateft
i:itegrity. Having fucceedcd in his enterprifes for the fecu-
rity of his own dominions, and in an aflembly of the ftates
declared his fon Malek Shah his heir and fuccelTor, caufing
him to fit on a throne of gold prepared for the purpofe, and
exad'ting from all the officers of the empire an oath of fide-
lity to him. Alp Arflan crofled the Euphrates at the head of
the Turki(h cavalry, and entered C-^farea, the metropolis of
Cappadocia, to which he had been attracted by the wealth
and fame of the temple of St. Bahl. After plundering this
city, he proceeded to the final conquc it of Armenia and
Georgia, A. D. 1065. In Armenia the title of a kingdom
and the fpirit of a nation were annihilated ; and the artilicial
fortifications were yielded by the mercenaries of Conllanti-
nople ; " by ftrangers without faith, veterans without pay
or arms, and recruit? without experience or difcipline."
But the woods and v.iliies of Mount Caucalus were more itre-
nuoufly defended by the native Georgians, or Iberians, who
■were at length compelled to fubmit by the indefatigable ex-
ertions of the fultan and his fon Malek ; and who were pu-
liifhed for their obflinate refiilance, by being obliged to wear
at their ears iron horfe-lhoes as a badge of their (laveiy ;
manv of whom, in order to avoid this ignominy, affumed the
external profefiion of Mahomctanilm.

In lo68 Alp Ardan direfted his arms againft the Con-
ftantinopolitan empire, which was then governed by Eu-
docia. His progrefs alarmed the emprefs, and induced her
to give her hand and her fceptre to Romanus Diogenes, a
brave foldier, who was accordingly invefted with the impe-
rial purple. Although in the palace Diogenes was no more
than the hufhand of Eiidocia, yet in the camp he was
the emperor of the Romans, and he fuftained that character
with feeble refources and invincible courage. By his tpirit
and faccefs the foldiers were taught to acl, the fubjecls to
hope, and the enemies to fear. In three laborious campaigns
the Turks were driven beyond the Euphrates ; and in the
fourth and lall Romanus undertook the deliverance of Ar-
menia. With an army of 100,000 men he marched to the
f»ege of Malazkerd, an important fortrefs in the midway be-
tween the modern cities of Arzeroum and Van. Alp Arilan
flew to the fcenc of aclien at the head of 40,000 horfe, ac-
■cprding to the ftatement of Elniaciu, but reduced by Abul-
pharagius to 15,00c, and by d'Herbelot to 12, coo. The
Greeks, though much fuperior in number, were diftrefled
and difmayed by his rapid and (kilful evolutions ; neverthelefs,
ibcir principal general Bafilacius was defeated, Malazkerd was

ALP

reduced, and their forces were feparated ; in this moment of
advantage he prnpofed peace to the cmpovor. The anfwte
of Romanus was dittatcd in the tone of infult and defiancer
'" If the barbarian wifhes for peace, let him evacuate th.
ground \\liich he occupies for the encampment of the Ro-
mans, and fiinender his city and palace oi Rei as a pledge
of his fincerity." Arp Arflan fmiled at the vanity of the de-
mand, but he wept in anticipating the death of fo many
faithful Mofleins ; and, after a devout prayer, proclaimed a
free permifTion to all who were defirous of retiring Irom the
field. Vi'ith his own hands he tied up his horfe's tail, ex-
changed his bow and arrow for a mace and fcymitar, clothed
himfelf in a white garment, perfumed his body with mufic,
and declared that if he was vanquifhed, that fpot (hould be
the place of his burial. In the decifive and bloody battle that
enfued, the Greeks were totally routed, great numbers of
them were killed ; and Romanus, after valiantly maintaining
his ftation, when he had been delerted by the body of his
army, was at length recognized by a fiave, taken prifoner,
and prefented to Alp Arflan. The fucceubr of Conifantiiie,
in a plebeian habit, was led into the Turkilh divan, and
commanded to kifs the ground before the lord ot Afia. He
reli'.ftantly obeyed ; Alp Arilan, ilarting from his throne,
is faid to have planted his loot on the ucck of the Roman
emperor. This facl, however, is doubtful. He inllantly
raifed f he royal captive from the ground ; and then clafping
his hand with tender fympathv, aflured him that his life and
dignity Ihould be inviolate in the hands of a prince who had
learned to rcfpeft the majefty of ills equals, and the viciill-
tudes of fijitune. Romanus was treated with attention and
refpect ; and in the familiar intercourfe of eight days, not a
word nor a look of iniult efcaped tiom the conqueror. Du-
ring the negotiation he was aikedby Alp Arflan what treat-
ment he expected to receive ? To which queftion Romanus,
Avitli calm indifference, replied : " If you are cruel, you will
take my life ; if you liften to pride, you will drag me at y-our
chariot wheels ; if you confult your interell, you will accept
a ranfom, and reitore me to my country." But what,"
continued the fultan, " would have been your own beha-
viour had fortune fmiled upon your arms ?" " Had 1 van-
quifhed," he fiercely faid, " I would have inflidted on thy
body man\' a flripe." The Turkilh conqueror fmiled at the
infolence of his captive ;■ obl'er\'ed, that the Chrillian law in-
culcated the love of enemies and forgivenefs iif injuries ; and
nobly declared that he would not imitate an example which
he condemned. After mature deliberation. Alp Arflan dic-
tated the terms of liberty and peace, a ranfom of a million,
an annual tribute of three thoufand pieces of gold, the mar-
riage of the royal children, and the deliverance of all the
Mcflems who were in the power of the Greeks. The treaty
was fuhfcribed by Romanus, and the fultan, after a coui-
teous embrace, difmiffcd him with rich prefents and a mili-
tary guard ; but his fubjefts having revolted, he was unable
to colleft and remit the iripulated price ot his nmfom. The
generofity, or perhaps the ambition of the fultan, difpofed
him to efpoufe the caufe of his ally ; but the accomplifhment
of iiis defign was prevented by the defeat, imprifonment,
and death of Romajius Diogenes. After this treaty, A. D.
107 I, Alp Arflan beheld the faireft part of Afia fubjcft to
his laws ; 1 200 princes, or the fons of princes, flood before
his throne ; and 200,oco foldiers marched under his ban-
ners. He difdained to purfue the fugitive Greeks ; but he
meditated the more glorious conqueft of Turkeltan, the ori-
ginal feat of the houfe of Seljuk. His progrefs on this ex-
pedition, A. D. 1072, was impeded by Jofeph Cothual, a
Karafinian, or Carizmian, the governor of Berzem, or Bar-
zam, who, after yigoroufly defending his fortrefs, was taken

pri^ner ;

ALP

prifoncr ; and being ivpioached by the fultan for his obfti-

uatc folly, by liis infok-nt replies provoked a cruel feiitence,
that he ihoiild be faftened by his hands and feet to four
ftakes, and Kft to expire in thst painliil fitnation. Tlic dcf-
perate Jofeph, drawinjj a dagger, ruflied towards the throne;
the guards raiUd their battle-axes; but Alp Arllan, the nioft
l]<ilful archer ot his age, checked their zeal, and drew his
bow ; however liis foot flipped, and the arrow niifTed Jofeph,
who planted his dagger in the breail of the fultan, and was
himlelf inilantly cut in pieces. The wound was mortal, and
the fultan expired, A. 1). 1072, pronouncing an ufeful ad-
monition to the pride of kings. " In my youth," laid Alp
Arflan, " 1 wa-> advifcd by a fage to humble myfelf before
God ; to dillruft my own iirength ; and never to defpife the
irioft contemptible foes. I have neglected thcfe Ud'ons, and
my negleft ha* been defcrvedly punifhed. Yiilerday, as
from an eminence, 1 beheld the numbers, tlie difcipline, and
the fpirit of my armies ; the earth feemed to triRible under
my feet ; and 1 faid in my hcait, ' Surely thou art the king
of the world, the greatell and moft invincible of warriors.'
Thofe armies are no longer mine ; and, in the confidence of
my ptrlonal Iirength, I now fall by the hand of an afTalhn."
This prince reigned nine years and fix months, and lived 44
years and three months ; and his remains were depofitcd in
the tomb of the Seljukian dynafty, at Marii, one of the four
cities of Khoralaii, with this infcription : " O ye who have
feen the glory ot Alp Ardan exalted to the heavens, repair
to Maru, and you will behold it buried in the duft." The
annihilation of the infcription, and of the tomb itltlf, fays a
popular hiftorian, more forcibly proclaims the inllability of
human grcatnefs. Alp Arflan commanded the relpettofall
who approached him by his ftature, afpeft and voice ; his
long whiilvers Ihaded his face, and he wore a large turban in
the form of a crown. His valour and liberality were equally
renov.'ned ; and he was extolled for his piety and his attach-
ment to the Mahometan faith and practice. He was fuc-
ceeded by his Ion Maick Shah, who had been acknowledged
during his life as the future fultan of the Turks ; and who,
by a triple viiiloiy over his uncle, coufin, and brother, each
cf whom difputed the inheritance, eftabliflied his own re-
, putation, and the right of primogeniture. Mod. Un. Hift.
vol. iii. p. 394 — 4c I. Gibbon's Hiil. vol. x. p. 352 —

363-

ALPEDRINHA, in Geography, a fmall place of Beira,
in Portugal, containing about 950 inhabitants, and one
churi:h.

ALPEDRIZ, a fmall place of Eftremadura, in Portugal,
containing about 600 inhabitants.

ALPEN, a town of Germany, in the circle of the Lower
, Rhine, and elettorate ef Cologn ; eight miles fouth-wcll ol
, Wcfel, and tifty north north-welt of Cologn.

AI.PENE, orALPFNUs, m jlncient Geogf.iphy, the ca-
pital of the Locrians, on the fouth coalt of Phanix, caft of
Trachia, and above Thermopyla: and Anthela.

ALPESA, a town of Bcetica, according to Pliny.

ALPHA, a river in the vicinity of Aquileia, near
which Conilantinc was killed, and into which his body was
thrown.

Alpha Buccelis, a town afcribed by Ptolemy to the
Marfi; probably the fame with 7\lba Fiicenjis.

Alpha, the name of the firil letter in the Greek al-
phabet ; correfponding to our A.

The word is originally Hebrew, formed from aleph, the
name of the firit letter of the Hebrew alphabet.

Alpha, according to Plutarch, was placed at the head of
all the lettf rs, becaufe, in the Phoenician language, it de-

A I, P

notes an ok : which, with regard to ufc and fci-vice, is the
firil among beads.

Alph>\, in Conipofu'wn, denotes, foinctimes, privation, in
the fame fenfe with anp, ivi.hout ; foiretjmes augmentation,
as a-jov, much; and fomciiir.es imion, as afia, together.
See A.

Alpha is alfo ufed asa letterof order, to denote the fir/?;
and of a number, to fignify one; but when it was a nume-
rical letter, a little Uroke, or an acute accent, was drawn
above it thus. A', to dillingnifli it from the mere A, which
was a letter of order.

Alpha and Omegn, in the Divine JVrilings, fignify the
beginning and the end, or the firil and the ialt, (t/z. before
and after all things) ; and therefore the hieroglyphic of God
is formed of thefc two letters A and O.

Thefc two letters were made the fymbol of Chriftianity,
and were accordingly engraved on the tombs of the an-
cient Chriilians, to diftinguifli them from thofe of idola-
ters.

Alpha is particularly ufed zmong j^ncient Writers, to de-
note the chief, or firil man of his clafs or rank.

In this fenfe, the word llajids contradiflinguiflied from
beta, which denotes the fecond perfon.

Plato was called the alpha of the wits ; Eratofthenes,
keeper of the Alexandrian library, whom fome called a fi-
cond Plato, is frequently named btta.

Thus Martial, in imitation of the Greeks, who diftin-
guiflied the rank of perfons by letters, fays ; —
" Qiiod alpha dixi, Codre, penulatorum,
Te nupcr, aliqna, cum jocarer in charta :
Si foite bilem movit hie tibi verfus,
, Dicas lictbit beta me togatorum."

Epig. 1. 5. cp. 26.

Alpha is alfo a title given by fome ancient writerj to the
Jewilh legiflator Mofes. The reafon of the application is
much controverted.

ALPHABET, the feveral letters of a language dlfpofcd
in their natural or accuftomed order.

The word is formed from the names of the two firil let-
ters of the Greek alphabet, alpha, beta : wlsich were bor-
rowed from thofe of the Hebrew, aleph, betli.

In the Englifli alphabet we reckon 26 letters, "I'l'z. abed
efg h ij k I m n 0 p q r ft u v w x y z. Sec each under its
proper article. A, B, C, &c.

But as there is a much greater number of different
founds in our language, it is not without reafon that fome
grammarians maintain, that there ought to be a greater
number of letters : as alfo, that the double letters, x, y,
and tc, and the fuperfluous ones, i and g, fliould be re-
trtnclied.

The French alphabet contains only 23 letters. Pafquier
indeed maintains it to confiil of 25, becaufe he adds the two
double letters l^ for et and '' for us ; but thofe are only ab-
breviations. The Abbe d'Angeau, on better grounds,
reckons 34 difi'erent founds in the French tongue ; and urges
that the alphabet ought of confeqiience to confifl of 34 dif-
ferent characters, fetting afide the double letters x aud^, and
the fnperlluous one q.

The difference between languages with refpect to the
number of letters in their alphabet is vei-y confiderable : the
Hebrew, Chaldee, Syriac, and Samarkan alphabets, have
each 22 ; the Arabic 28 ; the Perfian 31 ; the Turkifh 33;
the Georgian 36 ; the Coptic 32 ; the Mufcovitc, or Ruf-
fian, 41, of which fome are only notes of accent in pronun-
ciation; the Greek 24 ; the Latin 22; the Sclavonic 27 ;

5 D 2 the

ALP

ALP

the Dutch 265 the Spaniih 27; the Italian 20; the In ■
dians of Bengal 21 ; the Rramas 19.

Tlic Ethiopic has no lefs than 202 letters in its alphabet,
there being fcvcn towcIs, which they combine with each of
their 26 coiifonairts ; to which they add 20 otiier afpirattd
fyllables. Tlie like is faid of the Tartarian ; each of their
letters is a fyllable, having one of their vowels joined to its
confonant ; as la, U, 11, &c.

The Chinefe have no alphabet, properly fpoaking ; except
ve call their whole language their alphabet ; tlicir letters are
words, or rather hieroglyphics, and are in number about
80.000. See Phil. Tranf. vol. lix. an. 1769, N" 66.

In efFeft, alphabets were not contrived with defign, ac-
cording to the i\i(l rules of reafon and analogy ; but have
been fuccefTivcly framed, altered, &c. as occaiiou offered.
And hence have arifcn many grievous complaints as to their
deficiencies ; and divers attempts to ellablidi new and more
adequate ones in their places. Biihop Wilkins cliarges all
the alphabets extant with great irregularities, with refpcfl
to the order, number, power, figure, &c. As to the
order, it appears ijiaitificial, precarious, and confufed ; be-
caufe the vowels and confonants are not reduced into claffes,
with fueh order of precedence and fubfequence as their na-
tures will bear. Even the Hebrew order is not free from
this imperfection. As to number, they are both redundant
and deficient ; redundant, cither by allotting feveral letters
to the fame power and found ; as in the Hebrew p and J>^,
.ind the ordinary Latin c and i, f -AnA ph ; or by reckoning
double letters among the fimple elements of fpeech ; as in
the Hebrew y, the Greek | and 4^, the Latin y, cu, x, cs,
and the j confonant, or jod — Deficient in divers refpefts,
efoecially in I'egard of voweb, of which there are feven or
eight kinds commonly ufed, lliough the Latin alphabet
only takes notice of five ; wliereof two, 'uiz. i and u, ac-
cording to our Englifh pronunciation, are not properly vow-
els, but diphthongs.

Add, that the difference among vowels, in refpeft of
long and fliort, is not fufliciently provided for : the ancients,
we know, uftd to exprefs a long vowel by doubling its cha-
rafter ; as amaciham, naata, . ree, pedes, fanS'iJfim'ns ; though
the vowel /', inllead of being doubled, was freq\iently pro-
longed, as jT^dIlis, pIso, vIvvs. The ways ufed in Eng-
lifli for lengthening and abbreviating vowels, w's. by add-
ing e quiefcent to the end of a word, for prolonging a fylla-
ble ; and doubling the following confonants, for the fhort-
ening of a vowel, as ivane luann, luare ivarr, &c. or elfe
by inferting fome other vowel, for the lengthening of it, as
meet met, read red, &c. are all improper, becaufe the fign
ought ever to be where the found is.

As to their powers, again, thofe are not always fixed to
the fame fignification : the vowels, for inflance, are gene-
rally acknowledged to have each of them feveral founds :
vocales omnes plurifomt, fays Lipfius ; and Voffius afTures us,
the ancients ufed their vowels in very different ways, ali-
quando tetiu'ius extlhijque, nunc crcijjlus, nunc inlermedio fono.
Thus the pov/er of the vowel i is exprefTed in writing no lefs
than in ilx feveral ways, viz. bye; as m be, me, Jl:e, ye;
by ee, in three, free, lue ; by le, in field, yield, Jliteld, chief;
by ea, in near, dear, hear ; by eo in people ; by i in privilege.
So is the power of the vowel a, as in all, aul, aiu, fault,
caught ; which are only various ways of writing the fame
long vowel ; befides the other diflinft ways of cxprefTmg
the fame vowel when ufed Ihort : again, the power of the
towel 0 is written five ways : 0, as in to, who, move ; oe, as
in doe ; 00, in J].oo, moon, noon ; on, in could, luould ; ivo,
iu two i and fo of the rell — Nor are the confonants of more

determinate powers ; witnefs the different pronunciation of
the fame letter c in the fame word circo, and g in negligence.
— To fay no moi-e, the letters c, f, t, are ufed alike, to de-
note the, fame power, and the letter f is commonly ufed for
5; ; and, which is yet worfe, fome letters of the fame name
and ll'.ape are ufed at one time for vowels, and at another for
confonants ; as j, "u, w, y ; which yet differ from one an-
other, fays Bifliop Wilkins, _^rK/ corpus Cs* aninia.

From this confufion ifi the power of letters, there arife
divers irregularities ; as, that fome words are diflinguifhed in
writing, which are the fame in pronunciation, e. gr. cejjlo
and fejjio, &c. and others are diftinguifhcd in pronunciation,
which are the fiime in writing ; as^rf, acquirire, ^wAget, ga-
gates, &c. Hence alfo the Latin male is a diffyllable, and ■
the Englifh male is a monofyllable. *

The names alfo, in moflt alphabets, are very improperly
expreffed by words of divers lyllables; alpha, beta, &c. in
which refpeft, the Roman and our Englifli alphabets, which
only name the letters by their powers, have a great advan-
tage over the reft.

Laflly, their figures are not well concerted ; there being
nothing in the charafter:; of the vowels anfwerable to the
different degrees of apertion ; nor in the confonants, analo-
gous to the agreem.ents or difagreements thereof. Wilkin's
Eff. towards a real charatler, &c. b. i. c. 4.

All thefe imperfeftions are obviated in the univcrfal alpha-
lets, or charafters, of M. Lodvirick, Biihop Wilkins, &c.
See Wr-vWr/rt/ Characters.

In the French king's library is an Arabic work, entitled
Sephat /llacham, containing divers forts of imaginai-y alpha-
bets, which the author diftribiites into prophetical, mflicaly
philofuphical, magical, taUfman:cal, &c.

Monfieur Leibnitz had in view to compofe an Alphabet of-
Human Thoughts. Mem. de I'Acad. Roy. an. 17 16.

It is no wonder that the number of letters in moft languages
fhould be fo fmall, and that of the words fo great, fince,
from a calculation made by Mr. Preftet, it appears, that, al-
lowing only twenty-four letters to an alphabet, the different
words or combinations that may be made out of thefe twenty-
four letters, taking them firft one by one, then two by two,
three by three, &c. would amount to the following num-
ber, 1391,724288,887252,999425,128493,402200. See
Combination.

It may be here obferved, that every combination may
make a word, even though that combination have not any
vowel in it ; becaufe the e mute, or quiefcent, infinuates it-
felf imperceptibly between the confonants, or after the con-
fonants, where they are but two, the latter of which would
not be heard without it. — The ufe of this Clent e is very
remarkable in the Armenian, Welfh, and Dutch languages j
wherein the generality of words have feveral confonants to-
gether.

Nor muft it be omitted, that every fingle letter may make
a word ; which is very apparent, where the letter is 3
vowel ; words of that kind being found in moft languages.
Thus, a. and m make words in the Greek ; a, 0, in the La-
tin ; a, i, 0, in Englifh ; a, 0, y, in French ; a, e, i, 0, in
Italian ; a, y, in Spanilh ; a, 0, in the Portuguefe ; 0, in
moll languages, and even in the Dutch and Swcdifh. Any
confonant alfo becomes a word, by adding an e mute to it in
pronunciation.

In fine, though a confiderable number of the poflible
combinations of twenty-four letters were retrenched, yet the
number remaining would itill be immenfe, and vaflly fuperior
to that of the words in any language known.

Of all known languages, the Greek is looked upon as

«n«

ALP

ALP

one of the ncft copious, tlie radices only of which are ef-
teeir.cd ahout 3244, but then it aboniuls exceedingly in
compounds and derivatives. Bifliop Wilkins thinks thefc
may be moderat.:ly computed at about ten thoufand. Her-
mamis Hugo, indeed, alferts, that no language has fo few
as 100,000 word ■ ; and Vavro is frequently quoted by learned
men, as if he alVirmed that there are in the Latin no lefs
thr-.n j,ooo,ooo ; but upon inquiring into the foope of the
paflnge, I'ifliop Willcins nbfervcs, that this number is not
intended by Mnn to cxpvefs the jull number of words in tiie
Latin, but t' c great variety made thereof by tiie inflexion

and compolition of verbs To this purpofe he lays it down,

that there are above one thoufand radical verbs in the Latin,
and that each verb admits of five hundred feveral varieties.
He farther fnppofes, that each of thefe may be compounded
with nine prepijfitions ; as, ce/Jit, recent, accejfit, decejfit, prx-
tcjjit, prccrjftt, J'uccejp.t, &c. which amounts to five millions.
See Word.

Concerning the origin and progrefs and various kinds of
alphahet'ical writing, fee Lktters and Writing.

Alphabf.t, in matters of Po/v^^nT^/rC, is a duplicate of
the key or cypher, which each of the parties corrcfponding
are to keep by them.

It is properly an alphabet of llie ufual letters difpofed in
their order ; oppofite, or underneath which, are the fecret
charafters correfponding thereto, witli the blajik or ufelefs
letters, and the other figns or fymbols ferving to ol>fcure
and render it difficult to decipher. See Deciphering.

Alphabet, among Ma-chants and Traders, is a kind of
index, with the twenty-four letters in their natural order, in
which are fet down the names arid furnames of thofe with
whom open accounts are kept ; and which refers to the fo-
lios of the ledger, where thofe accounts are' \<'ritten, in the
form of debtor and creditor ; ferving to find eafily, and
without any trouble, fuch accounts as are neeelTary to be
turned to.

Alphabet, among the French, fignifies alfo thofe
punches or iron tools, which engravers upon metal ufe to
engiT.ve the feveral letters, or charafters, which belong to
their works, either for legends, or for other infcriplions.
The book-binders have alfo fmall brafs tools, which they
call alphabets, and with which they put the titles, and the
number of the volume, on the back of books.

Alphabetical iicr/Ij-. See Abcedary.

ALPHTEA, in Entomology, a fpecies of the Phal;Ena
Boiiihys-, with ferruginous wings, a white point in the mid-
dle, and a punctated brown ftreak, found in New Hol-
land.

ALPH^NIX, white barley-fugar, to which is given an
extraordinary name, to render it more valuable. This fugar,
which is thought good for colds, is made of common fagar,
which is boiled until it becomes eafy to crack, when they
pour it upon a marble table, gi-eafed with oil of Uveet al-
monds, and m.ould it into various figures with a brafs
crotchet. It is eafily falfified with ftareh

ALPHARABIITS. See Alfarabius.

ALPHA RD. See Cor Z^jv/r-f.

ALPHERATZ, in Afrommy, a fixed ftar of the third
magnitude in AitliaPvIUS. 1'his is otherwife called alphard'z.
Some alfo give tlie denomination er.ij' alphnriil%, and riu:r-
chab alpharafz, to two other ftars in the right Ihoulder of
Pegasus.

ALPHERY, Mikepher, in Biography, an Englidi di-
vine of the 17th century, was born in RufRa, of the impe-
rial line, and on account of the commotions in Rufiia, which
liappened towards the clofe of the iCth cenUiry, was fer.t to
England with his two brothers. They werecorifigned to the

6

care of Mr. Jofcph Bidell, a Ruflia merchant, and by him en-
tered at Oxford, where two of them died of ihc fmall-pox.
Tlie fuvvivor took orders in the Englifh church, and was
prefented in 161S to the reftory of Woolcy, in Huntingdon-
(liire. During iiis rtfidence in tliis fitnation, he was iavitcJ
to return to his native country by fome zealous friends, who
promifed to exert their utmoll efforts in reftoring him .to the
throne of his anceftors ; but he declined the propofal, and
preferred continuing in the humble, but perhaps no lefs ho-
nourable and ufeful, ftation of a parifli priell. At tlie time
of the civil wars, he endured great harddups from the re-
publican party, and was ejcfted from his living. After fuf-
fering much infult and opprtfiion by the milguided zealots
of that diihafted period, he made a fmall purchafc in the
vicinity of his living, built a houfc, and refided in it for fome
years. The prelbyterian ininiller by whom he was fucceeded
encouraged and protefted him ; paid him the fifth part of
the ann\'.al income of his jiving, the allowance made by par-
liament to ejefted minillers ; treated him with kindnel's, and
did him all the fervices in iiis power. After the Rcfto-
ration, he was replaced in his retlory ; but his advanced
age of 80 years, and attendant infirmities, obliged him to
transfer ths; duty to a curate, and to retire to the houfe of his
eldcll fon at Hammerfmith, where he died, much refpei'ted,
and affording a fingular example of the viciffitude of the
world. Biog. Brit.

ALPHESERA, in Botany, a name by which the Ara-
bian, and fome other authors, cxprefs the wliite Bry-
ony.

ALPHESI, Isaac, in 5/\frfl/>Z'j», a learned rabbi, who
floiu-idied in Spain in tlie I ith century, and who came over
from the kingdom of Fez, in Africa, with the Morabites,
or Almoravides. His epitaph, wn'tten in hexameters, was
to this purport : — " Let it be engraved on the itone, that
the light of this world is gone out, and that the foiindati'on
of wifdom is dcpofited within this tomb. Daughters 01
Sion, come and weep! the world is buried, and ftricken
with blindnefs. Weep and figh, for the ark and tables of
the law are broken in pieces with this doclor."

ALPHESTIS, in Ichthyology, the name of a fifli called
by others CiNJEDUS, the labrus cyn.i;dus of Gmehn's
Linnrsus.

ALPHETA, in AJlronomy, a fixed ftar in the northern
crown ; otherwife called luc'ida coronx.

ALPPIEUS, Yd AiicUnt Geography, one of tlie names of
Pifa in Etruria, fuppofed to have been founded by the El::;-
a;is, who amved thither from the banks of the Alpheus, in
the territoiy of Elis.

Alpheus, a river of Elis, no lefs celebrated in my-
thology than recognized by geographers. The fource of
Alpheus was in the interior patt of Peloponntuis, in the
fouth-eafl of Arcadia. Its courfe was firfl to the north-
weft ; and then turning to the call, it entered Elis, and paf-
fing by Pifa and Olympia, difcharged itfelf into the fta.
The mythologills, who are fond of animriting all fountains
and rivers, pretend that Alplieu?, falling in I0V4; with Are-
thufa, pnrfued her to the fca, into wiiich (he phuiged her-
felf, and . following the fame courfe under the water, re-
joined her at Syracufe, in the fmall ifland of Ortygia.
Virgil. -iEn. hb. iii. v. <594. Accordingly it is reported
that this river pafTcs under the fea, without mixing witli
the fait v. ater, fo as to pafs quite into Sicily, v.'here it
mixes itfelf with the fountain Arethufa, near the city of
Syracufe, infomuch that any thing which is thrown into tlie
river on the fide of E'is if laid to come out at this fountain.
The geographical relation and the poetic fiflionare fo.blended,
that it is not eafy to de-cide which of them gave occafion to

the

ALP

the other ; but they are both founded on a notion wliah
prevailed among the ancients, that rivers pafild under ground
for a confidci-able dillanee from one place to another. The
Olvmpie g;tmc> were cclebnittd on the banks of this river ;
and Orpheus was worfiiipped as a god at Olynipia. Thus
Pindar : —

" Alpheus, thy immortal flood.
On his lord's triumphant brows
The Olympic wreath bellow'd."

Od.i. West's Pindar, vol. i. p. 7.

Pauianias (in Elid. c. 6.) informs us, that the Eleans
had a law, which condemned to death any woman thai
(hould cither appear at the Olympic games, or even crofs
this river, during that folemnity ; and the Eleans add, that
the only woman who tranlgreffed it had difguifed hcrfelf in
the habit of a mafter or keeper of thofe games, and con-
ducted her fon thither ; but when (he faw him return vic-
torious, her joy made her forget her difguife, fo that her fex
was difcovered. She was, however, fpared, on account of
her father, hulband, and fon, who had gained the Olympic
prize ; but from that time an 01 der was made that the keep-
ers fliould appear there naked.

ALPHION lake was laid to be at the fource of the river
^Ipheus, and that it derived its name from the property
which the waters had of curing the leprofy, aX^o^ denoting a
leper.

AI.PHITIDON, in Surgery, a fpecies of fradure,
wherein the bone is broke into a great number of fmall parts,
or particle's. The word is formed o( uXPt7o:-,farinii, Jiour ;
q. d. a bone g'ronnd to flour or powder.

ALPHITOMANTIA, in Jmiquity. See Aliuro-

MANCY.

ALPHIUS, AviTus, in Biography, a Roman biographer,
who probably lived about the time of Alexander Severus,
in the beginning of the third century. He wrote the
Hiilory of the Carthaginian war. VofT. Hift. Lat. c. iii.

Alp H lus mom, in yincient Geography, a mountain of Aiia,
mentioned by Plutarch in his treatii'e of rivers, where he is
fpeaking of Lycormas, a liver of ^•'kolia.

ALPHONSIN is the name of a furgical inftrument
rvhich was formerly ufed for the purpofe of extratling fo-
reign bodies, efpecially bullets, from wounds. The alphon-
;in derived its appellation from its inventor, Alphonfus Fer-
rial, a Neapolitan phyiieian of the 1 6th century, and con-
lilts of three branches, which, by their elailicity, are fepa-
rated from each other, but may be clofely held together by
means of a ring pufhed forwards upon the branches. It
is to be introduced to the bottom of the wound in its clofed
It ate ; the ring is then drawn back, that the inftrument may
open and lay hold of the bullet ; after which the operator
replaces the ring, and withdraws the forceps, holding fall
upon the extraneous body. See Wounds.

ALPHONSINE TaMes. See Alphonso and Ta-

BLES.

ALPHONSO I. or Don Alonzo Enriqjjez, in Bio-
graphy and HJlory, the full king of Portugal, was the fon
of Henry of Burgundy, Count of Portugal, and grandfon
of Don Alonfo, king of Leon and Caftile, who granted to
Henry part of Portugal, as the dowry of his wife Therefa.
He was entrulted by his father to the care of Egas Munitz,
who gave him an excellent education. But as his father
died when he was entering into the third year of his age,
A. D. 1 1 12, his dominions were governed by his mother
Therefa. As reports prevailed of his mother's familiarity
with Don Ferdinand Perez, Count of Traftemara, and her in-
tention to marry him, fome of the Portugucfe nobility, jealous

ALP

of his growing honour and power, advifed Don Alonzo, at
the age of j8, to aflume the fovcreign authoiity. The
queen and her party refilled ; but though they had recourfe
to arm:!, they were fpeedily defeated, and Therefa was lodged
ill prilon, where ftie was confined during the remainder of
her life. After feveral confli6ts willj llic Moondi princes,
who pofTefTed part of Spain and Portugal, in whicli he was
generally fuccefsful, his conquefls were reflrained by Don
Alonfo, King of Leon and Caftile, who aftumed the title
of the Emperor of the Spains, by whofe numerous army his
country was laid wafte. Having, however^ given him a tern--
porary check, he propofed a treaty of peace, to winch the
emperor acceded, A. D. 1137 ; and as the Pope's legate
interfered by his intereft and influence to effcft this accom-
modalion, tiie Count Don Alonfo, under the impulfe of gra-
titude and piety, declared himfclf tributarj- for all his do-
minions to the holy fee, and promifed to pay an annual fum
of four ounces of gold. In 1139 the Moorifli princes were
reinforced by a pov/erful army from Baibary. The Count,
though lie had an opportunity of retiring, and was advifed
by his geneiv.ls to adopt this meafure of fafety, determined
to meet them in the plains of Ourique ; and after an obfti-
nate and bloody difpute, the Moors were totally routed.
This glorious vitlory was gained on the 25th of July, and
the anniverfary of k has ever fince been celebrated for pre-
ferving the memory of fo fignal a favour vouchfafcd by
Providence to the Chriftian arms. Immediately after this
victory Don Alonfo was proclaimed king on the plains of
Ourique; but the form and conftitution of the monarchy
were not fettled till the ftate, confifting of prelates, nobihty,
and commons, were affembled at Lamago, in the year 1 145.
This event was preceded by the conquell of Santaren ; and
it was fandliontd bv the unanimous and cordial concurrence
of the Hates. The king was crowned by the Archbifhop of
Braga, and it was declared that the regal dignity fhould de-
feend to his heirs male. Eighteen ftatutes were framed with
the advice of the prelates and nobility for the government of
the kingdom, and they were aflented to by the people.
When the queftion was propofed, whether it was their plea-
fure that the king Hiould go to Leon, do homage, and pay
tribute to that prince, or to any other, every man, draw-
ing his fword, loudly exclaimed, " We are free, and our
king is free, and we owe our liberty to our courage ; and
if he fliall at any time fubmit to fuch an aft, he deferves
death, and fliall not reign either over us, or among us."
The king's coronation \yas next year followed by his mar-
riage with Matilda, daughter of Amadeus, count of Mau-
rienne and Savoy, and in 1147 by the recovery of Lilbon
out of the hands of the Moors. In this conqueft he was
aflilled by a number of adventurers, who were affembled
from different coimtries at the mouth of the Tagus, in their
progrefs to the Holy Land. The capture of Lifbon was
followed by the accefllon of feveral other places to his do-
minions. By means of thefe acquifitions, Don Alonfo be-
came mafter of four of the fix provinces that compofe the
kingdom of Portugal, and the reputation of his arms was
raifed to a very high degree. He was no Icfs pr-jvidcnt in
peopling and improving than enterprifing in the acquifition
of territories ; and in all his great and good defigns he was
feconded by Matilda, a princefs equally celebrated for her
exquifite beauty, dillinguilhed capacity and fingular piety.
By her he had a numerous offspring, which enabled him to
ftrengthen his interefts by great alliances. The marriage of
his fecond daughter did not prevent his having difputes with
his fon-in-law, Don Ferdinand, king of Leon ; who once
made him prifoncr, but reflored him to liberty on the hu-
miliating condition of coming in perfon to Leon to do

homage

ALP

ALP

homaj^e for his dominions. His fon, Don Sancho, inherited Alonfo the Wife, king of Caftilc and Leon, whilft his firft
Uis father's mihtary difpofition, took, tht lead on feveral wife was hving, he incurred the difpicafurc of pope Alex-
cccafions during the latter part of his rcijii, and in 1180 ander IV., who put his kingdom unrii-'r an interdift. But
gained a glorious viflory over Jofeph, king of Morocco and upon tlie death of his firH queen, A.D. I2i^)2, pope Urban

granted a di^'penfation, ligitinvited the children of Donna
Beatrix, and removed the interdid. In order to prevent all
future difputes with the crown of Callile, the two kings
defined the boundaries between their refpeftive dominions by
means of comniinioncrs, and recognized this feltleiiH'nt by
a (olemn aft. The king, encouraged by the pvol'perous (late
of the country and l)v the happy ilfuc of !iii eiiterprifes,

emperor of the Almohedes, who had advanced with a very
large army as far as Santaren. The confternation of the
infidels, in confequence of th.is defeat, was fo great, that
they left the Portuguefe at liberty t;) impro.e the interior
part of the country, and to fortify their frontiers during the
whole of next year. Alphoafo needed repofe and had retired

to Coimbra, where, worn oat with cares and fatigue, he _ _ _ ^^^

departed this life on the fixth of December, i iS j, after a extended the autiiority of tlic crown, and obliged the clergy
reign of 57 years, in the 76th year of his age. His remains to contribute to the welfare of the (late ; but this mcafure
v.'ere depofited with great funeral folemnity in the church of revived old difputes, and the kingdom was again, A.D.
the holy crofs at Coimbra. His gigantic fize and ftrength, 1268, put under an interdid. Such was his policy, that
as he was no lefs than feven feet high, and Uis martial ardour, he contrived to obtain from Callile an exemption of all
have given occafion to many abfurd and incredible (lories claims upon the crown of Portugal, and to procure a de-
concerning his military exploits, fo that in the annals of ' ' ' '
chivalry, as well as in the record of martial atchievements,
he fuftains a very confpicuous rank. He inftituted two
orders of knighthood, that of the Wings and that of A\ is,
which ftill flourilhes in that kingdom with honour. He was
fuccecded by his ion, Don Saneho, in the 31ft year of his
age. Mod. Un. Hid. vol. xviii. p. 175 — igo.

Alphon-so, or Alonso II. Don, furnamcd the Fat,
the third king of Portugal, fuccecded his father Don Sancho
I., at the age of 27, A.D. 12.12. He began his reign

with two very popular ads ; he fent a body of infantry to refpeded by the nobles, and obeyed by the clergy
the afTiilance of the king of Callile, who behaved with great Un. Hill. vol. xviii. p. 204.

reputation in the famou.s battle of Navas de Tolofa, and he Alphonso, or Ai.onso IV, king of Portugal, fur-
gave the cadle of Avis to the knights of that order ; never- named the Brave, was the fon of king Denis, and fuccecded
thelefs the luilre of his reign was eclipfed in its dawn. ITis his father in 1324. Wlien he afeended the throne, hunting
quarrels with his own family entailed upon him a variety of was his favourite diverlion ; and whilll he was giving a detail
ti-ouble.s, and fubjeded him to the interference, as well as the to his council of a month's (ports, one of his courtiers had
dlfpleafure, of pope Innocent III. The .pope, however, the refolution to remonllrate, and to threaten, that if the
prevailed in producing a reconciliation with his fillers ; but grievances of his fubjeds were not redrelfcd, they mu(l look
this calm was difturbed by the incuriions of the Moors, out for another and a better king. Alonfo was at firft
However, an army of Germans and Flemings, deftined for highly dil'pleafed ; but upon refledtion, " I perceive," faid
t!ie holy land, feafonably arrived in the harbour of Lifbon, he, " the tr.ith of what you fay ; he cannot long have fub-
and enabled the king to take Alca^ar-do-Sal, where the Jeds who will not be a king. Remember, that from this
Moors had a fortrefs on a rock that was deemed impreg- day you have nothing more to do with Alonfo the fportf-
nable, A.D. 1217, and alfo to defeat the Moorifli army, man, but with Alonfo, king of Portugal." To this refolii-
Towards the clofe of his reign he quarrelled with his clergy, tion he adhered ; and lie exereifed the authority of a fjvercigit
who refufed a contribution of troops and money for defend- in a manner that awed his fubjeds, without eoiiriliating
i;ig the kingdom againll the infidels ; upon which, in 1221, their edeem. To his father's memory he (hewed 'cfped,
the pope excommunicated him, and put his dominions under and promoted thofe who had oppofed himfelf with the
2:1 interdid. Whilil he was negotiating with his fubjeds on greatell vehemence, regarding them, though enemies to

claration that its monarchs were free from every kind of
homage. Before his death, he made a full fubmilTion to the
church, and was reconciled to the pope and clergy ; and
having received abfolution, he died February l6tli, 1279,
in the 31(1 year of his reign, and 69th of his life; leaving
the kingdom of Portugal complete to his fuccelTors. This
prince was of tall llature and engaging afped and manners ;'
magnificent in times of peace, and frugal when his alfairs
required economy ; the friend of the poor, for he pawned
his crown to provide them with bread in a time of fcareity,
~ " " " " Mod.

occafion of the confufion produced by the pope's fentence,
he died on the 12th of March 1223, in the i2th year of his
reign, and was buried with little ceremony, under a plain
tomb, in the conventual church of Alcobaga. He
\vas very brave aud uncommonly (Irong ; and is laid to have

him, as the true friends of the crown. He (hewed muen
duty to his mother, and great affedion for Lis conlort queen
Beatrix ; and commenced his reign with forming defigns
for the eilabhlbment of his family and the fccurity of liis
doniinion;. He proceeded, however, againll his brotlier.

been a great promoter of judice. Mod. Un. Hid. vol. xviii. Alonfo Sanchez, as a proferibed traitor, and thus drove turn

p. 193. into rebellion ; but he was afterwards reconciled, and received

Alphonso, or Alon.so III, Don, king of Portugal, him into favour. He engaged in a war with Alonfo XL,

fiicceeded his brother Don Sancho II, A.D, 124S, in the king of Callile, which terminated in an alliance and in et-

38th yearof his age. Soon after his accelfion to the throne, fedual affidance againd the Moors. Bui no part of his

he entered into a war with the Moors, and took Faro in the condud was more artful and cruel, and redi ded greater

province of Alga'.'ve, which was deemed the capital of the difgrace on his charader, than that which concerned Donna

Mooridi territories, and alfo Loula, which was carried by Agnes de Callro, the irillrels and concealed wite of his fon.

ftorm ; and he thus added a confiderable diftrid to the do-
minions of Portugal. His domedic adminidration was con-
dufted with great prudence, fo that his power and popu-
larity were much increafed, and he maintained a friendly in-

Don Pedro. ludigated by his courtiers, who were jealous
of the influence of this favourite, he ilFued oiclt;is for the
murder of this princefs, and afterwards avowed anda]:proved
this horrid deed. The fon by this aft was driven into a

tercourfe with pope Innocent IV. In confequence of his civil war, but it was foon concluded by his fubmilTion, and
marriage with Donna Beatrix, the natural daughter of Don by tokens of peculiar favour on the part of tht fathct. As

I the

ALP

the termination of Aloiifo's reign and life apprn?.clicd, He
endeavoured to compenfate liis pall errors and mifcondiiil by
ads of piety and charity, by rcdrcfling grievances, etliiblifh-
iiig laws for the fupprcfilon and rcttniint of vice and immo-
ra ity, dictating falutaiy maxims for ruling the Uate, and
effacing from the memory of his fon the infiilt and injury
which he had received ; at the fame time he took nieafmes
for removing tliofe out of the way, who wei-e likely to be-
come the objcfta of refentmcnt after his death. Having
concerted ineafures of this kind he died in May 1357, in
the 32d year of his reign and the 67th year of his age, with
the character of an undnlifnl fon, unnatural brother, and
cruel father; but in many relpefts, of a great man and
great king, brave and fortunate in war, but artful and in-
direct in his political mcafures, attached to his fubj'ils, Ibicl
in the adminiilration of juftice, attentive to tlie public welfare
and afliduous in cncoury.ging induitry and enriching his
people. After all, he was rather reverenced for a right ufe
of power, than relied on as a public parent ; and though
feared and even eiteemcd, he was not much honoured nor
beloved. His device ^^■a? an eagle on the wing, with this
motto, " Altiora peto," t. e. my hopes fly high.

Alphonso, or Alonso V., Don, king of Portugal,
furnamed the African, on account of his heroic exploits,
was born in 1432, and fucceeded his father, king Edward,
at the age of fix years. During his minority his uncle Don
Pedro was regent, and though he condufled the adminiftra-
tion with reputation, and married his daughter to the young
king, he was,*tveated as a traitor at the expiration of his
regency ; and both he and feveral of his adherents were put
to death. The king, who on this occafion was overpowered
by the enemies of the regent, afterwards did juftice to his
memory. And he mauifeiled his attachment to his queen,
who died in 1455, not without ftrong fufpicions of poifon
adminiftered by licr father's enemies, by renouncing all con-
lieftions with the fex. Military gloi-y was the chofen objeft
of his purfiiit. With this view he turned his arms againfl;
the Moors in Barbar)', and in 1458 he palfed over to Afi'ica
with a fleet of 20c fail, and an army of 20,000 men. He
began his career with the capture of Alca(;er, which he
ftrongly garrifoned ; and profecuted it, with various fuccefs,
till the year 1470, when, after reducing Arzila and Tangier,
he returned with great honour to his own counti-y, and ac-
quired the diftinguifliing appellation of ylfrkati. He like-
wife added to thofe titles which had defcended to him from
his anceftors, that of lord of the coafls on both fcas," and for
perpetuating the memoiy of his exploits caufed them to be
elegantly -.'rought in tapeflry. The war of Africa gave
occafion to the eftabliOament of the order called Knights
of the Stvord. Alonfo was engaged in another contell of
lefs fortunate iffue againll Ferdinand and Ifabella, of Caftile,
in fupport of the claim of his niece Donna Joanna to that
crown. His failure of fuccefs induced him to take a journey
into France, in order to obtain the afllftance of J^ewis XI. ;
but duped hj this faithlcfs monarch, he was fo mortified
that he formed a purpofe of refigninghis crown and making
a pilgrimage to Jerufalem. During his abfcnce, Portugal
was governed, with great ability, by the prince Don Juan ;
and upon the king's return, he was received by his fon with
refpeft and joy, andreinftated on the throne. Alonfo, how-
ever, opprefTed with melancholy, determined to withdraw
into a monaftery ; but in his way thither, he was fcized at
Cintra with the plague, and died there on the aSth of
Auguft 148 1, in the 49th year of his age, and the 43d
of his reign. Alonfo was much honoured and beloved by
kh fubjedls, on account of his private charafter and public

ALP

condiift ; his temper was condcfcendlngand affable, and he
was fo much diilinguiflied by his benignity, bounty, and
charity, which he particularly difplayed in the ranfoni of
prifoners, that he acquired the popular title of the Redeemer
of Captives. lie was eminently challe and temperate, fond
of letters, and a patron of learning, andthcfirll Portuguefe
king who formed a libraiy in his palace. Guinea was dif-
covered in his reign, under the aufpices of his uncle, the
celebrated Don Henry ; and a very lucrative trade was efta-
bliflied by the Portuguefc to that country, which Alonfo
vindicated againft the claims and hollile attempts of the Spa-
niards. Mod. ITn. Hill. vol. xviii. p. 283 — 307.

Alphonso, or Alonso Don, VI. king of Portugal,
fucceeded his father John IV. in 1656; and having been ftruck
,with the palfy whilft an infant, and neglefted in his education,
became of a fierce and untraitable tempi'r, fo that he was
depofed and fucceeded by Don Pedro. He died fuddenlyin
1683, in the caltle of Cintra, after haying bonie the title of
king almofl 27 years, living 40, and being a prifoner 15
years. Mod. Un. Hifl. vol. xviii. p. 441, &c. vol. xix.
p. 14.

Alphonso, or Alonso III., furnamed the Great, Vmg
of Ailurias, Leon, and Oviedo, was born in 849, and fuc-
ceeded his father Don Ordogno in 865. The rebellion of
Don Froila compelled him to retire from the kingdojn, but
upon the death of this ufurper he returned with univerfal
applaufe. He was an able and warlike prince, and in fuc-
celTive combats with the Moors he reduced feveral places.
His attention to the lower clafles of his fubjeiits difgufted
fome of the haughty nobility, and occafioned difturbances
which he reprefled. In an intei-val of tranquillity A. D. 900,
he held a general council of the clergy and ftate, which
enafted fome ufeful regulations, and he diredled his attention
to other objefts, that contributed to the honour of his
kingdom and the happinefs of his fubjefts. WhiUl he was
employed in building and fortifying fome of the towns,
which he had taken from the Moors, he was interrupted by
them, and reduced to the uecefTity of defending himfelf with
a coniiderable army ; which he did v/ith fucli eifecl, tliat
they were defeated with great lofs. About the fame time
he was diftreffed by the rebellion of his fon Don Garcias,
who had formed the defign of depofing his father and
feating himfelf upon the throne ; but this rebellion was fooii
fuppreiTed. It was foUov/ed, however, by increafing dlf-
contents, occafioned by the eonfiiiemeut of Garcias and the
oppreffion of taxes ; in confequence of wliich Alonfo,
A. D. 910, afiembled the Hates and alfo the grandees of
the country, and abdicating the crown, lefigncd it to Don
Garcias, who was declared king ; and to his other ion Don
Ordogno he affigned the province of Gallicia. Soon after
his refignation of the kingdom, his fon affembleda numerous
army in order to march agaiutl the Moors ; and having
gained coufiderable advantage in 911, he was preparing for
another campaign. Alonfo aided him by his counfel, and
took pains to convince him, that incurilons and conquells
were of little avail, if they were conduced with no other
view befide that of enriching the foldiers and of gaining ap-
plaufe. His advice was regarded, and Alonfo hiraielf offered
to take the command of the army that was raifed for new
operations; and having made a glorious campaign in 912,
he returned with his army, laden with fpoil to Zamora. 1
Here he was foon feized with a diforder, which terminated
in his death, December 20th, in 912, two years after his
abdication, 49 years from the time of his being afibciated
with his father in the government, and when he was about
63, or as fome fay 6^ years of age. He was deemed a

prince

ALP

prince of great learning, and the patron of literature ; and
much refpcttcd for piety and virtue, and all princely qua-
lities. It is faid, that he compofcd a Clironicle of the
Spanifh aflairs from the death of kiirjf Reccfuiiitho to that
of his own father Don Ordnrrno. This chronicle hai been
incorrcdly puhlinitd by Sandovel, and the later editions
have been i:nperfed\. This work was publiflied to the world
under the name of Seballian, bifliop of Orcnfa, at whofe
requell it was compoled. Mod. Un. Hill. vol. xvi. p. I ^o,
141.

Ali'Honso, (h-Alonso X., furaamed the //'//;•, king of
Leon and CalHle, fiicceeded his father, May 30th, in the
year 1252, with the general approbation of the people, who
regarded him as a prince of g-;-eat qualities and remarkable
gencrofity ; though the appclkstion with which he was ho-
noured was more the rcftilt of his love and encouragement
of fcience than of his r^-gal talents and exploits. The prof-
perity of his reign was interrupted by the ill-concerted
projeds of his ambition. His firft attempt w?s dircfted
againll; Gafcony, to which he pretended a better right th.an
Henry 111. of England ; but inftead of fucceeding in en-
forcing his claims, he confented to renounce them, on con-
dition that Heniy's fon, afterwards king Edwar^ I., fhould
marry his fifter Eleonora. He alfo prepared for an expe-
dition againll the Moors, in Barbary, at an expence which
drained his treafures and obliged him to debafe his coin ; but
he was diverted from profccuting it by fupporting claims,
derived to him from his mother, to the duchy of Swabia.
He was thus led into canneftiou with the German princes,
and became a competitor with Richard, earl of Cornwall,
for the imperial crow?., a titular honour which coll both
thefe rivals immenfe funis of money. The confpiracies of
feveral princes of the blood, as they were fupported by the
Moors, demanded his fcrious attention ; and he was fuccefs-
ful in reftraining and defeating them. In 1268 he formed a
romantic defign of viliting Italy, againll which the ftates
remonlWated, and which, in deference to their oppofition, he
was under a neceffity of relinqulihing. This produced a
formidable confpiracy among his fubjefts, and the number of
male-cantents became fo confiderable and fo powerful, that a
comprom.ife and reconciliation were not effcfled without
great rtluflance on their part and condefcenfion on that of
the king. After the death of Richard, earl of Cornwall,
and even when Rodolph of Hapfburg was aftually elefted
emperor of Germany, Alphonfo afpired to this honour ;
and, for the purpofe of preventing the pope from confirming
his eleftion, he took a journey to Baucaire, in order to have
an interview with him ; although in the mean while the
Moors, availing themfelvcs of his abfence, were ravaging
his dominions. This journey, whilll it was attended with
great expence, and produflive of much confufion in his king-
dom, proved inefl'eftual ; the pope was not to be convinced
of the juftice of his claims ; and he returned difappointed
and mortified. In this interval his eldeil fon died ; and the
fecond, Don Sancho, claimed the crown againll the children
of his elder brother. An aflembly of the dates was con-
vened at Segovia, and Sancho's claim was allowed ; but the
caufe of the children was maintained by their uncle, Philip
the Hardy, king of France ; Alphonfo was thus engaged in
a war ; and his own queen. Donna Violante, refented the
indignity offered to her grandchildren, and retired to the
court of her father, the king of Aragon. In addition to
thefe domeftic diireiifions, Alphonfo, engaged in a war with
France, was compelled by the pope to renew the war with
the Moors, which proved difaftrous ; and having concluded
a truce with them, he was engaged in a contell with the
Vol. L

ALP

king of Grenada. By thefe various mcafures liis fiiian^m
were ruined, taxes were multiplied, and the affairs of the
kingdom were reduced to fuch diforder, that an afftmbly of
the Hates was held at Seville in 12S1, in which the king
propofcd, arid the dates acquiefccd, to give a currency to
copper money. Anothtr alTcmbly of the dates was held
at Valladolid, in confequencc of tlic intrigues of Don San-
cho, A. D. 12S2, which deprived Alphonfo of the regal
dignity, and appointed Sancho regent. The king, reduced
to almod ini'upei-able difiiculties, fought the affidance of the
king of Morocco ; folcmnly curfcd and difmherited his fon ;
and by his laft will in 12R3 confirmed the aft of exclufion,
and appointed, for the fueceffion, the infants de la Cerda,
and upon the failure of their heirs, the kings of France,
At the commencement of the next year, when Alphonfo
received information from Salamanca, that Sancho was dan-
geroufly ill, and profcfled the mod (inccre forrow for his
undutiful condua to his father, he relented, pardoned his
fon, revoked his curfes, and then died on the 4th of April
12^4, in the 8 id year of his age. He was buried in the
cathcdi-al of Sevillv, and I'i behind him the charadcr of a
learned man and a weak king. As a proficient in fcience
and a patron of literature, he fu.lains a high and honourable
rank. As a politician and leglllator, he comjjleted the code
of laws which his father, Don Ferdinand, had begun, known
by the title of " Las Partides ;" and he redrefi'ed the con-
fufion in law proceedings, oecafioned by intermixing Latin
with the vulgar tongue, by obliging his fubjefts to ufc their
own language. He alfo con-efted many errors in the datutes
of the univeriity of Salamanca ; and caufed a genera! hido'.y
of Spain to be compofed in the Cailllian language, which
he took pains in pohdiing. But his favourite objeft was
aftrononiy ; and to the improvement of this fcience his at-
tention and labour were particularly diredted. With this
view he afTembled at Toledo, during his father's life, a
number of the mod celebrated adronomers of hia time,
Chridlans, Jews, and Arabians, from all parts of Europe,
for the purpofe of examining the adronomical tables of
Ptolemy and corrcaing their errors*. They were employed
in this bufinefs for four years, and in 1252, the fird year of
Alphonfo's reign, they completed thofe tables which have
been denominated Jlphonfun tables, from the name of this
prince, who encouraged the condru£llon of them by his
liberahty. The fum, expended upon them, is immenfe ; if
we may believe the report of thofe who date it at 400,000
ducatsf or even that of others who reduce it to 40,000^
Some have afcribed the principal conduct of this work to
the Jewidi Rabbi Ifaac Aben-Sald, whlld others, profefiin<r
to derive information from the MSS. of Alphonfo, refer it
to Alcabitius and Aben-Ragel. The other adronomers who
were employed on this occafion were Abcn-Mufa, Moham-
med, Jofeph Ben-Ali, and Jacob Abuena, Arabians ; Sa-
muel and Jehuda El-Coutfo, Jews ; but the names of the
Chridians, if any fuch were ailually engaged, are not known.
The epoch of thefe tables was fixed to the 30th of May^
1252, which was the day of his acccfiion to the throne.
They were fii-d printed at Venice in 14S3 ; and there arc
other editions in 1492, 1521, i;4j, &c. He is alfo faid
to have written a book, entitled, -' The Treafure," contain-
ing treatifes of rational philofophy, phyfics, and ethics ;
and to have been well acquainted witli adrology and che-
niidry, in which lad fcience, as report fays, there are two
volumes, compiled by him, dill remaining in his Catholic
Majedy's libraiy, in cipher. But eonfidering ehe date of
this fcience at that period, they mud be more curious than
ufeful. Alphonfo has been charged with irr. Ijgion and im-
5 E piety,

ALP

piety, cliiefly on account of a faying of his, that u very
wtU known, and that has been often repeated to his diU
honour ; viz. that " if he had been of God's privy-council,
when he created the world, he could have advifcd him
better." If we admit the faft, that he ufed this cxprclTion,
of which there is fume reafon for doubt, as it has been va-
rioufly ftated by different writers, it unqueflionably indicates
a deg^ree of prefumption and arrogance not very (uitable to
the charadcr of a true philofopher. Candidly interpreted,
it is to be coniidcred as a kind of jeu d'efprit, or pleafant
farcafm on that perplexing variety of eccentric cycles and
epicycles, with which the fvRcm of Ptolemy was embar-
raffed ; but the reflexion might have been diftated in tenns
more decorous, and more confiftent with that reverence of the
Creator, which an enlarged contemplation of his works has
a tendency to produce. " An indevout aflronomeris mad."
Young. Modern Vn. Hift. vol. xvi. p. 343 — 365.

Alphonso, or Alonso V., defervedly called the J\I.7g-
nvtimoui, king of Aragon and Naples, fucceeded his father,
Ferdinand the 'Jtijl, as fovereign of Aragon, in the year
1416. The tranquillity of his reign was difturhed, foon
after his accc.Tion, by the infoler.ce of pope Benediii XIII,
and by a confpiracy of feveral nobles among his own fubjefts
againil his life. The difcovery of this trealon was made juft
before its execution, and the king had an opportunity of
exhibiting a fignal difplay of magnanimity by tearing a paper
in which the names of the confpirators were infcribed without
reading it ; declaring at the fame time, " that he would at
leail force them to acknowledge that he had a greater regard
for their lives ihan they had for his."

Having compofedadifturbance in Sardinia, hewas preparing
to advance to Sicily, when Joan of Naples offered to adopt him
for her Ton and heir, if he would affift her againft the pope, the
duke of Anjou, and the conftable Sforza, who had formed
a confederacy to depofe her. The king accepted the pro-
pofal, raifed the fiege of Naples by his army, and was im-
mediately inftalled, by proxy, heir apparent of her kingdom
and duke of Calabria. The queen afterwards proving falfe
to her engagement, flie v,'as expelled from Naples, which was
taken polfeffion of by Alphonfo ; but when the duke of
Anjou made himfelf mafter of the grcatcft part of the king,
dom, the queen renewed her application to the king of
Aragon, and he prepared for a new expedition. In 1434
he again renewed his attempt for the conqueft of Naples,
and befieging Ga:ta, he involved himfeli in a' quarrel with
the duke of Milan and republic of Genoa. In an engage-
ment with the -Genoefc fleet, which was fent to relieve tiie
place, Alphonfo loft all his fliips, and was himfelf taken
prifoner. At Milan, whither he was condufted, he fo far
ingratiated himfelf with the duke, that he became his friend
and ally ; and whilft his own hereditary ftates were liberal
in their fupplies, his power was greater than ever. In 1443
he made himfelf complete mafter of Naples, and in an af-
Itii-ibly of the ftates held firft at Beneventum and transferred
to Naples, his fovereignty was acknowledged, his fon Don
Ferdinand, whom he had created duke of Calabria, was
recognized as fuccefior to the crown, and he was efteemed
the great arbiter of peace and war through all Italy. Al-
phonfo continued in Naples till the clofe of his hfe and
reign ; but his declining years were difquieted by political
intrigues and diffenfums. Reftlefs and uneafy, he was re-
moved from one caftle in Naples to another, and at length
expired on the 2 2d of June, 1468 ; leaving to his natural
foil Ferdinand the kingdom of Naples, which he had ac-
^un-ed by arms, and to his brother Don Juan, king of Na-
■parrc, the crowns of Aragon, Valencia, Majorca, Sardinia,

A L P

and Sicily, and the principality of Catalonia, with all their
dependencies. Alphonfo was, without doubt, the greatefl
prince that ever fat on the throne of Aragon, and he was
accounted the ablcft ftatcfman and the moil renowned military
commander of the age in which he lived. He was in an
eminent degree the patron of learning, and afFurded an
afylum to tlie Greek literati when they were expelled from
Conft;'.ntinople ; his device was a book opened, and it was
his common faying, " that an unlettered prince was but a
Clowned afs." Tlie perufal of Quintus Curtius cured him
of a diforder with which he was attacked at Capua ; hewas
brave and liberal, and in all his negociationa he dildained the
mean aitifices of intrigue and difllmulation. He Uved in
familiar intcrcourfc with his fubjefls, whom he loved. " A
father," he faid, when walking uiianned and unaccom.panied
about his capital, " has nothnig to fear in the midft of his
children." When he was befieging Gxta, he relieved and .
difmifted without injury the women and children that were
turned out of the town, alledging, " that he had ratl'crlofe
any city in his dominions than the reputation of humanity."
When one of his galleys, with its jvhole crew and a number
of fo'diers, was ready to ptrilh, he leaped into a ftiallop for
its relief, faying, " I had rather fliare than witnefs their
calamity." * Upon hearing an officer, who faw his treafurer
bringing him 10,000 ducats, exclaiming, " I lliould only
wifli that fum to make me happy ;" " you (hall be fo," faid
Alphonfo ; and caufedthe money to be given to him. He
exprefled an extraordinary diflike of dancing, which he confi-
dcrcd as a kind of infanity. Hisgreateft failing was an at-
tachment to women ; and it was produtlive of feveral im-
proprieties of conduct and pernicious confequences. Lu-
cretia Alana was one of his miftrefles, and his fondnefs for
her in an advanced period of life scry much fullied his repu-
tation ; and conncftions of this kind hd him to neglect his
wife, who was faithful and affeftionate, and veiT zealous
and active in his interefts. Mod. Un. Hift. vol. xvii. p. 240
—254.

Alphonso's IJlcinJ, in Geography, an ifland of the In-
dian Ocean, nearly fouth of the Alnirante iflands, lying in
a tracl of the fea, little traverfed by European vcffels. S.
lat. 7° 30'. E. long. 52° 40'.

St. Alphonso's IJland, is an ifland on the coaft of Terra
del Fuego, in the South Pacific Ocean. S. lat. 55° Ct'.
W. long. 69° 33'.

ALPHONSUS, Petrus, in Biography, a Spanidi Jew,
was converted to Chriftianity, A.D. iic6, baptized at
Huefca, and had Alphonfus, king of Portugal, for his
godfather. He compofed a treatife by way cf " Dialocrue
between a Jew and a Chriftian," concerning the truth of the
Chriftian religion, in which the arguments of the author
againft the Jews are arranged m.ethodically and urged with
clcarnefs and folidity of reafoning. This work was pub-
lifhed at Cologne in IJ36. Dupin, 12th centurj-, vol. iv.
p. 170.

Alphossus TosTATUs,a learned Spaniard and volumi-
nous writer, fluuriflied in the middle of the 15th century.
He (iniflied his iUidies in the univerfity of Salamanca at the
age of 2 2 years, and made great proficiency in thofe branches
of knowledge that were in principal eftimation at that period.
He attended the council of Bafil, became biftiop of Avila, and
was advanced to the chief offices in the kingdom of Spain.
He died at the age of 40 years, A.D. 1454, and was in-
terred in the church of Avila, witii this epitaph :

" Hie ftupor eft mundi qui fcibile difcutit omne."

His works, written during lijs comparatively ftiort life,

amoiiht

ALP

amount to 27 volumes in folio, of wjiich 24 arc commen-
taries on fome of the books of fcripturi; ; the rell arcciiiefly
theological ; they were printed by tlie order of Cardiaal
Ximcnes, at Venice, in 1530, at the fame place in I5'j6,
and at Colojrn in 1612. His •' Commentary upon the
Chrowicon of Eufcbius," was printed ftparately at Sala-
niaaca in 1506 ; as were alfo fcveral other books in literature
and fcience, and ecelefialUcal hilloiy. Diipin, 15th cent.

P- f^3-

ALPHOS, in Meilic'tnf, a diftemper defcribed by Cclfus,
imder the name of iihiligo ; wherein tiie (Icin is rough, and
becomes fprinkled as it were with drops of white ; and
thence denominated huce. Where the fpots are black, it
is alio called iu<^ra ; and mclane. It bears the fame
relation to the huce, as the fcalks to the Irpra ; the firil
is fuperficial and cutaneous, the fccond finks deeper into the
fledi. The alphos, melas, and leiice, arc but one and the fame
difordcr, only differing in its degree of inveteracy.

ALPIEU. See Basset.

ALPIGNAN, in Geigrnphy, a town of Italy, in the
principality ot Piedmont, on tiic 13u]a, five mius well of
Turin.

ALPINE. See Cisalpine. 1

ALPINI, in ^^i:s}ei!! Gcografthy, a people of Spain, men-
tioned by AuUis Gellius and Varro, in wlioie country were
excellent mmes of iron and lilver. They were fituated near
the Ebro.

AI^PINI A, in Botany, fo called after ProsperAlpinus,
a genus of the mo'iandriu moii'jqyt;iu clafs and order, of the
natural order of f,:itame>ie<; and cannis of Juifieu ; the cha-
ratlers of which are, that tlie calyx is a perianthium one-
leafed, tubulofe, three-toothed, t!ie leaflets equal, erecl and
acute ; the cora/A; monopetalou;, tubulofe, tube cylindraceous
and fhort, border three-parted, and parts nearlv equal and
oblong ; the neftary connate with the tube of the corolla,
two-parted, the lower part forming the lower lip is larger
and longer than the parts of the corolla, broadifh, fpreading
and often divided ; the /lamina have no proper filament, but
along the upper divifion of the neClar)-, forming the
upper lip, which is flattifli and of the length of the corolla,
grows a large anther, either deeply bifid or entire ; the
piftiUttm has- an inferior, oblong germ, llyle filiform, often
jnferted into the fiiTure of the anther, ifigma incrailate
and obtufe ; the pcrtcarpium is an oval capfule, three-celled,
crowned with the permanent calyx ; thtfienh are ovate, an-
g-ular, and covered with a fort of berried aril. Tliis genus
differs from the amomum and coitus only in the habit and
the infloreicence, which is racemcd. Martyn reckons two,
Willdei.ow four, and Gmelin five fpecies. They are as
follow : I. A. racemnfa, with raceme- terminating, fpiked,
flowers alternate, lip of thencitary tritld, and leaves oblong
and acuminate. This is the A. jamaicenfis of Gartner, the
amomum pyraraidale of L.a Marck, the amomum alpinia of
Rottboel, a.id the zingiber fylveftre minus, Sec. of Sloane. It
is a native of the Weft Indies. With us it mull be preferved
in a ftove, and the pot plunged into a tub of water ; the
leaves decay every Winter, and are pullied out from the roots
every Spring. It may be increaied by parting the roots,
when the leaves decay. Gmelin mentions two varieties, A.
fefTilis of Koenig, and A. multicaulis of Aublet. z. A.
ecchtenlalis, with raceme radical, compound, ereft, n'ftary
emarginate at the apex, three-celled capfules, and leaves
lanceolate-ovate and very fmooth. This is the amomum
minus, with clothed ftalk and fpiked flowers of Brown,
Jamaic. It is a native of the woods of Jamaica and St.
Domingo. 3. A., fpicataoi Gmelin, who queries whether
it be of this genus. SeeCosTus. 4. A. /jnj'<!«j of Gmelinj

ALP

with panicidatcd terminal flowers. He mentions two vn-
rieties, vix. Langu,i3 chinenlisand L.aquaticum of Koenig.
5. A. jiiti:aicrnfi.<, made by Gmelin a dilliiicl fpecies. 6.
A. giilunga of \\'illdcnow, having a terminal lax raceme,
with alternate flowers, the lip of the neftary emarginate and
lanceolate leaves. This is the maranta galanfa, with a fimple
cidm ot other writers, the amomum galanga, &c. of L<iu-
reiro, the galanga of Rumphius, and the galanga of the
fliops. It is a native of the Ealt Indies. 7. A. ciirnofaoi
W. with a terminal tufted fpike, braftcs longer than the
flower and coloured, and oblong-ovate pubelcent leaves.
The calyx is red ; the corolla yellow ; and the neijtary yellow,
truncated and quinque-dentuted. It is found iu Caraccas,
in South America.

ALPINUS,Pp.ospER,orPROspERO ALPisi,in JS/V(^r^^/iy,
born at MarolUca, in the dates of Venice, in the vear 1 553,
became celebrated for his Ikill in medicine and botany, which
he cultivated with fingular fuccefs. Having quitted the army,
to which he was at iirlL attaeiied, lie went to Padua, v.-hcre he
iluditd phyfic, and in 157S was received doftor in medicine,
and through the interellof his father, who was alfo a phvfician,
was appointed in 1 580 to attend the Venetian conful t9
Egypt. He remained there three years, during which time
he applied hiinfelf with great indullry to acquire a know-
ledge of the mod remaikable plants, indigenous to that
country, and of the praflice of phjfic, or the methods u fed
by tlie natives in curing difeafes. Thel'e became the fubitCls-
of feveial learned and ingenious works, which he publillied
on his return from Egypt. In 1586, he was appointed
phyfician to Andrew Doria, at Genoa, whence, the repu-
tation of his abilities increafing, he was called home by the
dates of Venice, and appointed profefl'or of botany and
curator of the phyfic garden at Padua, which office he
retained to the time of his death, which happened in Nc^
vember 1 61 6. He was fucceeded in the profeflbr's chair,
by one of his fons, who had probably been his affidant, as
he is faid to have been very infirm, and to have laboured
under a difficulty of hearing, during fome of the latter
years of his life. The principal of his works, which have
paded through numerous editions, and are in many
hands, are, " De Mcdiclna jEgyptiorum," lib. iv. firll
publiflied at Venice, in 161 i, full of ingenious information as
to tlie dileafes, medicine, furgei-y, and modes of life of the
modern Egyptians ; " De plantis iEgypti, liber ;" " De
Baliamo, dialogus," a treatife on the famous balm of Gilead.
" De praefagicnda vita et morte /Hgrotantium," publidicd
in 1 60 1, and confiding cliiefly of a colleftion and arrange-
ment of the prefages of Hippocrates ; " De medieina metlio-
dica," being an attempt to elucidate and refiore the ancient
doctrine of the Melhodidic fedt in medicine, publilhed in
, 161 1 ; " De Rhaponticodifputatio iiiauguralis;" " De plan-
tis exoticis ;" all in quarto. Pie is alfo faid to have left other
works in manufcript, that have not been publidied. Ample
accounts of thefe fevcral works, and of the editions they have
paffed through, may be found in Haller's Bib. Med. Pradt.
and his Bib. Botanica.

ALPI6TE, or Alpia, a fort of feed ufedto feed birds
with, efpecially when they are to be nouridied for breeding.
The alpille feed is of an oval figure, of a pale yellow, in-
clining to an ifabel colour, bright aiulglody. It is an article
of the corn chandlers and feedlmcn'stiade. See Phalaris.

ALPS, Alpes, in Geography, was a name given to
a chain of moimtains, which extended from the fca of
Liguria to Idria, and forming a kind of crefccnt, feparaled
the northern part of Italy from Gaul and Germany. The
name is Celtic, and denotes highly elevated ; or, as the author
of a German book, entitled, " RlKinifchcr Antiquarius,"
5 E 2 fuggefts,

ALP

fi»i^gc{ls, it figiiilks ry.untiins nlounJing hi pajliire. Fefliis
is of opinion tint the apjicllation was bi)n-owed from alius,
pronounced by the Subines alptis, and lignifying "Mhile, be-
caufe thele mountains wi"re always covered w.th fiiow.
Otliers, recuiring to a fabulous relation, derive it from a
peifon of the name of Albion, the fon of Neptune, who is
faid to have been killed by Hercules, in difputing his pa(l"ige
over thefe mountains. But the firll etymology, adopted by
llldore, (Orig. lib. iii.) and Servius, (in Virgil, Mn. lib. iii.)
n the moll probable. The word nlj> fignified, among the
imcicnt Scythians and Scandinavians, both a mountain and
a mountain fpirit ; it being a pcrfuafion among them, that
nioii'itains and rocks were inhabited by Dxmons. Accord-
ingly the Edda of Iceland, (Myth. 15.) mentions good and
evil Alps.

This chain of mountains, commencing in the Vada
Sibatia or Savona, and terminating near the Sinus Flanaticus
or Flanonicus, now the Golfo di Canaro or Carnero, in the
bay of Venice, and the fpringsof the river Colapis or Kulpe,
or reaching from the river Varus to the river Arfa, in Ilhia, has
many irregulai- windings, fo that its extent has not been ac-
curately and uniformly afcertained ; fome of the ancient
ivriters making it 800, and others no more than zfo miles.
Its whole range may be more juilly computed at about 550
Briiilh miles ; and may be conlidered as extending in a kind
of icmicircular form, from the gulf of Genoa, through
Swifferbnd, which contains its central and more lofty parts,
and terminating in the Carnic Alps, on the north of the
Adriatic fea. It lias been divided, both by ancient and
modern geographers, into different portions, and thefe have
been diilinguiflied by different appellations.

The Markinu Alp-, Alpes MariliniiC or Lillore/t of Pto-
lemy, arife from the gulf of Genoa, and reach from Vada
■or Vado, in Nice, to the fprings of the Var, or to thofe
of the Po. Some reckon'their commencement at Monaco,
on the Mediterranean, and trace them in their progreis from
fouth to north, between ancient Gtiul to the weft, and
Genoa to the eaft, through the eaftcrn part of the country
of Nice, and between that and the marquifate of Saluzzo
to their termination at Mount Viio between Dauphine and
Piedmont. Upon the fummit of this ridge trophies were
erefted in honour of Auguftus, at a place called Tro-
pcea, {vxct called Tui-bia. The ancient capital of the Ma-
ritime Alps was Embrun, and the inhabitants of thisdillricl
obtained from Nero, A.D. 63, the rights of Latium, that
is, the rights and privileges which the Latins enjoyed
when they were only allies and not citizens of Rome. Tiie
iiigheft chain of thefe Alps, through which is the remark-
-aole pafiTage, called the Colde Tende, forms the exterior
boundary of the counti-y of Nice.

The next high ridge, called Alpes CotUte or Coltanic, now
Mont Genevre, in which is the fpringof the river Durance,
extends from the fprings of the Var to the city of Suza, or
from Mount Vifo to Mount Cenis, and feparates Dauphine
from Piedmont ; having the Alpn Marilimx to the fonth, and
the Alpes Cram to the north or nortluvell. In the time of
the Romans a petty prince called Cultra pofleffed an inde-
pendent territory in this part of the Alps ; and in order to
maintain his independence paid court to Auguftus, and en-
gaged his proteftion. With this view he traverfed thefe
mountains, and formed commodious paflTes for the Roman
troops. The territory of Cottius, a prince who redded at
Suza, and whofe name was given to this ridge, confifted, ac-
cording to Pliny, of two independent cantons. Hence the
palTage of the Alps, which led from Briancjon to Suza, was
particularly denominated in the Theodofian table Catt'ta. M.
d'Anville, Holftenius, and others, aie of opinion, that it

ALP

was by this part of the Alps Hannibal entered Italy. Some
have thouglit that one part of his arn-.y paffed over the
Cottian, and another over the Graian Alps. It has been
faid that he cut a paffage through the fohd rock ', and if
Livy may be credited, be heated the rock by a fierce fire,
and then poured a great quantity of vinegar upon it, which
penetrating into the iiffures, produced by the iiitenfe heat of
the lire, calcined and foftensd it. But this relation, al-
thouglv Pliny (lib. xxiii. c. i.) takes notice of this quality
of vinegar, is rejeiSled by many authors as fidlltious. Poly-
bius does not mention it. The capital of the Cottian Alps
was Suza ; and this territory was added by Nero, about the
year of Chrift 63, to the deraefncs of the Roman empire.

To the north of the Alpes Collix were the Alpes Graut of
the ancients, fo called by Pliny and Nepos, as it has been
fald, from the palFage of Hercules in his return fi-om Spain ;
which is rejected by Livy (lib. v. c. 33.) as fabulous : thefe
are now denominated the Little St. Bernard, and commenc-
ing at Mount Cenis, v/here the Cottia: end, and running
between Savoy and the Tarentefe to the weft, and Pied-
mont and the duchy of Aolla to the eaft, terminate in Great
St. Bernard.

The Alpts Penn:nx lay to the north-eaft of the Graia:,
between the Velagri to the north, and the Salaili to the
fouth. Some have fought the etymology of the epithet in the
name Poem, Carthaginians, pretending that Hannibal palTed
into Italy by this mountain. But both the etymology f.-nd
the faft are equally erroneous. The appellation r,nnin.t
formed {mm pen, head or high, fignifies the height of thefe,.
mountains ; and the paffage of Plannibal was probably over
that part of the Alps, denominated Cottian. The Alpes Peu-
ninae confifted of the prefent Great St. Bernard, Mont Blanc,
and the grand chain that extends on the fouth of the Rhone
to the north of the modern Piedmont, and reached from
weft to eaft from St. Bernard to Adula or St. Gothard,
feparatlng between the Velefe to the north, and the Mila-
ncfe to the fouth : and the eaftcrn part of this ridge was
denominated the Lepontine Alps, from the appellation of a
people who inhabit the country where the rivers Rhone and
Tefino originate. From the Alpes Penninx proceed the
Alpes Rhit.'tcic, which extend through the Grifons and the
Tyrol, to the fprl:igs of the river Piave, of which a part
called Alpes Tridcntiiu are fituattd to the north of Trent.
With the Rheticx are connefted the Alpes Norie/e, to the
eaft of the former, fituate about the fource of the river Taja-
mento ; a;id joining to the Alpes Carnica: or Caniiaii^, ex-
tending to the fprings of the Save ; and moreover, thefe
terminate in the Alpes JulU, which reach to the fource of
the Kulpe. Thefe laft derive their name from Julius C.tfar,
who formed a defign, executed after his death by Auguf-
tus, of opening a road over this mountain into lllvria,
which is feparated by it from Venice. This part of the
Alps is alio called Alpes Veiieti, and Alpes Pnnnonict.
Some authors have extended the Alps to the north of Dal-
matia, and even through Macedonia into Romania, and as
far as the coall of the Black Sea.

The principal paflagcs of the Alps, of which the Romans
availed thenifelves, when they were iole mafters of Italv, as
they are recounted by Martiniere, are the following. The
Krft was through the maritime Alps along the fea coaft ;
the fecond by the Grecian Alps, by which, according to
Pliny, Hercules entered into Italy, and which, as Ctelius
Antipater, cited by Livy, lays, was the track of Hannibal : the
third by the Cottian Alps, by Embrun, Brian^on and Suza,
which, fome fay, was Hannibal's courfe : the fourth, more
generally purfued by modern travellers, through the valley
of Maurienne, by Suza and Turin : the fifth by the Pen-

ciuE

ALP

A LP

nine Alps, whicli, acconiin<^ to Polybius and Pliny, was
t'lat cf the Carthaginians, though Livy is of a difFerent
opinion ; this route is divided into that of the valley of Pc-
tiiia, which is the broadeft, and that of the vallies of Aolla
ntid Bardo, which is the loiigtll : the fixtli, through the
Pennine Alps by Adula, or Mount St. Gothard, and Beli-
fona : the fcventh, over the Rhitian Alps, by the Lake
Verhanus or Cofmo, which was the route of Drufus and
Tiberius, when they carried on the war in Rhxlia, and alfo
ofStilicho: the eighth, by which the Cimbri entered into
Italy : the ninth, by tiie Caniic Alps: and the tenth, by the
Julian Alps, whicl. was the ufual track of the Roman troops
into Pannonia and lllyria.

The central part ot this chain of monntains, the mod ex-
tenfive and elevated of any in Europe, may be confidercd
as compofed of two ridges, which rnn alnioft parallel from
tlie foiith-weft to the north-eaft. The firft ridge is that
of the Helvetian Alpr. ; and its mod coni'picuous fummits
are the Guenimi, or Twins, the .Schelen horn, the Bhimlis,
t!ie Geifhorji, the Jungfi-au or Virginliorn, the Eigtr, the
.Schrcckhorn, the Grimfel, the Furca, the Badiir, the Gla-
ciers to tlie north of the Rlilne, and St. Gothard.

The higheft mountain of the northern chain of the Alps
feems to be Jungfrau ; and the next in height are the
F.igpr, and the Sehrtckhorn, and the Finiteraar Horn.
According to Mr. Kirwan (Geo. Eff. 2 13, 21 7.) the lieight
of thefe mountains does not exceed I0,ooo feet; and he
obferves, that they confill of granular, or piimitive linie-
llor.e. SaulTure (vol. vii. p. 193.) fays, that the Schrcck-
horn, and Finileraar are about 13,218 feet high. Bourrit
informs us (vol. iii. p. 104.) that the Sehreckhorn is the
higheil of the Swifs Alps. The fummits confiil of gra-
nite ; and on the fides'appcar red flate and calcareous maffes.
To the fouth are large defarts and glaciers, and on the north
is the romantic lake of Kandel Steig, " whence (as we
learn from a modern geoprapber) there is faid to have been
a paifage to Lanterbrun araidil fingular glaciers, fometimes
rcffmbling magicy.l towns of ice, with pilafters, pyramids,
colunms, and obeliflcs, reflecting to the fun the mod brilli-
ant hues of the lineil gems." The fouthern chain of the
central Alps extends from Mont Blanc, and other emi-
nences to the wed, and bearing to the nortlieall compre-
hends the Great St. Bernard, Mount Maudit, Cnmbin,
Cervin, and Mount Rosa. It traverfes northward the
vicinity of the lakes Locarno and Como, under the varions
denominations of V'ogelberg, St. Bevnardinc, Spluger, Al-
bula, Bernini, 5:c. and dretchiug into the Tyrol, terminates
in the Brimner, or Rhaetiau Alps, on the fouth of the Inn,
extending even to Saltzburg ; and the firft chain to the
north of that river feparates Bavaria from Tyrol. This
chain of the Italian Alps, proceeding from Mount Rofa,
through the country of the Grilons to the Glaciers of Ty-
rol, and terminating in the Salzian Alps, fhould form the
boundary betvveen Germany and Italy, as they pafs thro-agh
the centre of Tyrol, and as the Italian Alps to the north of
the former Milauefe and Venetian territories, are of com-
paratively finall elevation. The higheft of the Italian Alps
belong to the country of Piedmont.

" It was referved," fays the modern geographer already
cited (p. 583.), " for this age of enterprife to difclofe tlie
fecret wonders of the Alps. The enormous ridges clothed
with a depth of perpetual fnow, often crowned with diarp
obelifks of granite, ftiled by the Swifs horns or needles ;
the dreadful chafms of fome thoufand feet in perpendicular
height, over which the dauntlefs traveller fometimes ftands
■on a IJielf of frozen fnow ; the glaciers, or feas of ice, fome-

times extending 30 or 40 »niles in length ; the failed
filence of the fcencs before inivifited, except by the chair.oii
and goats of the rocks ; the clouds, and fometimes the
thunder dorm, jjaniiig, at a great didance below ; the ex-
tenfive profpei\s, which reduce kingdoms, as it were, to a
map ; the pure elafticity of the air, exciting a kind of in-
corporeal fenfalion ; are all novelties in the hiftory of hu-
man adventure."

From Sauffnrc we learn, that the higheft fmi'.mils of
thefe mountains confid of " a large grained granite ; the
mixture being white opakc felfpar, grcyifli, or wliite feini-
tranlparent quart/., and mica, in fmall brilliant fcales, forming
what is called the white granite. The colours vary ; and
fometimes hornblende, fchorl, ganiets, or pyrites aie inter-
fperfed. The c<iiftrudion ieems to confill of flat pyiumids
of granite. Handing vertically, difpofed like che fruit of the
artichoke ; thofe of the centre being moft upright, while
the others bend towards them. Thefe flat pyramids com-
monly dand, like the grand chains of the Alps, in a north-
cad and fouth -well diiettion. Beneath, and incumbent cui
the granite, efpeci;Jly towards the north, appear large malles
of flate, which are followed by exterior chains of high cal-
careous mountains." For a furtiier account of the Alps,
fee Coxe's .Switzerland, Sauli'ure, Bourrit, and the article.i
Blanc, Gothard, Rosa, &c. in this Dictionary.

Alps, in Geography, befide its proper fignification, by
which it denotes a certain chain of mountains, which fcpa-
rate Italy from France and Germany, is fometimes ufed a»
an appellative to denote any mountains of extraordinary
height. In this fenfe, Aufonius and others called the
Pyrenean mountains, Alps ; and Gellius, the Spanifli AlpSy
Alpim Hifpan't. Sidoniws gives the fame appellation of Alpt
to Mount Athos. Other authors fpeak of Nonnan Aips-t
Alpes Arvenn^, Alpes AJior'tanfts, Alpes Dofrinn, Alpes Ro~
mcuuit, Alpes Bojlermcd:. The Apennines are alfo called by
Johannes Viller.euf, Alp'i D'Apciwiiit. Tluis alfo the Britifli
Alps denote the higheft mountains in Britain ; fuch are the
Grampian hills, Ben Nevis, and other mountains of the
Highlands in Scotland ; fuch arc Snowden, &c. in Wales,
Wbariijtde, Sl'uh'.iv-v, and CrofsfcU, in England. To the
Afiatic Alps we may refer the Altay and Wkrterian
mountains; and to the American the Alleghany and
Apalachian of North America, and the Andes of the
South.

Alps is alfo ufed to denote paftur;s on the mountains,
whereon cattle are ted in the Summer time ; or rather in the
vallies, and fpaces between the mountain tops. Some will
have this to be the primary lignificatlon of the word Alps, '
which is fuppoied by thefe authors literally to denote the
ftreights or apertures between hills.

Alps, Lower, Department nf, is one of the four com-
pofed out of the Ci-devant Fi\)vence, in France. It it
bounded on the north by the department of the Upper
Alps, on the eaft by Piedmont and the department of the
Maritime Alps, on the fouth by the department of the Var,
and the north-eall extremity of that of the mouths of the
Rhine, and on the weft by the departments of Vauelufeand
the Drome. Its chief town is Digne. Its fupcrficies ic
about 1,459,699 fquare acres, or 745,007 heftares ; its po»
pulation comprehends 144,436 individuals ; and it is divided
into five communal diftritts.

Alps, Upper, Department of, makes a part of Dauphine,
which contains three. It ii bounded on the north by tlie
departments of Mont Blaoc and Ifere, on tlie cad by Pied-
mont, on the fouth by the department of the Lower Alps,
on the wed bv that of the Drome and part of that of Ifere.

It*

A L R

A L R

1h chief town 13 Gap. Its fiiperfici<:s is about i,oS4/)i4
fquare acres, or 553,569 hectares ; its population comprc-
hends 116,754 perlons ; and it is divided into three com-
munal diftrifts.

Alps, JHurltime, dejyarlment cf, is formed of the county
of Nice. It is bounded on the north by the Apennines and
the department of the Lower Aips, on the eaft by the re-
public of Genoa, on the fouth by the Meditcirancan, and
on the weft by the department of the Var and Lower Alps.
Its chief town is Nice. Its fupcrficies is about 632,619
l'i]uare acres, or 322,674 licflares ; its population amounts
!o 93,366 perfons ; and it is divided into three communal
ilillrii^ts.

ALPSEE, a lake of Switzerland, being a continuation
of the lake of Lucern.

ALP-STEIN, the denomination of a chain of moun-
tains in SwilTciland, which feparate the canton of Appenzel
from ToggenbourjT, the barotiy of Saxe and the Rbinthal.
It was formerly the limit between the country of the Rhx-
tians or Grifons, and the landgravate of Turgovia.

ALPUERTE, a town and caftle of Spain, in the king-
dom of Valencia, to the well of Scgorbia and the north-cail
of the river Guadalquivir. It is agiceably fituated, and the
territory is fertile. N. lat. 39° 50'. W. long, i'^ 6'.

ALPUXARRAS, Las, are high mountains of Spain,
in the kingdom of Granada, on tl.j coaft of the Mediter-
ranean ; their fummits are vifible not only from Gibraltar, but
from the coaft of Africa, between Ceuta and Tangier, and
they extend from Velez to Almeria, and are about 1 7 leagues
in length from eaft to weft, and 1 1 leagues in breadth from
north to fouth. This canton is one of the mort populous
and beft cultivated in Spain; it is interfperfed with villages,
and covered with vines and other trees. It produces corn,
wine, fruits, and good pafture, and alfo filk. The air and
weather in this diftrift are temperate and healthy. The in-
habitants were originally Moors, and they are diilinguiihtd
from the other Spaniards by the fimplicity of their manners,
the rudenefs of their language, and their diligence in labour.
ALQUIER, which is alfo called car.tar, a liquid mea-
fure for oil, ufed in Portugal. It contains fix ca-cadai, or
canadors. Two Alqmers make an ahneede, or almonde.

Alquier is alfo a meafure for grain, at Lilbon, contain-
ing a peck, three quarts, and a pint Enghdi.

ALQUIFOU, or Arquifou, as the merchants fpell it,
is a fort of mineral had, very heavy, eafily reduced into
powder, and hard to melt. When it is broken it parts into
Ihining fcales, much like the colour of needles of antimony.
The potters ufe it to give their works a green varnifti. In
England it is commonly called poller's ore. It is found in
Cornwall ; the potters mix manganefe with it, and then
the varnifti, or glazing, on their wares becomes of a blackifti
colour.

ALQUIVITE, or Qi'EVETO Coqft, in Geography, ■!.
part of the coaft of South America, which is waftied by
the Pacific Ocean, extends from the Morro del Bonifacio,
at the entrance of Baldivia on the« fouth diftant 15 leagues
to the river Imperial, on the north diftant ten leagues.
That on the fouth is the loweft and flatteft land on the
coaft of Chili ; but that to the north is higher, and in
moft places bold, with the exception of the ftioals that run
weft fouth-weft trum the ifland Mocha, north-weft by weft
from the river Imperial. Alquivite is in S. lat. 38"' 40'. W.
long. 76^.

ALRAMECH, or Aramech, in AJlronomy, the Ara-
bic name of a ftar of the firft magnitude, otherwife caUed
Arcturv:.

ALRAUPE, in Jd'hyohgy, a name given by the Ger-
mans, to the muJlelaJluviatUij, or eelpout, a fpccies of the
Gadus.

ALRED, Alfred, or Alured, in Biography, an an-
cient Englifti hiftorian, was born at Beverley, in Yorkftiire,
and educated in the univerfity of Cambridge. Having ac-
quired a confiderable knowledge of divinity, philolophy, and
hiftory, he returned to his native country ; became a fecu-
lar prieft, and was appointed a canon and treafurer of the
church dedicated to St. John of Beverley. His " Annals,"
containing the hiftoiy of the Britons, Saxons, and Nor-
mans, were continued to the 29t!i year of Henry I. and he
probably died ia the year 1 1 28 or 1 1 29. From the pre-
face to his work it appears that he was rather poor than
rich, and much devoted to his ftudies. His abridgment
of our hiftory, from Brutus to Henry I. is one of the moft
valuable pieces that has efcaped the rage of time, and the
indifcretion of our firft reformers. It is written in a con-
cife, elegant, Latin ftyle, with great perfpieuity, and an un-
common attention to dates and authorities : fo that he may
be juftly regarded as our Englifti Florus. Lelaad has
omitted Aired, in his collection of Britifti writers, becaufe
he confidered his work as merely an abridgment of Jefi"rey
of Mo'.unouth's Britifti Hiltoiy ; whereas, it is not only
doubtful whether Alured ever fav/ Jeft"rcy's hiftory, but
probable, from a variety of circumlrauces, that this hiftory
was publillicd after Alred's Annals.

This work was publiftied by Mr. Hearne, at Oxford, ia
1 716, from a MS. which belonged to the famous Thomas
Rawlinfon, Efq. under the title of " The Annals of Alured
of Beverley ;" and in a preface to it, Mr. Hearne has vin-
dicated the author from the cliarge of plagiarifm, which
has i.ijured the reputation of this valuable compendium of
Britifh hiftor)-. Although Huntingdon, Hoveden, Mal-
mefbur)-, and other writers have prefixed fummaries of an-
cient hiftory to the accounts they have left us of their own
times, yet none of them, fays a very competent judge, are
to be compared, in point of accuracy or elegance, with this
hiftory, which deferves to be tranflated and to be con-
tiuned, with the fame fpirit, to later times. Bcfides this
work, w'hieh has been mentioned under different titles,
Alured V rote no other, except " The Hiftory of St. John
of Beverley," a collection of records, which has never been
printed, but is prefcrved in the Cotton Library, under the
title of " Libertates Eccieiix, S. Johannis de Beverlik, &c.
Biog. Brit.

ALRESFORD, in Geography, a town of Hampftiire,
fituate in the road from London to Winchefter on a fmall
ftream, which, by means of a large pond as a refcrvoir, with
locks and aquedufts, was foiTnerly navigable by barges and
lighters to Southampton ; but the navigation has for feve-
ral centuries reached no farther than Winchefter. It con-
fifts of about 200 houfes, one church, and two principal
ftreets, and has a fmall manufacture of linens. Its market
is on Thurfday. It is diftant from London fomewhat more
than 57 miles.

ALROE, a fmall ifland of Denmark, in the bay of
Horfens and prefcfture of Aakiar, belonging to the diocefe
or general government of Aarhuus.

ALRUKAK, in the Materia Mediea, a word ufed by
Avicenna, and others of his nation, for what was called by
the Greeks kptos libanotis, and manr.a thuris. This was the
fragments of frankincenfe, which were broken off from
the larger pieces in the collecling or packing up, and were
moft elleenied in medicine, as being the drieft and purcft
kind.

ALRUM,

A L S

A L S

ALRUM, in tlie Botanical IFrUin^t of the /tnc'icnts, a
ii.ime given to tlic tree wliich prodiici-s the hiiMum. This
;'iim was originally knowi. to be the cxfudatioii of a tree
irrowing in Arabia and the Eail Indies, and well known to
Avicemia, and others, and by all of tlieui called by rliat

empire of the Franks wliich fell to him, and whieh wa»

c-illed the kmgdoni of Lotliarinfjia or Lorraine. Lotha-

rms I r., his yoiin};dl fon, inherited it ; and after him in 869,

It became a provniee of Gcnnany, and w.n governed by

dukes. About a c.-ntury before the extinction of dukci,

Al TJITVrc: • u 1 • ^ "'« P™^'"C'al counts, who governed under them in Alface.

r, 'iV ;•' T'\ ff'y^'^yt'^'^ =■;"-■><■•••'. Gei".ans to alfumed the title of Landgrave,, and the countriw o";

f,.all figures ot wood, of which they made their i.ares. which they prefided were called Landgravate,. one f^p^or

.nndthe other interior. In 1357 the bell part of the in-
terior Landgravate was conveyed to the bill,.,p of Stralbunj^
who filled himfelf Landgrave of Alface. The govenimcnt
ot Allace was afterwards coiifcried by the en.pirors on f<.
veral houles, till Feidinand L Rave it to the G.rman line
ot his own houfe ( and accordingly it continued in ihf
houfc of Aullria. At the peace of Munlter, in 164S, the
emperor ceded for e\er to the crown of France all right
r 1 . T , • r • • „ , . '" ^'"■" '"^^■" "'^ 13ril'a'-. landpravate of I'pper and Lower

,. feparated by the chain of mountains called W afgau or Allace, Sundgau, and the d.ilricl of the ten united imperial
Lcs\oiges, and on the north by the Palatinate ot the cities in Allace, with the wliole lovereiguty belonging t(»

them. By the peace of Ryfwick, in 16^7, the emperor and
the empire ceded to France the perpetual fovcreignt) of the
cuyof Stralburg, and of all its dependencies, on the left fide
ot the Rhine.

ALSADAF, in the Mutrr-a Mcdica, a name given by
Avicenna and Scrapie, to the ungu'ts oJoratus, and alto la
the >«»r<-.v, or purple liih, of the (hell of wliich it was fup-
pofed to be a part.

ALSAHARATiCA, a name ufed in B-Jany, by fome,
to iignify X.\\e parthnuum, or FFVERrEW._

ALSCHARCUR, in the M.itfria Medici, a name given
by Rhafes, and tome others of the old writers, to the .s k 1 s k,
a Imall animal vi the lizard kind, formerly ufed in medicine
as a cordial, and as a provocative to vcnery.

ALSCHAUSEN, or Alshausi-.n, in Cco^mphy, a
free imperial village of Germany in the circle of Swabia,
in a commandeiy of the fame name belongintr to the Teu-
tonic order, within the bailiwick of Alf°ce and Bur-
gundy. It has a caftle which ia the lefiJence of the coun.
try commandery of this bailiwick, and it lies betwixt the
dillria of Altorf and the countries of Konigfeck, and
Scheer. The title of this place to jurifdidion in eeclefi-
aftical and civil matters has been frequently coutefted by
the Teutonic order.

ALSCHWANGEN, a town with a caftle of Poland,
in the duchy of Courland, and paridi of Alfchwang.

ALSCNLFU, in Botany, a name ufed by fome authors,
for WORMWOOD.

AL «EGN(), in Mufic. Thefe Italian words arc ufed
wlien a return is made to a former part of a movement,
where this mark or cliarailer appears : -c;. as who llioulj
fay, return to this fign -9. . This is an 'expedient to fave
the trouble of writing, or expcnee of printing ceitain por-
tions of a movement that are to be repeated. 'i'iius (i<i
capo, implies that a whole drain is to be repeated from tl.o
beginning.

ALSEN, in Geography, an illnnd of Donmaik, fituatt.
in the lellcr Belt, or entrance into the Baltic Sea, near the
eoait of Slefwick, to which it belongs ; and feparated lioin
the main land by a narrow channel called Alien-fund, hi
extent is about lix leagues in length, and two in breadth ;
the foil is fertile, and produces plenty of fruit, and, wheat
excepted, all kinds of gi-ain, together widi large c.-ops of
anifceds, ufed by the Danes as a carmiiative lor feafoning
iheir food, and mixing with their bread. The ifland is
flickered by fine woods, which abound with game ; and
fevcral of its hikes aie well llockcd with iifii. ft is divided
3 m!o

licy __.

ALSA, now Ansa, in yhineitl Groxraphy, a fmall river
of Italy, which paffing by Aquileia difcharged itfelf into
the Adriatic. Near this river Conllantine, the fon of
Coniluntine the Great, fighting againll his brother Conllans,
loil his hfe.

ALSACE, was before the revolution a. province of
France ; bounded on the call by the Rhine which feparated
;l from Swabia, on the foutli by SwilTerland, and part of
Fi-anehe Comtc, on the welt by Lorraine, from which it

lunt;

Khine; and comprehended between .(.7° 32', and 49° 8'
N. lat. and 6'' 44' and 7° 24' E. long. This has been
rtckoiied one of the moll fertile and plentiful provinces in
Europe, abounding in corn, wine, oil, flax, tobacco, fruits,
and pulfe, of various forts, wood and excellent pafture. The
part of this province that lies betwixt the rivers 111, Haardt
and the Rhine, is of narrow extent, and lefs fertile than the
other parts ; but the dillriift that borders upon SwifFcrland
:iiid Mount Saverne, and the levels about Stralburg to the
Ivliine, are ver)- fruitful and agreeable, and produce abiin-
d.tnce of grain, tobacco, culinary vegetables, faffron and
hemp. The mountains towards Lorraine are high and co-
vered with fir, beech, oak, and horn-beam. 1'hc forells of
this province are numerous, and furnilh great quantities of
wood both for fuel and building ; as well as plenty of deer
and g'lme of all kinds, and it is in general divtrlilied with
hills £ud vales, which render it fertile and produclive. Al-
fp.ce has mines of filver, copper, iron, and leatl ; and it has
alfo \'Brious mineral waters and baths. Its rivers are nu-
merous, of which the principal is the Rhine, and it has alfo
feveral lakes. The number of inhabitants, who are motlly
Lutherans and Roman Catholics, was formerly computed at
about half a million; their common language is the German,
though the French is generally underllood and principally
fpoken by people of fuperior rank, and in the towns. This
province was divided into Upper and Lower Allace ; the
former contained 32 large and fmall towns, and the latter
39 ; and in both there are upwards of Tooo market towns
and villages. By the late divifion of France, this province
forms two departments, w's. thofe of the Upper and Lower
Rhine, the capital of the former being Colmar, and that of
the latter Strafburg.

Tl'.is province was anciently inhabited by the Rauraci,
Sequani and Mediomatrici. Its name firll occurs in the
Liliory of France under the Merovingian kings ; and it is
moll probably derived from the river Eli or 111, the inhabit-
ants on the borders of whieh were called ElfafTen, from
whom the country itfelf was afterwards denominated Elfas,
in Latin Elifatia, Alliatla, and Alfatia. From the CeltiE
it fell under the dominion of the Romans ; from them it
paffed to the Germans, and after the battle of Tolbiac, or
Zulpich, gained by Clovis in 496, it was pofTefTed by the
Franks. It was afterwards incorporated with the king-
dom of Auftrafia, and in 752 it was fubjcft, like the reil
of the monarchy, to the laws of Pepin and his fucceffbrs.
At the deeeafe of Lewis Debonnaire in 840, his eldefl fon
Lotharius obtained it, and he joined it to that part of tlie

A L S

A L S

into foutli and north Ilarde, called Sondciburg and Kor-
biir;; prefeftures. It is about ICO miles well of Copcn-

A1.SEN3, a river of Germany, which runs into the 111
near Phidentz.

Alsens, a town of Germany, in the circle of the ITpper
Rliine, ar.d duchy of Deux'-Ponts ; zS miles welk of
Wunns.

ALSENZ, a town of Germany, in the circle of the
Upper Rhine, and principality of NalTaa-Weiburg, fcven
miles foulh of Creiitiinach, and 40 novtli-well of Man-

heim.

ALSFELD, a very ancient town of Germany in the
circle of the Upper Rhine, in Upper HefTe, in a prefedhi-
rate of the fame name. It lies near the river Schwalm, has
an old caftle and two churches ; and it is the firll town in
HefTe which received the confcflion of Auglburg, beir.g
formerly more wealthy and populous than it is at prefent.
N. lat. 50° 40'. E. long. 9'' 9'.

ALSHASn, a beantiful city in Buckliar.a, fuppoftd to
be that which is now/;alled Tashkunt, or ThaJcLk.ind.

ALSHEDA, a parifti of Smaland in Sweden, where a
gold mine was dikovered in IJ^S.

ALSHEIM, a town of .'-^-rmany, in the circle of tlie
Lower Rhine, 10 miles north oi Worms.

ALSIM3EL, in the Materia Malica, a name given,
by Avicenna and others, to the fpikenard of India. It
is thus called from its having the appearance of a fpike, or
ear, and alfo /mi«to/i, a word which fignifies its being a
coifsnes of many fpikes, or ears ; and fuch is much of the
nwJus Ind'tca, or Indian ffiL-nard, that we receive at this
day.

ALSINA, in Botany. See Theligonum.

ALSINANTHEMUM. See Arenaria.

ALSINASTRUM. See Costus and Elatine.

ALSINE, formed of '' A^.to;, a groi'e, chidiveed, Eng.
mor^eline, Fr. in Botany, a genus of the pentandrla trigynia
clafs and order, and of the natural order of caryophylki :
its characters are, that the calyx is a five-leaved perianthium,
leaflets concave, oblong and acuminate ; the corolla has five
equal petals, longer than the calyx; the _/?am/n^ coiifill of
capillary filaments, the anthers roundilTi ; ihs pijlillum has a
fubovate germ, ftyles fihform, and iHgmas obtufe ; the pe-
ricarpium is an ovate, one-celled, three-valved capfule, co-
vered with the calyx i the feeds are ver^'many and roundifli.
Marty n reckons three, and Ximelin five fpecies. I. A.
media, holoileum Alfine of Swartz, common cliickweed,
with petals bipartite, and leaves ovate-cordate. The num-
ber of ftamens in the flower of the common chickweed is
uncertain, from three to ten. This fpecies in different foils
and fituations aflumes different appearances ; but it is dif-
tinguiftied from the ceraftiums, which it moll refembles, by
the number of piftils, and by having the petals ftiorter than
the leaves of the calyx, and from all the plants related to
it, and particularly the ftcUaria nemorum, by having the
llalk alternately hairy on one fide only. Dr. Withering
refers it to the stellaria, with which genus it agrees in
various refpefts, and eipecially in the capfules opening with
fix valves. He obferves, that it grows almoft in all fitua-
tions from damp and almoil boggy woods, to the drieft
gravel walks in gardens ; but in thefe various ftates its ap-
pearances are very different, fo that thofe who have only
taken notice of it as garden chicken-weed would hardly
know it in woods, where it fometimes exceeds half a yard
in height, and has leaves near two inches long, and more
than one inch broad. In its truly wild ftate, he fays, in
7

damp woods, and hedge bottoms witli a northern afpcifl, it '
has almoft always ten llamens ; but in drier foils and more
funr.y cxpolures, the ftamens are ufually five or tl'.ree. Dr
Smith (Flor. Brit. vol. ii. p. 473.) alfo refers it to the
genus fUllaria, and charafterizes it under the fpecies
i-f STELi.ARiA media, with ovatcd leaves and proeum-
bent llalks, having the lateral line alternately haiiy.
When the flowers firft open, tlte peduncles are upright ; as
the flowers go oft", they hang down ; and when the feeds
ripen, they again become upright. Dr. Vv'ithering oblerves,
that the flowers are upright, and open from nine in the
morning till noon ; but if it rains, they do not open. After'
rain they become pendent ; but, in the courfe of a few
days, rife again. In gardens or dungliills chickweed flieds
abundance of feeds, which are round, comprefled, yellow
and rough, with little tubercles ; and thus becomes a trou-
blefome weed ; but if it be not fuft'ered to feed, it may be
deftroyed, as it is annual, without much trouble. This
fpecies is a. remarkable inllance of the fleep of plants ; for
every night the leaves approach in pairs, including withia
their upper furfaces the tender rudiments of the new ftioots;
and the iippermo.ft pair but one, at the end of tlie ftalk, is
furnilhed with longer leaf-ftalks than the others, fo that
th.ey can clofe upon the terminating" pair, and protect the
end of the branch. The young fl.oots and leaves, when
boiled, can fcarcely be diftinguiflied from Spring fpinach,
and are equally wholefom.e. Swine are very fond of it ;
cows and horfes eat it : ftieep are indifferent to it ; and
goats rcfufe it. It is a grateful food to fmall birds and
young chickens. For' medical purpofes this heih was for-
merly employed in cataplafms againil inflammations ; and
its expreffed juicej or decotlion, given alio internally, as an
aperient, antilcorbutic, antiphlogiftic ; and as a rcitoiT.tive,
probably for abating heftic heats, in atrophies and con-
fumptions. The virtues afcribed to it, fays Dr. Lewis, do
not appear to be wholly without foundation ; though its
aftive matter is fo far divided and diluted in the herb, as
fcarcely to manifeft itfelf till feparated from the grofler
paits. This plant is found wild in moft parts of the world.
It is annual, and flowers almoft through the whole year.
2. A. fegetalis, with entire petals, and awl-ftia^ed leaves.
This, according to La Chenal in Hall. helv. is the fame
with the Arenaria tenuifoUa. It is ar.nual, and grows
about Paris and in Piedmont. 3. A. mueronata, with en-
tire, ftiort petals, fetaceous leaves and awned calyces. This
is a native of France and SwiflTerland, and introduced into
Kew Garden, in 1777, by Dr. Gouan. 4. A. prujlrata,
with oblong leaves, and dichotomous proftrate ftalk. Forflv.
fl. ^g. arab. p. 207. 5. A. graminifolia, with lanceolate,
rigid, haiiy leaves, and ereft three-flowered ftalk. Arduin
fp. ii. torn. X. See Arenaria, Callitriche, Campa-
nula, Centunculus, Cerastium, Corrigiola, Cu-

CUBALUS, DrABA, FrANKEJJIA, GlAUX, GlINUS, GyP-
SOPHILA, HoLOSTEUM, IsNARDlA, LiNUM, LiMOSELLX,

Lychnis, Moehringia, Mollugo, Nama, Oldenlan-

DIA, PepI.IS, PhARNACEUM, SamoLUS, SlBTHORPIA,

SiLENE, Spergula, Stellaria, Trientalis and Ve-
ronica.

Alsine, A/finis. See Androsace.

ALSINES Facie. See Theligonum.

ALSINEFORMIS. See Montia.

ALSINELLA. See Sagina.

ALSINOIDES. See Bufonia and Montia.

ALSIRAT, in the Mahometan Theology, a bridge laid
over the middle of hell, finer than a hair, and Jharper than

the

A L S

the edge of a fwcid, over which the people are to pafs, after
their trial on the day of judgment.

To add to the difficidty of the pifrage, Mahomet afTerls,
that the ahirat, narrow as it is, is befet with briars and
thorns ; none of wliich, however, will be any impediment to
the good, who fl-uill fiy over it like the wind ; Mahomet
and liis Miiflulmen lend the way ; whereas the wickid, by
the narrownefs of the path, the entangling of the thorns,
and extinclion of the liglit, which direcled the former to
paradife, will foon mifs their footing, and tumble headlong
into hell, which is gaping beneath to receive them. See
Sale's Prelim. Difc' to Koran, fee. iv. p. 90. See M.iho-

METANS.

ALSITZ, in Geography, a river of the Netherlands,
which pafTcs by the city of Luxemburg, and runs into the
Sour near Dicrich.

ALSIUM, in /Indent Geoj^mpby, a city of It;dy in
Etruria, occupying, according to Cluverius, the fpot wiiere
Palo now Hands. If it was built by the Aborigines long
before the Tyrfenians invaded Italy, as we are informed by
Dionyfius Halicarn. it mull have been founded not lonn- after
the difperiion in the days of Pelcg. Silius Italicus (lib. viii.
v. 475.) refers its origin to the Trojan times, and fays, tliat
it was built by Alel'us, the friend of Agamemnon ; but
fome have conjeftured, that Alefus or Alifa, its founder,
was Elilha, the fon of Java, mentioned in Scripture. Vi-l-
leius Paterculus (lib. i. c. 14.) relates, that it became a Ro-
man colony, towards the end of the firft Punic war. It was
Ctuated 18 miles from Portus Auguili, and fouth-eall of
Caere.

ALSLEBEN, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the
circle of Upper Saxony and the principality of Anlnlt-Dcf-
fau, and in the bailiwick of Great Alfleben, which has a
princely palace built in 1666; nine miles fouth fouth-well
of Bernburg. N. lat. 51° 38'. W. long. 11° 29'.

Alslebf.n is alio a fmall town of Germany, in the circle
of Lower Saxony and principahty of Magdeburg, and in
the bailiwick of Alfleben, fituate on the Saale, and eonillling
of 108 houfes. The revenues of the collegiate church have
been transferred to the cathedral of Magdeburg. The old
village of Alfleben lies fo near the town walls as to feem to
be a iuburb of it. It is 22 miles fouth of Magdeburg.

ALSO-S AJO, a town of Hungary, in the Gefpaniehaft
of Gomor, fituate on the banks of the Sajo. A quantity
of cinnabar is dug in its neighbourhood.

ALSO-DANY, a fmall town of Hungary-, in the dif-
trict of Ofzlan and Rewilchtye jurifdiction, to which be-
longs a mineral water.

ALSOP, Anthony, in Biography, an Enghlh poet
and divine, viias educated at Weftminfter fchool, and from
thence elefted to Chrift-church college, Oxford. He was
foon after his admifiion to the univerfity diftinguifhed t)y
Dean Aldrich, and pubhihed " Fabularum yLfopica-
rum delectus," Oxon. 1698, Svo. with a preface, in which
he took part with Mr. Boyle in the dilpute between him
and Dr. Bentley. He palled through the gradation of of-
fices to that of cenior at the college with reputation, and
had the care of feveral of the principal noblemen and gen-
tlemen of the fociety ; and in this fituation he continued,
till Sir Jonathan Trelawny, bilhop of Winchelter, appointed
him his chaplain ; and foDn after gave him a prebend in his
own cathedral, together with the redoi7 of Briglitwell in
Berks, from .vhich no folicitations to a higher ilation could
iaduee him to remove. In lyiyhewas call in an action
for the breach of a contraft of marriage, with 2000 1.
damages ; and on this occafion he left the kingdom. The
Vol. I. .

A L S

duration of Ii!» exile is not afeertaincd ; but his dt-ath.
which happened, June 10, 1726, was occahoncd by liit fall-
ing into a ditch near \m garden door. A 410. vi.lmne of
h;8 was publiflud in 1752 by Sir Tnuicis Bernard, under
the title of " Antouii Allopi, adis Chrilli ohm alumni,
Od-ioim libii duo." Four Englifli poemj, by Alfop, arc m
D(dnty's collection, one in Pcarch's, ftveral in the early
volumes of the Gentleman's Maga/.ine, and fome in the
Student. He waa a pleafant and facet iuu« companion, and
not rigidly rtftraincd by the foims of his prufefliun. Mr.
Allop is rcfpcftfullv mentioned by the facetious Dr. King
of the Commons, (vol. i. p. 236.) as having enriched the
commonwealth of learning by " Tranflationsof Fables from
Greek, Hebrew, and Arabic," and no lefa contempuioufly
by Dr. I'enlley, under the name of " Tony Alfop, a late
editor of the itfopcan Fables." Biog. Did.

ALSOP, ViNCtsT, an Englilh nonconformift divine,
was born in Northamptonftiire, and educated at St. John's
college, Cambridge, where he took the degree of mailer of
arts. Having taken deacon's (,rdcrs, he fettled at Oakliam in
Rutlauddiire, as aflillant in the fret-fchool. Having imbib-
ed the principles of nonconformity, he was ordained among
the prelbytcrians, and exerciftd his minillry at Wilbee,
in Northamptonfliire, whence he was ejcfled in 1662. After
this event he preached occafionally, and was imprifoned fix
months for praying with a fick perfon. Being known to
the world by a book which he wrote in an humourous ftvlc
againll Dr. Sherlock, he was invited to fettle with a con-
gregation of prelbytcrians in Weftminfter; and in this fitua-
tion he fortunately efcapcd fines and imprifonment, becaufc
his chriilian name, wliich he lludioufly concealed, was not
known to the infomiers. At the commencement of the
reign of James II. Mr. Alfop's fon engaged in treafonable
praftices, and obtained the king's pardon ; and this art of
clemency feems to have attached the father to the royal in-
tereft. In the addrefs which was prefcnted to the king for
his genei-al indulgence, and which is fuppofcd to have been
written by Mr. Alfop, he intreats his Maiefty to believe,
" that loyalty is not entailed to a party," and he profefTo
for himfelf and his brethren, their gratitude and good
willies ; to which addrefs the king replied, that he wag
happy in obferving two good effects of his declaration, the
eafing and pleafing of his fubjerts, and reftoring to God
the empire over confciencc ; adding, " it has been my
judgment a long time, that none has, or ought to have any
power over the confciencc but God ;" and exprefling his
hope, " to live to fee the day, when you fliall as well have
Magna Charta for the liberty of confciencc, as you have
had for your properties :" clofing with this admonition :
" and now, gentlemen, do you fo preach to your hearers, as
they may be good Chriftians, and then I do not qucllion
but they will be good fubjefts." After the revolution-,
Mr. Alfop, though he retained a grateful rcfpert for the
memoiy of king James, became zealoufly attached to the
government and intercll of king William. He lived to an
advanced age, and died on the Sth of May 1703. It is
faid, that though on grave fubjefts he wrote with a becom-
ing ferioufnefs, yet when wit might be properly fliewn, he
difplayed it to great advantage. To this purpoie we are
referred to his " Antifozzo," in vindication of lome great
truths oppofed by Dr. William Sherlock," 8vo. 1675.
He alio wrote, " Melius Inquirendum," in anfwer to Dr.
" Goodman's Compaflionatc Inquir)'," 8vo. 1679 ; " The
Mifchief of Impofitions," in anfwer to Dr. Stillingfleet's
Milchicf of Separation, i68c, with feveral fiRglc femions.
Biog. Brit.

5 F ALSTADT,

A L S

ALSTADT, in Geography, a town of Pruffia, in the
Oberl:ind, near Pi-curclimarck.

ALSTEDIUS, John Henry, in Biograpf>y,a German
protertant divine, and one of the moll voluminous writers
of the 1 7th centui7. He was born about the year 1 58S, and
was for iom-i time profelTor of theology and philofophy at
HerboiTi, in the county of NalTau, and afterwards at Alba
'ulia, in Tranfylvania, where he died in 1638. He was
one of the divines that attended at the fynod of Dort.
Hi was an induftrious compiler of fyftems of fciences. His
principal work is his " Encyclopxdia," printed at Lyons
in two volumes, folio, in 1649. Vofiius fpeaks with com-
mendation of that pait which comprehends arithmetic.
His " Thefaurus Chronologicus," has pafled through feve-
ral editions. His " Triumphus Biblicus," was written
with a view of (hewing, that all arts and fciences may be
deduced from the Bible. His " Theologia Polemica," was
anfwered by Himmelius, divinity profeffor at lena. His
other works are " Philofophia reftituta," " Elementa Ma-
thematica ;" " Methodus formandorum Studiorum,"
printed at Strafburg in 4to. in 1610; " Templum Muficum,
or Mulical Synopfis," which is fo formal as to refeinble a
logical rather than a mufical treatife ; and a treatife, " De
Mille Annis," publilhed in 1627, in which he maintains
the Millenarian doctrine, or that of Chrift's reign on earth
for 1000 years, and fixes the commencement of this reign
in 1694. ' The charafter of this writer has been well com-
prized in a fingle anagrammatic word, " Sedulitas." Gen.

Dift.

ALSTER, in Geography, a river of Germany, which
runs into the Elbe near Hamburg. It paffes through the
city, and forms a lake neariy half an Englifh mile in circum-
ference, which in fummer evenings is covered with all forts of
pleafure-boats, affording to the fpeftators a very amuling
I'peftack.

ALSTON, Charles, (M. D.) in Biography, a bota-
nical and medical writer, was born in the wellern parts of
Scotland in the year 168 j. He early applied himfelf to the
ftudy of botany, and oppofed, with confiderable ingenuity,
the fexual fyftem of Linuipus. When 33 years of age, he
■went to Levden, and iludied three years under Botrhaave.
Returning thence with his friend Alexander Monro, he was
materiallv inllrumental in eftahUlhing a fchoolof medicine in
the College at Edinburgh, of which he was appointed pro-
Jelfor of botany and the materia niedica. In this poll he
continued to the time of his death, Nov. 1760.

la the fifth volume of the Edinb. Med. Effays, we have
a Siort paper by Alilon on the efficacy of the powder of tin
in deilroyjng or expelling worms from the bowels. He ob-
tained the prefcription, he fays, of an empyric, who was
famed for his (Icill in curing perlons afflidted with thofe
noxious infefts. One ounce of tin, reduced to powder, and
mixed with treacle, was given the firil morning, and half an
ounce each of the two following mornings ; the patients were
then purged with the infuficn of fena and maana. He fpeaks
hifi'.'.v of the efhcacy of this medicine, which has certainlv
confiderable powers in thcfe cales, and may be given to the
moft delicate fubje-?ks with perfeft fafety. His dilfertatlon
cu the fexes of plants, in which he combats the doftrine of
Linnaeus, was publifhed in the year 1753, '" ^^^ ^""^ volume
of the Edinburgh Piiyfical and Literary Effays. But the
work principally calculated to fecure his fame with poiterity,
is his Leftures on the Materia Mcdica, which was pubhfhed
in the year 1770, in two vols. 41,0. by his friend and fuc-
cefibr in the profeffor's chair, Dr. John Hope. Although
confiderable additions and improvements have been fince
made in this branch of fcience, yet this work will be always

A L S

luld in elleem for the number of curious and ufeful fads it
contains. Haller Bibliotheca Botan.

Alston-Moor, or Aldstone, in Geography, a town
of Cumberland, fituate on a hill near the river Tyne, on the
borders of Northumberland. The parilh is fmall ; but oa
account of the lead-mines in its neighbourhood very popu*
lous. The lands are part of the forfeited eftates of the earl
of Derwentwater, and are held on leafe, granted for a thou-
fand years, under the governors of Greenwich hofpital. The
market is plentiful, and held on Saturday. The diftar.ce from
London by Bernard caille is 271, ana by Penrith 302 miles.
N. lat. 54° 45'. W. long. 2° 4*.

ALSTONIA, lo named from Dr. Alfton, in Botany, a
genus of the polyanjr'ia monogynla clafs and order : its cha-
racters are, that the calyx is an inferior, imbricate perian-
thlum, fcalcs ovate, very obtufe and concave, the inner ones
gradually larger, forming, as it were, a quadripartite or
quinque-partite calyx ; the corolla is one-petalled, fliorter
than the calyx, tube (hort, border fpreading, divided into
eight or ten parts, divifions equal, in a double row, alter-
nately interior and exterior, obovate, olrtufe, quite entire ;
ihe Jliimiiia have very many filaments, inferted into the tube,
very iliort, imbricate, very fmooth, the outer ones longer,
hnear, attenuated at the tip, anthers orbiculate and fur-
rowed ; the pi/lillum has a fuperior germ, ovate and fmall,
ftyle fimple, of the length of the corolla, filiform and erect,
the ifigma capitate-obovate. The fruit is unknown, and
the genus is imperfeftly determined ; it is nearly allied to
Symplocos, and perhaps only a fpecies of it. Swartz. There
is one fpecies, w's. A. theiformls, joined by M. I'Heritier
with Hopea and Ciponima, under the fame genus Symplocos.
This (hrub was found by Mutis in South America. It is
very fmooth, and refembles the bohea tea in the leaves, the
imbricate calyces, the fituation of the flowers, &c. The
dried leaves chewed give a green colour to the fahva, and
have the tafte of Chinefe tea. The leaves are alternate on
fhort petioles, elliptical in their form, and from the middle
to the tip obtufely ferrate, iliff and veined. The flowers are
axillaiy, three or four together, and feffile ; the calyx is very
fmooth, the fcales rounded and green, with a membranaceous
edge ; the corollas are white and fpreading. Martyn's Mil-
ler. Tranf. Linn. Soc. vol. i. p. 170.

ALSTROEMERIA, fo named from Baron Alftroemer,
of Sweden, who, in his travels through Europe, fcnt many
plants to Linnaeus, in Botany, a genus of the htsandiui mono-
gyn'ui clafs and order, of the natural order oi Lllia or lAUacen.,
Sannentaceii of Linn, and Narcijft of JuflT.; its characters are,
that it has no calyx ; the corolla is fix-petalled and fub-bila-
biate, the three outer petals wedge-(haped, retufc, mucrc-
nate, the inner, which are alternate with the others, lanceo-
late, the two lower ones tubulous at the bafe ; the Jlam'ma
have awl-fhaped fdaments, bending down and unequal, an-
thers oblong ; the p'ljl'iHum has a germ inferior, hexano-ular,
truncate, ftyle bending down, filiform, of the length cf the
ftamen, ftigmas three, oblong and bifid ; i\\q pericarp] urn is a
roundilh, fix-ribbed, mucronate capfule, three-celltd, and
three-valved, valves concave, and contrary to the diflcpi-
ment ; the feeds very many, globofe, covered with railed
points, fubumbilicate at the tip. Gmelin enumerates five ;
Martyn and ^^"illdenow fix fpecies. i. A. pelegrina, called
pelegrina by the Spaniards in Peru, to exprefs a fuperb
flower, fpotted-flowered A, has an erett item, corollas bel!-
fliaped, ilraight, leaves hnear-lanceolate, feffile ; or, accord-
ing to Willdenow, has an ereft ftem, patent corollas, the
three exterior petals wedge-fhaped, three-toothed, the reft
mucronate, the leaves linear-lanceolate and feffile. This
fpecies is found in Peru and Lima ; the flowers are whitifti,
I beautifully

A L S

beautifully ftaincti and veined with puvple and red ; it flowfin
r.om June to Octobtr ; and was introduced into Kew gar-
(!en, in 1753, by MelFis. Kennedy and Lee. 2. A. /.«/-
ikl^tt, with erea flcm, reflex-fpreading ur.d acute corollas,
icTik leaves, and pedicles (horter than the involucre. This
plant refsmbles the former in its llruilnre and habit, bnt the
leaves are naiTower, and the item terminaied by an irregu-
lar involucre of larger pctiolate leaves ; the peduncles naked
and one-flowered, flowers four or fix rather nodding ; the
petals alternately lefs, whitilh, red at tlie tip, ftreaked, or
dotted with red at the bale, filaments yellow, p-iilil red, and
iligma trifid. This fpecics is a native of South America.
3. A. Lighi, ftriped-flowered A. with erect ilem, fpatulate-
oblong leaves, peduncles of the umbel longer than the invo-
lucre, and two-lipped corolla. The barren Hems are clothed
with awl-(haped leaves, and terminated with fpatnhite-oblong
leaves, placed in a kind of rofe ; the florifcruus Hem clothed
with awl-ihaped leaves, the peduncles few and naked ; the
three upper petals of the corolla larger, white, dotted at tlie
bafe, and fpotted at the tip with red, the three lower ones
fUoiter and red ; the lilaments longer than the lower petals,
rugged, the anther,; twin and yellow ; the pillil red. This
plant, which is a native of Lima, is remarkable for the
l.irgeiiels of its flowers, and for their fragrancy, fcarce-
ly inferior to mignonette ; it flowers in February and
March, and was introduced here about 1776 by John
Brown, Eiq. 4. A. Saljllla, with twining ftem, petlolate,
lanceolate, acuminate leaves, branching umbel, peduncles
longer than the involucre, braded and loofe. The leaves are
uervofe, petioles naked, the involucre many-leaved, awl-
lliaped and reflex, the peduncles few, elongated, fuilaining
one or two flowers, the outer petals red, and the inner
greeniih. This 13 a native of Lima. 5. A. wultifora, with
twining ttem, pctiolate, lanceolate, and acuminate leaves,
fnnple umbel, peduncles fliorter than the braftcs, and petals
alternate and truncate. This fpecies refembles the lall in
habit and IlruSure ; but the petioles are wrinkled at the
edge, and the umbel is not peduncled, the manyfiowered in-
volucre conhfts of broader leaves, and the peduncles are hm-
ple and naked ; the three outer petals are Ihorter, narrower,
and entire, the inner truncate or emarginate, with a point ;
the colour is unknown. It is a native of South America.
6. A. oi'ala, with twining ftem, lanceolate leaves, lanugi-
nofe on the upper lurface, lucid on the lower, and corollas
tubular ; or, according to Willdenow, with twining ftem,
pttiolate, elhptic, acuminate leaves, above viUofe, ramofe
umbel, bracleate loofe peduncles, longer than the involucre,
and bell-lhaped corolla. The ftem, twining contrary to the
fun, is flender, and three feet high, the leaves are alternate
and feffile, the flowers terminate in umbels, the petals approxi-
mate into a tube, ovate-oblong, the three outer fcarlet, green
at the tip, the three inner green, flatted tov.-ards the top,
and variegated with black dots ; the ftamens are fixed to the
germ near the bafe of the petals, anthers ovate and brown ;
germ green without, marked with fix longitudinal grooves,
and terminated with fix fm;Ul notches, ftyle fubulate, ftiginas
(harp, capfule globular, an inch in diameter, fix-grooved,
fix-notched at the edge. This fpecies differs from the former
in its woolly leaves, and tubulofe flowers. It is a native of
Peru.

All thefe are ftovc-plants, and may be propagated by
parting the roots in Autumn. Tiie firll is more hardy than
the third, and may be treated as a greeu-houfe plant, but it
will flower and ripen its feeds better under the glafs of a hot-
bed frame, freely admitting air: it is more ufually raifed
from feeds fown in the Spring in a pot of light earlli, ou a

ALT

gentle hot -bed, either of dung or tan. Curtii Mag. Mar-
lyu's Miller.

ALSUNGEN, in Ci^^ni;)^); a lake of Sweden, in the
province of Halland, from wliich the rivtr Fai.k t nberc
iflues, and bv which river it comrmmicates with the fia,

AI.SWANGEN, a town of Poland, in the duchy uf
Courland, four leagues well of Cjuldingeii.

ALSVVEDE, a diilrid of tiie prefeaurate of Reinc-
berg, ill the principality of Mindcii, in Wcilphalia, tonllA-
ing of five parilhes, the inhabitants of which are employed
in agricultmc and the breeding of cattle.

ALSZA, a fmall place of Turkey in Europe, belonging
to a tribe of Tartars, bei.vixt the Niepcr and Black Sea.

ALT, a river of England, which runs into the Irlrti iVa,
7 miles weft of Ormfliirk, in the county of LancalLtr.

Ai,T, formed of ii//uj, high, in Aiiifu; a term applied to
the high notes in the scali.. See alfu Diagkam.

AuT-UuN/. LAI', JiolrJIiivia vaui, in Geri^it>''hy, a town
of Bohemia, in the circle of Bmizlau, or Bulcflawlko, founded
by Wratillaus in 915, and improved by his fon lloleflaw the
Cruel ill 937, but reduced by the troubles in the 15th aud
ifjth centuries to an inconliderable place. The collegiate
church of St. Cofnuis and Damian is very ancient.

AtT-CLObTiiK, a town of Germany, in the circle of
Lower Saxony and duchy of liremeii, \z miles fuulh-eaft of
Stade.

Alt-Ranstadt, or 01d-Raii(liuU, a town or parochial
village of Germany, in the circle of Leiplic, two leagues
from Leiplic, famous for a tie.ity concluded in 1706 be-
tween Charles Xli. of Sweden, and Augnllus II. king of
Poland ; and for the ftipulalion with the Imperial plenipo-
tentiary. Count W'naiilaw, in 17C7, on account of the reli-
gious freedom of liie Proteilant inhabitants of the duchy of
Silefia.

Alta, a town of Sv.-eden, in Helfnigland, on the fron-
tiers of Geftricia.

ALTEBA, in jltic'ient Geography, a place of Africa, iu
Numidia.

ALTAI, or Alt AY momilains,\n Geography, are a chain of
mountains in the northern part of Afia, ranking among the
moll extenfive on the globe, and vying in length even with
the Andes of South America, which extends from about the
70th to the 140th degree of longitude eall from London,
or about 5000 miles. The feveral ridges and branches of
this immenfe chain of mountaini; are dillinguiftied by differ-
ent appellations, under which they will be noticed in the
courfe of this work. The Altay mountains are called by
the Chinele Altai-alin, and Ghin-fliall, which fignihes the
Gold Mount. Tiiey are divided into the Great and the
Lefler Altay. Tiie former fcparates the Mongolian Tar-
tary from the empire of the Sooiigorian Kidmiics, ai.d a
fmall part of Bukharia toward the weft. This range pro-
ceeds in vaiious windings toward the nortli-north-ealt,
throwing out feveral conliderable ridges, between which are
the main lources of the Yenifei, Oby, and Inifh, thi-ougb
Soongoria to the north-north-weft, where they enter m
conjunaion with the LefTir Altay. The Lifter Altay fc-
parates Soongoria from the government of Kulhyvau,
through which the abovementioncd flrcams purfiie their
courfe over a great extent of couiitiy. The great chain ol"
the Altay mountains commences with BoGuo, one of its
hlgheft points, piifles over the fources of the Irlifh, north-
weiiwaid between that and the lake Tclet/.koi-Ozcro,
unites beyond the Wnilci with the Sayase mountains and
thdfe of Baikal, and in Daouria with the Argulinian ir
KfRTSHiNSKoi mountains, fixing the limits between Si.

5 F 2 beria

A L T

ALT

beria and the Clunerc empire fiom tlie Iitirti to the Amur,
and runj on, witli divergent hraiiclies, to the mountains of
Okhotsk, and to thofe of KAMTSCHATKA,;ind of the Ku-
Rii.E and Ai,r.i»TAN iihmds, terminating in the promontories
and roeky fliores of Cape Tschutski, the boundary of
Afia; unlefs we fuppofe the niountainous and rocky iiland
of Kurilc and Japan connefted with the mountains which
reach from Tibet to China. The portion of the Altay
mountains that properly belongs to Ruffia, may be diilri-
buted into two parts ; one of wliich comprehends the entire
fpace between the Irtifli and the Oby, and the other the
fpace between the Oby and the Ycnifei. The former may be
denominated tlie Kolhyvan, and the latter the Kufnetzkoi
moimtains. Both include the greater part of the government
of Kolhyvan ; and the former half might, on account of its
mineral wealth, be called, by way of eminence, the Altaian
Ore-mountains.

That pari of the Altaian chain, which feparates the go-
vernment of Kolhyvan from the Chinefe Soongoria, is di-
vided into two great branches ; one from the Irtifh to the
lake Tcletzkoi and the head of the river Abakan, is pro-
perly the Lefl'er Altay, or Khrebet Khalta, and the other,
from the Abakan to the Yenifei, is called Sabinfl<oy Khre-
bet. In the former are the greatefl elevations of the Kolhy-
vanian, and in the latter thofe of the Kufnetzkian moun-
tains ; and thcfe form the bafis of all the ribs or ridges that
flioot out to the north-weft and to the north, which at
laft lofc thcmfclves towards the Icy or Frozen Ocean
in extenfive plains ; while toward the' fouth they ftill
continue to foar to an uncommon height over a long and
broad extent of territory. In the midft of thefe lofty moun-
tains, fays Dr. Pallas, and on the frontier line between the
Soongorian and Mongolian deferts, Bogdo-Dola, or Bogdo-
Ahm, q. d. the Almighty Mount, fo eminently famous
among all thefe nations, lifts its pointed heads ; which, if
not one of the higheft, is yet, by its craggy, fteep, and irre-
gular form, with the appearance of having been thrown up
by fomc violent agitation of the earth, the mofl; ftriking of
the elevated mountains of this region. North-weft from it
the principal mountain as far as Altain-Kul, or Teletkoi-
Ozero, is called the Golden Mountain. Eaftward towards
Mongoley, more to the fouth, runs a large mountain Chan-
gay, and fouthwards a fnow mountain Muffart, which con-
netts either with the Tibetan, or with the northerly moun-
tains in India. To the weft the chief mountain throws out
an arm, moftly bai'e of forefts, and ftudded, as it were, with
rocks, called AUakoola, /. e. the chequered mountain, by
the Tartars Ala-Tau, which joins with the Kirghiftzian
Alginflioi-Sirt. The Great Altay mountains are properly
connefted, as we have already obfcrved, with the mountains
of Tibet by the Muffart, or by other chains ; for all the de-
ferts between Siberia and India, and the eaftern Bukharia, are
merely alternate hills and plains, and very rocky. Befides,
it is evident that the Altay mountains muft make an unin-
terrupted partition between the Weftern Steppes and the
eaftern regions, becaufe the. Steppe animals, particularly the
antelopes or Steppe-goats, ftiun the mountains, and even in
Afia go no further than to the weftern range of the Altais,
and are come from it northwards to the woody regions of
the Oby. The fnow-mountain, which appears northwards
o.n the Siberian frontiers from the Irtifhtau between the
BuktaiTna and the Katunia, and quite into the angle formed
by the rivers Ina and Belaia, which flow into the Tiharifti, is,
as it were, a branch or nook of the Great Altais, and is by
feme ufually called the Little Altay, and darts its ftupendous
pinnacles above the clouds. This mountain is bold and

6

ftcep, and appears, cfpccially in the vale where the Ina
unites witii the Tegerek, like a towering wall, behind which
the mountains rife higher by irregular gradations, and at laft
ftrike up in feparRte points. The fame fteep vale parts the
Sehiftole mountain from the Chalkftone mountain, which
fpreads from hence northwards between the Ina and the
Loktefka quite to the Tftiaridi. Over the Schiftofe moun-
taiu the fnowy fummits rife conically out of a granite mixed
with fchorl and mica. The fame granite {hews itfelf again in
chalky promontories, with the fehiftus lying upon it, and
forms the Revnovaio Sopka, as it is called, at the fame
time, in the bofom of the chalky mountains, the ilill more
elevated Sinaia Sopka. Granite appears likewife throughout
in low, rocky, craggy mounts and finglc cliffs, between the
rivers Ubo and Alay, where the mountain has already fallen
deep towards the plani, and likewife about the lake Kolhy-
van. The rich ore-mountain of Kolhyvan places itfelf imme-
diately between and about this granite-itock, and thence
arifes an apparent confufion in the ftrata through the whole
of the ore-mountain.

The principal part of the Altay mountains that belongs to
Ruffia is the range of Kolhyvan, or the proper ore-moun-
tains of Altay; and thefe may be arranged into the Kolhv-
V k-AO-ninJhrefcnJkoi, the Korbolik inskoi, the Alaiski An,
the OuBiNSKOi, the Buktarminskoi, the Tf.letskoi,
and the Tshariskoi mountains. The fecoud range of the
Altaian mountains belonging to Ruffia, or the Kulnetzkoi
mountain, is ftill almoft imknown and inacccffible. Its two
fubdivifions are the Kufnetzkoi proper and the Krafno-
yarilcoi mountains, which together fill the whole large fpace
between the Oby and the Yenifei. The fuuimits of thefe
mountains, between the fources of the Tom and the Yus,
and on the Mrafs, are covered with pei-pctual fnow. Their
inward conftitution is not accurately afcertained ; but va-
rious forts of granite, porphyry, jafper, breccia, iahue
chalkftone, marble with fea-ftiells, horn-ftone, flute, ferpen-
tine, mountain-cryftal, chalcedony, and cornehans are brought
from hence. On the Kondoma are produftive iron-mines ;
about the fource of the Tftiumifli the Salahirftoi filver-mines
continue to be worked with fanguine expeftations ; and at
Krafnoyarflv feveral copper-mines were formerly wrought,
but are now abandoned. In the laft-mentioned circle is alfo
an eftablifliment for fmelting iron ore. The higheft moun-
tains to the fouth are about the fource of the Abakan, where
the famous mount Sabin, or Shabina Dabahn raifes his fnowy
liead to a ilupendous height, and the litem on the borders
of the brook Shantigyr.

The greater part of the Altay mountains is more bald
than woody. The largeft forefts are in the low countiy about
the Alay, the Oby, and the Yenifei. The fpecies of wood
are the pinus fylveftris, the birch, the afpin, the pinus pieca,
the pinus abies, the alder, the willow, noble larch-trees, (pi-
nus larix) and cedars. The principal rivers of thele moun-
tains are the Irtifli, and its collateral ftreams the Buktarma,
the Ulba, and the Uba ; the Oby, with its main rivers, the
Alay, the Tfliarifli, the Tftiulym, the Tom, the Katunia, the
Yus, and the Abakan, which falls into the Yenifei. The
upper regions of thefe mounta,ins are uncommonly exuberant
in waters.

The Altayan mountains contain rich gold and iilver fliafts,
and alfo veins of lead, copper, and iron, impregnated with
gold and filver. The moft important filver mines in thefe
mountains are thofe of Kolhyvan. The copper-mine is
alfo confiderable ; befides which the cupriferous filver ore
yields a quantity of copper, the whole amounting to about
15,000 pood a year. In J782 there were coined here

18,753

ALT

iS,793 P""'J of copp.-r. We have before mentioned the
iron fmcltmg-lioufe oFttiis mountain. In the j\ltay there are
neither markets for provifions, nor any tnnltfnieti and mceha-
nics; and therefore the miner mull provide liimfelf with all
necelfaries, wliieh he is enabled to do by means of the nu.
inerous court and church holidays, on which he is releafed
from public labour. With this view the firil objeft of his
attention is to have a fmall houfe, witli a garden and a cow-
yard. When new (hafts are opened, he makes a fliift at full
with a hovel conlhufted with a few flakes, and covered witli
fods, or he digs an habitation and a baking oven in the earth ;
when he has the profpett of being llationary, he ei .'fts a re-
gular houfe to which he brings his cattle and his little pro-
perty. Hence it often happens, that within foreih appa-
rently the mod inacceffible, or in wild and dreary lleppes,
whole flrcets and villages fpring up in a few years. The
miners of the Altay are generally veiy ingenious and indullri-
ous ; and they arc excellent hunters, expert horfc men, and
in cafe of necenhy, the bell foldiers. Tooke's View of Ruf-
fia, vol. i. p. ii8, &c. Vol. iii. § lo.

ALTALA, a fraall dillrict in the fouth-wefl part of
Corfica.

ALTAMIRA, a village of Spain in Gallicia, on the
river Tamara, which gives title to an earl and grandee of
Spain, five leagues well of St. Jago de Compollella.

ALTAMONT, or Altomonte, a town of Italy, in
the kingdom of Naples, and province of Calabria Citra,
near which are gold and filver mines, lo miles fouth-weil
from Caffano.

ALTAMURA, a town of Naples, in the province of
Ban, at the foot of the Apennines, fi.x miles north-eait frum
Gravina.

ALTANUM, in yliu-'ient Geo^^rnphy, a town of Italy,
in the part of Magna Gra:cia, called Brutium, litunle on
the eailern fide, fouth of the gulf of Scylaceum, and north
of Locri.

ALTAO, a town of Africa in Mauritania Caefarienfis,
according to Ptolemy.

ALTAR, Altare, Ara, a place or pile whereon to
ofTer facrifice to fome deity.

Altars are, without doubt, as ancient as facrifices ; and
confequently their origin is not much later than that of the
world. Gen. c. iv. Some attribute their origin to the Egyp-
tians ; others to the Jews ; others to the patriarchs before
the flood. Some remove them as far back as Adam, whofe
altar is much fpoken of by Jewifhand even Chriftian writers.
Others are contented to make the patriarch Enoch the firft
who confecrated a public altar. Be this as it will, the ear-
lieft altars, of which we find any exprefs teftimony, are thofe
of Noah, (Gen. viii. 2C.) and of Abraham, (Gen. xii. 7.)
In the patriarchal times altars were formed of rude mate-
rials, and they were of almoft inftantaneous conftruftion,
and temporary, appropriated to the purpofe for whicii they
were deligned. The altar which Jacob let up at Bethel was
merely thettone on which he relied. Gen. xx. 8. Such was
alfo the altar of Gideon, Judges vi. ; and the firll altar
which Mofes ereited by the command of God was made of
earth. Exod. xx. 24.

The principal altars of the Jews were the altar of in-
cenfe, the altar of burut-ofi'erings, and the alti'r or table of
fhew-bread.

The altar of incenfe defcrlbcd, Exodus xxx. i — 10. was
made of fliittim wood, and overlaid with gold. It was one
cubit fquare, and two cubits high, with an ornament of
gold I'ke a carved moulding round tlietop of it. It was car-
ried about by two bars of the fame wood, covered with gold,
and palling thro-;>ih four golden rings. Its ufe was for

ALT

burning incenfe every mominp and eveninjf ; and it wa» alfo
to be Iprinkled with tlic blood of the facrilices that were of-
fered for the fins ot ignomnce, committed eitlicr by panicu-
lar pcrfons, or by the ptoplc in gcncnl. See MiiCELLAHV,
I'liite 1.

The altar of burnt-offering, defcribcd Exodus xxvii. and
xxviii. was placed towards the call end of tlie court, front-
ing the entrance of the tabernacle, and at fuch a convenient
dillanec from it, that tiic fnioLe of the fire which wan con-
llantly burning on the altar might not fully the furniture
within the tabernacle. Its dimenfioiis were five cubits, or
about 19 feet fquaie, and three cubits, or about five and a
half feet liigh. It was m.idc of fliittim wood plated over
with brafs, and it had four brafs rings, through whicii were
put two bars, by which it was carried on the lliooldcrs of the
priclls. It had four horns at the four cornern ; but critic*
have been divided as to the form and ufc of tlicfc appen-
dages to this altar as well as to tlic former. Some have
fuppofed that they were mere ornaments lefcmbling the ray»
of the fun ; the term tranflated horn fignifying alfo a ray of
light. Others imagine that the corners of the altars were in
fliapc like the horns of an ox or iT.m, &:c. that they ferved
for the altar of incenfe to move and cari^ it about with the
greater cafe and lleadinefs ; and with relpett to this larger
altar, for tying the virtims to them, according to the allulion
of the Pialinill, I'falm cxviii. 27. Michaelis undcrftood by
the horns merely the corners, but this interpretation is incom-
patible with the context. They v ere evidently pnijcftioni
from the corners ; the text, however, does not intorm Ul
whether thty were upright, oblique or cuiTcd. Spencer,
Le Clerc, AViillus, and others, think that they were really
horn-fliaped, like thofe of the ara pacts oi the Romans. Jo-
fcphus fays fo exprcfsly of the altars in his time : zf:^yu.ni
i'iSj)i;'o, xffXTonJii; •TTfjx-iixj'i yina;. De Bell. Jud. lib. it.
c. 5. n" 6. p. ^24. ed. Haverc. The fire of this altar wa«
kept upon a fquare grate, fufponded by rings at the corners,
and poflibly by chains in the cavity of the altar. The di-
menfions of this grate might be about five feet fquare; and
fix inches being allowed for the thicknefs of the fides, there
would be a fpace of about i ! foot betwixt the grate and the
altar on every fide, which would be fufficient to prevent the
wooden fides from being damaged by the fire. The fire on
this altar was confidered as facred, having firft defccndcd
upon it from heaven. Lev. ix. 44. It was therefore to be
kept conftantly burning, and never to go out. Lev. vi. 13,
From hence probably the Chaldxans and Perfians borrowed
their notion of their facred fire, which they prcferved with
religious care and attention ; a cuftom which afterwards
pafTed from them to the Greeks and Romans. This altar wai
beaten down and dtftroycd by the Babylonians at the burn-
ing of tlic temple, but it was replaced on the return of the
Jews from captivity. Ezra iii. 3. It was now a large pile
built of unhewn fto'ne, 32 cubits (;. c. 48 feet) fquare at the
bottom, and gradually decreafing to the top or hearth,
which was a ftjuare of 24 cubits, and one cubit high, made
of folid brafs, and hence called the brazen altar ; for it u not
to be imagined that it was all made of fcilid bitifs. The
afceat up to the altar was by a gentle rifing on the fouth fide,
called the Kibbcfli, 32 cubits in length, and 1 6 in breadth,
and lauded upon the upper benching-in next the iicaith or
the top of the altar. Prideaux's Conn. vol. i. p. 199. See
Miscellany. Plnle I.

The altar or table of fliew-bread, defcribcd, Exod. xxv.

23 30. was made of the fame fort of wood with the altar

of incenfe, and, like that, overlaid and ornamented with gold.
Its dimenfions were two cubits long, one broad, and one and
a half high, ll had a golden border, crown, or rim round

it J

A L T

it ; and upon it were placet! two rows tir p-ies of loaves, or
cakes of bread, fix in a row or pile, whitli wcrt chaiigtd for
ne-.v ones every Sabbath. This table was ulfo funiifhed with
golden dirties, fpooiis, ar.d howls.

Tile Jews alfo g.ivc the name " altars" to a kind of tables
occalionaUv raited in ti-.e coiinlry or field, on which fycri-
iices were offered to God. Thus we often read, that in fuch
and fucli a place an altar was built to the l^ord.

The altars of the Heatliens were at lirll made of turf ;
they wereafierwardi made of llone, marble, wood, and even
of horn, as tlu;i of Apollo in Delos. Before temples were in
ufe altars were erected in groves, in the high.ways, and on
the tops of ;r.ountains ; and it was cullomar)' to engrave upon
them the name or attribute of the deity to whom they were
confecrated. Altars v.ere aU'o of different kinds with regard
to their qualities, the ufes to which they were applied, and
the objecls to which they were appropriated. Accordingly
we read of altars iacrcd to gods, heroes, virtues, vices, difeafcs,
&c. and of inner and outer, ilationary and portable, public
and private altars. They diiTercd alio in their figure, which
was round, fqiiarc, or triangular. All of them were turned
towards the eaft, and generally adofned with fculpture,
baffo-relievos, and inlcriptions, expreffing tlie gedsto whom
they were appropriated, or reprefenting their diiliiiguiiliing
fymbols. For a fpecimen of Pagan altars, fecMisCELLAN Y.
Fldle I. N"^ I, rcprefcnts an altar dedicated to Neptune, a
trident, and two dolphins, the attributes of this deity being
exhibited on its fides. N'' 2, is a four-fquare altar„dedicatcd
to the nymphs, as the infcription informs us. N"' 3, exhibits
a Bacchanal with a thvrlus in his hand, which (hews that tin:
altar was eiecled to Bacclius ; with two other fides it ap-
peared triangular. Each fide of N' 4, which was triangu-
lar, exhibited a genins, one of whom is feen carrying an oar
upon his neck, which feems to indicate that it belonged to
Neptune. N'^ 5, with the infcription " Ara Neptuni," is
of a round figure ; the god is reprefented wholly naked, pre-
ferving the pallium on hii fhouider, and holding in his left
hand a trident, and in his right a dolphin.

Altars differed alfo in tlieir height as well as in their figure
and the materials of which they were formed.

According to Servius, (in Virg. Eel. v. 66. JE.n. ii.515.)
thofe altars fet apart for the honour of the celeilial gods, and
gods of the higher clafs, were placed on fume pretty tall pile
of building, as the altar of Olympian Jupiter, which was
nearly 22 feet high ; and for that rcafon were called altann,
firbm the word alta and am, a high elevated altar. Thofe
appointed for the terreilrial gods were laid on the furface of
the earth, and called «;-,? — and, on the contrary, they dug
into the earth, and opened a pit for thofe of the infernal
gods, which they called poGpi and Xar.yM, fcrobkuli. But this
dillinftion is not every v.hereobferved : the bell authors fre-
quently ufe ara as a gcaeral word, under wliich are included
the altars of the celeilial and infernal, as well as thofe of the
terreflrial gods. Witnefs Virgil, Eel. v.

" En quatuor aras."

Where arts plainly includes altana ; for whatever we make
of Daphnis, Phcebus was certainly a celeilial god. So Cicero,
pro Quint. " Aras dclubiaque Kecates in Graecia vidimus."
In the great temples of ancient Rome there were commonly
three altai-s. The firft was placed in the fanfluary at the
foot of the flatue of the divinity, upon which incenfe v/as
burned, and libations ofl'ered ; the fecond was before the
gate of the temple, and upon it they facrificed the viftims ;
and the third was a portable altar, upon which were placed
the offering and the facred veffcls.

The Greeks alfo diilinguifli two forts of altars; that

ALT

whereon they f;;crifict.d to the gods, veas called iSi7*'.«, a»d
was a real altar, different from the otV.cr, whereon thiy fa-
crifced to the heroes, which was fnialler, and called scr/ajo,
]\'llux makes this dillinelion ot allars in his Onomallicon ;
ht adds, however, that fonie poets ufcd the word ii7x'''i'^y
for the altar whereon facrilice was offered to the gods. The
Stpluigint verfion docs fometimes alfo ufe the word (t^v-jk,
for a fort of little low a/tar, which may be exprefted in 1 .atin
by cmiiaiia ; being a liearth rather than an iiltar. The
nymphs, inllead ot altars, had aiTja, caves, in wliieh adora-
tion was paid to thein.

Altars and temples aff<irdcd an afylum or place of refuge
for malefactors, and criminals of all defcriptioi.s among the
Jews, Greeks, and Romans ; chiefly to flaves, from tlie cru-
elty of their mailers, to infolvent debtors and criminals,
where it was reckoned impious to touch tliem, and v.henee
it was unlawful to drag them ; but they fometiines kindled
fire round the place, or fhut up the temple and unroofed it.
Hence " ara" is put for " refugium." Ovid, Triil. iv. j. 2.
The altars of the ancient Heathens, as well as thofe of the
Jews, were adorned with horns, to which the viftims were
fallencd, and criminals v. ho fled for refuge to the altar laid
hold of the horns. The ancients alfo, on foleran occafions,
as in making alliances, and confirming treaties of peace,
fwore upon and by them. For claffical authorities to thefc
feveral facls, fee Adam's Rom. Ant. p. 327. Harwood's
Grecian Ant. p. 140, &c.

The altar, bearing an infcription, " To the unknown
God," found, by the Apolhle Paul, at Atliens, aiid men-
tioned, Acls xvii. 23, has occafioned fome difficulty to bib-
lical critics. Jeroni iuppoles, that the infcription on thi.;
altar was not,as St.Paul q'lotes it, "To the unknown God,"
but, " To tiie gods of Alia, and Europe and Africa, un-
known and ilrange gods ;" and that the apoflle has not
quoted the infc;iption exaftly, but dexterouOy applied it to
his own puipofe. Theophylacl and Oecumenius are alio
of opinion that the infcription was " to gods," &c. in the
plural number. On the other hand, Chryfollom and 111-
dore of Pelulium affert, that the infcription was in the
fingular number, as St. Paul quotes it. Learned moderns,
as well as ancient C'hriilian writers, have entertained differ-
ent opinions on this fubjeft. Le Clerc fays, that though
the infcription was in the plural number, St. Paul was in tlie
right to allcdge it in the fmgular number. The occallon
on which this altar was eretted, is thus related by Dioge-
nes Laertius (in Epimen. lib. i. fegm. 110. p. 70, 71.)
About 600 years before Chriil, " the fame of Epinienides
was very great among all the Greeks, and he was fuppoled
to be in great favour Viith the gods. The Athenians be-
ing afflidled with a pellilence, they were direfted by the
Pythian oracle to get their city purified by expiation. Thev
therefore ftnt Nicias, fon of Niceratus, in a Ihip to Crete,
inviting Epimenides to come to them. He came accord-
ingly in the 46th Olympiad, purified their city, and de-
livered them from the peltilence in this manner. Taking
feveral fheep, fome black, others white, he had them up to
the areopagus, and tlien let them go where they would ;
and gave orders to thofe who followed them, wherever
any one of them fhould lie down, to facrifice it to the god
to whom it belonged, and fo the plague ceafed. Hence
it comes to pafs, that to this prefeut time may be found in
the boroughs of the Athenians anonymous altars, a memo-
rial of the expiation then made." By the God to whom
it belonged fome have underftood, " the god next the place ;
others have tranflated the patfage, " to the proper god to
whom that office belonged ; to liim, wlioever he was, who
IhciJd remove the infhftcd pellUcuce." Dr. Doddridge,

(in loc.)

ALT

(in loc.) iinderftands tl>e dirciStion to l>f, "when the ftitcp
lay down, to facrilice tlicm to the god near wliofe temple
or altar they then were." Dr. Lardiier has given a more
fatisfaftory intcrjirctation of tliis palFajje. " Epimenides,"
fays this judicious writer, " took with him up to the areo-
l)agus feveial (lie^p, fome hlack and fume white; and when
he let them go, he dircfted that each one, when it lay down,
" (hould be facvificed to the god to which it appertained or
belonged." Black facrificcs were odcred to fome gods,
white to others. Epimenidcs knew not by what god the
pcililence had been inlhaed upon the Athenians. When he
was delired tn purify the eitr, in order to its deliverance,
he chofe out facrifices of different kinds, black (lieep, and
white flicep, and led them \ip to the arcopagus : and from
that place, the citadel or the feat of tlie fenate, and of the.
court of judicature, he fent out tlie flieep, as in the name of
the whole city or commonwealth to be facriliced, in order
to appeafe the offended deity, whoever he was. A ilieep,
with a black fleece, when it lay down, was to be oflered
to a deity who delighted in fuch facrifices ; a (lieep with a
white fleece was to be offered to a deity, to whom white fa-
crifices were acceptable. By this means he hoped to in-
gratiate the offended deity, whoever he was." From Laer-
tius's relation Dr. Lardner infers, that there were feveral
anonymous altai>- at Athens, and in the adjoining countr\';
and that all thcle allar; were in the lingular number ; for
each (lieep, when it lay down, was to be facriiiccd to the
god to whom it appertained. It appears from the teili-
monies of heathen authors, who lived whilil thefe altars
with their infcriptions fubfilled, fuch as Diogenes Laertius,
Paufanias, Philollratus, and the author of Philopatris,
•which Dr. I.ardner has cited, that the infcription upon the
altar at Athens was in the fingular number : nor docs it
appear that there were any in the plural, " to unknown
gods :" and this infcription feems to have been peculiar to
the Athenians. To the fame purpofe it is obferved, by tlie
ingenious Mr. Hallett, tliat the Athenian altars were
erefted, not to the honour of Jupiter, Mars, Apollo, by
name, but to that particular god, whoever he was, who hail
wrought out their deliverance. Neverthelefs they thought,
that this god, though unknown, was one of the idols of
the heathen world. The truth, however, was, though they
did not know it, that he, who delivered them by his provi-
dence from that dillrefs, was the one infinite fnpreme God.
And tlierefove St. Paul juiUy fays, that the Athenians wor-
fliipped him ; for they w'orlhipped him who removed the
plague, whoever he was ; but the true God removed the
plague ; therefore they worfliipped the tnie God. And
yet, as the apoftle obferves, they worfiiijijied him ignorantlv,
that is, tliey were ignorant of his majeily and power, and
regarded him as no greater than one of their own idols.
Lardner's AVorks, vol. viii. p. ill — 119. Hallett's Notes
and Difcourfes on Texts of Scripture, vol. i. p. 307 — 309-

Altar of AiLim, in AnUqmly, is pretended by fome rab-
bins and others to have been ercfted by the firil man foon
after the fall; when, being overwhelmed with forrow, a
promife \vas made him bv the miniilry of the angel Haziel,
that a Redeemer fhould be fent. In gratitude for this news,
and for a perpetual remembrance thereof, Adam is faid to
have built an altar, and facrificed on it a heifer.

The reliques of this altar have been mentioned by feveral
writers of later ages.

Altar is fometimes alfo ufed among ChrilUans for a
fquare table, placed on the eaiiern fide of the church, railed
a little above the floor, and fet apart for the celebration of
the euchariil.

A L T

Its form is not borrowed either from that of the Hesthen
aitars, or even from that of the Jew* in the temple ; but at
the euchariil was inllitutcd by Jcfu« Cliiill, at hippcr, and
upon a table, the modern altar ii made in form ot a tabic ;
whence it is more ufually, and even more figuificanlly deno-
minated Communion Table.

In cflett the denomination altar is founded on this
fuppolition, that tlie euchariil is a proper facrifice ;
which, though the (landing doftrinc of the church of
Rome, is utterly denied by moll of the reformed. Accor-
dingly, Bilhop Ilidliy, in the reign of Edw. \'I. A. D.
IJ50, iil'ued injunctions for taking down ;dl allan;, and
requiring the church-wardens of ever)' paiilh to provide a ta-
ble decently covered, and to place it in fuch a part of the
choir or chancel as ihould be moll meet, fo that the minillcrs
and communicants (hould he feparatcd from the rell of the
people. The reafons alledged for thit alteration were thefe :
becaufc our Saviour inllituted the Sacrament at a table, and
not at an altar : becaufe Chrill is not to be facriiiccd over
again, but his body and blood to be fpiritually eaten and
drank at the holy fupper, for which a table is more proper
than an altar: bccaule the Holy Glioll, fpeaking of the
Lord's Supper, calls it the Lord's Table ;" i Cor. x. 2 1.
but no where an " altar." The canons of the council of
Nice, as well as the fathers St. Chryfollom and St. Auguf-
tine, call it the Lord's Table ; and though they fometimes
call it an altar, it is to be underllood figuratively. An altar
has relation to a facrifice, fo that if we retai'i the one we
muft admit the other, which would give great countenance
to mafs-prielts : there are many paffages in ancient writers
that fnew that communion tables were of wood, that they
were made like tables, and that thofe who fled into churches
for iancluai7 did hide tliemfclves under them : and the mod
learned foreign divines have declared againil them, as Buccr,
Oeco'.ampadius, Zuinglius, BuUinger, Calvin, P. Mait)T,
Joannes Alafco, Hedio, Capito, &c. and have removed them
out of tl;eir feveral churches, and the Lutheran churches
only retain ihein. Ridley, Cranmer, Latimer, and the
lell of the Englifli reformers were unanimoufly of opinion,
that the retaining of altars would ferve only to nourifh in
the minds of people the fuperllitious opinions of a propiti-
atory mafs, and would miniller an occalion of offence and di-
vilion among the godly. Some of the bifliops, however, rc-
fufcd to comply with the order of council, and fuffered
tliemfclves to be deprived of their bifhoprics for contumacy,
October 1 55 1 . The practice of confecrating altars with
their furniture wasintroduced and vindicated by .^rchbidlup
Laud in the reign of Charles I. but objeded to by Pr^-nne,
as having no higher original than the Roman miffal and pon-
tilical, in both which there are particular chapters and fet
forms of prayer for this purpofe ; and it was alledged that
the praftiee, as well as the arguments on which it was
founded, have no foundation in reafon or Scripture, and arc
contrary to the ufage of the church of England, and the
opinion of our liril reformers. To the antiquity of altars it
was replied, that though the name is ofttn mentioned in
Scripture, yet it is never applied to the Lord's table ; but
a'tars and priells are put in oppofition to the Lord's table,
and minillcrs of the New Tellament, 1 Cor. is. 13, 14. It
wai added, that it cannot be pretended by any law or canon of
the church of England, that it is called an altar more than
once, Stat, i Edw. VI. c. i. which flatute wa? repealed within
three years, and another made, in which the word altar is
changed into table. It was faid, that from the unanimous fuf^
frage of moll of the fathers that lived within 3CX) yearn after
Chrill, and of our moil leanied rtformer;, it appears, that for

above

ALT

above 250 years after Chrift there were no altars in churches,
but only tables ; and tliat they were firll introduced by Pope
Sixtiis II. and that the canons of the popifli council of Aix,
in 1583, are the only ones that can be produced for railing
them in. The practice of bowing to the altar, charged on
the archbifhop as another innovation, was objeftcd to as
popilh, fuperllitious, and idolatrous, being prefcribed only by
popifh canons, and introduced to fupport the doftrine of
tranfubilantiation, and having no foundation in antiquity,
nor approved by any Proteflant writers. Burnet's Hift. Re-
form, vol. ii. p. 150 — 159. Strype's Annals, vol. i. p. 160
— l6z. Ncai's Hill. Puritans, vol. i. p. 44, Sic. vol. ii.
p. 136—145, 4to.

In the primitive church the a/fjrs were only of wood, as
being frequently to be removed from place to place. But the
council of Paris, in 509, decreed, that no altar Ihould be
built but of ilone.

At firil there was but one altar in each church ; but the num-
ber foon increafcd ; and from the writings of Gregory the
Great, who lived in the iixth centm-y, we learn, that there
were fometinies in the fame church twelve or thirteen. In
the cathedral of Magdeburg there are no lefs than 49
altars.

The altar is fometimes fuftained on a fmgle column, as in
the fubten-ancous chapels of St. Cxcilia, at Rome, &c. and
fometimes by four columns, as the allar of St. Sebaftian of
Crypta Arenaria ; but the cuftomary form is, to be a maf-
five of ftone-work fuftaining the altnr-tablc.

Thefe altars bear a refemblance to tombs : to this pur-
pofe, we read in church-hiftory, that the primitive Chriftians
chiefly held their meetings at the tombs of the martyrs, and
celebrated the myfteries of religion upon them. For which
reafon it is a Handing rule to this day in the church of Jiome,
never to build an altar without inclofing the rehcs of fome
faint in it.

In lieu of proper altars the Greeks in procefs of time
made ufe of antimen'sia.

Altar of Prothcfis, is a name given by the modern
Greeks to a fmalL-r, preparatory kind of altar, wherein they
blefs the bread, before it be earned to the large altar where
the folemn liturgy is performed.

F, Goar maintains, that the table oi prothejis was anciently
in the facrifty or veilry ; which he makes appear from fome
Greek copies, where facrifly is made ufe of in lieu of pro-
thefis.

Altar, is alfo ufed, in Church H'tjiory, for the oblations
or contingent incomes of the church.~

In ancient days they diftinguifhed between the church and
the altar. The tithes, and other fettled revenues, were
called the church, ecdcfta ; and the other incidental incomes,
the altar.

Altar, m AJlronomy. See Ara.

A.i.r A^-thajiCy in our jinderil Laiu Books, denotes a
prieft, or parfon of a parifli. In this fenfe the word is fyno-
nymous with church-thane.

ALTARAGE, includes not only the offerings made
upon the altar, but alfo the profit that arifes to the priefl. on
account of the altar.

AL.TARIST, altarijla, properly denotes the vicar of a
church who ferves the altar, and to whom the altarage
or produce of the altar is affigned for his maintenance. Du
Cange.

The altar't/l is fometimes alfo called altarius, fometimes
altar pr'iejl.

Altar I ST is alfo ufed for chaplain.

ALTASRIF, in Literary H'ljlory, the title of a medici-

ALT

nal book written in Arabic, defcribing the method of prac»
tice in ufe among the Arabs.

It was written by Alfaliaravius, an author in the fifteenth
century, and trandated into Latin by P. Ricius in 1519.
Concerning the hillory and contents of the y// Tafrif, fee
Freind, Hift. Phyf. p. ii. p. 1 24, feq.

ALTAVELA, in Ichthyology, the name of a flat carti-
laginous fifli, which, in the Linncaa fyftem, by Gmelln, is a
variety of the Raja Pajlinaca ; with its wings, as they are
called, that is, its thin and flat fides, broad and obtufc to-
wards their lower part. The fiihermen, from the refem-
blance thefe flat fides have to wings, have an opinion that
this fifii can fly. The tail is very (hurt, fcarce being of half
the length of the body. Its fiefh is folid and well tafted,
and it always fells well in the markets. It is caught in the
Mediterranean, and is frequently brought to market at Rome.
Fab. Columna.

ALTAVELLA, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the
kingdom of Naples, and province of Principato Ultra, feven
miles fouth of Benevento.

ALTAVILLA, a town of Naples, in the province of
Principato Citra, eighteen miles fouth-eaft of Salerno.

AL-TAYEF, a town of Hejaz, a diftrift of Arabia Fe-
lix, fituate above 60 miles call of Mecca, behind Mount
Gazwan, where the air is very wholefome, but the cold
more intenfe than in any other part of the diftrift. Its ter-
ritory abounds in fountains, and produces excellent raifins.
The town is fmall, but furrounded with a wall.

ALTCHIRCK, or Altkirch, a town of France, in
the department of the Upper Rhine, fituate on an eminence
near the river 111, five leagues weft of Bale, and nine fouth of
Colmar. N. lat. 47° 8'. E. long. 7° 8'.

ALTDORF, or ALTORFF,a large and handfome town of
Swifferland, and capital of the canton of Uri, fituate in the
valley of the Reufs, and almoft furrounded by fleep mountains
covered with trees, which throw a gloomy fhade over the
town. It has two convents, four churches, and feveral cha-
pels, one of which was erefted on the fpot where was born
William Tell, who is faid to have {hot the apple from his
fon's head in this town. Gefler, a tyrannical governor,
placed over the free inhabitants of Uri by Albert I. among
other oppreflive and initating meafures, fet a hat on a pole
at Altdorf, and required the fame refpeft to be paid
to it as to his own perfon ; but William Tell refufing to
fubmit to this ignominious rcquifition, provoked the indig-
nation of the governor, and was obHged to fecure himfelf
by flight. This circumftance, as fome have reported, laid
the foundation of the liberties of Swifferland, and oecafioned
an union of Uri, Schwitz, and Underwald, in 1^08 for
throwing off the Auftrian yoke ; and in 1315 thefe three
cantons formed a perpetual alliance. This town is 20 miles
fouth-eaft of Lucerne, and 33 fouth of Zurich. N. lat. 46"^
SS'. E. long. 8° 24'.

ALTE' iij bafsc, in Middle Age Writers, denotes fove-
reignty, or a thing done with the fupreme power. Du Cange.

ALTEA, in Geography, a fea-port town of Spain, in the
Mediterranean, on the fouth-eaft coaft of Valencia, eight
leagues north-eaft of Alicant, and 17 fouth of Valencia. It
trades in wine, flax, fiik and honey. It w-as taken in 1705,
in favour of the Archdulve Charles, but loft after the battle
ofAlmanza. N. lat. 38° 40'. W. long, o" 16'.

ALTEN, or Altenbotten, a gulf of Norway, on the
coaft of Finmark, in the government of Wardhus.

ALTENA, or Altonb, a fea-port town of Germany,
in Holftein, on the Elbe, in a fituation favourable for com-
merce. It was burned by the Swedes in 17 12, and after-
wards

A I- T

wards rebuilt and fiirroundcd with walls. It is the port of
the Danilh Euft-India Company ; half a league well of Ham-
burg. North lat. 54". Well long. 9° 39'.

Altena, a town of Flanders, five Icajjucs north-eaft of
Dendermond.

ALTENAU, a fniall mine-town of Germany, in the
principality of Grubenhagen, fitiinte in the Hartz foreil,
near tlie foiirce of the Ockcr, and Ainoiinded by nijj;tre(l
mountains and roeks, light miles fouth of Godar. In this
town there is a houfe for fmclting liber.

A LTE N BEC KEN, or A lt 1' n D k . k v, s , a town of Ger-
many, in the circle of Weilphalia, and biihopric of Pader-
born, three miles eall of Lipi'pring.

ALTENBF. RG, a town of Germany, in the duchy of
Stiria, eight miles fouth of Weitlburg.

Altenberg, a town of Germany, in the circle of Erz-
gebirg, and prefedurate of Altenberg. It is a mine-town,
and tlie tin fupplied by it is reckoned the beft next to that
of the Englilh and Boliemian. The tin mine was difcovered
in 1+58. Great quantities of lace are wove here. It has
repeatedly fuftered much from lire.

AETENBURG, O-var, a fmall well-built town of
Hungary, with a caftle ftanding on a fmall branch of tlie
Danube and Leitha, and fecured by deep and wide moats.
It has an annual fair, which lails a week. It is 17 miles
fouth of Freiburg, and 40 fouth-eail of Vienna. North lat.
47" 56'. Eall long: 23° 15'.

Altenburg, a town of Germany, in'the duchy of Stiria,
on the Sann, eight miles fouth-fonth-well of Windidi Grat/..

Altenburg, or Oldenburg, a town of Germany, in
the duchy of HoUlein, on a river which runs into tlic Baltic,
about three leagues to the eall, 19 leagues north-call of
Hamburg. North lat. 54^^ 18'. Eall long. n° 4'.

Altenburg, a towa of Germany, in the circle of Upper
Saxony, anciently called Pl'ifnc, the capital of a ])rlncipality
of the fame name. It is large and populous, and has a caftle
feated on a rock, which was the rclidence of the former
eleilors and dukes. It was anciently an imperial city, and
the capital of the country of PleifTen. In this town are a
place of education for young ladies of decayed families, a
houfe belonging to the Teutonic order, a gynnafium illullre
founded in lyo^, with a good mufeum and libraiy, an or-
phan houfe, and a houfe of correftion. It is 20 miles fouth
of Leipfic, and 52 weft of Drefdcn. North lat. 50° 59'.
Eaft long. 12° 52'. The principality of Altenburg is a part
of the ancient Ofterlands ; and the foil is very fertile in corn,
and affords good pafture. It has large breeds of horfes, and
plenty of wood ; and its mines yield copper and cobalt, and
other minerals. The dates of this principality arc divided
into thofe of the Altenburg, Snalfeld and Eifenbtrg circles,
and confift of the nobility and towns of theie three diftricts.
Their provincial meetings are held at Altenburg. The re-
ligion of the country is Lutheranifin.

Altenburg, a town in the circle of the ITpper Rhine,
and biftiopric of Spire, two miles north-weft of Brul'chal, and
nine fouth-fouth-eail of Spire.

Altenburg, a town in the circle of the Upper Rhine,
two miles north-weft of Wetzlar, and tw^o north-eaft of
Eraunfels.

Altenburg, a town in the county of Tyrol, nine miles
jiorth-eall of Glurns.

Altenburg, a fmall village of SwifTerland above Brnck,
in the canton of Bern, iituate on tlie river Aar, and known
by its Roman antiquities, and the ruins of Cajlrum Vituknif-
fcnfe.

Altenburg, a town in the archduchy of Auftria, two
miles fouth-weft of Horn.

Vol. I.

A L 1"

Af.TFNBi'RG, Tfutscii, a town in the arehJutliy of

Auftria, near 1 lainburg.

ALTENH.XEEN, a town of Germany, in Carinthia,
with a citadel on the Gurck, four miles north from S. Vrit.

ALTENHO\EN, a town of the aiehduchy of Aullria,
on the Danul)e, four leagues call of Lintz.

ALTENKIRCHEN, a town of the circle of Wcftpha-
lia, and coimty of Sayn, in the prcfeclunilc of the fame name }
both which are fiels of the eledor of Cologn. It is 1 j
miles north-north-call of Coblentz. North lat. 50° 38'. Eall
•""5- 7'' 2-'-

Altenkirciien, is alfo a town of the circle of Upper
Saxony, in the ifland of Rugen, 16 miles north of Bergen.

ALTENMARlvT, a town of Germany, in the duchy
of Stiria, 14 miles north-iaft of Rottenmann. — Alfo, a town
of the archduchy of Auftria, four miles fouth-weft of Baden.
Alfo, a town of the fame archduchy, 24 miles eall of Stey-
rcgg, and 58 weft of Vienna — Alfo, a town of the circle of
Upper Bavaria, on the river Al/a, and near Raftadt.

ALTENRIFl", a town of SwilTerland, in the canton of
Friburg, fix miles fouth of Gruyeres.

ALTENSOLEN ijlaml, lies eaftward of the fouth point
of Maggeroe illand, on the coall of Norway, has a good
road and (hcltcr for all winds, and alfords a paffage for
fliips to tea norlhwafd, without g'ling round the cape. It
is about 3° eaft from Surroy ifland. North lat. 71'^. Eall
long. 26°.

ALTENSPACH, a town of Germany in Swabia, be-
tween tlie lakes of Coiiilancc and of Zell.

ALTENSTADT, a market town in a pitfeiflurate of the
fame name, of Ulm in Germany, feated on the Fils, and an-
ciently belonging to the counts of Spitzenberg.

ALTENSTEIG, a town cf Germany, in the duchy of
Wurtcmberg, Iituate on the Schwarzwalde, 24 miles fouth-
weft of Stntgart, and 32 eaft of Stralburg. North lat. 48'
31'. Eaft long. 8^ 2y'.

ALTENWIED, a town in the circle of the Lower
Rhine, in the aichbilliopric of Cologn, 15 miles north
of Coblentz, 5 eaft of Lintz, and 26 fouth-call of
Cologn.

ALTERANT, or Alterative, in Medicine, a pro-
perty or power, in certain remedies, whereby they induce
an alteration in the body, and difpofe it for health and reeo-
very, by correfting fonie iiidifpofition, without occalloning
any feiifible operation.

Alteratives, therefore, muft generally be cither fuch re-
medics as dellroy fome prevailing acrimony in the />i-iiii^ vite,
or virus lurking in the fluids ; or, as many believe, correCl
various acrimonies difperfed through the mafs of the blood ;
or elle fucii as refolve indurations, or calc'ulous concretions,
and prepare them when thus refolvcd, to pafs out of the
bodv, by the common emundlories, without the fatii til' t being
confdous of any important evacuation.

Alteratives may be claffed under three heads, viz.

1. Such as fubdue virus, or, as many call it, morlijic mat-
ter, in the whole fyftem or a part of it. When the venereal
virus or adlion is fubdiied or removed by mercury, or when
fcrofulous or cancerous acrimonies, as they are called, are
correcled by internal remedies, they fumilli inllances of this
clafs. To the fame head might, perhaps, be referred the
cure of all animal poifons ; the vegetable and mineral ones
commonly require ivacuanis rjfo.

2. Such as change the ipiality or texture of the blood it-
felf, and often fome of the fecretions from it. Thefe re-
medies are generally to be fought lor in diet and regimen,
together with thofe medicines called Tonics ; fuch as bark
and Heel. Sonu; phyfiologifts however believe that the blood

5 G can

ALT

A L T

can only be changed by fir(t changing the a£l:on of the fo-
lids, and this opinion is at prefcnt gaining ground.

1« llic third clafs may be placed inch us aft on the nervous
fyftem, often called Axodyses, Emollients, &c.

If we employ the tenu aheralh-c in a move extended fcnfe,
to denote any means bv which an alteration for the better can
be produced, \vc llioukl be obliged to refer all diet and medi-
cines to this head ; and even with the limitation, of " without
a fenliljle operation," we find it no eafy taflc to decide in all
cafes what remedies Hioiild be included under alteratives.

We think a warm or cold climate may act as an alterant ;
fo may ifTues or fctons ; others go fo far as to fay that eva-
ciiants are the bell alteratives ; others, on the contrary, af-
cribe even the falutary eli'efts of evacuants to their alterative
nature. This has been alledged of mercury in the cure of
the venereal difeafe ; and of it and ipecacuanha in the cure
of dyfenteries ; but it mull be obferved that thefe articles
fucceed bcft when adminiilered in alierar.t dnjcs.

The arrangement of the Materia Meuica, as well as
the modus operandi of remedies, will furnilh much diverlity
of opinion for feveral centuries : it is, fortunately, a ground
of difpute that never has, nor ever will materially injure the
prad'icj of either medicine or furgery.

ALTERATA, in Mufc, a term ufed by the French as
well as the Italians, for temperament, in fpeaking of inter-
vals, and likewife of extreme confonance and dilTonaixe :
as an extreme fharp 6th, a redundant jth, an extreme flat
7th, &c.

ALTERATE. See Sesquialterate.

ALTERATION, Alteratio, in Ph^jlcs, the aft of
changing the circumllances and manner of a thing ; its ge-
neral nature and appearance remaining the fame. — Or, it is
an accidental, and partial change in a body : without pro-
ceeding fo far as to make the fubjtft quite unknown, or to
take a new denomination thereupon. Or, it may be defined,
the acquifition or lofs of fuch qualities as are not effential to
the form of the body. Thus a piece of iron, which before
■was cold, is faid to be ahercti, when it is made hot ; fince it
may ftill be perceived to be iron, is called by that name, and
has all the properties thereof. By this, alteration is dillin-
guifned from gen:ration and corruption ; thofe terms cxprefs-
ing an acquiiition or lofs of the eifential qualities of a thing.

The modern philofophers, after the ancient chemiils and
corpufcularians, hold all alteration to be effefted by means
of local motion. According to them, it always confiits
either of the emiffion, accelTion, union, feparation, or tranf-
pofition of the component particles.

Ariftotle makes a peculiar kind of motion, which he calls
the motion of alteration.

Alteration is ufed, in Medicine, to denote a change in
the ftate and qualities of an animal body, in refpeft of tem-
perature or conllitution, health or ficknefs.

In this fenfe, alteration includes both evacuation sndaccretion.

Alteration is more ftriftly taken for a change in the
quality of the body, contradiftinguifhed from evacuation and
app'iftion.

In which fenfe, alteration is the effeft of medicines called
alterants.

Alteration is chiefly applied in refpeft of the fluids or hu-
mours of the body. When applied to the folids, it is chiefly
to afFcft the humours, or the motions of them.

Alteration is fometimes alfo applied in refpeft of the
vital motions of the body.

Thus fpecifics are applied to alter and reftify convulfivc
and other diforderly motions. The alteration of the hu-
mours is either cxtrinfie, or intrinfic. The former is a change
produced in the fenfible anpearauces, as colcur, thickncit,

and the like: and the latter is a change in the primitive
crails, or conllitution of a fluid. .

Alteration in a fenfe ilill more ftrift, denotes that
convcrfion which the food undergoes, to render it nouriih-
ir.ent. In this fcnfc alteration both includes the digeltion
performed in the ftomach, and the aflimilation in the habit
of the bodv.

It is difputcd among phyfiologiils what the alteration is
which the food undergoes Some reduce it to a mere com-
minution or trituration. — Others aflert a total tranfubllanti-
ation. See Digestion.

Alteration of quantities, among Algehraijls, denotes
what we otherwife call variation, or permutation.

AI^TERATIVE, in Medicine, the fame with alterant.

ALTERCATION, a debate or contcfl: between two
friends, or acquaintance. The word comes from altercari ;
which anciently fignified to converfe, or hold difcourfe to-
gether. Thus, we fay, they never come to an open quar-
rel ; but there is continually fome little altercation or other,

ALTER DO CHAO, in Geography, a fmall town of
Portugal, in the province of Alentejo, 12 milts well of Pon-
talegre, and 84 eall-north-eaft. of Lilbon. North lat. 39° S'.
Well long. 6° 38'.

ALTERE, a town of Flanders four leagues wefl; of
Ghent.

ALTERIO, a town of Naples, in the province of Cala-
bria Citra, 17 miles call-north-eail of Cofenza.

ALTERN, a town and calile of Germany, in the circle
of Upper Saxony, in the county of Mansteld.

Altern, bafe, a term in Trigonometry, contradiftin-
guifhed from true bafe, thus — In an oblique triangle, the true
bafe is either the fum of the fides ; in which cafe, the dif-
ference of the fides is called the altern bafe ; or the true bafe
is the difference of the fides ; in which cafe, the fum of the
fides is called the altern bafe.

ALTERNANTHERA, in Botany, a genus of the tri-
andria monogynia clafs and order ; the charafters of which j
are, that the cahx has five leaves ; no corolla ; fix filaments, j
alternately barren ; the ftigma bifid ; and theyJe^/j- folitary.
There is one fpecies, lix. A. repens. Forflc. Fl. ^g. Arab, j
p. 28.

ALTERNATE, or Alternative, is underftood ofl
feveral things which fucceed, or are difpofcd after each other 1
by turns.

We fay, an alternate, or alternative ofiice, or truft, which is
that difcharged by turns ; fo, two general officers, who com-
mand each his day, are faid to have the command alternately.

In Botany, the term alternate is applied to branches, leaves
and flowers, v.'hen, inftead of being oppofite, they fpring out
regularly one above another : fuch are the leaves of borrage,
or chequered daffodil. See Leaf.

Alternate, in yfritlimetie. See Alligation.

Alternate angles, in Geometry, are the internal angles
made by a line cutting two parallels, and lying on the oppo-
fite fide of the cutting line ; the' one below the firll parallel,
and the other above tlie fecoud.

Thus .V and u, and % and y (Plate I. fig. i. Geometry,)
are alternate angles, and thefe angles are equal to another.

There are alfo two external angles, alternately oppofite to
the internal ones. See Parallel.

A-LTE.Kfi ATE ratio or proportion, is that which the ante-
cedents and confequents bear refpeftively to each other in
any proportion, which has the quantities of the fame kind.

Tims, if A : B : : C : D ; then, alternately, A : C : : B : D.

Alternate, in Heraldry, is ufed in refpeft of the fitu-
ations of the quarters.

Tluis in quarterly eeartele, the firfl and fourth quarters

are

ALT

are a'hrrtjh' ; an>l are iifuiilly of the f.cr.c nntnrf . And the
like holds of ihe fecond and third.

ALTERNATION, in its primary fcnfi-, denotes a fuc-
cefilon by turns.

Ai.TERN'ATiON is iiiorc particularly ufed among ChUnir.s,
fur disjimttion, as in favlng tliis or that.

ALTERNATIONS, \n Aiiihin.ih-, a ti-rm fomctimes
ufeJ to cxprcls the divers chancres, or alterations of order,
in any number of thin";s propofed. This is alio called pcnmi-
fiifion, SiC. and is callTy found by a continual multiplication
of all the numbLi-s, beginning at unity.

If there be two quantities d and />, they admit only of I X 2,
or 2 changes, as ai, ha. If a third c|uantity c be added, this
will ad:r.it of 3 changes with each of the two former ; that is,
it may be hrft, fccond or third in each of them ; and therefore
in this cafe the luunber of ciianges will be i X 2 X 3=6. A
fourth quantity will admit of 4 changes with each of the
preceding quantities ; that is, it may be firll, feeoud, third or
fourth, or the whole number will be i x 2 X 3 X 4=:24. If
the number be n, multiply the feries of natural numbers
i, 2, 3, 4, &c. continually to n, and the kill produ6l will be
the number of alternations required.

Thus, if it be required to know how many changes or aller-
TiaUoiis can be rung on fix bells, multiply the numbers 1,2,3,
4, 5, 6, continually one into another; and thelail produdl gives
the number of changes. See Changes and CoMnis atios.

ALTERNATIVE, is parlieularly ufed for the choice
of two things propofed — In this fenfe we fay, to take the
.{lienia'ive of two propofitions.

ALTERNIA, in ^Indent Geography, a town of Spain,
belonging to the Carpetani.

ALTERS, or Altars, in Ntiuticnl Cfngraphy, are a
ftony fliclf, weftward of Languard I"ort, about a cable's
length and a half, on which there are no more than five or
fix feet of water at low water, fo that fliips fliould keep near
the fort till they have paiTed it, and then edge off a point or
two to the well, till thty come athwart of the north point of
Harwich. Malham's Naval Ga/.etteer.

ALTES, in Aiic'icnt Geography, a town of Peloponnefiis,
Ctuate on th^ Caldaiis, wliicli fell into the river Alpheus.

ALTESSAN, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the
piincipality of Piedmont, three miles north of Turin.

ALTEZEV, or Altzheim, a town and caftle of Ger-
many, in the Lower Palatinate, capital of a territory of the
fame name, fituate on a fmall brook which runs into the Saltz,
I 5 miles fouth-well of Mentz, and 14 noith-well of Worms.
North lat. 49° 40'. Ealt long. 8° 12'.

ALTHA, in yincieiit Geography, a town of Babylonia,
tipon the Tigris, and in dependence upon Apamea, accord-
ing to Ptolemy.

ALTHiEA, A>.5zix of Diofcorides, from a?>So,- a remciJy,
or aASy-vriv to heal, or as Diofco'ides fays Jix to ^toXuxxSt,-
«i'1>i;, from its many excellent quiiUt'ies, in Botany, a genus of
the nianadelpl.'id jKl\'anilria clafs • and order, or the natural
order of column'ifer/e, and malvnect of Juflieu : its charafters
are, that the calyx is a double perianthium, outer fmaller,
one-leafed, unequally novem-fid or nine-cleft, (6 — 12) divi-
fions very narrow, inner femiquinquelid, divifions broader
and (harper ; the corolla is five-pctalled, united at the bale,
obcordate, prrcmorfe and flat ; the llamina have many fila-
ments infertcd into the corolla, anthers fubrenifonr. ; the pif-
tUliiin has an orbiculate germ, ftyle cylindrical and (liort,
liigmas many (20), fetaceous, of the length of the llyle ; the
pericirphim confiits of arils not jointed, forming a flat ring
about a columnar receptacle ; they are deciduous and open on
tlie iufide ; the feed is one, flat-kidney-fliaptd in each aril.

ALT

There are fevcn fpecies, W-s. i . A. r^V'"' "■ c o-nmrvi niai-fli
mallow, with leaves fimplc and downy, (fiibquinqnc-liilicd,
Smitli,) or witlileavts undivided, anprnlar r.nd cottony fWi-
thering): the root fufifonn or fpindle-diup-.d ; tlic (talks
erect, almoll three feel high, (imple, cyl.ndncal, (lender like
a twig, Joliole ; the Ic.ue^ altiriiate, pctiolate, cordaud,
acute, (ub.juin(juelobed, plicated and (orated ; the par.iclcit
axillary, deiife, many-Howcrcd, (lioitcr than the petiole* ;
the external calyx often tcn-clcft, alfo twelvc-tl- ft, the iiii.rr
five-cleft ; the corolla and (lamina arc puiide flelli-co'.ouiud ;
the (ligmas are luimcrous ; the caplules comprtffcd ; tlic
whole herb very foftly pubcfccnt or clothed with a vcrj- foft
wool or velvet, with llellattd inleiwoveii hairs. It is pc-
remral and (lowers from July to September. It grows plen-
titully in fait marfnes, and on the banks of rivei\, and ditches
in Cambridgclhire, Norfolk, and Sufiolk, or the fca-fliorcs
of Cornwall, in Holland, Fiance, Italy, Siberia, &c. There
is a variety of this, with the leaves rounder and not ending
in a point, called by Ray A. vulgari fimilis, folio rctulo
brevi, and found in the i(lc of Ely ; it vaiies alfo with laci-
niated leaves. 2. A. cannalina, hemp-leaved marfh-mallow,
with the lower leaves palmate, (duitated, Ginelin,) upper
digitate, (haliatc, the niiddlelacinia the longeft, Gmelin.)
This has a woody Hem, four or (we feet higli, which pulh
out many fide branches j the leaves are alternate ; the flowti-g
axillary, lefs than thofe of the former fpecies, but of a
deeper red colour, and the calyx much larger. This fcldom
(lowers the firll year, except in a warm fummer. It grows
naturally in Hungary, Iftria, AuHria, Carniola, Italy, the
fouth of France, 5:c. by the fides of wood ; and was culti-
vated here by Gerard, in 1597. 3. A. hirfula, haii-y marlh-
mallow, with leaves trifid, hairy-hifpid, l.Mooth above ; pe-
duncles lolitai-y and one-flowered. This is a low plant, its
branches trailing on the ground, the (lowei-s axillary, fmaller
than thofe of the common fort, and have purplifli bottoms,
the ftalks are woody, and feldom lail more than two years ;
the outer calyx is eight-leaved, the inner as long as ths
corolla, and acuminate ; the corolla crenulate. 1'his fpecies
grows wild in Spain and Portugal, Italy, Auflria, Carniola,
Germany, Swdlerland, and France ; and wai cultivated in
Kew garden in 1683, by Mr. J. Sutherland. 4. A. Ltid'u.'i-
gii, Ludwig's marfli-mallow, alcca of Ray's hilL with leaves
lobed, naked on both (ides, and peduncles collected and
one-flowered This refembles malva alcea ; the peduncles
are axillary from two to five, the outer calyx cight-leavcd,
and leaflets lanceolate, the inner fliorter, qninquefid, vciy
rough, with white villous hairs, y. A. Karbmenfis, Nar-
bonne marni-mallow, with leaves tomentofe on both fides ;
the lower five-lobed, the upper three-lobed, peduncles fo-
litary, one-flowered. The root is perennial, llems arc annual,
from four to '!\% feet in hciglit, round, aiid of the thickntfs
of a finger, hoary with whitifli llellale hairs.; (lipules fubii-
late, acute and cihate ; leaveb alternate, petioled, (errate ;
braCtes fubulate and fniall ; tlic fcgments of the outer peri-
anthium are fix or feven, deeply cut, lanceolate, and acute ;
corolla piirple-rofe -coloured, twice as long as the calyx ;
anthers dark-purple ; fligmas white; and arils Imooth ; firll
dilcovered by Abbe Pourret near Narhonnc, found alfo in
Spain, flowers in Augull and September, and introiluced
into Kew garden, in I "So, by M. Tliouin. (1. A. cors'inhofi,
with leaves fimplc, cordate or angular, and fmooth, pedun-
cles and calyxes hairy, and flowers in corymbs ; a native of
Jamaica. 7. A. rncemofa, Pavonia fpicata of Cavan. and
trmelin, with leaves fimple, cordate, ovate, ferrate, fcabroiia
on the upper furface, and raceme terminating and creel. The
llems arc thick, lliff, five feet high, with many branches,
5 G 2 leaves

ALT

Icsvcs r.ltein.ite on long petioles ; ftipiiles lanceolate and
acuminate ; outer calyx deeply eight-cleft, inner fomewhat
tiibulolc, with live notches ; corolla yellow, double the
Icngtii of the calyx ; the petals oblong, almoil entire,
marked with deeper-coloured ftrtaks ; the fruit compofed
of five bivalve capfnles ; a native of Jamaica. Inilead of
this fpceies Gmclin inferts A. giwnd'ifiora, with cordated,
angulalcd, tomcntofe, patulous leaves, and fuLf.iflorous
peduncles. Martyn. Withering. Smith. Gmelin's Linn.

Cullur.: Tiie Virft fpecies may be propagated either by
feeds, fown in the Spring, or by parting the roots in Au-
tumn, whlcli is the belt I'eafon for the purpofe. It will
thrive in any foil or litnation, but grows larger in moilt
places than on dry land ; the plants, whofe roots fpread
wide, fhould not be nearer than two feet. The fecond
I'pecies is propagated by feeds fown in the Spring, in a dry
foil and fhcltcred fitnation ; this fort feldom continues longer
than two years in England, but as the feeds ripen here, the
plants may be had in plenty. If the feeds of the third
fpecies be fown in April, the plants will flower in July, and
feeds ripen in September ; and they fliould be fown where
they are to remain.

Althjea, \n i\\e Materia Mi'dica. The Althasa offici-
nalis feenis to have been known to the ancients, called by
Diofcorides A^vala or I/9»o-xo?, by Galen E/Sio-jto;, and by
Pliny Hibifcum. It is probably the Hibifcus of Virgil,
Eel. x.-.v. 30, and v. 71.

" Hcedorumque gregem viridi compellere hibifco."

It has been much ufed by medical pra£Utioners in every
country where medicine has been regularly cultivated. All
its parts abound v.ith a glutinous juice, with fcarcely any
fmell or peculiar tafte. The dry roots, boiled in water, give
out half their weight of gummy matter, which is thought
to be nearly allied to gum arabic, tragacanth, ftarcli, &c.
and diflblves myrrh, and fome other refinous fubftances more
readily than gum ; and on evaporating the aqueous fluid, forms
a fiavourlefs, yellowifh mucilage. The leaves afford Icarcely
one-fourth of their weight, and the flowers and feeds ilill
lefs. The mucilaginous matter is the medicinal part of the
plant, and it is commonly employed for its emollient and de-
mulcent qualities. It is recommended for obtunding and
incraffatiiig acrimonious thin fluids, in tickling coughs from
defluxions on the fauces and lungs, in hoarfenefs, erofions of
the ftomach and inteilines, difficulty and heat of urine, the
dvfentery, co!livenefs, and gonorrhcca ; and for lubricating
and relaxing the pafliiges in nephritic and calculous com-
plaints. It has been given in powder, from a fcruple to a
dram, or two, either by itfelf, or in conjunction with other
fubftances of a fimilar nature ; it is feldom adminillered
in this form: but it is taken to better advantage in that of an
infufion or decoftion. Dr. Cullen obiervcs, (Mat. Mtd.
vol. ii. p. 411.) that demulcents of this kind can have no
effeft as fuch in the mafs of blood, or in pafling by various
excretions. The Altlisa has been often applied in various
external affe£lions. The root boiled in honey and chewed
by infants has mitigated difiicult dentition ; and milk, in
which this root, figs and a fmall quantity of faff'ron have
been boiled, has relieved the gums. The decoftion is faid
to be ufeful in ophthalmix ; and a gargarifm made of the
decoftion of this root and figs has been ferviceable in fore
throats. The root, cut and boiled in water or milk, has
formed a convenient and ufeful cataplafm for foftening and
•ipening tumors ; and it has been often added to glyfters.
The root was formerly ufed as an ingredient in feveral com-
pounds of the pharmacopoeias ; but it is now dire£ted only

ALT

in the form of a fyrup. This is prepared by boiling a pound
of the fie.1i roots bruifed in a gallon of diililled water to
one half, and preffiag out tlie liquor when cold ; unc." when
it has fettled for 24 hours, fo that the feculeicies may fnb-
lide, the liquor is poured off, and four pounds of double-
refined fugar being added to it, the liquor is boiled down to
fix pounds weight. This lyrup is employed occafionally in
fome diforders of the breall, and for Uveetening -molli'.nt
decoctions in nephritic cafes. Lewis. Murray. Woodville.

AltH;i;a. See Hermannia, Hibiscus, Lavatera,
Malva, Melochia, Nap-t-a, Sioa, and Waltheria.

Ai.TH-«A Frulex. See Hibiscus.

Alth^a, j-llthita Ohaditm, Orgaz, in AiicLnt Gcogrnphy,
a town of Spain, belonging to the Olcades ; mentioned by
Polybius under this name, but called Cartheia by Livy, in
fpeaking of the exploits of Hannibal.

ALTHAMERUS, Andrew, in Biography, a Lutheran
miniller at Nuremburg, lived in the i6th centuiy, and
attended the conferences at Berne, in 1528, which pre-
pared the way for the reformation in that canton. He
was fo zealous an advocate for j unification by grace, in op-
pofition to the merit of good works, that he inveighed in a
very indecent and outrageous manner againil the apoftle
James, and gave him, almoft, the lie diretl. Grotius cites
a paffage from his " Annotations on James," printed at
Strafburg, in 1527, in which he charges the apollle with
running counter to Scripture, and oppofing his fingle au-
thority againft that of the Holy Ghoft, the law, the pro-
phets, Chrifl:, and his apoftles. Befides fome works in
divinity, he compiled a ditlionary of the proper names in
the Bible, " Sylva Biblicorum nominum, &c." printed at
Bafil in 1535 ; " Concihationes locorum Scripturje," pub-
liflied at Nuremburg in 1535, and at Wittemburg in 1582 ;
and notes upoa Tacitus, " De Situ, moribus et populis
GermaniES," printed at Nuremburg in 1529 and 1536, and
at Amberg in 1609, Svo. Gen. Did;.

ALTHiENUS, in Ancient Geography, a fl;ream of Dau-
nia, in Italy, the waters of which were faid to cure all
forts of wounds.

ALTHE'E, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of ilie Mayenne, and chief place ot a canton, in
the diilricl of Craon, four leagues fouth-fouth-well of
Laval.

ALTHEA, in Entomo^y, a fpecies of Papilio, in
the clafs of Nyuipkales, with dentated brown wings, and
alfo a fafcia and Itriga angular-dentatcd and white, found in
Guinea.

ALTHEIM, in Geography, a market town of L^pper Ba-
varia, in the dittricl of Maurkirchen, eight miles eail of
Braunau.

ALTHEPIA, in ylncient Geography, a fmall coinitiy,
placed by Paufanias, in the Argolide, near Trezena, which
had borne the appellation of Orvea.

ALTHUSIUS, John, m Biography, a German civilian,
towards the latter end of tlie 1 6th century, advanced free
principles on political fubjefts, which gave great offence to
fome of his contemporaries- He was a Proteftant ; and
from being a profcflor of law, at Herborn, he was raifed to
the dignity of fyndic, at Bremen. The fnnd:imeiital prin-
ciples of liis " Politics methodically digeiled," printed at
Herborn, in 1603, are thefe ; " that kings are mere magif-
trates ; that the chief power of every commonwealth is in
the people only ; that it is lawfidto depofe a tyrant, to turn
him out of the adminiltration, and even to put him to death,
if no other remedy can be found, and to chuie another in
his room. He alio compofed a treatife " De jurifprudcntia

Romana ;"

I

ALT

Romana ;" another " De Civili Converfatione ;" and oilier
traas. Gep. Dia.

ALTICA, m Eutomulj^y, a fpecii's of the Cantharis,
with a red tliorax, and violet unfpottcd elytr.e, found at the
Cape of Good Hope.

ALTICjE, a elafs of the pjenus Chrysomela, diftiii-
guifacd as faltatoiy, a:id having their poftcrior thii;Iis i:i-
craffatcd.

ALTIDIUM, in y1n:'ifut Gtography, a place of Italy,
in Uir.bria, north-call of Noceria.

AI^TTKEN, in Ci-ograpliy, a prefiamate of Zurich, in
SwlfTerland, in whi.li is a parochial village of the fame name,
not far from the Thur.

ALTILIA, a town of the kingdom of Naples,
and province of Calabria Citra ; 1 1 miles fouth of Co-
fen za.

ALTILIO, Gabriel, in Bingi-aphy, was born in the
kingdom of Naples, and flourifhed about the end of the 1 5th
century. He died about the age of 60, in 1501. He was
preceptor to prince Ferdinand ; and afterwards employed in
ilate affairs, a^ he accompanied Jovianus Pontanus to Rome,
in order to negociate a peace between king Ferdinand and
pope Innocent VIII. His reputation as a Latin poet at-
traaed notice, and contributed to his promotion to the bi-
{hopric of Policailro. The dillinguiflied excellence of his
Latin verfes led his contemporaries to regard him as a perfon
who was intimately converl'ant with polite literature, and
who had ftudied the ancients with great improvement. In
the delicacy of his elegies and the iublimity of his heroics,
he is faid to have fo much excelled, that in the opinion of
Pontanus and Aaius, he was equal to the ancient poets.
Moll of his poetical performances are loll ; but fonie of them
are preferved in the " Delieis Poetarum Ital." Gen.

Dia.

ALTIMETRY, Altimetria, compounded of alius,
high, and juETfEiu, metlor, to mtafurc, the art of taking or
mcafuring altitudes or heights, whether acceffible or in-
aeceffible.

Altimetria makes the firft part of geometry; including
the doarine and praaice of meafuring both perpendicular
and oblique lines ; whether in refpea of height or dtpth.

ALTIN, in Commerce, a money of account in Muicovy;
worth three copecs, one hundred of v/hieh make a ruble,
worth about four {hillings and fi>f pence llerling.

They have had occafionally altln coins, both of copper
and filver. Thofe of the filver altins under Peter I. had
on one fide the eagle, and on the other, with the date of
the year, the word Altinmk. But for a long time no
more altins have been llruck ; and thofe of filver are now
feldom to be feen.

Altin, or Altvn-koor, Lake, in Geography, a lake of
Siberia, in the government of Kclhyvan, is fituated on a
very confiderable elevation of the Altaian mountains, by
which it is alfo entirely fuirounded. N. lat. 49°. E. long.
105°. It is alfo called by the Ruffians Telctzkoe-ozeroand
Altain-kvd. Its length is computed at 126, and its greateft
breadth at *^4 verfts. From it proceeds the river By, which
at its confluence with the Katunia afiumes the name of
Oby. The bottom of this lake is rocky, and the northern
part of it is fometimes frozen fo hard as to be ijaffable on
foot ; but it is faid, that the fouthern part is never covered
with ice. The water on this lake and the adjacent rivers
rifes only in the middle cf Summer, when the fnovv on the
mountains is diffolved by the heat of the fun.

A-LTiN, a town of Naples, in the province of Abruzzo
Citra ; nine miles fouth cf Langiano.

ALT

ALTINC.AR, among Minrnili/h, a Ipcries of fac.
titiou'i lalt ufcd in the fufioii ami punfication of metals.
The altiiicar is a fort of flux powder. Diverj ways of

prcnaring it are gfyen by Libavius.

ALTING, Henkv, in /f/'<;|iv7/77, wasboni at F.mbJen,
in 15^3. and, havinjr devoted himftlf to the proftdion of a
divine, he was fent 111 1602 to the miifcrfity of Herboni,
where he became a profeflor. In 1608 he was appointed
preceptor to the eUaoral prince palatine, and in i('il2 ac-
companied him to England, where he was introduced to the
acquaintance, among others, of arclihifliop Abbot. In 161 ^
he returned to Heidelberg, where he took liin degree of
doaorof divinity, and was appointed dirtttor of the college
of Wiiilom. At the fynod of Doit, to which lie was de-
puted in 1618, he didinguifhed himfelf by his jirudenceand
eloquence. After his return to Heidelberg, he very nar-
rowly efcaped falling a facrifice, when the city was taken in
1622^ by count Tilly ; for, as he was entering the houfe of
the chancellor, one of the guards met him, and ignorant of
his perfon, threatened his hfe ; " with this battle-axe I have
this day killed 10 men ; Ahing, if I knew where to find
him, (hould be the I Ith." Alting replied, with a refolution
and conllancy of mind, and at the fame time with an allow-
able tvafion, which faved his life : " 1 am a teacher in the
college of Wifdom." When the Jefuits took poflVflfion of
the houfe, he concealed himfelf in a garret, and was fecrctly
fupplied with food, till he had an o])portunity of making his
efcape, and of following his family to He'ilbron. After
the defolation of the palatinate by count Tilly's forces, he
retired to Schorndorf; but here, although fituated among
Proteflants, he encountered new trials. The Lutheran
mmifters of Schorndorff, who were at variance with the
profelTors of Heidelberg, were diflatisfied with the per-
miffion which the duke of Wirtemberg had given to one of
thefe profeffors to refide among them ; and by r. afon of
their jcaloufy and intolerance, Ahing was obliged to re-
move to Embdcn in 1623, from whence he followed his late
pupil, who was king of Bohemia, to the H.igue. Under
the patronage of this prince, and in the office o"f tutor Vi his
eldelt fon, he remained till the year 1627, when he obtained
his pcrmiffion to remove to Groningcii, where he was ap-
pointed to the profeffijrihip of divinity, which he retained
till his death. Such were his talents and charaaer and
l)'.i!)lic fervices, that he was held in very general etiimation ;
but the confufion and troubk-s of that period prevented hi")
taking poffiffion of the office of divinity-pr(>.'"eflbrat Heidel-
berg, to which he was appointed by pi inct- Lewis Philip, ad-
miniilrator of the palatinate. DoineiHc affliaion, occafioncd
by the lots of his elded daughter and his wife, brought upon
him a fetllcd melancholy, whirh, after a few months, p;it
a period to his life, in the year 1644. Alting, though he
was no friend to the innovations introduced at this ncriodby
the Socinians, was of a moderate and peaceable termer, and
indilpofed to difpute and quarrel about trifles. "Adhering,"
as he judged, " to the plain doarine of feripturc, he was
equally defirous to avoid fophiilical fubtleiy ar.d fanr.tical
ferupulollty." His works wue, " NotiE in Dcridem Pro-
blcmatum; Johannis Behm ;" Heidelb. 1618 ; "Loci
Communes ;" " Problemata ;" " Explicatio Catachcfcoa
Palatime," Amdelod. 1646; " Exegefis Augulhn:e Con-
feffionis," &c. Amft. 1647 ; " Methodus Theologi.T Di-
daaica: ct Catachetica: ;" " Medulla Hiilorix Profana:,"
publifhcd under the name of Para-us. Gen. Dia.

Altiso, James, fon of Henry Alting, was born at
Heidelberg, in 161S, and after finifhing his lludies at Gro-
ningen, became profefFor in that univerfity. Attached to

the

ALT

the ftudy of the oriental languajres, he puthimfelf, in i6i^>
under the tuition of a Jcv.i:h Kabbi, at Enibden. Upon
his vilit to England, in '.6^0, he was admitted to clerical
oi-ders bv Dr. Prideaux, bifhop of Woiceiler ; but he al-
tered his purpofe of continued refidence in this country, as
foon as lie received an invitation to the Hebrew prnfcflbrflup,
at Groningen. He returned to Germany in 1643, and ob-
tained confiderable diftindions of honour in the univerfity.
In this fituation a rivalAiip commenced between him and his
colleague, in the piofefTorfliip of divinity, Des Marets.
The fatter was addifted to the fcholaftic pliilofophy and
plan of inrtruclion ; whereas the former devoted himfelf to
the ftudy of the Scriptures and Rabbinical learning, and
acquired a degree of popularity, as a kdurer, which excited
the jealoufy and oppofition of Des Marets and his adherents.
A difi'/Ute between thefe coadjutors, who were now become
competitors and rivals, had for fome time prevailed ; and at
length the dccifion of it was referred to the divines of
Levden. Thefe umpires pronounced Alting innocent of
her'efy, but fond of innovation, and Des Marets deficient in
nicdelly and candour. The civil power was at laft obliged
to interfere, and the penalty of deprivation was decreed
aga'nft thofe divines, who fhould in any ecclefiaftical aflembly
revive the Marefio-Altingian controvcrfy. The n-.agillrates
proceeded by an ufurpation of authority which did net
belong to them, to prohibit even writing for or againft t!;^
judgment of the divines of Leydcn. This breach between
the two profeffors was never thoroughly compromifed ;
though, by the inte^-pofition of friends, a kind of formal re-
conciliation was effedled, while Des Marets lay on his death-
bed. Alting did not long furvive him, but v^as taken off
by a fever, in 1679. He was reproached, in confequence
of his attachment to Rabbinical learning, with an inclination
to become a Jew. His works were collefted fome years
after his death, and pubhdied in five volumes foho, under
-tiie care of Bekker, miniiler at Amfterdam, bj- his coufin
Menfo Alting, burgo-mailer of Groningen, who wrote a
good defcription of the Low Coimtries, entitled, " Notitia
GcrnianioE Inferioris." It is faid that he preached well in
three languages, German, Dutch, and Englifh. Gen.
Dia.

ALTITUDE, in Geometry, the third dimenfon of body,
confidered with regard to its elevation above the ground —
called alfo height or depth.

Altitude of a figure, is the diftance of its vertex from
its bafe, or the , length of a perpendicular let fall from the
vertex t<J the bafe.

Thus, K L [PLite I. Geometry, fjr. 2.) being taken for the
bafe of the right angled-triangle, KLM : the perpendicular
KM will be the altitude of the triangle.

Triangles of equal bafes and altitudes are eq\:al ; and pa-
rallelograms, whole bafes and altitudes are equal to thofe of
triangles, are juft the double thereof.

Altitude, in Optics, is ufually confidered as the angle
fubtended between a line drawn through the eye, parallel to
the horizon, and a vifual ray emitted from an objefl to the
«ye.

For the laws of the vifion of altitudes. See Vision.

If through the two extremes of an objeft, S and T {Plate
I. OptL-!, _fy. 13.) two parallels, TV and SQ_j5e drawn ;
the angle TVS, intercepted between a ray palling through
the vertex. S, and terminating the (liadow thereof in V,
makes, with the right line TV, what is called, by fome
writers, tlie Jtlt'itude of the Luminary.

Altitude, in Ccfmo^riiphy, is the perpendicular height
of an objeft, above the plane of the horizon.

1

ALT

/Ihituclts are divided into aceeffibk and inac:eJsH!.

Altitude, aceeffille, of an objed, is that whofe bafe
you can have acccfs to, fo as to meafure the nearetl dillance
between your ilation, and the foot of the objeft on the
ground.

Altitude, inaccefflUc, of an cbjeft, is that whofe bafe
cannot be approached, by reafon of fom.e impediment ; fuch
as water, or the like.

There are three ways of meafuring altitudes, i-ix. gecme-
triccdly, trigonometric ally, and optically. — The firft is fome"-
what indireft and unartful ; the fecond is performed by
means of inihumcnts for the purpofe ; and tlie third by
(hadows.

The inftruments chiefly ufcd in mcnfuring of altitudes,
are the quadrant, theodolite, geometric quadrat, or line of
{hadows, &c. the defcriptions, applications, &c. whereof,
lee under their refpective articles Quadrant, Theodo-
lite, and Qliadrat.

Altitudes, to tale accejftlle. To meafure an acceflible
altitude geometrically. — Suppofe it required to find the alti-
tude AB {Plate I. Geometry, fg. 3.) plant a llaff, DE,
perpendicularly in the ground, of fuch height as may be
equal to the height of the eye. Then, lying prollrate on the
ground, with your feet to the ftaff ; if E and B prove in
the fame right line with the eye C, the length C A is equal
to the altitude AB. If fome other lower point, as F,
prove in the hne with E, and the eye, you mud remove the
llafT, &c. nearer to the obje£l ; on the contrary, if the line
continued from the eye over E, mark out fome point above
the altitude required ; the ftaff, &c. are to be removed
farther off, till the line CE raife the very point required. —
Thus, meafuring the dillanee of the eye C from the foot of
the objeft A, the altitude is had ; fince CA=AB.

Or thus : at the diilance of thirty, foity, or more feet,
plant a ftaff DE {fg. 4.) and at a diftance from this, in
C, plant another fhorter one, fo as that the eye being ui F,
E and B may be in the fame right line therewith. Meafure
the diftance between the two ftaves, GF; and between
the fliorteft ftaff and the objeft, HF ; as alfo, the differ-
ence of the heights of the ifaves, GE.— To GF, GE,
and H F, find a fourth proportional BH. — To this add the
altitude of the fhorter ftaff, FC. The fum is the altitude
required, AB.

To meafure an accefUble altitude, trigonometrically —
Suppofe it required to find the altitude AB {fg. 5.)
choofe a ftation in E ; and with a quadrant, theodolite, or
other graduated inftrument duly placed, find the quantity
of the angle of altitude ADC. Meafure the Ihorteft dif-
tance of the ftation from the object, viz. DC, and this of
conlequence is perpendicular to AC.

Now, C being a right angle, it is eafy to find the fide
AC ; fince, in the triangle A CD, we have two angles,
•uiz. D and A its complement, and a fide oppofite to one of
them, CD, the fide oppofite to the other may be eafily
found by this canon. As the fine of the angle A is to the
given fide oppofite to it D C, fo is the fine of the other angle
D to the fide required CA. To this fide, thus found,
adding BC, the fum is the perpendicular altitude re-
quired.

Or fay, as radius is to the diftance DC, fo is the tangent
of the angle ADC to AC, the height of the objeft ; and
adding the altitude of the inftrument above the ground, the
whole height of the objeft is found. The operation is
beft performed by logarithms. E. G. Suppofe the angle
ADC = 51° 52', and the diftance DC = 64 feet. Then
it will be,

Radius

ALT

Radius

Log. of T) C, or 64 feet
Tang, of ji'^ 52'

lO.OOCOOO

1. 8061 80
10.105108

1. 9 1 1280

.ACor8ilftet
To which add four feet, the Iieiglit of the eye, and the
altitude required, or A B, is 85} feet.

This may alio be refolved by projedion, thus : draw DC,
on which fet 64 feet from any feale from D to C ; ereft tlid
perpendicular CA ; then make the angle CD A = 51^ 52',
and draw DA, interfefting the perpendicular in A, tiic top
of the objeft. Then CA, meafured ontliefarr.e feale, will
give 8i§.

If there happen an error in taking the quantity of the
angle A, {fig. 6.) the true altitude BD will be to the falfe
one BC, as the tangent of the true angle DA B, to the
tangent of the erroneous angle CAB.

Hence, fueh error will be greater in a greater altitude
than in a lefs ; and hence alfo, the error is greater, if the
-angle be leffer, than if it be greater. To avoid the incon-
veniences of both which, the ftation is to be pitched on at
a moderate dillance ; fo that the angle of altitude DAB,
mav be ncarlv half right.

Again, if the inftrunicnt were not horizontally placed,
but inclined, e. gr. to the horizon in any angle, the true
altitude will be to the erroneous one, as the tangent of the
true angle to that of the erroneous one.

If the plane interpafed between the obferver, and the
objeft be inclined, as infig. 7 ; two ftations C and D mud
be felefted, and ihtir d'llances from the bafe of the objeft,
•viz. CA and DA muft be meafured. Then as the ey.ternal
angle ACB is equal to CD B + DBC, the angle DBC =
ACB - CDB, or DC Bis equal to the fupplement of
ACB ; in either way the angles of the triangle BCD are
known, and one fide DC is given; then fay, the fine of
DBC : DC : : fine of BDC : BC, which will be
known : and in the triangle ABC, the two iides CA and
CB being given together with the included angle, we fliall

B + A
have CB+CA : CB - CA : : tangent of :

tangent of

B

", whence the angles will become known ;

and it will be eafy to find AB the altitude of the objeft as
before. Otherwife, meafure the dillance AC, and the
angles AandC ; and as in the trianglcACB, all the angles and
one fide AC are given, the other fide A B will be eafily
found.

To meafure an accefiible aUitude optically, by the fhadow
of the body, fee Shadow.

To meafure the ahitude of any objeft by optical refleftion,
place a plane mirror, or a vefTel of clear water, horizontally
at C, (^fg. 8.), and retreat from it to fuch a diftance at D,
that the eye E mav juft perceive the image of the top of the
objtft, in the reflefting furface at C ; then, as theic triangles,
having two equal right angles, and the angle ACB=:ECD,
becaufe the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of re-
fleftion, aie fimilar, we fliall have CD : DE : : C A : AB,
the altitude required.

To meafure an acceffible altitude by the geometrical qua-
drat or fquare. Suppofe it required to find the ahitude
AB {fg. 9.) choofing a ftation at pleafure in D, and mea-
furing the diftance thereof from the objeft DB ; turn the
quadrat this and that way, till the top of the tower A appear
through the fights.

If then, the thread cut the right (hadows, fay, as the

ALT

part of thff right fliadow cut off, is to the fide of the qua-
drat, fo is the diftance of tlic flation DR, 10 the pan of the
altitude A E. If the thread cut the vcrftd Ihaduw, fay, »■
the fide of the quadrat ia to the part of the vcrfcd flindow
cut off, fo ib tile diHance uf llic Aation DB, tu the part uf
the altitude A E.

A E, therefore, bcinjj found in either cafe, by the rule of
three, and the part of the altitude BE added to it, the fura
is the altitude required. See Qi'adrat.

Ai.TiTi'DE, to meafure an inaceeffible, gcvmelritnlly, Sup-
pofe A B {^fig. 4.) an inaceefTiblr altitude, fo that you cannot
meafure to the foot of it. Find the diilanec C A, or Fll,
as taught under the article Distance ; then proceed with
the reil as in the article for aceeflible ddlances. See Staff.

To mealuie an iiiaceclTible allitiiJe, Irigonofnetrically.—
Choofe two nations G and E (Jig. 10.) in the fame right
line with the required altitude A B, and at fuch diflancc from
each other, DE, as- that neither the angle EAD be too
fmall, nor the other ftation G too near the objeft AB. With
a proper inftrumeiit take the quantity of the angles ADC,
A EC, and C F B ; and alfo meafure tile interval F D.

Then, in the triangle A FD, we liave tlic angle D, given
by obfervation ; and llie angle A FD, by fubt rafting the
obfeived altitude AFC, from two right angles ; and eon-
fequently ihethird angle 1) A 1", liy fubt ratting the other two
from two right ones; and allbtlie fide FD; from whence the
fide A F is found by the canon above laid down, in th<'
problem of aeceffible altitudes. And again, in the triangle
ACF", having a right angle C, and oblcned angle 1', and
a fide AF, the fide AC, and the other CF, are found by
the fame cnnon. LalUy, in the triangle FCB, having a
right angle C, obferved angle C Y B, and a fide C 1' ; the
other fide CB, is found by the fame canon.

Adding, therefore, AC, and CB, the fum is the altitude
required, AB.

E. G. Suppofe AFC to be 58° and ADC 38'', and
the diftance of the ftations FD to be 26 yards. Subtrart
ADC or 38" from AFC or 58^ and there remains FAD
or 20°. Then, in the triangle DAF, the angles and one fide
beinjr known, we fliall have fine of DAF . fine of ADl'
: : FD : FA /. c. S. 20° : S. 38° : : 26 : a fourth, or
by logarithms, 9.5340517 : 9.7893420 : : i. 414973 :

9.7S93420 4- 1-414973 - 9-5.^40917 = 1-6:02633 the
log. of 46.8. Again, in the triangle A F C, radius : fine
of AFC : : AF : AC, /. t. rad. : S. 58° : : 46.8 :
a fourth, and by logarithms, lo.ooocooo : 9.92S4205 : :
1.6702633 : 9.9284205 -f- 1.414973 — 10.0000000 =
1.5986838 the log. of 39.69 or 39 yards two feet, to which
add the height of the inftrumcnt above the ground, and we
have the altitude required.

By projeftion ; draw a line DC, and at the extremity D
make the angle ADC = 38'^, and draw thehne D A. Then
fet oft' the diftance of the ftations 26 from D to F, and at
1" make the angle AFC = 58", and draw FA to intcrfrft
DA in A : then the diftance cf A from the horizontal hne
DC, applied to the fcate, will give the height.

If two ftations be taken at F and D, L that the angle
AFC may be = 2 A D C, D F will be = A F ; and radius
will be to the diftance of the ftations DF or A F : : S.
AFC : the altitude AC.

If the ftation at F be fuch, that the angle AFC may
be 45'', and the angle ADC = 26° 34', the ahitude AC
will be equal to D F the diftance of the two ftations. For
when AFC is 45°, AC = CF = FD, and DC = 2 AC,
as radius : natural tangent of lO^ 34' : = * '• 1, i- r. : ;
DC (or 2 AC) : AC. ■

We

ALT

We may hence deduce a method of finding the height of
one objeft, as AC, fitiiatc upon anotlier HC. Find, firft,
the wholo altitude AC, and then the altitude of HC, as
above, and tlieir difference will be the altitude of AH, as
e. g. of a fpire above the tower of a lleeple. If the height
of the tower HC be known, any diftance DF in the hori-
zontal line DC may be meafured from H. This is the
rcverfc of the preceding problem.

To meafure the altitude of a balloon, cloud, or other
moveable obiect, C ; (Ji^^. 1 1.) let two obfer\'ers at A and
B, in the fame hori/.ontal plane, take, at the fame time, the
angles CAD and CBD, and meafure the dillance AB be-
tween the ftations ; and then the altitude may be calculatud
as bffore. The height of a cloud may be found by its
fliadow in the following manner. Obferve the cloud C,
(fg. 1 2.) in its direft accefs to or recefa froin you ; and mark-
ing the inllaiit in which the middle of the (hadow is at fome
remarkable point upon the ground as at A, at that mo-
ment take the altit\ide ABC of the middle of the cloud.
Then, take the fun's altitude at your ftation B, and that
will be equal to the angle BAC, and meafure the diilance
between your llation and the place of the ihadow. In the
triangle ABC, as all the angles and one fide are known, it
may be eafily projeftcd, and the height of C above B A may
be determined : or it may be refolved trigonometrically thus :

S. B

fine of C

AC =

rad. : AC

i4

s.c

X AB; and

S.A

; the perpendicular;
S. B : the height.

AB : : fme of B
S.B \

or rad. x S. C : AB : : S. A X

If the cloud be direftly over your head at the time of ob-

fervation, CBA will be a right angle ; and rad. : AB : :

tangent of the fun's altitude CAB : the height CB.

N. B. The cloud (liould be fmall, becaufe the obfervation

muft be at a point. If the cloud be large, its edge as well

as the edge of the fhadow muft he obfei-ved ; and the ftations

muft be upon a large plain or open ground.

To find an inacccflible altitude by the fhadow, or the

geometrical quadrat. — Choofe two ftations in D and H
(j/ff. 9.) and find the diftance DH, orCG; obferve what

part of either the right or verfed fliadow is cut by the

thread.

If the right ftiadow be cut in both ftations, fay, as the

difference of the right ftiadow in the two ftations, is to the
fide of the fquare ; fo is the diftance of the ftations GC to the
altitude E A. — If the thread cut the verfed ftiadow at both
ftations, fay, as the difference of the verfed fliadow marked
at the two ftations, is to the leffer verfed fhadow ; fo is the

diftance of the ftations GC, to the interval AE Which

being had, the altitude E B is alfo found by means of the
verfed ftiadow in G ; as in the problem for acceffible alti-
tudes. Laftly, if the thread in the firft ftation G, cut the
right fliadow, and in the latter, the verfed fhadow ; fay,
as the difference of the produftof the right ftiadow into the
verfed, fubtrafted from the fquare of the fide of tlie quadrat,
is to the produA of the fide of the quadrat into the verfed
fhadow ; fo is the diftance of the ftations GC, to the alti-
tude required AE.

The utmoft diftance at which an objeft may be feen in
the horizon, being given, to find its altitude.

Snppofe the top H of a tower FH {Jig. 13.) juft vifibte
at E, the diftance EF being 25 miles; and fuppofe the
circumference of the earth to be 25000 miles, or the radius
3979 miles, or 21009120 feet. Then 25000 : 25 : : 360°
J 21' 36" =the angle EGH} and radius : fecant of the

ALT

angle G : : EG : GH = 21009536 feet ; and 21009536
— 21009120 =: 416 feet or FH the height of the tower.

Otherwife. — In thu right-angled triangle G EH, GH'or
GF' + 2 OF X FH + FH' = GE' -t- EH'. But GE
being = GF, 2 GF X FH -!- F,H^ = EH', or, FH being
comparatively very fmall, 2 G F x F H = E H" = E F',

EF'
and FH =: "TTT^' but 2 GF, or the earth's diameter, is

2vTi.

EF' . . EF'xi76o

79,58 miles, therefore ^= FH in miles, and 5

'-^■^ . 795*^ 7958

= FH in yards.

Or, the altitude FH may more eafily be found thus.
The horizon dips nearly eight inches or f of a foot, at the
diftance of one mile, and according to the fquare of the
diftance for other intervals ; therefore, as i' or 1 : 25' or
625 : : f : f of 625 or 416 feet.

The method of taking confiderable terreftrial ahitmles,
of which thofe of mountains are the gixateft, bv means of the
barometer, is very eafy and expeditious. This is done by
obferving on tliL- top of the mountain how many inches, &c.
the mercury is fallen below what it was at the foot of the
mountain. When this is done, you will have its altitude by
the help of a table calculated for that purpofe. A very
accurate table of this kind may be found in the Hift. de
I'Acad. Roy. des Scien. 1703, and 1705, calculated by M.
Caflini ; and alfo in the Phil. Tranf. Eames's and Martyn's
Abr. vol. vi. p. 34. See Barometer.

Altitude of the eye, in Perfpedi-ve, is a right line let
fall from the eye, perpendicular to the geometrical plane.
See Perspective.

Altitude, in AJlronomy, is an arc of a vertical circle, in-
tercepted between the fun, moon, ftar, or other celeftial
obieft', and the horizon.

This altitude may be either tnii or apparent. If it be
taken from the rational, or real horizon, the altitude is faid
to be true, or real; if from the apparent or fenfible horizon,
the altitude is apparent. Or rather, the apparent altitude is
fuch as refults from obfervations made at any place on the
furface of the earth, and the true is that which has been
correfted, on account of the refrattion and parallax.

The true altitudes of the fun and fixed ftars differ but very
little from their apparent altitudes ; becaufe of their great
diftance from the centre of the earth, and the fmallnefs of
the earth's femidiameter, when compared with it. The
quantity of refraftion is different at different altitudes, and
the parallax is different according to the diftance of celeftial
objects ; in the fixed ftars it is too imall to be obferved ;
that of the fun is about 8f feconds, and that of the moon
about 52 minutes. The altitudes of the heavenly bodies
are obferved by a quadrant or fextant, or by the ftiadow of
a gnomon, and by various other ways may be found without
a quadrant, or any the like inftrument, by ereCling a pin or
wire perpendicularly as in the point C {^AJlronomy, Plate I.
Jig. 5.) from which point you have defcribed the quadrantal
arc A F. Make C E equal to the height of the pin or
wire, and through E draw ED parallel to CA, and make
it equal to CG, the length of the ftiadow ; then will a ruler,
laid from C to D, interfetl the quadrant in B ; and B A is the
arc of the fun's altitude, when meafured on the line of chords.
The fun's altitude may be computed by the following
rule, propofed by Mr. Lyons for nautical purpofes. By
the rules in the Nautical Almanac, for 177 i, fisd the lo-
garithm ratio ; fubtraft it from the rifing found anfwering
to the given diftance of time from noon, in the tables of the
fame Ahnanac ; the remainder is the logarithm of a number,
4 which

A L T

wliich fubtraficU fioni tlio natural fmo ui tli« fmi". meridian
altitiule, leaves^ tin; iiatinal fiiif of the akitiiJc at tlie i\:.
quirtd time. For, finding tlic altitude of the inoon or a liar,
he gives the foliowinjr nile. Tiom the tables above nieii-
lioned, take out the rifmg, oorrefpomlinjr to the lioraiy
angle in the dilhince of time from the liar's palling the me-
ridian ; add to it the iogarithmie eofine of tin; liar's decli-
nation, and the logarithmic cofme of the latitude of the
place ; the fiim, abating twenty from the index, is the lo-
garithm of a number, which fiihtradcd from tlie natural
line of the Rar's meridian altitude, leaves the natural line of
the altitude at the given time. Thefe rules are of great im-
portance in determining the longitude at fea. See Naut.
Aim. for 1778.

In taking of altitudes from the vifible horizon, where
great exaftnefs is required, an allowance is to be made for
refraftion, and the height of the obferver's eye above the
furface of the fea. To find the altitude of the liars, ixc.
by the globe, fee Globe.

An irregularity hasbeen obferved in the apparent altitudes
of the liars near tlie meridian. On fome ocealioiis, when
they are mounting towards the meridiaH, they appear to fall,
and after paffing the meridian, to rife. Hill. Acad. Scicnc.
1719. p. 75.

M. Parent fuggefts a new method of taking altitudes at
fea, by a common watch. It is obvious, that in an oblique
fphcre, the difference between the riling and fetting of two
flars, in the fame meridian, is greater, as they are farther
diilant from one another.

Now the allronomical table furnifhing us with tables of
the right afcenlions and declinations for the fixed itars, it is
eafy, atter obferving the difference of time between the
rifing of two ftars, to diftinguilli that part of the difference
which accrues from their different pofition from that which
arifes from the obliquity of the fphcre But fucli differ-
ence is the preeife height of the pole of the place of ob-
fervation.

Indeed, the fhip not being immoveable, but changing
place between the two obi'ervations, feems to lay the me-
thod under fome difficulty ; but to this M. Parent anfwered,
that a fmall alteration either of the (hip's longitude or lati-
tude, will make no fenfible error ; and that if file have gone
a large dillance between the two obfervations, it is eafy
leckoning how much it is, and accordingly allowing for it.
See Sailing.

Altitude, meriJian. The meridian being a vertical
circle, a meridian altitude, that is, the altitude of a point
in the meridian, is an arch of the meridian intercepted be-
tween it and the horizon.

If HO [j'ljlronomy, Plate I. Jig. fi.) be the horizon, and
TIZ O the meridian, then the arc H E, or the angle HC E
-.vill be the meridian altitude of an objeil in the m^'ridian at
the point E.

To obferve the meridian altitude of the fuo, of a flar, or
other phenomenon, by means of the quadrant, fee Meri-
dian /lllituile.

To obftrvc a meridian altitude by means of a gnomon,
fee Gnomon.

Altitude, or elevation of the pole, is an arc of the me-
ridian OP (Jig. 6.) intercepted between the pole P and the
horizon : or the angle OCP.

The altitude of the pole coincides with the latitude of
the place ; and may be found by obierving the meridian alti-
tude of the pole flar, when it is both above and below the
pole, and taking half the fiim, after it has been correfted
ua account of refradion. Or the fame may be found

Vol. I.

A L r

by means of tUc declination, and meridian altitude of the
fun.

ALTiriDr, nt flnutfion 9/ the equator, \t the romplemcnt
of the altitude of the jwie t.) a quadrant of a circle. Or,
it ii the angle IICE (^/f^. r,.) „r arc H E of the mcridi.1.1
between tlie iiori/on and the equator at E, and equal tu
ZP, tlie co-latitudc of the place.

Ai.Ti ruDE of the Irnfirt aiuounti, to the fame with \vh»t
is otherwife called the folllitinl aliitud.' of the fun, or his
meridian altitude when in the folllitial point*.

Altitude of the h'iritoti, or of liars fccn in i(, ii va-
riablc by the retraftion, according to the quantity of which
the horizon is, more or kfs, cither elevated or dtprtlfcd.

Altitude of the nonagejinuil, 'n the alliiuHi- of the 90th
degree of the ecliptic, counted upon it from the point
where it intcrfefts the horizon, or of the middle or highell
point of it which is above the horizon, at any time ; and it
is eiiual to the angle made by the ecliptic and horizon where
they intcrfcft at that time. See Nonagesimal.

Altitude, rtfratiion of, isan arc of the vertical circle,
as S J {Ajlronomy, Pldlel. Jig. ";.) whereby the altitude
S E, of a liar or other celellial body, is incrcafcd by means
of the refraftion. This is different at different altitudes, being
nothing at the zenith, and greatcil at the horizon, where it
is about 33'. See Refraction.

Altitude, parallax of, is the difference Cli {fig. 8.)
between the true and apparent place of a liar ; or the differ-
ence liC, between the true dillance of a flar A B, and flic
obferved dillance AC, from the zenith A. The parallax
dlminiflies the attitude of a flar, or increafes its dillance front
the zenith. This arc, or the angle miafured by it, is cvi-
dently lef;, as the celellial body is farther diilant from the
earth, and alio lefs, for the lame body, as it is higher above
the horizon, being greatell there and nothing at the zenith.
To find the parallax of altitude, &c. fee Parallax.

Altitude of the cone of the earth' s or moon' .< Jhadotv denotes
the height of the fliadow of one or the other in an eclipfe,
and is meafured from the centre of the body. It is found
by this propofiLion : as the tangent of the angle of tlir fun'i
apparent femidlameter is to radius, fo is one to a fourth pro-
portion-al, which will be the height of the (liadow in fcmi-
dianaeters of the body. The greatell height of the earth's
fhadow is 217.S femidiameters of the earth, when tUe fun
is at his greatefl dillance, or his femidiameter fubtends an
angleof about 15' 47"; and the height of the fame is 210.7
femidiameters of the earth, when the fun is ncarcll the
earth, or when his fcmidiameter is about 16' 19": and be-
tween thofe limits it is proportional to the intennediate
dillances or apparent femidiameters of the fun. The alti-
tudes of the Ihadow of the earth and moon are nearly as
1 1 to 3, the proportion of their diameters.

Altitude, ov exaltation, in AJlrology, denotes the fccoiid
of the five effenlial dignities, w hich the planets acquire by
virtue of the figns in which they are found.

Altitude of motion, in Alechanics, is a ttrm ufed by Dr.
Wallis, for themeafureof any motion, ellimated according
to the line or direelion of the moving force.

Altitude, thterminalive, is fomelinies ufed for the
height, whence a falling body acquires, by acceleration, a
certain velocity. Hcnnaii. Phoron. lib. i.

ALTiTt;DE, in fpcakiug of fluids, is more frequently ex-
preffed by the term depth.

The ingenious Dr. Hales, in his vegetable Statics, pro-

pofed a method of meafuring unfathomable depths of the

fea ; on the principles by which Dr. Dcfagnhers contrived

an inllrument called a stA-r; age, which was tried before

5 H tlic

ALT

the Royal Society ; and is d-fcribed in the Phil. Tranf.
N" 405. A more particular dcfcription of this inftrument
bv Dr. Hales himft.lf is as follows.

'Suppofe A B {Mljhilnny, Phile I. fs- !•), to be an
iron tube, or mudvct-barrcl, of any length, as fifty inches,
having its upper end A well dofcd ; if this tube be let
down in this pofition about thirty-three feet into the fea, a
column of water of that height is nearly equal to the mean
weight of our atmofphere, and, confequeiitly, from a known
property of the air's elallicity, it will be compreffed into
half the fpacc it took up before, fo that the water will alcend
half way up the tube ; and if the tube be let down thirty-
three feet deeper, the air will be covpreflTed into | of its
firll dimenfions, and fo on i, j, i, &c. the air being con-
ftantly comprefTible in proportion to the incumbent weight ;
whence by knowing to what height the water has afcended
in the tube, we may readily know to what depth the tube
has defcendcd into the fea.

Now to nieafure the depth of one of thefe columns of
fea-water : firft, by a line let the iron tube, with a weight
at its bottom, fink about thirty-three feet, which depth in
fait water will nearly anfwer to the weight of the air at a
mean height of the barometer ; then draw up the tube, and
obferve how far the water rofe. If thirty-three feet of
water be equal to one atmofphere, then will the water rife
fo high as to fill exactly one half of the tube. But if the
water rife higher or lower than half-way, then, by the rule
of three, fay, as the number to which the water rifes is to
one, fo is thirty-three to the number of feet, meafuring the
depth of the column required. For example, fuppofe the
water rifes, wlien the tube is let down thirty-three feet,
only -i?o of half-way, then fay, 9 : 10 : : 33 : 36^ feet
the depth of each column, which being once known, the
number of columns of water is to be multiplied by this
number of feet, whereby the depth of the fea in feet will
be known.

But fince, when the inftrament has defcended to the depth
of 99 columns, or 99 times 33 feet, the air will be com-
preffed into the -j.^ part of ^o inches, that is, into half an
inch, the divifions both for fome fpace below and alfo above
that will be fo very fmall, that the difference in depth of
feveral columns of water will not be fenfible. So that an
inftrument of no greater length than this vvould fcarcely
give an accurate ellimate of half a mile's depth, that is
2640 feet, or 80 columns depth of water. The lengthening
of this inftrument to 4, 5, or 10 times this length would
obviate this defeft, and make the difference of the degrees
of defcent much more fenfible. But fince it is imprafti-
cable to make a metalline tube of fo great a length, and
if it were made, it would be fo unweildy as to be eafily
broken, the difficulty may be obviated in the following
manner.

Let there be a globofe metalline body of iron or copper,
nearly of this form [Jig. 2.) K, L, M, N, Q, whofe
capacity within may be equal to nine times the capacity of
the metaUine tube, Z, K, L ; let this globofe body be
firmly fcrewed to the metalline tube, at K, L, with a leathern
collar, well foaked in fome uniluous matter at the (houlder,
or joining, thereby to fecure that joint in the moft effcftual
manner. Let there be a fmall hole at X for the fea-water
to enter freely in, and let fome coloured oil be poured into
the globofe body, to fill it up to the hole X. Let there be
alfo provided a (lender rod d h, fcrewed, or faftened into the
metalline tube s s, which muft alfo be made to fcrew in and
out, thereby to take out the rod at pleafure ; the rod muft
alfo have a fmall button d iaftcned to its upper end, which
7

ALT

will prevent its being daubed by falling againfl the fides of
the tube.

The capacity of the tube muft be eftimated by pouring
water in, when the rod and metalline tube arc fixed in their
places.

Now fince the lower veffcl is fupnofed to contain nine
times as much air as the tube Z L, which is the fame thing
as if the tube were niiit; times as long, therefore the air in
the globofe veffel will not all be forced within the capacity
of the tube, till the veffel has defcendcd to tiie depth of
nine columns, . r nine times 33 feet ; for then the air will
be compreffed within one tenth of the fpace it firft took up.
Huppofing, therefore, the inftrument to have defcended to the
depth of 99 columns of water, or 99 times 33 feet^3267 :
then the air will be compreffed within -^-J^ part of 500
inches (the capacity of the whole veffel being fuppofed
equal to the tube of that length), that is, within five inches
of the top of the tube ; and, confequently, the rod d b
will be found tinged with the oil, within five inches of its
top.

Suppofe again the inftrument to have defcended to the
depth of 199 columns, of 33 feet each, thentheair will be
comprefi'ed within -^)^ part of the whole, that is, nearly
within 2 J inches of the top of the tube. In this cafe, tlie
inftrument will have defcended 6567 feet; that is, one mile
and a quarter, and 132 feet.

Suppofe again the inftrument to have defcended to the
depth of 399 columns, then the air will be compreffed into
•5-i'j^ part of the whole, that is, nearly within one inch and
a quarter of the top of the tube. In this cafe the inftru-
ment will have defcended two miles and a half, wanting 53
feet, which may probably be the greateft depth of the
fea.

The larger the capacity of the veffel K, L, M, N, Q^,
the deeper will the gage be enabled to fink, the inftrument'
being made ilronger, and its joints being fecured in pro-
portion.

The inftrument being thus prepared, a large buoy, /,
muft be fixed to it, which ought to be a folid piece of light
wood, well tarred to prevent the water's being preffed into
the fap-veffels ; and as it may rife at a confiderable diftance
from the fliip, it. may be advifable to fix on the top of the
buoy broad fans of tin, properly painted, fo as to be eafily
feen.

In order to fink the inftrument, a weight muft be fixed to
it in the following manner. See the diagram. W is a weight
of ballaft, hanging by its flieet fhank T, in the fockety^^
which focket is fcrewed faft to N Q^ The (hank is retained
in its place by the ketch k of the fpring O, while the ma-
chine is defcending ; but as foon as W touches the ground
at the bottom of the fea, the ketch O k finking by the de-
fcending force, a httle below the upper part of the hole /■,
is therefore at liberty to fly back, and fo lets go the weight ;
then the buoy rifes up to the furface of the water with the
machine. Springs might alfo be fixed on the infide of the
focket _/"y", fo as to fly back in the fame manner, when the
weight touches the ground. It might be advifable to keep
an exaft account of the ftay of the machine under water,
which might be done by a watch, or by a pendulum vibrat-
ing feconds. Dr. Hook found upon trial, that a leaden
ball which weighed two pounds, fixed to a wooden ball of
the fame weight,and both let down in fourteen fathom water,
reached the bottom in feventeen feconds, and the detached
wooden ball afcended to the furface in feventeen more.
See Phil. Tranf. Lowthorp's Abr. vol. i. p. 258. Confe-
quently if this machine defcended and afcended greater depths

with

ALT

wltli the fame velocity, it would reach to tlie tleplli of a
mile in fcvcntecn minutes, and rc:\fccnd in tlic like time.
Tins, liowivtr, might be a vague clUmate, until experience
has furnilhcd a rule.

Tliis macliiue was tried in various depths in the Tiiamcs,
and anfwered very well, always retuining, and leaving the
ballall behind. It was afterwards tried near the Bernuid.is,
when feveral fhips,wcre in company ; but though a good
look-out was kept for three or four hours, it was not leen
to return. Hales's Statics, vol. ii. p. 328.

Altitude of the fia's furfiice is not every wlicrc the
fame, as appears from tiie drift of currents letting llrong
out of one sea into another.

Altitude of ihc mercury, in the barometer, is marked
by degrees placed on the face of that inllrumcnt, the varia-
tions of which are the chief objeft of barometrical obferva-
tions.

The mean altitude of the mercury at London for every
day in feveral years is about 29.87 inches, and its varia-
tions are computed between 31 and 28 inches. Some fucr.
gettions have been made, as if the altitude of the mercury
were regularly greater in the morning than in the even-
ing ; at lead fomething of this kind was obferved to hold
for a confiderable time at Berlin. Hill. Crit. Rep. Lett,
torn. xiv. p. 239.

Altitude of the pyramids in Egypt, was meafured fu long
ago as the time of Thalcs, by means of their fliadow, which
makes one of the firll geometrical obfervations we have an
exact account of. Phitarcli has given an account of the
manner of this operation, which, according to this author,
was done by erefting a ftaff perpendicular upon the end of
the (hadow of thj pyramid; and by two triangles made by
the beams of the fun, he demonllrated that there was the
iame proportion between the Ihadows as between the pyra-
mid and the ilaff. Stanl. Hill. Phil. p. i. p. 9. See Py-
ramid.

Altitude, circles, paralkh, and quadrant of. See the
refpeclive articles.

Altitude inflrumeni, equal, is that ufed to obferve a ce-
lellial objeft, when it has the fame altitude on the call and
weft fides of the meridian, or in the morning and afternoon.
This inllrument coiifills of a telefcopc about 30 inclies long
(with two vertical, and three or five horizontal wires in its
focus), lupported on the end of an iron bar or axis, 30 inches
long, and about an inch in diameter ; the axis being fjif-
tained in a vertical pofition by paffing through a hole in one
end of a brafs box, whofe other or lower end fuftains the
\ lower joint of the axis. The box, whicii is about 21 inches
long, with ends about four inches fquare, has only two
fides, which are fixed at right angles. Prom one of thefe
fides projeA four flat arms, with a hole in each, whereby the
box is, by fcrews, fixed in a vertical pofition to an upright
"" poft. On the lower end of the box hes a brafs plate, which
Aides in grooves, and can, by means of a fcrew, be gently
moved forwards or backwards ; in this plate is a fine punched
hole, to receive the fmooth conical point, into which the
lower end of the axis is formed. On the upper end of the
box are two plates, which Aide alfo in grooves ; and, by the
means of fcrews, can be gently moved fideways, till their an-
gular notches embrace the axis, which, in this part, is made
perfeftly cylindrical and very fmooth. To the upper part
of the axis is fixed, by its radius, a brafs fextant (or arch of
63°, to a radius of feven or eight inches) with the arch down-
wards, fo that the centre is juil above the top of the axis :
alfo a fpirit-levcl is fixed at right angles acrofs the axis, juil
under the arch, fo as to be clear of the upper end of the
box. To the under part of the telefcopc is fixed a brafs fe-

A L T

micircle, of the fame radius with the fcxt.Ant, bolli arche*
having a common ccntrc-pin. In the fcmicircic is a gix>ove
cut through the plate, parallel to its limb, to receive two
fcrew-pins, which go into the fextantal arch, near its ciidj ;
by tliele fcrew-pins the two ai-chci may he prclTid clofc, and
the telefcope (i^ed in any dcfired elcv.'nion, which miglit be
nearly afeertaiiied by gra'duatuig the fcmicircic, and pulling
a Vernier's fcale on tlie fextant.

When this inllrument is ufed, the box is fixed to the poft,
and tlie axis put into the box, letting the conical point drop
into the punched hole ; the level is fcrcwed on, and the te-
lefcopc is annexed, obferviiig to infcrt the centre and arch-
pins ; then, by the help of the fcrew-platcs at the bottom
and top ends of the box, the vertical pofition of the axis it
correfted.fo that the fame end of the air-bubble in the level
rtiay ftand at the fame point through the >vliole revolution of
the axis, which will thereby be known to be then truly verti-
cal, fo that the telefcope will deferibc a parallel of altitude.
The tube, thus adjiiiled, is to be direfted to the fun or liar,
and fixed at the defired elevation, by preirnig the two archc*
together with the two fcrew-pins. This indrument i^ very
ulcful in adjulliiig clocks, &c. and compaiing rq„al 3\A ap-
parent time.

ALTM.\NSTF,rN, in Geography, a market town of
Upper Bavaria, belonging to the family of Abenfpeig, 1 2
miles iiortli-cail of Ingollladt.

ALTMORE, a town of Ireland, in the county of Ty-
rone and province of Ulller. N. lat. 54^ 34'. \V. long.

ALTMUHL, a river of Upper Bavaria, which joins the
Danube near Kelheim.

ALTMUHLMUNSTER, a commandcrv of the order
of St. John, in Upper Bavaria, in the dillrid of Rilden-
bnrg.

ALTOBASCO, in Geography, the name given to the an-
cient city of Colopiion, in Ionia.

ALTOMUNSTER, a market town of Upper Bavaria,
which has an abbey of nuns of the order of St. Bridget.

ALTO Isf Basso, or in Alto ISj in Basso, in Law,
fignifies the abfolute reference of all differences, fmall and
great, high and low, to fome arbitrator, or indifferent perfon,
Paleat univeijis per ptjfentes, quod IViHiehiiui Tylar de Tritoii,
Iff Thomas Cower de yllmi/ire, pofiieruni fe in Alto fi" in
BalTo, in arbilrio quatucr hominum ; viz. de quadam querela
pendente inter eos in curia — Kos Isf lerram nojlram altc & bafsc
ipfius domini Regis fiippifuimus volunlati.

Alto, high. As alto viola, the tenor violin, in oppufi.
tion to the bafs viol, to which inllrument or violoncello, the
tenor ftrings are tuned oClaves : as C. G=. D'. A'. The
following is the complete fcale on the tenor :

G

+ _-l-_.e-D-®-I-i:.--

D-9-

::e:o:

4tli btring,

3d String. 2d String, id St

nng.

This indrument has been rendered much more important
of late years by quartets, and pieces made exprefsly for it than
it ufed to be in the old overtures and concertos, in which it
feldom had any melody alligned it. To fill up the harmony,
by the refufc of other parts, was its only employment. But in
the quartets of Stamitz, Boccherini, Giardini.'and, above all,
thofe of Haydn, it has been brought fully into aflion, and
enjoyed equality.

Alto Relievo, in Sculpture, a rcprcfentation of figures and

Other objedls againll a flat furfaee or back-ground ; diffetB

5 H 2 from

\

A L T

from balTo relievo only in the work being much more rtlieveJ
and brouglit forwanl.

Ti) aiiv ropiefentatior. IiaL'"-rellcvrd or irore, if it.be not
ciuiicly <kta.:liei'. from the ground behind, fciilplors .ippiy
the appcll.ition of Alto Relievo.

ALTON, in Geography, a town of Engla.id, in Hamp-
flurc, fituatc on the ri\ ;r V\''ye. Its manufadturc confilU of
plain and iigmcd baragons, ribbed druggets and fcrges ; and
round tiie town is a plantation of hops. Its market is on
Saturday, and it is diliant from London 47 miles.

Alton is a village near Uttoxeter, in StafFordihire, in
which arc the ruins of a calUe, fuppofcd by Dr. Plott to
have been creeled by Theobald de Verdun in the beginning
of the reign of Edward II. but by others apprehended to be
prior to the Norman conquell.

Alton-, a trail of land in Stratford county, New
Hampfliire, in America, north-eall from Barnllead.

ALTONA. SeeALTENA.

Altox.i, \n Ancient Geography, a river of , Britain, men-
tioned by Tacitus, and fuppofcd" to be the fame with the
Avona or Avon ; but as there are many rivers of this name,
it is conjedlured that the Altona of Tacitus fiov.'ed by
Northampton and Peterborough eaftwards.

AI.TORF, in Geography. See Altdorf.

Altorf, or Altdorf, a town of Germany, in the cir-
cle of Franconia, now fmall, but of great antiquity. It has
an univerfity with a valuable library, an anatomical theatre,
chemical laboratory, and botanical-garden. It has under-
gone many revolutions from the year 912, when it is men-
tioned in fome ancient records. It is fubjtft to the houfe
of Brandenburg, and is fituated 12 miles eaft-fouth-eail of
Nuremberg. N. lat. 49° 25.' E. long. 11° 7.'

ALTRINGHAM, a town of England, in Che(hire,
rear tlie canal that pafles toWarrington from Manchcfter, and
about 8 miles from the latter town. The market is on
Tuefday, and it is 179! miles from London. N. lat 53° 25'.
tV. long. 1° 30'.

ALTSOHL, a diftrift and town of Hungary, fix miles
fouth-foutli-weft of Neufohl.

ALTSTADT. See Alstadt.

ALTSTATT, a town of Germany, in the circle of
Upper Saxony, and margraviate of Medein, near Stolpen.

ALTSTED, a town of the circle of Weilphalia and
bilhopric of Munller, five miles north-weft of .'\hns.

ALTSTETTEN, or Alstette'n, a town of Swifler-
land, in the Upper Rhinthal, feven miles call of Appcnzel.

ALTUN-SOIT, a river of Alia, which runs mto the
Tigris, 10 miles above Teerit, in the province of Kurdiltan.

ALTUN-TASH, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the
province of Natolia, 20 miles north-well of Kutaja.

ALTUR, or Altor, a fce-^-ort town of Afia, in
Arabia Petraea, fituate to the weft of Mount Sinai, and to-
wards the extremity of the weftern part of the Red Sea.
The Greeks called it Raitho ; the houfes are built of white
coral, which is found in great abundance on the coails of
the Arabian gulf. The inhabitants are partly Arabs and
partly Cliriftian Greeks. The monks of Mount Sinai have
a convent in this place. Its port, like that of Suez, can ad-
mit no large veffels. N. lat. 28' 20'. E. long. 34° 19'.

ALTZENAU, a town of Germany, in the circle of the
Lower Rhine, five miles fouth-eaft of Hanau.

ALTZEY, Alzey, or Altzheim, anciently Aheia,
a town of tlie Lower Rhine, in the I>ower Palatinate, with
a citadel, on the river Selz, and the capital of a prefeclurate
of the fame name, three miles fouth-weft of Odernhcim,
and 14 north-well of Worms. N. bt. 49" 44'. E. long.

^^ 1 r'

A L V

ALVA DE ALLSTA.a town of Spain, in Old Caa^; .
not far frijm Zamora.

Alva de Tormes, a town of .Spain, with a caftle, in t],
country of Leon, and province of Salamanca, 011 ih ■ fiMi-
tiers of Eftrcniadiira, lituate on the banks of the 'i'un:;: -,
eight leagues call fouth-eaft of Salamanca.

Alva, Don Ferdinando Alvares de Toletj •,
Diilic vf, in Biography and Hijlory, was born of an iiln
trious family in Spain in 150S ; and having received nv.:
taiy inftruction under his grandfather, Frederic of Toledo,
he was appointed a general, in 1 538, by Charles V. ; and,
in r5J.2, defended Perpignan againll the beficging armv of
the Uauphin of France. V/hen Charles V. determined to
commence hoftilities againll the German Proteftants, in
1546, the duke of Alva was appointed general-in-chitf of
the Imperial army ; and in the following year, when the
Elector ot Saxony was defeated in the battle of Muliianfen,
and taken prifoner, he was chofen to prefide at the court-
martial, which fentenced this unfortunate prince to fuffer
death by being beheaded. At the fiege of Metz, in 1552,
the chief command, under the emperor, was entrulled to the
Duke of Alva ; but neither the obftinatc pcrfeverance of
Charles, nor the concurring afTiftance of Albert of Branden-
burg,could avail againll the vigorous defence of the Duke of
Guife. The emperor, after varying the mode of his opera-
tion, and repeatedly renewing the attack, was at length
conftrained to yield to the folicitations of his generals, who
conjured him to fave the remains of his army by a timely re-
treat. " Fortune," fays he, " I now perceive, refembles
other females, and chufes to confer her favours on young
men, while (he forfakes thofe who are advanced in years."
In this fiege, which lafted 56 days, he loft upwards of
30,000 men, who either died of dileale, or were killed \yp
the enemy. In 1555, the emperor found it neceffary to
check the progrefs of the French forces in Piedmont by
iome vigorous meafures; and with this view to employ a ge-
neral ot fuch reputation and abilities, as might counterba-
lance the great militar)' talents of the M:u-echal Briflac, who
was at the head of the Fiench army. The Duke of Alva
was pitched upon for that purpofe, and he vi'as invelled with ■
the dignity of the emperor's vicar-general in Italv, as well
as with the fupremc command in all the Imperial and Spa-
nilh territories in that country. But though his authority
was unhmited, the luccefs of his operations was inconfider-
able ; and after having boafted, with his ufual arrogance,
that he would drive the French out of Piedmont in a few
weeks, he was obliged to retire into winter quarters, with
the ignominy of being unable to preferve entii'e that part of
the country of which the emperor had hitherto kept polfef-
fion. At the commencement of the enfuing year, Charles
rcfigned to his fon Philip the crowns of Spain, with all the
territories depending upon them, both in the Old and New
World ; and though the Duke of Alva had advanced in the
couvfe of this year into the pope's territories, and reduced the
whole of Campagna Romana, yet it was with relutkance
that he purfued hoftilities agaiiift the head of the church,
which were no lefs repugnant to his own principles than to
thofe of his new mafter. Having therefore made a truce, he
afterwards negotiated a peace with the pope ; and, notwith-
ftanding his haughty fpirit, fubmitted to the humiliating
condition of alking forgivenefs of the pontiff whom he had
conquered. After a general peace was eftablilhed in Eu-
rope in 1559, the Dnkc of Alva was fent to Paris, at the
head of a I'plendid embaffy, to efpoufe, in the name of his
mafter, Elizabeth, the daughter of Henry, king of France.
The tyrannical conduct of Philip, and the periecuting mea-
fures vvliieh he had adopted with a view of reftr.-iining the

progrels

A L V

procurers of tlie Rtformatlon, had excited a veiy general dif-
latisfaction among his i'ul.jcas in the Low Countries ; and
thcrtfore, in 1567, he detcrmintd to find the Duke of Alva
wiih aa army to i-oinpcl the difcontciiud to fubmit to his
will, and to puiiilh iheni for their difobediencc. No [lerfon
could be a litter inftrunient for the execution of his purpofe.
The duke not only approved, but advifed and reeoniincnded,
hoftilc meafures. Notwithllandiuj; the renionllranccs of the
regent, the Duchefs of Parma, Philip perfiftcd in his pur-
pofe ; and theDiike of Alva, with a confidcrable armv, di-
refted hi'; march to the Netherlands, and, after garrifouing
the frontier towns, proceeded to Biuffels, where he arrived
in the month of Auguil, A. D. 1567. His arrival fpread
great conftcrnation and adonifhment over all the provinces.
Many thoufand perfons had before this time left the eonntiy,
among whom was the Prince of Orange, who would gladly
have prevailed upon Count Eguiont to accompany him. But
he did not perceive the danger tliat awaited him. The
prince took a forrowful leave of him with thefe memorable
words, which a difalh-ons event mud foon have brought to
his recollection : " You are the bridge, Conrit P.gmont, by
which the Duke of Alva will pafs into the Netherlands, and
ho will no foontr pafi it than he will br^ak it down. You
will repent of defpiling the warning which I have given you,
but i dread that your repentance will be too late." One of
the duke's Hrll acts, after liis arrival, was to cafl both Count
Egmont and Count Horn into prifon ; and their iniprifon-
inent was foon followed by their trial, condemnation and
death. The Duchcls of Parma, after repeated folicitations,
obtained piTmifiion to quit the countiy, and (he left Brudels
in the beginning ot the year 156H, much regretted by all,
and paiticular'iy by the Proteftants, to \rhom her adminif-
tration appeared mild and gentle, compared with that which
they had rtafon to expect under the prcfent government. As
foon as fae was removed, the Duke of Alva fully difelofed
his commiirion, and his pov>-ers appeared to be much greater
than thofe of any former governor, and fuch as were fubver-
five of all the rights and privileges which Philip, as fove-
reign of the Low Countries, had at his inauguration folemnly
fworn to maintain. But the pope had previoufly granted him
a difpenfation from his oath, io that his mind was quieted
in every mcafure of defpotifm and cruelty, which he dictated
or fanClioned. Alva's commiffiou, befides the abfolute com-
mand of the army, comprehended the prefidency of the
three councils of ilate, of juftice, and of the finances, with
ample powers to puniHi or to pardon crimes of eveiy fort
at his own plcafure. Allowing to the Reformers a month for
leaving the country, he iiTued fccrtt orders to the Inquilition
to proceed im.mediately in the moil rigorous execution of their
editis. For their alTiilance and encouragement he iuftituted a
council of 12 perfons, moft of whom were Spaniards, and of
whieh the duke was the prefident, called the Council of Tu-
mults; but by the Flemings,juftly denominated "the Council
of Blood." Thus fortified and aided, the duke proceeded to
build citadels at Antwerp, and in feveral other cities, and to
fpread his troops over the country in fuch formidable bodies,
that the people, who could not endure their oppvefTion and
rapacity, either forfook their habitations, or abandoned
themfelves to dcfpair. Above 20,000 perfons cfcaped at
this time into France, Enghind, and the Proteftant provinces
of Germany. Some were feized in their flight, and innocent
perfons were overwhelmed with horror at the fight of the
tlreadfiil punifliments infliltcd on thofe who were charged
with guilt ; and all concurred in lamenting that a countr)-,
once eminently flourifhing and diUir.guilhed by the inildnefs
of its government and the happinefs of the people, fliould
now preTeiil to viCiV no other object befides coiihfcations,

A L V

impriforui r:,t, aiKi blood. In the fpirr of a frw monthe
more thjn iSoo perfons fufTend by the hand cf the e»e-
cutfcner ; and yet Alva's thitll of blood wji i.nt fntinttd.

Like a head of prev, t!ii<! favag;e tyrant fc»rehid cvtiy fc-
crct rccefs; and his foldicrj. acconipamcd by tlir mcjuifinn',
were let loofc amoig the Pi-oteftantK, who were !«i/id 111
the middle of thr niphi in thc^r bedn, rnd from ther<e
'^'^f^tT^'*' '" prifons anit dungeon?. Tliofe who had brni
only once piefeTit in I'rotrilanf afTeniblies, although thev de-
clared their faith in the Catholic religion to be firm and iin-
Oiakcn, were hanged or drcwntd ; and thofe who pruftrted
theinlelves Protelbuts, or who rcfufcd to abiurc tl;clr reli-
gion, were put to the nick, in order to make tlirm difcover
their affiiciates ; they wire then dragged by horfcs to the
pl.ice of execution, and their bodies hiing comniitlid to the
flames, their fuffciiiigs were prolougid with ingenious criieU*.
To prevent them from bearing ttfliinopy in the midft of their
torments to the truth of their profefTion, their tongiien were
firil fcorched with a glowing iron, and then fcrcwed into a
machine, contrived on purpofe to produce the mull excnici-
^iug pain. It is, indeed, fhockiiig to recount the numbcrU-fn
iullanees of inhuman cruelty peqielratcd by Alva and hit. rf-
fociates ; efpccially when we confidcr that the ur.kappy
viftims were gentrally periiins of the ivo'X inollciifive cha-
racter, who, having imbibed the principles of the Refonna-
tion, were too honefl to difgnife tlieir leiitinicnts ; or, to fav
the word of them, who had been betrayed into indifertlion*
by their zeal for propagating trulln, which they believed to
be of the higheU importance to the gl'>n' of Ciod, and (he
happinefs of mankind The hearts of ever, fomc mcir.bcrj of
the " bloody council" revolted againd the repeated ^i^s of
cruelty to which their fanftion was required ; fome of them
fought a difmifllon, others abfented themfelves, and of the
1 2 that compofed the council, there were feldom ir.orc than
three or four prcfent. At this time the magidrates of Ant-
werp, whofe behaviour had been v.iifonnly obfeqi;iou» da-
ring the whole of Alva's adminidration, prcfented an hurrbie
petition on behalf of fome citizens whom the inquifitort. had
impriloned. To this petition Alva returned a haughtv re-
ply, reproaching them for folly and prelumption in applying
on behalf of heretics ; threatening thim with tok:T,j of hij
dilpleafu.'e ; and even alFuring them, that if they prrf.ded in
fuch meafures, lie would hang them all, for r.n example, to
deter others from fimilar prefumption. Some of the catho-
lic nobility alfo remondrated to the king againfl the gf ver-
nor's barbarity, and the pope exhorted him to greater mode-
ration. But the inquiliiors enforced the ccu'.nkl of Vargas,
who recommended perfeverance, and Philip turned a deaf
ear to the remondrance which had been iride !o him ; and
the perfecutions were continued with the fame unrelenting
fur)-. The people were Vcduced to circumdar.cef of extreme
didrefs, and they had no refnurce left but in the wifdom, pub-
lic fpirit, and extenfive in.Huenrc of the pri'irr of Grange.
Alva, foon after his arrival in the Netherlands, cited prince
William to a])pear before him, but he was too fagacious to
be deluded by promifes of lenity, and refufed to oSty the ci-
tation, adigning, at the fame time, a variety of reafons for his
conduft. Several other noblemen were cited to anfwer for
their coiiduft ; and, upon their refufa', Alva pronounced fen-
tence againd them, and conlifcated their cflefts. The Prince
of Orange at length had reconrfcto armi ; but whild hewa.s
em])loyed in making levies, his brother Count i rwis arrivcil
with an army in the Nethciland>, and rrfolvtd to make his
fird attempt on Groningen. The SpaniJh aiTny under Connt
Arembeig was fent to oppofe him, but Lewis wa-) vi^oriouii.
However, Alva loon marched again'l him with a fuperior armv,
ajid totally defeated him. The Prince of Ota.igc prepared

for

A L V

for xflion by publilliiiig a manifcllo, in which he declared that
his religious Icjitiinciits were changed, and that he was now
convinced that tlie opinions of the Protcdants were more con-
formable to the Scriptures, tb.e rule and Ihmdard of Chiillian
faith, than thofe of the Romifli church. William was a for-
midable enemy ; and it required all the caution and valour of
Alva, and of his fon Frederic of Toledo, to prevent him from
breaking in upon the Netherlands. Alva fucceeded ; and
the prince, difappointed in his expeftation of fupplies, was
under a neccdity of dilbandincr iiis army. After this event
Alva marched in criumph to Brulfels, and commanded a fo-
Icmn tliatikfgiving for his fuccefs to be obferved through all
the provinces. He ordered a llatue of himftlf to be lornicd

• of brafs, and medals to be ilruck. On one of thefe medals
he was reprefented riding in a triumphal chariot, with a Vic-
toiy behind him, putting a crown upon his head. In his
right hand he held a fvvord, to iignify that he had con-
quered Lewis by open force ; and in the left an JE.gis, to ex-
prefs that wifdom of which he had availed himfelf againft the
prince of Orange ; and as a farther emblem of his wifdom,
the chariot was drawn by owls, which, in the ancient Hea-
then fuperftition, were facred to Minerva. His ftatue, which
was placed in the citadel of Antwerp, was the workmanfhip
of Jockcling, a German artift, the moll celebrated Iculptor
of the age, and afforded a llill more llriking difplay of his
vanity and arrogance. He was reprefented trampling under
his feet the figure of a monfter, having certain emblematical
figns in different parts, which denoted the petition which
had been prefented to the Duchefs of Parma, the compro-
mile, and the infurreftion and tumults which enfued. The
bafe of the figure was a fquare pillar of marble, with the
name of the artill on one fide, and with encomiums on the
Duke of Alva on the three other fides, who is faid to have
extinguilhed herefy and rebellion, to have faved the church
from deftruftion, and rellored juftice and tranquillity to the
Netherlands.

We learn from Grotius, that about this time the duke
enafted feveral ufeful regulations with regard to trade, the
coin, and the liberty of the prefs : but they failed in pro-
moting the purpofes for which they were intended, and the

■ memory of them was foon effaced by tlie violence of the
meafnies which he afterwards purfued. He devoted the
interval of leifure which he now enjoyed to various afts of
tyranny ; and to the accomplifiiment of his fchemes for
reducing all the provinces to total flavery, and extii-pating
the reformed religion ; and the executioner was fully em-
ployed in removing all thofe friends of freedom whom the
Iword had fpared. The emigrations from the Low Coun-
tries were, in confequence of Alva's violent and cruel
meafures, very numerous ; and of thofe perfons who were
exiles many came over to England, where they were all re-
ceived by queen Elizabeth. In this country they enjoyed
the free exerciie of their religion ; and amply recompenfed
the Enghrti for the proteftion that was afforded them by
introducing various branches of manufafture, with which
they had been before unacquainted. Alva's vanity was
flattered about this time by an embaffy which was depu-
ted by the pope, to prefent him with a confecrated hat
and fword ; and he was thus confirmed and encouraged in
the profecution of thofe fanguinary meafures, which had
procured him this dillinguifiied honour. But fuch were
the abfurdity and folly, as well as the oppreffion and ty-
ranny, into which his arrogance betrayed him, that he
adopted a meafure which may be regarded as the chief
caufe of all the difficulties which he afterwards encountered,
and of all thofe allonifhing exertions which the people made

A L V

to emancipate thcmfelvcs from the Spanifh yoke. Hetd-
lefs of the rights and privileges of the people, who had
been accullomed to be taxed by their own princes, he re-
folved, by his own authority, to eflablilh numerous and
burdenfome taxes, fufficient not only fur fupplying his pre-
fent exigencies, but to ferve as a peqietual fund for defray-
ing all the expences of his government. Thefe taxes, by
their number, and by the mode of their impofition and en«
forcement, excited univerfal difcontent. The ftates affem-
bled and remonili-ated ; but Alva was not only deaf to re-
monllrance, but determined, after fome teniporifing mea-
fures, to employ force for rendering cffeclual his arbitrary
requifitions. The Hates of Utrecht were refolute and fiiTn
in their oppofition, and though they incurred a coiififcation
of their territory and revenues, their conduct was attended
with the moil important confequences, and produced a
more general retiilance to the taxes which the governor
impofed. In the mean while the prince of Orange was not
an unconcerned fpeftator of thefe tranfaftions. Having re-
turned from France, in 1 569, to his country of Naffau in
Germany, he commenced preparations for trying his for-
tune once more againfl the Spaniards. The exiles alfo,
who iiad left the country on account of the perfecution of
Alva, united, and fitted out a great number of armed vef-
fels with which they feized all the Spanifli fhips which they
could meet with on the Flemidi or Englifh coaft. Alva
perfevered in iffuing edicls for the payment of exorbitant
taxes ; and, in order to intimidate the people into compli-
ance, he formed the barbarous refohition of putting to
death, before their own houfes, 17 of the principal inhabi-
tants of Brulfels. But before the time fixed for their exe-
cution, a meffenger arrived with information that the exiles
had made a defcent on the ifland of Vorn, and got poffef-
fion of the Brillc. This intelligence alarmed Alva, and
induced him to revoke his bloody orders, and to fufpend,
for a time, the levying of taxes. An order had been in"ued
by queen Elizabeth, in compliance with the requeil of
Alva, that all fhips, belonging to fuch of the inhabitants of
the Low Countries, as had withdrawn their allegiance from
the king of Spain, fhould leave her harbours. This order
was an occafion of triumph to Alva, but, in the iffuc it contri-
buted to the vigorous exertions of the exiles, to the capture
of the Brille, and to that union under the prince of Orange,
which laid the foundation of the independence of the United
Provinces. The fpirit of refillance and revolt which was
fpreading through the country was much encouraged by the
defeat of the Spanilh fleet under Medina-Cccli, in 1572, and
by the fupply of money and militai"y ilores which the exiles
found on board the fhips that were taken. The revolt in
North Holland became general ; Mons, the capital of
Hainault, and one of the moll populous and flourifliing
cities in the Low Countries, was taken by Count Lewis ; the
Spanilh army was employed in endeavouring to recover it; the
people of Holland and Zealand were induilrioufly fccuiing
thcmfelves, by every precaution and preparation in their
power, from being again reduced under the Spanith yoke.
In contegipt of the order iffued by Alva, for an afTemlly of
the States at the Hague, a meeting was held at Dort, and
it was determined to acknowledge the prince of Orange as
the only lawful governor or Stadtholder of the provinces,
and commander in chief of all their forces both by fea and
land : and evei-y poffible exertion was made to furnifh him
with neceffary fupplies. Whilft the prince and the States
were employed in providing for the fecurity of Holland,
Frederic de Toledo was making rapid progrefs in reduc-
ing the towns which had revolted in the other provinces ;

but

A L V

but his pro^refs was marked by various ai!ls of oppreffion
:mJ of cnitflty, of fo horrible a nature as to be fearcely
credible, if they were not well authenticated by the moll
unexceptionable tellimony. But the perfidious cruelty of
Alva and hia foil, after the fiege and capture of Haerlem,
cvceedcd, if poflible, in atrocity every otiier nieaftire of this
fivagt; adminillration. By the lou-ell comjiutation, 9C0
n rave men were executed, witli every clreumihuice of i^iio-
iiiiny and^ barbarity, like the vileft malcfadors, who, tnilU
i:i,CC to Toledo's promlfe, liad furrcndered their arms to
tlu-ow themfclvcs upon his mercy. The confequencc,
however, of the length of this fiege and of the lofs of men
fiillaiiied by it, was a mutiny among the Spanidi troops ;
,-i:id it was with difficulty, and after much ncgociiition, tliat
they were induced to march aj^ainll Alkmaar. Here they
met with a repulfe, attended with great lofs, and Frederic
was obliged rcluftantly to retire. Alva's fleet was, about
the fame time, defeated by the Zealanders, and the town
o( Gertruydenlniig furprifed by the prince of Orange.
Alva, difpirited by thefe events, and declining in Iiis health,
by the anxiety and fatigue he had undergone, folicited a
n rail, and obtained Philip's leave to quit the Netherlands,
and to return home. Thilip, difSdent of the fuccefs of the
I ruel meafures that had hitherto been purfued, and deter-
mined to try the effeft of a milder adminillration, complied
the more readily with Alva's requeft. Accordingly, in
December 1573, the duke and his ion fet out, by t!ic way
of Germany and Italy, for Spain ; after having refigned the
regency to his luccefTor Requefens, who commenced his
adminillration with demolllhing Alva's ilatue at Antwerp,
and with reprefling the infolence of certain garrifons, at
whofe enormities his predecefTors had connived.

In the review of Alva's adminillration we may obfcrve,
that both the catholics and protcllants regarded him as the
chief fource of all the calamities in which the Netherlands
had been involved. He had received his government fiom
the duchefs of Parma, in a ftate of perfcft trantpiillity.
By his tyranny he had thrown it into the moll terrible corn-
bullion, and kindled the flames of a deftrucli\x war, which
he was confcious of being unable to extinguilh, and he had,
therefore, applied for liberty to retire. He is faid to have
boafted to Count Koningllein, imcle to the Prince of
Orange, at whofe houfe he lodged on his way to Italy, that,
during his government of five years and an half, he had
configncd more than iS,ooo heretics to the public execu-
tioner ; befides a much greater number whom he had put
to the fword, in the towns which he took, and in the field
of battle. During Alva's adminiflration, the fituation of
the Low Countries was truly deplorable. His oppreffion
was not confined to proteftants, but many catholics were
put to death, and their effefts forfeited, under a pretence
of their having entertained heretics, or having held a cor-
refpondence with them in their exile. Wives were punilli-
ed with the utmoll feverity for affording (belter to their
hufbands, whom the councd of tumults had condemned ;
children for performing the like offices to their parents ;
and in Utrecht, a father was executed for allowing his fon,
who had returned from banifliment, to lodge under his roof
for one night. By forcing fo many thoufands of the mod
induflrious inhabitants to leave the country, and by neglcd-
ing to provide a naval force to oppofe the exiles at fea,
commerce waj almoft entirely ruined ; notwithflanding
which, he impofed upon the people more opprefTive taxes,
than they could have borne, if they had been in the moll
flourifliing condition. In levying thefe taxes, the utmofl
rigour was employed. The people were often wantonly

A L V

provoked, and tumults purpoftly ixcitcd, from which oe-
cafion was taken to punifh them with confifcalion of thfir
goods, and fomclimes with botii death and confifcalion.
I'lom the confifcations and taxes large fum» wcic niifed :
yet, by maintaining fo numerous an army, and by building
citadels to keep the principal towns in awe, as he rcccivij
little aflillance from the king, wlio was cngjigrd in oilier
txpcnfivc cnteiprizes, he fell behind in the pa)mcnt of liil
troops ; and in order to keep them in good humour, he
permitted tlum to live at frttquaitcrs upon the inhabitant!,
againll whom they ixerciled, on many occafionb, the moft
cruel and opprelFive rapacity.

Alva, after his return to .Spain, enjoyed for fome time
the favour and confidence of his mailer ; but his fon Don
Garcia de Toledo, having debauched one of the maids of ho-
nour, under a promife of marriage, was put under arrell,
and alTifled by his father in making hi» cfcapc. Alva, in or-
der efTeftually to prevent the fulfilment of his obligationn,
enforced by the king's order, concluded a maiTiagc between
him and his coufin, a daughter of the Marquis of \'illciia.
Upon this Alva was banilhed from court, mid confined to
the caflle of U/.eda. Here, not«itlillandiiig many intercef-
fions in his favour by the pope, and fome foreign princes, he
remained fur two years. But when Don Antonio affumed
the crown of Portugal, Philip made preparations for oppo-
ling hiin; and de\olved on Alva the fuprcme command in
Poitugal, without forgiving his offence or admitting him
into his prefence. Alva, notwithflanding his age and infir-
mities, accepted the command ; repaired to the army in
1580, defeated Antonio, and reduced the whole kingdom of
Portugal to I'hilip's authority. When Lifl'on w as taken,
the fuburbs, wliieli were at that time no lefs coiifiderablc
than the town itfelf, were delivered up to be i-anfackcd and
plundered by the foldiers, without any dillinction between
the friends and the enemies of the king. When Alva was
required to give an account of the treafurc which he had
acquired on tliis occafion, he is faid to have replied ; " If
the king aflcs me for an account, I will flate to him king-
doms prtfcrved or conquered, figrtal vitlories, fucccfsi^ul
ficges, and 60 years' fcrvicc." Philip made no further in-
quiries ; but Alva did not live to enjoy the honours and
emo'um nts rcfulting from this la(l exploit. He died in
1582, at the age of 74 years. Robertfoii's Hill, of Charles
V. vol. iii. and iv. Watfon's Hillor)- of Philip II. of Spain,
vol. i. and ii.

ALVACA, in /Inaail Geography, a town of Media,
according to Ptolemy.

ALVAH, the wood wherewith Mofes fwcctened the wa-
ters of Marah. Exod. ch. xv. ver. 25.

The name of this wood is not found in Scripture, but
the Mahometans give it that of alvah, and pretend to trace
its hillory from the patriarclis before the flood. Jofephus,
on the contrary, fays, that Mofes ufed the wood which he
found next lying before him.

ALVALADE, in Geography^ a fmall town of Portu-
gal, in Alenteijo, fituate between two rivers, and contain-
ing about I 200 inhabitants.

ALVANIS, in Anarul Geography, a town of Mtfopo-
tamia, according to Ptolemy.

ALVANNA, in Geography, a town of Spain, in
the province of Guipufeoa, three leagues call of Tre-
vigno.

ALVAR, a town of Hindodan, in the country of
Mewat, 60 miles fouth fouth-wtll of Delhi.

ALVARA Marlens Bay, is lituatrd on the coaft of
Loango, in Africa, in S. Lit. 3'. and E. long. 11°, This

baj

A L V

bay has a fine fundy (Irar.J, and good anchorage ground.
Oil the fi)u'Ji fide of it arc two villages.

ALVARADO, a town of America, in the province of
Guaxaca, filiate at th^- nunith of a river of the fame name,
;^o niiies fouth-eail of Vera Cruz. N. lat. 1 8^ 40'. W.
long. 96' 36'.

Alvarado, a river of New Spain, rifes in the moun-
tains of the Zapotecas, and making a circuit through
the province of Maz.'.ltan, and receiving fcveral fmallcr ri-
v.frs a:id llreams, runs into the Gulf of Mexico, about the
dillance of 30 miles from Vera Cruz. The mouth of the
river is about a mile wide ; but for more than two miles from
the fliore it is almoft clioalied up with faiid.

ALVARE, a town of Arabia Fehx, according to Pto-
lemy.

ALVARES, a town of Portugal, in Eftremadura, con-
taining about I 200 inhabitants.

ALVAREZ, Francis, in B'tosraphy, a Portuguefe
prieft, was chaplain to Emanuel, king of Portugal, and
fent by him as ambafFador to David, king of Ethiopia and
Abyffinia. Having continued fix years in this counti-y, he
returned with letters to king John, the fuccelFor of Ema-
nuel, and to pope Clement VII. and gave an account of
hisembaffyat Bologna in 1533, in the prefence of Charles V.
He died in 1 540 ; and the account of his embalTy, with
a defcription of the cuftoms and manners of the Ethiopians,
was printed at Lifbon, in folio, in the fame year, and tranf-
lated into Latin by Goez, under the title " Dc fide, re-
gione et moribus Ethiopum," and at Antwerp in 1558,
in Frencli, 8vo. He was the firft writer who gave any
certain information concerning Eth'cpia ; but his account,
though reprefented by fome as true and accurate, is not
entitled to implicit credit. Gen. Dift.

Alvarez, Emanuel, a learned Jefuit, was born in the
ifland of Madeira in 1546. He became fucceffively reftor
of the colleges of Coimbra, Lifbon, and Evora, at which
place he died in 1582. His Latin Grammar, " De Infti-
tutione Grammatica," is much elleemed, and is ftill ufed by
the Portuguefe Jefuits in their colleges. It was pubhfhed
in 4to. in 1599, and has paffed through feveral editions.
Gen. Dia.

Alvarez de Paz, James, an eminent Jefuit of the
! 7th centuiy, and author of feveral devotional treatifes,
was born at Toledo in Spain, and educated in the fchools of
the Jefuits, among whom he entered himfelf at I 7 years of
age. Having finifned his courfe of theological iludies at
Alcala de Henares, he removed to the kingdom of P^ru,
in South America, and read leftures in divinity and philo-
fophy at Lima, which were much applauded. He was
likewife reclor of the colleges of Quito, Cuzco, and Lima,
and governed the whole province for fix years, connefting his
public offices with the regular dilcharge of his private duties.
At Potofi, where he was much revered, he \%'as feized with
a difeafe, which proved fatal, A. D. 1620, in the 60th year
[if his age. Gen. Dift.

ALVARID, among the Spanifii Moors, denoted a
judge. The word is alfo written al-vari/i/i : in this Icnfe «/-
•var'ulns amounts to much the fame with what is otherwife
called Ate A ID.

ALVARISTS, in Church Hlftory, a feft or branch of
n:>odern Thomifts, denominated from Alvares, whofe me-
thod and principles they follow.

The ylharijls differ from the ancient Thomifls, in that the
former are aflertors of fufficient grace, the latter of effica-
cious grace. The former come near to the Jefuits, the latter
to the Janfenifts.

ALVAROTTO, James, in Biography, an eminent civi-

ALU '

lian, was born at Padua, and became profefTor of law in that
city, in the 15th century. Bel'ides other treatifes, he wrote
" Commentaria in Libros Fcudorum," printed at Fr.mkfort
in folio in 1587, a work much eflcemed, and often cited by
the Italian lawyers.

ALVAYAZER A, in Geography, a fmall town of Portu-
gal in the province of Beira, containing one parilh, and near
1000 inhabitants.

ALUCITiE, in Entomology, z fubdivifion of infefts, with
digitated wings, belonging tu the genus of thal^na, and
of the hpidoptera order in the Lmniean fyllem: compre-
hending 12 fpecies.

ALUCO, facred owl, in Ornithology, a fpecies of the
owl, or STRix, with nifty head, black irides, and the pri-
mary wing-quills ferrated at the edges. This fpecies, the
La Hulotte oi ViuSon, the Uhda of BrifT. Gefii. and Aldr.
the black owl of Albin, and the brown owl of Pennant and
Lewin, is 15 inches long; its head is large and round,
without tufts, and face funk, as it were, within the plu-
mage ; the beak of a yellow or greenilli white ; the upper
part of the body of a deep iron grey, mottled with black
and whitifli fpots, the under part white, with longitudinal
and tranfverfe black fpots or bars ; and the legs white,
fprinkled with black points. It flies lightly, and not ruft-
hng with its wings. The outmofl feather of the wing is
two or three inches fhorter than the fecond, and this fliorter
than the third ; and the longeft of all are the fourth and
fifth. Its cry is a kind of howl, refembling that of wolves,
whence its name uhda, and the German huhu, or hoo-hoo.
It inhabits Europe and Tartary, and is faid to be confidered
as facred by the Calraucks, for having contributed to pre-
ferve the life of their great monarch, Jenghis Khan, though
Mr. Pennant attributes this to another fpecies. In Summer
it lodges in the hollows of decayed trees in the woods, and
in Winter approaches human habitations. Its mofl ufual
prey is field-mice, which it fwallows whole. It generally
lays four eggs, of a dirty grey colour, in the nefts of other
birds, fuch as buzzards, buflards, crows, and magpies.
GmeHn's Linn. BufTon's Birds, vol. i. p. 291.

Aluco, in Entomology, a fpecies of Phal^ena Bom-
by:;, with brown wings, cinereous at the apex, found at the
Cape of Good Hope.

Aluco is alfo the name of a fpecies of the Phal;ena
Nodua, with dentated wings, brownifii, undulated with
black and three marginal fpots, found in China.

Aluco is alfo the name of a fpecies of Murex, in the
cl.ifs of Vermes tejlacca, with tuberculated fpiral windings,
the middle ftria fpinofe, the columella uniplicate, and the
tail afcending. There are feveral varieties of this fhell. It
is found in the Southern Indian Ocean, Red Sea, and At-
lantic, about four mches long, whitifh, fprinkled with
ca;rulean or brownifii dots, the windings tranfverfely f\ri-
ated, the lip roundilh, and the aperture oval.

ALUDDA, or Alydda, in Ancient Geography, a town
of Afia Minor, in Phr)-gia Major, upon the confines of
Lydia.

ALUDEL, Ahdel, Fr. — SulUmirtopfe, Germ. — Alu-
dtHe, Ital. — Capitella fublimatoria, Lat. The aludel of the
chemifts is a kind of pot or cucurbit, generally made of
earthen ware, but fometimes of glafs, open at both ends for
the purpofc of colkfting the produfts of dry fublimations.
The matrafs or cucurbit, containing the fubttance to be
fubhmed being fixed in a fand bath, is covered with an alu-
del, fo difpofed as that the neck of the cucurbit may be
received into the body of the aludel, this again is covered
in like manner with another aludel, and fo on increafmg the
feries according to the volatility of the fubftance operated
I on,

A L V

on, the neck of tlie iipp? r j.ludcl being either nopiie.l « hh
a cork or covered with an impcrfornteil capital. See Clie-
miib^S I'late iii. fig. 14. A, the cucurbit, U, a feries of alu-
dels, C, the capital. It was in an apparat.,? of this kind,
that thofe cryftalhnc fublimates formerly call.d Roivcr', as
flowers of lulphur, of arfenic, of Bcn70c, >'?;c. ufed to be
prepared, when each clicniiil and driig},'ill maiiufaaured
tlicle articles for his own ufc : but fince the Ihops have been
lupphed for the moft part from large wholefalo laboratories,
the aludel, together with varou ; other vtliels, has been dil-
carded, and its place fupplitd by apparatus of more limplicity
and greater expedition.

ALVEARK, in Coiu-holo^y, 3 fpecics of Trochus,
with a plicated nodulofe (hell, llriated traiifvcrfely, and
adorned with hands of concatenated points, fiiniiel.niaiJcd um-
l;iliei!s, and creiuilated cohin-.clla. Jt is found in India ; the
fliell is coloured with a iniKture of green and white, within
pearly, and lir.ely annulated.

ALVEAKIUM, in yfm,tomy, the bottom of the cj.^:./.,;,
or hollow of the auricle, or outer ear.

The iihdarium auriculie is a cavity, terminating at the
.uus auditorhi.r, wherein that bitter ycUowilh excrement is
ivCted called cn-wnen, or ear-wax.
■V'-VEARiuM alio fignifics a bee-hive.
■Hii; word is.formed of rt/mi..r, ?i char.tifl, or cavity ; in al-
..-•Aon tj the alveoli, or cells, in bee-hives.

Some ot the ancients ul'e alfo the word nlvearliim for a
. e-houfe, more ufually called among us apiary.
Alvkarium is foraetimes alfo ufed figuratively, to denote
a coll>;clicn.

In which feiife, nhearlum amounts to much the fame with
w'.in.t we otherwiie call thejaums, conwcfla, or tjie like.
Vine. Roreas h;>s puUlillicd an al-uearlum of law.

ALVI'lHEZIT, -Axaawf^ Arnbliin Writers, denotes what
T.ve ordinan'v call fallmg-Jlars, or star-shot.

AL\ENSLEBEN, in Geography, a bailiwick of Mag-
deburg, in Germany.

ALVEOLATE, in Botany, a term ufed in the fame
fenfe with favolum, or honey-combed, to exprels a part that
ii furrowed by oblong deprefllons.

ALVEOLI, in Anatomy, thofe little fockets in the jaws
w.'Iierein the teeth are fet.

The alveoli are lined with a membrane of exqiiifite fenfe,
which feems to be nei-vous, and is wrapt about the roots of
each tooth ; from whence, and from the nerve, proceeds that
pain called odonlalgy, or tooth-ach. Of thefe alveoli there
are ufually 16 in each jaw.

Alveoli is more cfpecially ufed, among Naturalljls, for
thofe waxen cells in the combs of bees, wherein their honey
is depofited.

ALVEOI>US, Nautilus Orthocera of the Linnsan
fyftem, in Natural Hljlory, the name of a marine bodv,
found frequently fofTile, fomttimes lodged in the cavity at
the end of the Iclcmnltit, and fometimes loofe ; and in this
lall cafe, often fo large, that we cannot luppole any bdemnlix
ever to have exifted lo large as to liave been able to contain
it. We do not meet with thefe at this day in their recent
ilate, but what we find of them foffile are ever large at one
end, and tapering to a point at the other, and arc compofed
of feveral hemifpheric cells, like fo many bce-Iiives jointed
into cue another, and having Vi fiphunculus, or pipe of com-
munication, like that in the thick na:.. lus. Thcfc arc
lometimcs found perfedl and whole, but much more fre-
•juently truncated, or wanting a part of their fmaller end.
Klein.

ALVERD, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the pro-
vince of Taberillan, 20 leagues fuuth-fouth-well of Feiabad.
Vol. L

ALU

AI.VERXO, I mountain of Ii.ily, in the duchjr of
Tufcanv, 10 miles north of Borjfo San Sepnlchro.

ALVEUOA, a fnmll town of Portufral in Eftremi-
diira, containing, wiijiin a dirtrifl of one j.ari(li, about 400
houfes, two leagues from Lifbon.

ALUE.S1",N, in Uoiany, a name uftd by fomc for the
pu.eihinum, or h!,g '/- r m s r L .

ALVEUS properly drnotra a channel.

Alvei's is applied, by fomc Analomlh, to the tumid l.ic-
teal branches aiiliag from the receplarulum d.-yli under ihc
illaphrug m.

Alveus is alfo ufed in AnilquUy, to denotes fmall vcflel,
or boat, made out of the trunk of a fingle tree, by boring or
cutting it hollow.

Such was that wherein Romulus and Remus are faid t«
have been cxpofcd.

ALX'inONA, in Geography, a fmall i)laee of Naples,
in Calab-ia Citra, nine miles north-ialt of C^jflano.

ALVIDUCA, compounded of n.V.v/ and lyu^o, I ih.tw,
openers of the belly, in the Materia Me:li:n, a term ufed
by fome writers for laxative or purgative medicinei.

ALX'IGNANO, in Geography, a town of Naples, ia
the country of Lavora, loi miles caR of Capua.

AL\ ri'O, a town of Naples, in the country of Lavora,
fix miles call of Sora.

Alvito isalfoa fm.iUtown of I?ortug.il,in the province of
Alentejo, containing about 20CO inhabitants, and a barony.

ALULA no//'rt y<u^i/r/Vj, bailaid or fpurious wing, in
Ornithology, is a kind of a|)pendage to the true and principal
wing, placed near its outer extremity, at the bafe of the
primary quill-feathers, and confills of from three to five fmall
feathers of the quill kind.

ALIIM, ores of, in Mlnernlngy, Under this head we in-
clude all thofe minerals which either contain alum ready
f jrnied, or are capable of yielding this fait by the proccli
of manufacture. They may be conveniently di ided into
three families, i. The faline, all the fpecies • f w!iith aie
almoft wholly foluble in water; 2. The earth) -f dine, in
which the foluble particles are difTuled through a large pro-
portion of earth ; ^. The earthy, which containing no alum
but only the materials of it, are infoluble and deftitute of
that fweetilli aftringent tafte, which is chai-atlcrillic of the
two former.

J. Family — Saline. Tafte aluminous, almod wholly
foluble in water.

Species i. Capillary alum yilrlolum halolrlehiim, Wct-

ner.—Nanrfiiltz, Germ. — Termes tlmfo. Hung.

The colour of capillary alum is either pure or yellowifli
white, palling into ifabella yellow and grey, upon cxpofure
to the air- It occurs in long very tender capillary crjllali
accumulated on an earthy bafe, or amorphous or tooth-
fliaped. Its external lurtre is glaffy and generally glimmer*
ing, advancing fometimes to the little-lhining, in the pure
wliite varieties approaching more or Icfs to the mother of
pearl lulire ; internally it is ftiiniiig or llttlc-ftiining with a
glaffy Inftre. The amoi-phous has a fine, ilrait or cur\-ed
fibrous frafture. It flies, when broken, into indetcmiinatc
not particularly fharp fragments. It appears fometimes to
contain flender columnar diftinft concretions : is tranfpu-
rent, foft, and very brittle ; though each feparate cryflal
has a flight elafticity : fp. grav. according to Scopoii
1.8^5 : has a fweetifli allringent tuile.

By the analyfis of Scopoli, It is foluble in three times its
weight of water, and confiils of alum and lulphatcd iron. It
is met with at Cremnitz and Chemnitz in Hungary, .illo in
the quick-filvcr mines of Ydria, where it has generally been
niiftaken for white vitriol.

5 I Speciei

ALU

Species 2. Plume alum. — yllumcn nativum f. plumcfiiin,
Werner. — NaturlL-liLr f. fcdir aluun, Germ.
FjliJar iihiii, ii\ve<:d. — Fiutra^tig a/awn, Dan.
yllun lie plume, Fr.

The colour of this fubftance is yellowiHi or greyifh white.
Its external lullrc is dull, but fometimcs glimmering, or even
little-fliining. It confills of flender irregular hair-fhapcd
fibres, either finglc or accumuUited, and llightly adherent
to each other ; is feldom ilalaftitic or amorphous. It is
vifually opaque, but fometimes alfo tranfparent or femitranf-
parent. It excites the fame tafte on the tongue as the pre-
ceding fptcies.

It is found efflorefcing on bituminous fchiftus at Gottwig
in Auilria, on grey argillite in Carinthia, in clefts and ca-
verns on Stromboh, the Solfatara, the grotto of St. Ger-
mano, Mifeno, and other places in Italy.

In IClaproth's Eflays is an analyfis of the native alum of
Mifeno, from which it appears, that lOO parts yield by
fimple folution and cryftallization 47 of perfeft alum, and
29 more by the addition of the neceflary quantity of pot-
alh, the remainder being fand with a little felenite, and a
fmall trace of oxydated iron.

Species 3. Mountain butter. — Vltrlolum aliimen luty-
raceum, Werner. — Bergbutler, Germ.

Its colour is of a more or kfs dun ifabella yellow, or
yellowiHi brown. It occurs amorphous commonly overlay-
ing the furface of aluminous fchiftus in lumps or clots. In-
ternally it is fhining, with a waxy luftre. At firft it is very
foft, but by expofure te the air it becomes of a middle
confidence, between crumbly and compafted, and is then of
a (Irait fhiver)'- fratlure. Its fragments are indeterminate,
blunt. Its diftinft concretions are fmall and fine granular.
It is tranfparent on the edges, and (lightly elaftic ; feels
fomewhat uncluous, and leaves on the tongue an acerbly
fweetilh alfringent tafle.

It occurs in many places where the aluminous fchiftus is
plentiful, and expofcd to the air, as at Muflcaw in the Ober-
laufitz : is alfo found in Siberia.

It has not yet been analyfed, but probably differs from the
preceding, in containing a larger proportion of clay and
iron ochre.

II. Family. Earthy-saline. Tafte aluminous, very
little foluble in water. All the ores that belong to the third
family are occafionally found to have undergone a natural
change, fmiilar to what is produced in them by art at the
alum manufaftories ; in confequence of which they often
yield, by lixiviation, a variable proportion of alum, and exhi-
bit the fweetifh aftringent tafte pecuhar to this fait. I.
Upon the purely fulphureous ores or alum-ftone with its
varieties, this alteration feems to take place by the aftion
of fubterranean fire : alum is alfo probably formed in mere
-«arthy compounds of filex and alurnine, that contain no
fulphur when they overlie heated fulphureous flrata, by
which they are firft cracked and then penetrated with ful-
phureous acid vapours. Examples of both thefe occur in
Italy at La Tolfa, not far from Civita Vecchia, and the Sol-
fatara in the Neapolitan dominions ; from 1 00 parts of
which Bergman obtained by mere hxiviation eight parts of
perfeft alum. 2. The well known property of pyritoug
and pyrito-bituminous matters to heat, and afford vitriolic
falls by the combined aftion of air and moifture, may alfo be
traced, though in a (lighter degree, in the aluminous ores of
this defcription ; hence it is that the upper ftrata of the
fofter aluminous fchiftus, of the alum earth, and the ful-
phureous peats are occafionally inipregnated with alum.
The marftiy black foil of Arragon, that yields pure alum
by lixiviation (Bowles's Spain, p. 388.), appears to be of
this kiad ; alfo the aluminous turf of Helfinborg in Scania

ALU

(Bergm. Eff. vol. i. 353.) ; and a vein of black cartli in the
Shetland illands, containing alum and fulphated iron. Alum
is alfo extracted from foffil wood in Htfl'e, (Vogel. p. 322.)
Springs in the neiglibourhood of thefe ftrata fometimes hold
a little alum in fulution, as thofe near Halle (Chym. Ann.
1788. p. 224.)

Family III. Earthy — no aluminous talle — not foluble
in water.

Species 4. Alum-ftone. ArglUa alumlnarls TolfinJtsiWcrn.
yl/umcti Inp'uL caJcar. mlnerallzal. Wall. — Alaun-
Jhiii, alaunhakhjle'in. Germ. — /llunjla}, Sweed.
Alunrig ftecnher, Dan. — Pierre alununeufe de la
Tolfa. Pierre calca'ire alumirieiife, Fr. — P'uira
calclnofa nhitninofn, Ital.
Alum-ftone is greyi(h or yellowifti white, ifabella yellow, or
light fmoak grey ; amorphous. Its internal luftre is dull, fel-
dom ghmmering. Its frafture uneven, fplintery. Fragments
indeterminately (harp-cornered. It has diftinft corrchoidal
concretions, which might be miftaken for a fine fchiftofe
texture. Is (lightly tranfparent at the edges. Is half-hard
pafling into hard. Brittle, infipid, feels meagre ; and ad-
heres (lightly to the tongue.

Its fp. grav. according to Kirwan, is 2.424. It has an
earthy fmcll, and when projeiled on a red hot iron it Liifes
and gives out a black' fmoak, a (light fulpliureous fmelK and
the refidue acquires a reddifli colour. According to Mon-
net's analyfis, it confiils of fulphur and clay, in nearly equal
proportions, together with a little iron and potafti. Berg-
man found it to contain about 43 iulphur and inflammable
matter, 35 alumine, and 22 lilex.

It is found in maffes and veins running through argillace-
ous rocks at La Tolfa, in the Hates of the church, and in
the ore from which the Roman alum is prepared. A vol-
canic origin has been generally attributed to it, but appa-
rently without reafon, as the veins of La Tolfa have been
traced into the Apennines. It was formerly fuppofed to be
moftly calcareous,as is evident from the fynonims quoted above.
La Metherie (Theorie de la Terre, vol. ii. p. 215.) has
hazarded an opinion that it is principally alum fuperfaturated
with alumine, and therefore earthy and infoluble. This is a
notion which derives high probabiUty from the recent ana-
lyfis of this ore, by Vauquelin (An. de Chem. vol, xsii,
p. 275.) %vho obtained from it

Alumine - - 43.92
Sulphuric acid 25.
Potaih - - 3.08
Water - - 4.
Silex - - - 24.

lOO.CO

A nmilar kind of ore has been difcovered in rocks near
Poliniere in Brittany.

Species 5. Alum-flate. Alumirwtis fchijlus, alaunfchiefer.
Germ Alun Jiifer, Sweed Arduije alunu-
neufe, Fr. — Lavngna aluminofa, Ital Ttiruo

pala, Hung. Ktuajf^owoi fchifer-, Ruff.
Of this there are two varieties.

Var. I. Common alum-flate. Gemeiner alaunfchiefer.

Germ. — Argilla aluminaris fchijlofa 'vulgaris^

Werner.

Its colour is blui(h black, fometimes greyifh black.

Amorphous, or in concentric balls imbedded in the ftrata.

Its internal luftre is ghmmering, or dull. Frafture ftrait

or curved flaty. It Hies when broken into broad (hivers, or

trapezoidal fragments. Gives a grey itreak ; feels rather

fmooth but meagre. Is foft, brittle, and but little tlaftic.

Vai". 2. Shining aliun-flate Glanzender aLiunfchiefer^

Germ. — Argilla aluminaris fchijlofa nitida, Werner.

It

ALU

It ia of a blui(K black colour, gcncrullv pnHiiig into t!ic
unn black — occurs amorphous, iii larj^c Arata. Tlic liillrc
of its parallel fracture is ftiiuing or even briplitly fhiuiiig,
with a luilre between common ami femi-mctallie : tliat of its
crofs fraCltue u dull, or at moll glimmeriii;:;. Fracture
thick and curved flaty, feldom thin (laty. Its frajjments
therefore are fometimes thick and fometimca thin (hiverv.
It feels fmooth ; is half hard ; brittle ; and but htllo
flallic.

Both varieties are found in Norway, at Whitby in Eng-
land, in Sweden, in vSaxony, and various other provinces in
Germany. The alum of Great Britain and the north of
Europe is almofl entirely made of it, for wiiich ufe the fccond
variety is faid to be the bell adapted. It commonly
occurs in the neighbourhood of coal, and feems to differ
in no refped from the bituminous lliale impregnated with
pyTites.

Species 6. Alum-caith — Pyritacrous clay, alnun erde

Germ Arg'tUa alumitiarls bhiiminofa, Werner.

AhinjariU Sweed — Tern alumineufe, I'r. —
TimJ'iis f'6!il, Hinig.
Tt lias a light or dark blackilh brown, brownifli black,
or blackifii grey colour. Occurs in large llrala of earthy
or irregularly flaty maffes. It is generally dull, but when
containing fcattered particles of mica, becomes occafionally
glimmering. Its fracture is between compaCl earthy and
iniperfeAly flaty. Its fragments arc partly flaky and partly
irregidarly blunt cornered. Its ilrtak has a feeble lullr?.
It is vei-y ioft, and may be rubbed to powder between the
fingers ; is brittle, and of veiy little tlallieity.

When placed among burning coals, it generally blazes
a little ; and when moillened and expofed to the air in
large quantities, it heats and not unfrequently inflames.
From too parts of it, after torrefaftion , Klaproth obtained
to alum, 7.25 fulphated iron, 2.25 fulphatcd lime, and i
fulphated magnefia.

It is found in alluvial and fecondary ftrata, and is inti-
mately connefted with bituminous wood, alum flate, and
coal fhale. Is ufed in the manufacture of alum in
Germany^

Lenz, Verfuch der Mineralien. — Wldenman, handbuch
der Mineralogie. — Lametherie, Theorle de la terre. — Berg-
man's Eflays — Klaproth's analytical Effays. — Ivirwan's
Mineralogy.

ALUM, ManufaBure of.
In order to appreciate rightly the peculiar advantages or
difadvantages of the feveral methods of manufaAuring this
fait, it win be neceffaryto enter into a previous enquiiy con-
cerning the nature and proportions of its elements, and the
different chemical varieties of alum, which have hitherto
been confounded under the fame name.

§ I . Anahfis and Comprjitlon of Alum.

The identity of the earthy bafe of alum with pure clay,
was firfl afcertained by GeofTroy and Hellot, and the fuc-
cefTive experiments of Pott, Margraaf, and Macquer, upon
the fame fubjeft, put an end to the controverfy concerning
the nature of aluminous earth, which has ever fince been
univerfally received as the fame with pure clay or aluminc,
according to the reformed nomenclature. The acid in
alum has always been confidered as the fulphuric, and the
only qucftion among chemifls on this head is whether the
acid is necelTarily in excefs. A folution of alum reddens
litmus paper, and exhibits other properties of an uncom-
bined acid ; but on the other hand it is contended by
Morveau,that cryftallization and edulcoration would cfltclu-

ALU

«Ily feparale any fuch excef% and thorefj:c lli»t the ch.mjje
of vegetable culoiii-s it, uot aw uncquivm-al proof of fuuer-
abuudant acid. Rtfcrvin^r tlic cunfidrration of tliin and limi-
lar cafea till wc come to treat of the article !..\Tt'« ati<i!«i it
is fufTicient to obfcrve here, as iiidccd Bergman ha< clr«ily
(liewii, that the acid rxilh in alum witli two vcr)- different
degrees of affinity. By the ac\ion of iron filingj on a folu-
tion of alum, all the figns of uiicoinbincd or hxitly adhcr-
iiig acid arc dcftroyed, fulphat^;d iron is produced, and m
wliite earthy precipitate lakes place, confilling of the alum
deprived of a fmall portion of its acid, but Aill retaining
the greater part, as may be proved by the furtiicr dccum-
pofition of it by a caullic alkali ; and to this fupcrabtin-
dant or (lightly combined acid, is entirely owing the tadc,
the foltibility, and moll of the other external cliaraAcrs of
the fait.

The component parts of alum, according to Bergman,
are 3S fulphuric acid, iS alumine, and 44 water of cryltaU
lizatioti. Obfci-ving, however, that thofc folutioiis, which
contained a great excefs of fulphuric acid could not be
brought to ciyllallization by the addition of lime, foda or
barytes ; but only by mcang of potafh or ammonia ; finding
alio lulphat of potalh in many fpccict of alum, he appears
often induced to believe that the alum of commerce is a triple
fait confiding of ftilphuric acid, alumine and pourti. The
fubjedl remained in this (late of uncert.iinty till it came under
the notice of the moll eminent analWl of modem times, the
accurate and indefatigable Vauquelin, to whofe admirable
Memoir on the combinations of alumine with fulphuiic acid,
we are indebted for the final illuftnition of a quelliun of equal
importance to the chcmiH and manufaflurer.

In order to afcertain the component parts of alum, and
to determine tlie iitcefTity and peculiar .agency of alkalies iu
its preparation, he diffolved in pure fulphuric acid fome alu-
mine equally pure ; the folution was evaporated feveral
times to dryncfs to drive off the excefs of acid, and the dry
and pulverulent relidue being then re-diflblved in water, was
brought by evaporation to various dates of fpecilic granty
for the purpofe of crydallization ; but, notwithlbnding every
precaution, a foft magma, confiding of crydalline flakes, was
all that could be procured. The folution, which had thus
condantly rcfufed of itfclf to afford crydallized alum, began
to depolit fome immediately on the addition of a few drops
of potafh, and by gradually adding the alkali, drop by drop
as the depoljtion of alum ceafed, the whole was converted
into pure alum, without the fmallcfl mixture of fulphated
potafh.

Another portion of the fame pure alumiaous fulphat wai
mixed with carbonated foda, but without obtaining any cry-
ftals. Nor were lime or barytes more cfTicatious.

Hence it appears plainly that the ufe of potafh is not
merely to engage the excefs of acid, othenvife foda, barytes
and lime, ought to have produced the fume cffeft. Again,
if potalb and ammonia unite only to the fuperabundant acid,
the fulphats of potafh and ammonia (hould occafion no change
in the pure aluminous fulphat ; bnt, on the contrary, if they
form an effential condiment part of alum, then they (liould
produce the fame effefts when combined with fulphiu-ic acid,
as when pure. To afcertain this, a folution of fulphatcd
aluminc was mixed with a few drops of fulphat «f potafh,
the immediate effeft of which was the produftion of oAahe-
dral cryilals of alum. Sulphat of ammonia produced the
fame refult.

It might ilill, perhaps, be objefted that the a^ion of thefe
falts, as they arc remarkably greedy of fulphuric arid, deter-
mined the cryftalliz.-ttion of the alum, by the (imple abi'orp-

5 I 2 tiun

ALU

tion of fiiperfluous arid. In order to Jtteniiiiic tins, fon.e
tincn'rtallizable aluininous fiilj li.it was niixtd with acidulous
fu'.phat of potalli, and aflordcd as great an abundance oi
alum as wlitii the neutral fislphat of potaih was made ufc of.
Hence, no doubt can remain concerning tlie influence and
particular mode of atlion cxercifcd by potaih and ammonia
in the manufadurc of alu.n.

The experiments of Bergman ard of fevcral other chc-
iti'ids afcertaiiicd, that when a foUnion of commcm alum is
boiled with a cjuanlity of pure alumine, this laft combines
with it, and forms a peculiar fait infoluble in water, known
bv the name of ne\itial aluminous fulphat, or alum faturatcd
with its own earth. To this faft was added another of equal
importance, by Vauquelin, namely, that the earthy fait thus
precipitated retains its potafh or ammonia, for by digellion
in dilute fulphuric acid, it is diflolved, and affords oftahedral
cryllals of alum ; it even ai)pears from the memoir of this
pliilofopher quilted above, that the prefence of one of the
two alkalies is neceffary to the formation of this neutralized
alum. To an uncryllalli/able lolution of fulphated alun.ine
perfeftly free from alkali, he added fome pure alumine, and
found that a part of it was diflolved to the complete fatura-
tion of the aeid, but that no precipitation took place ; hav-
ing then added a few drops of fulphat of potafh, a precipitate
was depofited fhorlly after, poUefUng all the properties of
the foregoing faturatcd alum. Hence is cflabllflied the ne-
cciTity of^ fulphated potafh or ammonia, to enable alum, by
combining with a larger proportion of its bafe, to pafs to the
earthy Hate.

The alum of commerce always contains fulphat of potafh
either alone or mixed with fulphated ammonia, and as it is
often of confequence to the manufacturer to know the abfo-
lute and relative proportions of thefc falts, the following me-
thod of analyfis may be had recourfe to. Firft, let a fmall
piece of the alum be reduced to powder, and mingled with
a folution of cauitic potafli in fufficient quantity to decom-
pofe it entirely : if then, upon gently heating, it gives out
an ammoniacal odour, as is generally the cafe, this indi-
cates the prefence of fulphated ammonia. Havmg obtained
this indication, let two or three hundred grains of the alum
be diffolved in diflilled water and put into a tubulated retort,
and then add quick-lime, equal in weight to the fait : by
making this mixture boil for about twenty minutes, the
whole of the ammonia will be expelled, and may be con-
denfed by cold water in the receiver, or a Woulfe's appara-
tus : this ammoniacal liquor, being then carefully laturated
with fulphuric acid and cryftallized, will fhew the quantity
©f fulphated ammonia. The refidue in the retort being
mixed with warm water and filtered, a clear liquor will be
obtained, containing the fulphat of potafh, with fome fele-
iiite ; this latter will be precipitated by boiling and evapora-
tion, and the remaining fluid will then depofit the fulphat of
potafh in a cryftalline form. When the previous affay does
not indicate the prefence of ammonia, the alum is to be
docompofed by cauflic ammonia, the precipitate is to be well
wafhed, and the liquors being added together, are to be
gently evaporated to drynefs ; the fait thus obtained is to
be heated in a crucible till it ceafes to exhale white vapours
tif ammoniacal fulphat, and the refulue is fulphat of potafh.

§ 2. ManuJaBure of Alum from ths Jalinc-eartby ores.

The only place where this kind of ore is found in fufficient
abundance to be worth working, is at the Solfatara, a few
miles from Naples. The Solfatara, called by the ancients
Forum Vulcanl, Cnmpi Lcucogd, is a fmall plain, at the top of
a hill, covered with a white foil, and exhaling fulphureous

ALU

vapours which, during the night, emit a pale blue lambfnt
light : the ground, even at the furface, is contidcrably warm,
proceeding, no doubt, from iubtcrranean lire. It has con-
tinued in nearly the fame ilate from the age of Pliny to the
prefent time, and is celebrated by this author in his Natural
Hiflory (lib. xxxv. ch. 50.) for its fulphur, hut not for its
alum, as the Abbo Mazeas affirms. On the contrary, by
his ominion of the Campi Leucogci, when mentioning the
various places fro.n which alum was then procured, it is plain
that the cftablifhment of the ahun works of the Solfatara is
of more recent origin. The white clayey foil of this plain,
being conflantly penetrated by fulphureous vapours, and the
extuilations during the night being for the nioll part mixed
with the dew, and thus returned upon the furface, caufe it
to be covered with a light filiiie efHorefcence. This, to-
gether with the earth to which it adheres, is daily collected
and diilributed into leaden cauldrons, fo as to fill about two-
thirds of their capacity ; v.ater is then added, till it Hands
about three or lour inches above the furface of the clay, and
this, in a few hours, by the afliilance of the natural heat of
the ground in which the cauldrons are fet almofl up to the
brim, txtrails the alum diflufed through the clay, and de-
poilts it in rough cryllals on its furface. Thefe cryftals
being taken out and waflied in the mother liquor, are put
with frelTi water into other boilers, and again diflolved as be-
fore, by the natural heat of the ground ; the folution is
then run through a filter into large wooden coolers, and in
a day or two aflords a large quantity of pure colourlefs cry-
llals. Hence it appears that the alimi exifls ready formed
in the earth of the Solfatara, and the whole of the manu-
faftiu'ing part is reduced merely to lixiviation and purifica-
tion. The proportion of fait muff neceflanly be very vari-
able, thofe parts that are expofed to the rain, and that lie
above the general level, will contain the lealt. A fpecimen
that was analyzed by Bergman yielded eight per cent, of
alum. The Abbe Mazeas, from fix pounds of the earth.,
procured, by lixiviation, two pounds and a half of cryflals,
or about 41 per cent. The alum itfelt has not yet been
analyzed ; it feems probable, however, that its alkaline part
is entirely potafli.

§ 3. ManufaSure of Jlhimfrom alumfione.

It is at La Tolfa, not far from Givita Vecchia, i-n the
Roman Hate, that the manufacture of alum from this fpecies
of ore is principally carried on. All the alum known in '
commerce by the name of Roman alum is thus prepared, as
well as the Levant or Smyrna alum.

The ore of La Tolfa forms veins of confiderable hardnefs,
which are feparated by means of blafling from the reft of the
rock ; the pieces thus obtained are brought to the calcining
oven, which is inerely a hole dug in a riling ground, four or
five feet in diameter, and from five to fix in depth, with a
lateral gallery, communicating with the open air, and the '
bottom of the furnace. The bottom being covered with *
faggots of brufli-wood, the pieces of ore are fi<ilfulJy ■
laid over ihem, fo as to form a kind of hollow vault, between
the interlHces of which is an ample pafTage for the fmoke.
As foon as the fire is kindled and the flame begins to appear
between the flones, a workman is at hand to regulate the .
combuftion, that it may be neither too great nor too feeble ;•
in the courfe of fi-om three to five hours the fmoke begins
to decreafe, and the fire burns brightly; this is allowed to go
on till the fmell of burning fulphur begins to be prevalent,
which is a fign that tlie ore is fufficiently roafted. The fire
is now raked out, and the ilones are left to cool. The
fign of this firll procefs being well coududed, is, that

A I- U ALU

t!)« ore lias now acquired t!ie fwoeriili aariiigent tallc of .'cc. 179.;,) 13:) pnrt^ fulplat of poiafli arc compofcd of

^"'■r^il r J r 1 • 54-'^ I'^^al^ a"J 45-J fiilpliiiric aciJ ; and 100 paitti alum of

the l-condproeefs hegir.sby pilinfrtl.ccalciiud (loncs ^,3.75 alii.ninc and 36.25 fulpluiric acid. TWcfurc, the

Ml long beds, oiia noping floor, the lower fide of «liiel. is 25 parts fulplmric acid in the ore re.p.irc 37 1 aluminc and

terminated by a ditch of water, cxtetidinjj along its whole
lencjlh ; from this ditch the beds are fr^q-iently f;.rinklcd,
and the water draining frofn them reti-rns again into the
rer.Tvoir. Tn about a fortiii^rht the ftones begin to crack
and break down, and are at IcTigth, in f.nty day:, more or
lei's, ovcrCprcad with a reddifli efflorefcence, and reduced into
a kind of pallc. A leaden boiler is now half filled with
water, and when hot, frefh portions of the prepared ore arc
contimially ftirred in till a foltition of fnlTici-nt Urcngth is
procured ; the liquor as yet turbid is di-.uvn off into another
boiler, where it is fuhjeacd to a verj- gentle evaporation,
at the fame time that it becomes clear by the depofition of
its earth. H iving arrived at the point of crydalli/.ation, it
is transferred by means of a pipe into a fquare woo«*-n velTel,
eight feet high by live wide, fo conftrueted as to be readily
taken to pieces ; after remaining here for a few days, the
mother water is poured out, to be boiled again with frelh
alum ore in the firll cauldron, and the cryllals, when dried,
are ready for falc.

From this account of the procefs, by an eye-witnefs (the
Abbe Mazeas), it would ap]iear that no potafh or ammonia
is added to the lixivium ; it follows, therefore, that one or
both thefe alkalies muft be found in the ore, and this is
actually the cafe, according to the analyfis, by Vauquelin,
already quoted iil the preceding article.

The nature of this ore has been long mifunderftood, as
well as the rationale of its manufafture, and the analyfes of
it undertaken by Bergman and Monnet have only ferved to
perpetuate the error. Both thefe chemifts found a lai-'.-^e pro-
portion of fulphur in it, while Vauquelin finds only fuliihuric
acid ; this apparent contradiftion, however, may ealily be
reconciled, by confideringlhat the ore contains carbonaceous
matter enough to blacken it, and to give out a light flame
wlie-n powdered and fpread on a hot iron ; hence, if the
analyfis of Bergman and Monnet was begun by diftiUation
in a clofe retort, as it probably was, the decompofition of
tlie acid and production of fulphur is readily accounted for.
Admitting then the proportions of this ore, as afccrtained
by Vauquelin, to be lufficie.itly corf?ft, viz. alumine 43.92 ;
fulphuric acid 2J.; potafh 3.00 ; watery.; lilex 24.; it
oug'nt to be conlidered as a native fa'urated alum, with
excels of earth and deficiency of alkali, intimately mixed
with filex and inllHmninble matter. The a.^ion of the fire
in the roalling is to drive off the i;',fl^;nmab!e matter, and
from the fweet aluminous tafle which is thus communicated
to the ore, notwitiiilanding the lofs by volatiiizat'on of part
of its i'u'phuric acid, it Teems alfo to ell'efl a fep:i'-ation be-
tween the alum and the cxccfs of earth. The fubfcqucnt
cracking and breaking down upon expofure to the air and
moifhtre, is probably caufed by the ablorption of water of
cryllallizatlon.

But though a confiderable proportion of alum is thus ob-
tained, without the addition of potalli, it may be worth
while to enquire whether a larger quantity might not be
procured by a trifling additional expcnce. The alum of
La Tolfa contains by Vauquelin's analyfis
49. fulphat of alumine

7. fulphat of potafh
44. water

100
And according to Kirwa:i, (on the pr.iportionof real acid,

I

i.j potalli. But the ore only conlaiiii at mcft 3.CH potaDi,
lo that no more than 16 parts of fulphuric acid will be con-
verted into.ahiin; the nniainiiig ij. will be left incoinbiiiaiioii
with altiniine in the mother water; and thi» agrees with the
obfervation of Marcaa, who fpcaks of an uiK^iiioun acid,
cfflorefccnt fall being left in tlit rcliduc of the lixiviated ore.
The 9 parts of acid that arc thus loft, may, however, btf
converted into alum, by the addition of I.42 potalli, or
about 3. fulphat of potaih.

From thefe data the ore of La Tolfa ought to yield L»
the prefent method of working it 78.5 per cent, of cryllal-
lizcd alum ; or by the addition of 3 per cent, fulph.il of
potaih, 12, per cent, of cry(la!li/ed alum. In thiscalcul.ition,
however, no allowance has been made for thi f.ilphuric acid
volatilized in the reading, and that portion of the fall winch
cannot be cxtracled by lixiviation in the large way from the
prepared ore ; both thefe circumftances will, no doubt, di-
minilli confiderably the produce of alum, but the proportions
muft vary- much according to the <kill and attention of the
manufadurcr.

§ 4. MtinufaSure of Alum from the Pyrilout oret.

All the European alum, except what is manufadurcd at
Solfatara and La Tolfa, as defcribed in the preceding fec-
tions, is prepared from the alum flate or alum earth, and
thefe containing only the remote principles of this fait, a
much more complicated procefs is required than where tha
alum exifts ready formed in the ore.

The only necilfary ingredients in the pyrito-aluminous
ores are clay, and pyrites, or fulphuret of iron. Belidcs
thefe, however, there is generally a variable proportion of
bitumen, lime, and magnefia. The befl alum is procured
from the black micaceous fpecics in which the pyrites is
thoroughly diffeminated through the mafs in fucli Imall par-
ticles as to be indillinguifhable from the reft. Such, how-
ever, as contains even large nodules of pyrites, is very ca-
pable of being manufattured, much of the Swedilh ore
being of this kind.

The firft thing to be done is to difpofe the p)-ritc8 to
deeompofe into fTilphat of iron, (green vitriol), and this at
the manufacture of Flone, in the department of Ourte, in
Fr;ince, is brought about by fimple cxpofiirc of the ore to
the adlion of air and moiilure ; this ore, however, is of the
very bell kind, mod.eratcly foft, free from bitumen, and with
the ingredients well mixed, and even with thefe advantageii,
the procefs requires three years. The more ftony and bitu-
minous kinds, fiich as thofe of England and Sweden, are
fubjerted to a previous roafliiig. For this purpofe a layer
of billet wood or coals is placed on a floor of rammed clav,
and fet fire to ; upon this are thrown by degrees modcratCiy
fmall pieces of unburnt ore, till a ftratum is fonncd, about
half a foot in t'licknefs ; thefe piefently take fire, by their
own bitumen, and arc then covered with a ftratum of^ nearly
the fame thicknefs of ore that has been already roafted and
lixiviated ; to this fucceedsa layer of unburnt ore, and thus
alternate layers, eight or nine in number, arc gradually
added, till the pile is completed. Can: is taken by protcA-
ing it from heavy rains, and covering thofe parts expofed to
the wind, to keep up the heat of a moderate equable degree
till the bitumen being coiifumed, the fire goes out of itlclf.
If the ore is now examined it will be found to be of a reddilh
colour, containing a fmall quantity of fulpliatcd iron and

alumiue,

ALU

alumine, and in fomc of the Swcdidi manufaftoiics is ac-
cordingly lixiviated without any further preparation. In llie
Engliih and German alum-works, liowcver, the roafted ore
is watei-cd lijjhtly, and expofed for a gi-eater or Icfa time to
the aftion of the air, by which thefulphurof thcp)Titcs is
more completely oxygenated, and in confequeuce a larger
proportion of alum is obtained. In the manufnftory of
Flone, already mentioned, the fingularly judieiou, practice
is obfervcd, of lightly roafting the ore aj'icr Ipontaaeous
efflorefecnce.

The acid being thus developed, and in pnvt united to the
aluminc, the proccfs of lixiviation takes place. For this
purpof* the ore is thrown into large refervoirs of ftone or
wood, furniflied with a falfe bottom, to fervc the purpofe of
a iiltcr ; water is then poured on, and remains for twenty-
four hours or more, in which time it difTolves the greater
part of the falts ; this being let out by means of a cock
fixed nearly level with the bottom of the refervoir, a frelli
-quantity of water is added, in order to cxhauil the ore of all
foluble matter. The fecond lixivium is weaker than the
Hrft, but is afterwards concentrated by being ufed inftead of
water for the firll lixiviation of the next parcel of ore. The
water with which the lixiviation is performed is cold, and it
might feem at firft to be an obvious improvement to make
ufe of boiling water ; the experiment has, however, been
tried without the defired refuk, the increafed ftrength of the
lixivium not being adequate to the time and cxpence of
fuel. Where the hxivium is kept in large refervoirs, ex-
pofed to the weather, much depends on the drynefs of the
feafon, a few heavy rains weakening the liquor to fuch a de-
gree, as to add eonfiderably to the coft of boiling down. In
Sweden and the northern countries, various attempts have
been made to concentrate the liquor by freezing, but the
fuccefs has not anfwered cxpeftation ; for a faturated folu-
tion of alum congeals at nearly the fame temperature with
common water.

The procefs of boiling down fuccecds to that of lixivia-
tion, and is always perfomied in leaden boilers, copper being
for the mofl part too dear a material, and iron being at-
tended with the inconvenience of decompofing alum. The
lixivium is mixed in the boiler with the mother-water of a
preceding boiling, and this is done either by filling the
boiler with a mixture of mother-water and liquor, and fup-
plying the lofs by evaporation with frefh liquor, or by filling
the boiler at firfl with liquor, and fupplying the w'afte by the
above mixture. The evaporation lafts from twenty-four to
forty-eight hours, according to the proportion of mother-
water. In Saxony, where the proportion of mother-water
is large, and the lixivium is brought to a high degree of con-
centration, the boiling continues without interruption for
eight days. At the end of thefe refpeilive periods the fpe-
cific gravity of the liquor is affayed by a leaden hydrometer,
or, with greater exaclnefs, by filling a bottle of known fize
with the liquor, and then, by weighing it, to afcertain the
comparative fpecitic gravity between it and water. This
being done, an alkaline folution is added, and the firfl cryf-
tallizatlon is brought about. In the Saxon manufaftories,
where the liquor is uncommonly concentrated, as foonasthe
evaporation is finifhed the contents of the boiler are let out
into a refervoir, where they are flrongly agitated for half an
hour, during which time a certain proportion of foap-
makers lees and putrefied urine is added ; and the liquor
being then let into another vat, the cryftals of alum begin
immediately to be depofited ; at the end of a few days the
mother-water is laded out, and the cryftals are coUefted and
walhed. The method followed in the Englifh works differs
fomewhat from the Saxon pradice ; in thefe, when the li-

ALU

<juor appears by the hydrometer to be fufficicntly evaporated,
the lire is withdrawn from the boiler, and a ftream of impure
alkaline lixivium, from kelp and foap-makcr's allies, is let into
the liquor already in the boiler ; at the fame time the cock
at the bottom of the boiler is turned, lo as to allow the con-
tents of it to flovv' into a refei-voir, by which management the
two liquors are fpecdily and effectually mixed. It remains
in this refervoir for three hours, during which it depofits an
earthy and ferruginous fediment by the aftion of the alkali,
and becomes of a clearer colour ; it is now transferred into
another large vat, and has its fpecific gravity again taken,
according to which a greater or lefs quantity of putrid urine is
added to lower it to the proper ftandard ; being then agitated
briikly for a quarter of an hour it is left at reft, and in the
courfc of five days the cryftals are depofited. In fome French
and Swedilh manufaftories the hquor,after being boiled down,
is merely agitated for fome time without adding any alkali,
and tiien pafied into the cr\-ftallizing tub. The rough alum
being waflied in order to fcparate it from the green vitriol
which is depofited along with it, is put into a fmall pan with
a little water, and when diffolved and boihng hot, fome bul-
locks blood, or other fimilar fubftance, is ufiially added for
the purpofe of clarification : when this is etfefted, the hquor
is run into caflcs, where the cryftals are depofited in large
maffes ; after ten or twelve days the mother-water is poured
out, and the fait, being then dried, is ready for fale. By
keeping in mind the analyfis and experiments in § i. of this
article, it is eafy to underftand the rationale of the manufac-
ture, as well as the advantages and faults of each procefs. As
foon as the pyrites is converted into fulphat of iron, whether
by roafling or by fpontaneous efflorefcence, it begins to be gra-
dually decompofed by the lime and magnelia that may hap-
pen to be in the ore, therefore the lefs there is of thefe two
earths, the greater ceteris paribus will be the produce of alum.
Clay is incapable of decompofing fulphat of iron ; but by ex-
pofure to the air, efpecially when affifted by the aftion of
heat, the metal becomes highly oxygenated, and is no longer
combinable with the acid which th«n unites with the .clay,
as being the fubftance in the ore of next affinity. Hence
arifes the advantage of the practice at Flone of roafting the
ore after the formation of the fulphat of iron. We have al-
ready feen in § I. that fulphat of alumine, even with excefs
of earth, is foluble in water, but that it becomes in foluble on
the addition of potafh ; on this account, therefore, coal,
which contains little or no potafli, is a far preferable fuel for
roafting the ore than v.-ood which yields a great deal, as all
the alum, thus rendered incapable of extraction by lixivia-
tion, is loft. The bitumen in the ores, however, diminifhes
the confumption of wood, and the lixivium confifts of the
fulphats of iron, of alumine, of lime, and magnefia. By long
boihng and evaporation the iron becomes fo far oxygenated,
that the addition of an alkali will decompofe the fulphat of
iron, rather than the fulphat of alumine. If the alkali is ever
fo little in excefs, the aluminous fulphat will be the next de-
compofed ; this is therefore to be carefully avoided. Nor is
the kind of alkali a matter of indifference, for fince only am-
monia and potafh are capable of forming cryftallizable alura>
it would appear that the ufe of foda in the EngUfh manufac-
tories might be advantageoufly fuperfeded by potafh ; in-
deed the chief ufe of the kelp feems to confift in the potafh
which this impure foda contains. The principal thing to be
attended to in the boiling down is to bring the liquor to fuch
a degree of concentration, that the alum fliall be depofited
with as little as poffible of the other falts.

The mother-water, when thrown away, holds in folution
fulphats of potafh or foda, and fulphat of magnefia, the CX-
traftion of which was made the fubjett of one of Lord Dun-

donald's

ALU

donald's patents, but we believe the profits have not yet an-
fwered the expeiicc.

The n.-itiire of alum, and confcqucntly the true theory of
its manxifafturc, has only been known fince the publication
of Vauquclin's excellent memoir on the fiibjed in the An-
nales de Chimie ; it is not furprifmg, therefore, that all the
long-ellabliflied procelTes (hould be more or lefs dcfcrtive.
Perhaps the following method would be found to combine
more advantages, and be fubjefl to fewer inconveniences than
any which has been hitherto put into praftice. The ore
(hould be firll (lightly roafted with coal to drive off the bitu-
men, and forward the dccompofition of the pyrites, which
maybe further accelerated by moderate waterings, and expo-
fure of frefh furfaccs to the aftion of the air. When faline
efflorefcences appear at the top of the heaps of ore, and
their interior, upon being dug into, alfo feems penetrated
with white faline particles, let the ore be difpofed in alter-
nate ftrata with coal, and again roailed, fo as to decompofe
as much as poffible of the lulphatcd iron, and combine the
acid with the clay ; the flower and more gently this procefs
can be carried on, the more completely will its objeA be an-
fwered. The lixivium obtained from this roafted ore will
confift chiefly of fulphated alumine, nearly faturated with
earth, but, on account of the ableuce of potafh, perfeAIy
foluble. By the fubfequent boiling and agitation, part of
the fulphat of iron would be dcconipofed, and this oxydation
of the iron might perhaps be ftill further effected, by pouring
the liquor through heaps of faggots, expofed to the wind, as
is. done in the hotifes of graduation for brine in France and Ger-
many. The ferruginous and felenitic fediments being now
allowed to fettle, tiie clear liquor ought to be transferred
into another refervoir, and there mixed with a hot folution of
acidulous fulphat of potafh, fueh as remains after the diftil-
lation of aquafortis from nitre and fulphuric acid ; cryilals
will be immediately depofited of an alum much purer than
common ; and thefe, by a further clarification, may be made
equal to that of La Tolfa.

§ J. McuiufaBurc of Alum ly Chaptal's procefs.

An attempt had been made, but with little fuccefs, at the
manufaftory of JavcUe near Paris, to prepare alum by the di-
rect combination of its conftituent principles ; but it was not
till the admirable and deciflve experiments, in the large way,
by Chaptal, publilhed by him in the genuine fpirit of philo-
fophic liberality, that the praiticability of this method could
be faid to be eilabliflied. According to the modern way of
preparing sulphuric acid, the rcquifite proportions of
fulphur and nitre being mixed together, are brought to com-
builion in a clofed chamber lined with lead ; tlie fulphur is
thus acidified and converted into vapour, which by degrees
unites with the water that overfpreads the floor of the cham-
ber, and forms a liquid, diluted, fulphuric acid. A fimilar
procefs was inftituted by Chaptal, only fubftituting dried
clay for the water ; the rcfult of which was fo favourable,
that a large manufactory on the fame plan was ftt on foot ;
which, having continued in full activity for feveral years, and
producing alum only inferior to that of La Tolfa, merits
a particular defcription.

The chamber in which the combuftion is performed is 91
feet long, 48 feet wide, and 3 l feet in height to the pitch of
the roof. The walls are of common mafoniy, hned with a
moderately thick coating of white plafter ; the floor is a
pavement of bricks, fet in a mortar, compofed of baked and
unbaked clay ; and this firft pavement is covered by a fecond,
in which the bricks are made to overlie the joints of the
lower ones, and are themfelves firmly connected to each
Other by a cement:, compofed of equal parts of pitch, tikr-

ALU

pentine, and wax, made boiling hoi, t\nd poured bctw<en
the joiuls inllcad of mortar. Tlic loof is of wood, and the
beams are fet at much lifa dillanccs than common ; they arc
alfo channelled with deep longitudinal grooves, fur ihc pur-
pofe of receiving the pLuikn that fdl up the fpaee between
the beams ; fo that the whole of this great area of tarpcolry
does not prcfcut a fingle nail. The chamber thut con-
llruCted was covered on the fides and top with a layer of the
cement jull mentioned, applied as hot as puflibic fo at to pe-
netrate mto all the pores of the wood and plaller; three more
fucccffive layers were then laid on, and the laft was pohbrd
fo as to prefcnt an uniform, even, folid face. In order to
prevent the wood-work of the citling from warping, it u'at
covered on the outfide with a thick coating of cement, and a
light roof of tiles was laid over the whole. By fubltituling
this cement for a lining of lead, a vail faving was cffcfttd in
the firft expcnce ; and it has been found, by long experience,
to require much fewer repairs than even had ilfclf.

The clay o\ight to he of the purcft kind, fueh as pipe-ebvi
that it may contain ueither lime nor magnefia, and as little
as poflible of iron. It is to be tempered with water, and
made into balls five or fix inches in diameter; thcfc being
dried in the fun, arc afterwards calcined in a furnace j the
firft effeil of the heat is to blacken them, but foon after they
become red hot, the carbonaceous matter which caufcs the
blacknefs is burnt out. Being thus withdrawn from the fire
and cooled, they arc broken down into fuiall fragmenti,
and fpread on the floor of the chamber. In this ftate they
are expofed to the vapour of fulphuric acid from the cora-
builion of iulphur and nitre ; and in a few days the pieces
arc obferved to crack and open, and to be penetratca witl(
llender faline crjllals. The earth being at length covered
with efflorefcences, it is removed from the chamber, and ex-
pofed to the air under fheltcr of a Ihed, that tlie acid may
obtain its higheft degree of oxygenation, and become tho-
roughly united with the earth. It is now lixiviated, and the
liquor contains, in fiilution, little elfe than acidulous fulphat
of nlumine : this being boiled down to the proper coufiftcncc,
a folution of fulphated potafli (being the refidue in the poti
of combuliion from which the fulphuric acid was produced
in the chamber, and confifting of tlu; alkaline bafe of the
nitre combined with fome of the fulphuric a«id) is poured in,
and the liquor being then transferred into a large vat, per-
fect cr)'ll;js of alum are ftiortly depofited, whicli are after-
wards relincd in the ufual manner.

The advantages of this procefs arc numerous. It may be
canied on whenever a fupply of proper clay can be had. The
fpace taken up by the works is mucli lefs extenfive thao
what is required according to the common methods. The
whole maiuifacture is perfonned in at moft one-third of the
time ufually nccelTary. A large quantity of fuel is laved.
The extraneous falts in the mother-water are fewer; an im-
portant ufe is made of the refidual fulphat of potafh ; and
hiftly, the alum itfclf is much purer, and almofl equally well
adapted to fix the dehcate dyes as that of La" Tolfa, the
commercial price of wliich is generally about double that of
the Englifh alum.

§ 6. Bruttfwlck jllum.

The dilute r«d colour of the roch alum, and the flefh-co-
loured efflorefcences with which its crj'ftals are covered, being
itsdiflinguilhing charader among the tnerchantt, occaiioncd
two brothers of the name of Gravenhorft to manufadure,
fome years ago, a fpurious imitation of it at Brunfwick. Wc
know not whether the manufaiiture is ftill carried on or not :
but if it if, the public will be benefited by the communi-
cation oi 30 eafy method «f dctedtiug the cotuilerfcit, more

efpecially

ex

an

ALU

efpecially as the roch alum is the kind ufcj in modicine,
and the Brunfwick imitation of it contains arjhiic. The
external appearance of the two forts differs but little. The
taile of the Brunfwick alum is Icfs llyptic tlian that of the
roch alum, it u Ids foluble in water, and when heated to
rednefs, it lofcs only 37.5 per cent, of its original weight,
while the other U)fes 50 per cent. The roch alum, when
pofed to the blow-pipe, becomes opaque, fwells, foajr.s,
d is converted into a fpungy white mafs. The r.runfwick
alum, on the contrary, fwells'lcfs, fcarcely foams at all, but
melts, and becomes of a green colour, exhaling at the fame
time an arfenical vapour. Again, the precipitate from a fo-
lution of roch alum by potalh or foda, being mixed with bo-
rax, fufes before the blow-pipe into a white or yellov.ilTi
vvhi'te ; whereas the Brunfwick, by the fame treatment, af-
fords a violet-coloured globule : and in laft it is nothing
more than common alum, containing a little cobalt and arftnic.

^ 7. Compar'ifan of Engl'ifi, Roman, Levant, and French
Alum.

The Roman alum, manufaftured at La Tolfa, is the
purcft and deareft of a,il ; it is in pieces about the fize of a wal-
nut, Ihewhig more or leis of its cryftalline form, and is opaque,
on account of a farinaceous tffloi sfccnce with which it is co-
vered. Tlie Levant or roch alum appears in fragments of
nearly the fame i'lze as the former, but in which the cryftal-
line form is more dbfcure ; it is externally of a dirty rofe-
colour, and internally exhibits the fame tinge, but clearer.
Smyrna is the place whence it is ufually (hipped for Europe ;
but' it was anciently made at Roccha, or Edefia, in Syria,
whence its commercial name roch-alum. The French alum,
that is, Chaptal's, defcribed in (■ 5. is in fmall, clear, colour-
lefs cryftals. The Englifh is in large, irregular mafles, confi-
derably harder than the others. Equal portions of all thete
■kinds,'being expofed in a muffle to a red heat, were weighed
after the intumefcence was over, and the lofs by calcination
in the Roman alum was 50 per cent. ; in the Levant alum
40 per cent. ; in the French alum 57 per cent. ; and in the
EngUfh 47 per cent. Of pure water, at 144° Fahr. Roman
alum required 14 times its weight for folution ; Levant
alum required 1 2 parts ; French alum 1 3 parts ; and Englifh
15 parts.

Equal parts of thefe four kinds of alum being dijTolvcd fe-
pnrately in water, the fame quantity of pruffiated lime was
added to each folution. That of the Enghfh alum became
fllfhtly blue at the end of a few minutes, as was alfo that of
the French alum, though the tint was rather lighter; after
iQjme time the Roman alum became faintly blue ; but the
•folution of Levant alum was only lightly yellow, the natural
colour of the pruffnted lime. After two days an inap-
preciable quantity of blue precipitate was depofited from the
£n;rhih alum, rather lefs from the Roman and French, and
only a few atoms from the Levantine ; the three firlf folu-
tions were of a bluifh green tint, but the laft was a very di-
lute yellow.

Equal parts of the four forts were diffolved feparately in
pure water, and their earthy bafe was precipitated by an ex-
cefs of ammonia. The precipitate from the Roman alum
was of a pure dead white ; that of the Levantine and
Trench was nearly equal to the Roman ; but that of the
Englifh was of a juft perceptible bluifli tint. By calcina-
tion in a red heat, they all at firft became blackiih, and
ended with being perfectly white.

Hence is apparent the fuperiority of the Roman alum,
and the inferiority of the Englifh, when ufed as mordants
for the moft dehcate colours : for other colours, and for the
various uies befldes to which alum is applied, each kind may

3

ALU

be ufed indifferontly- The Englifh poffefTes lefs water of
cryllaUization than the Roman or French ; and a given
weight of it will go fuith^r than the fame quantity of any
of the reft, as i 2 per cent, is to be deducted from tlie I^e-
vantine, on account of the reddilh inloluble fediment with
which it is contaminated.

^ 8. H'ljlorlcal notice of the introJudlon of alum-t7iaJ:in^ tnt»
Europe.

The ancients appear to have been acquainted only with
the native plume alum, which they procured from Lipari,
and the nelghbourir.g volcanic iilands. In the 12th, i3tii,
and 14th centuries it was manufactured at EdeiTa (Rcccha)
in Syria, in the vicinity of Conftantinople, and at FhocCEa
(I'oya nova), not far from Smyrna. Bartholomew Perdix, a
Genoefe merchant, who had often vifited Roccha, difcovered,
about the year 1459, a vein of alum ore in the illand
Ifchia, and there eltablidied the firft European manufactory
of alum ; foon after John de Callro difcovered the body of
ore at La Tolfa. Eftablilhrnents were then made at Viterbo,
Volaterra, and ot";er places in Italy with fuch fuccefs, as
induced Pope Pius IL to prohibit the importation of Ori-
ental alum. In the i6th century this art was introduced
into Germany and Spain ; and a little before its conclulioii
the Englifh alum-works at Whitby were inftituted by Sir
Thomas Chaloner, who had the lionour of being perfonxlly
excommunicated by the reigning pope on this very account.
The earlieft of the Swedilh works dates no higher than 1 637.
Macqufr's Chymifches v.brterbuch von Leonhardi, art.
Alaun. Annales de Chimie, vcls. viii. xiv. xxii. xxix. Plinii.
Hift. Nat. lib. XXXV. c. 52. Bergman's Eflays, vol. i. Me-
moi'res de I'Acad. Royale, vol. v. Eiicyciopedie Method.
art. Aiiui.

Alum, in Chem'flry, Materia Medlca, &c. See SuL-
PHAT of Alum'tne.

ALUMINE. — Pure earth of alum Pure clayet

OR argillaceous earth. Jilum'ine. — Terre d'alun. —
Terre argilleufe, Fr. — Thon-erde, Germ.

The word alumine has been adopted, without alteration,
from the modern French nomenclature, by the majority of
Englifh chemiils, as the technical name of pure argillaeeou*
earth, on account of its being generally procured by the
decompofition of alum, when required to be in a ilate of ex-
treme purity.

Next to filex and lime, alumine appears to be the moil
commonly occurring earth in thofc ftony or earthy maffes,
of which the globe, as far as we are acquainted with it,
is princpially compoied. It forms the eilentia', though f e -
dom the grcateft part of all kinds of cl'iys, giving to them
the property of ductility or plaflicity when mixed with wa-
ter. When in a ftate of more intimate combination witli
illex it lofes its quality of plailicity, and gives to the mine-
rals in which it enters, the charadters of opacity, of hard-
nefs inferior to tliat required for ftriking fire with fteel, of
that odour known by mineralogifts under the name of
earthy, and of that abfence of cryilalUne form which is
called amorphous ; fuch are the immenfe mafTes of flate and
argillaceous Ichiftus that abound in almoft all mountainous
trails, the boles, the colorific earths, the toadftones and
clay porphyries. Alumine, however, occafionally, though
very rarely, enters in large proportion into eryllallized mi-
nerals, and then in its external charaAers of hardncfs, tranf-
parency and luftre approaches very nearly to filex : fuch is
the adamantine fpar, inferior only in hardnefs to the dia-
mond, and which contains from 80 to 90 per cent, of alu-
mine : fuch alfo is the fapphire, which by the analyiisof
Klaproth appears to contain no lefs than 98 per cent, of

pure

ALU

pure alumine. Thcfe, however, whicli are more properly the
niineralogical tlieiii chemical charaftcrs of aliiniinc, will be
treated ol morcat large iiuhe rubfcqucnt miiUTalof;icalanicles.

Pure aKimiiic, in a llate proper for chemical experiment,
has hitherto never been foiu.d native, and it is only of late
that chemills have dilcovered the method of obtaining this
earth fiifficiently free from foreign admixture. The me-
thod of Bergman and his contemporaries was to decompofe
a folution of purified ciyllals of alum by an excefs of car-
bonated potafh, or foda, and to waih the earthy precipitate
in repeated quantities of dillillcd water, till it came olf pcr-
fi clly tallelefs and pure ; a white uniform foft matter was
thus obtained, which was fuppofed to be carbonated alu-
nuiie, and this by drying in a heat below that of redncfs,
v.as deprived of its acid and water, and was then efteenied
pure alumine. The infuffieiency of this method had be-
gun to be fufpefted for fome time, however, particularly
rrom the appearance of fulphurated hydrogen, when alumine
thus purified was heated with charcoal, and aftcnvards
moillened w itli a diluted acid, and the admirable memoir of
Vauquelin on alum, (which has already been referred to
under that article) not only eftabliflied the validity of thcfe
fufpicions, but pointed out the method of avoiding the er-
rors of his predeccfTors, and thus introduced a very import-
ant improvement in the difficult art of chemical analyfis.
Alum has already been iliewn to be a triple compound of
alumine, potadi and fulphuric acid in excefs, and when this
excefs of acid is taken away, either by the addition of
alumine or of an alkali, an infohible fait is produced differ-
ing from alum only in the proportion of its earthy bafc ; now
the eaie with which a fait is decompofed depends very ma-
terially on its folubility, vvh.en, therefore, we add gradually
to a folution of alum a folution of carbonated alkali, the
fiift effeft is to neutralize the excefs of acid, and the preci-
pitate confifts principally of the infohible fait juft mention-
ed ; a further quantity of alkali, efpecially if affifled by
heat, will effcft the decompofition of part of the fait, but
in proportion as this takes place the rclidue becomes mixed
with the alumine, and thus is covered from the further ac-
tion of the alkali. This being the cafe, it is obvious that
no fubfequent wafliings can do more than fcparate the ful-
phated potaih ; and therefore the rtfidue, inttead of being
pure alumine, contains befides a variable proportion of
earthy alum, from which laft proceeds the fulphur obfer-
vable on heating it in a dole vcfTel with charcoal.

The only way by which alum can be made to yield its
earth in a ftate of fufficient purity for delicate chemical
experiments, is the following. Take any quantity of Ro-
man alum, and diffulve it in lukewarm diililled water, filter
the folution, and fet it to cryHallize. When by cooling
and fpontancous evaporation, a fufficient portion of this
purified alum is depofited, take it out and rediffolve in cold
diililled water ; to this folution add liquid caullic ammonia,
a white precipitate will be thrown down, and continue the
gradual addition of ammonia till no farther precijiitation
takes place ; heat the liquor then nearly to boiling for a
few minutes, add more water, and throw the whole on a
paper filter ; in proportion as the fluid drains oft add water,
till it paffes through quite tafttlefs. The precipitate, while
yet in a pvdpy ftate, is to be removed into a fi:;(l<, and di-
gelled with muriatic acid till it is diffolved. The muriatic
folution being then concentrated by very gentle evapora-
tion, will at length dcpofit cryftals of alum, which are to
be removed, and this procefs is to be. continued till the li-
quor ceafts to yield anymore. Nothing now but pure alu-
mine remains in the folution, the potafh and fulphuric acid
being got rid of, at the expeiice of a Iktlc ot the alu-

Voi. I.

ALU

mine in the crjrflals, the linuor !> therefiv? tl be dilnled
with water ; and ammonia fully fufficient for the deeompo.
fition of the muriated alutniiic being then added, the proceft
ot filtration and edulcomtiun is to be (rone through ai be-
fore, and the rcfult will be pure ahimir.c. Ou account of
the length of thib method, and the polTibility that even
after all a very minute proportion of fulphated potadi may ftill
remain, it liaj been the pratlice of late with X'auquclin and
Hertholitt to procure their pure aluininc fiom luch of the
natund clays as contain only fdex and alumine. hy dirertion
in muriatic acid and decoinj)ufition of the folution by am-
monia.

Pure alumine, obtained by the above mcthodi, it opacjur,
of a fnow white colour, a fmooth lomcwhat unMuoun icci,
has no linell, even wlien breathed upon, or moiflciied wiiK
warm water, nor any proper taftc ; when placed upon the
tongue, however, it abfoibs ;J1 the moifture with which it
finds itfelf in contaii, and thus occafions a peculiar fenfa-
tion of allringency. It is readily difTufiblc, and remain*
for a long time fufpendcd in water, but appears to be to-
tally infoluble in this fluid. Its fpecific gravity i? varioutly
cilimated, according to the degree of deliccatiun, by Berg-
man it is reckoned 1. 30 J, while Kirwan allows it as much
as 2.0. After being thoroughly dried in a heat jiill not
luflicient to dellroy its plallicity, it is capable of ahforbing
2 J times its weight of water, without allowing any to
dropout, and the water thus mixed is retained more ob»
llinately at the ufiial atmofpheiic temperature by alumine
than by any other earth ; a freezing cold however caufeB
this earth to contrac^t remarkably, and thus fquce/e out a
large proportion of its water.

Alumine is the only earth that poneffes the property of
plallicity, or of being kneaded up with water into a foft
dudilc paile, capable of being formed by the hand or the
potter's wheel intcf any fliape that may be required ; the
plallicity the-efore of all the natural clays ij owing to their
aluminous part ; nor is this property dellroyed even by a
veiy large adiiiixture of other earths ; in the finer kinds of
pottery fearcely a fourth of the whole mafs is pure alunune,
and yet its plallicity is unimpaired. If a piece of tempered
clay is dried gently in the air, it retains its form, but
becomes quite brittle ; its former ductility may, however, be
rellored by again kneading it with water. If expofed to a
red heat it hardens, contrails in all its diibenfions, become*
more Cumpaft, and of greater fpccilic gravity, and is no
longer plailic, nor can this property be rclVored to it by
any other means than by folution and precipitation ; hence
bricks or pottery ware, after having been baked, if pi.unded
ever io fine, are no more capable of forming a palle wiih water.

The action of caloric on alumine is accompanied by fome
interefting phenomsna which deferve mentioning. If the
purell phillic alumine is expofed to a low red he-at, it becomes
of a bluiih black colour, efpecially on the infide, as is mani-
fell by breaking a piece acrofs that has been thus hrated ;
as foon as this colour is perceived the plailicity is dellroyed,
a fad that renders it probable Unit this property of alumine
depends on fomething elfc than mere water. 13y a further
iucreale of the heat with acccfs of air, the carboiiacrotis to-
louring matter is burnt out, ami the alumine acquires a ic-
fplendent white colour, becoming at the fame time harder,
deiifcr, and of lefs bulk : all thcfe changes .idvance in gra-
dual progreflion in proportion to the heat ; and after it ha*
thus experienced the full effect of our moll powrerful fur-
naces, it will be found to be fo hard as to give fire with
ilcel, and r'c'uccd to nearly out half of its original bulk.
Upon this lalt property is founded the ufe of IViJ^cwcod's
PYROMETER, for mcafuring the higher degrees of heat. The
5 K deiTcafa

ALU

ALU

decreafe of bulk is in part occafionej by the expulfion of earths. For further particulars fee the falts under their rC'
the hill particles of water ; but from the augmented fi)eeific fpeftive acids.

gravity of the alumine, it is plain that an aftual eondenfation
or approximation of moleculx takes place, as is obfervable in
various other porous luhftances previous to {ufion. Whether
any artificial heat is able to bring this earth into real fafion
is as yet dubious ; for though Lavoifier, by means of a
blow-pipe charged with ox\gen gas, reduced a piece of alu-
mine to a pafly femi-fluid ilate, yet it is probable, as the
earth was obtained from alum, that a minute portion of pot-
afh might flill be contained in it, and thus ait as a flux.

Alumine has a ftrong affinity for metallic oxyds, tfpecially
the oxyd of iron ; hence arifes the difficulty, and indeed al-
irioft impuflibility, of obtaining alum free from iron in the
great way, becaufe all natural clays and aluminous ores con-
tain more or lefs of this metal. The only way of accurately
feparating thefe two fubllances is by digeilion in cauftic
potafh or foda, which will dilTolve the earth, but not the oxyd.

Thefe two fubitancee are alfo capable of atting on each
other in the dry way at high temperatures ; and fome im-
portant experiments on this iV.ojeft are recorded by Achard
and Kirwan, from which it appears, that when the propor-
tion of alumine exceeds that of the oxyd of iron, the mix-
ture is in all cafes veiy difficultly fulible ; that when the pro-
portions of the ingredients are equal, and efpecially when

■\mmonia has not yet been obferved to exert any aftion
on pure aluminous earth ; but both potalh and foda, when
caultic, will difiolve it without any difficulty. This may be
done by evaporating to drynefs, and igniting in a filver cru-
cible, a mixture of cauftic alkali and alumine, and then
hxiviating the mafs, or merely by boiling fome frelh preci-
pitated ahimine in a watery folution of tte alkali. This
alkalized alumme has of late been recommended as a pre-
ferable mordant to common alum in the fixing of thofe co-
lours that are injured by the prefence of fulphuric acid. To
feparate alumine from its folution in cauilic alkali, it is necef-
fary to add nitric or muriatic acid in fufficient quantity to
neutralize the alkali and diffolve the alumine, and then to
precipitate the earth by cauftic ammonia.

The aftion of barytes on alumine is analogous to that of
the alkalies, yet prefents fome peculiar charafters. When
a folutien of cauftic barytes in water is added to a liquid
muriat of alumine, the firft effecl is the appearance of a
precipitate, owing to the decompofition of the fait by
the barytes ; if this laft, however, is added in excefs, the
alumine is rediiTolved by it, and the liquor becomes clear.

Again, if equal parts of newly precipitated alumine and
cauftic baiytes are boiled together in a quantity of diftilled

the iron predominates, the refult, after expnfure to a heat of water fufficient to take up the barytes, about half the mix-

about 160° Wedgewood, is a dark-coloured vitreous fiag.

The attniftioa too that fubhfts between alumine and ve-
getable or animal colouring matter, is fingularly powerful.
Thus, if, to a water)' infufion of cochineal or madder, a few
drops of a folution of alum are added, a decompofition
fhortly takes place, and the whole of the tinging particles
tinite, and are precipitated together with the aluminous bafe
of the earthy fait, leaving the fupernatant liquor wholly co

ture will be difTolved, and upon analyfis the infoluble refidue
will be found to confilt of alumine, with a fmall proportion
of barytes, while the folution will confift of much barytes
and a little alumine. By adding to the hquor fome muriatic
acid, to engage the excefs of barytes,, a flocculent precipitate
will be depofited, confifting of the two earths, nearly in the
propcntion of the original inloluble refidue. Hence it ap-
pears that alumine combines with barytes into a fait which

lourlefs. Fugitive colours alfo, by this combination, be- is infoluble in mere water, but is capable of being rendeied

come of fufficient permanence to refift for a long time the "

changbs to which they are fubjcil : hence is explained the
preparation of the I-,ake J>!^ments, and the theory of Mor-
dants in the art of Dying.

In the direft way fulphur appears to contraft no union
with alumine ; and the hepatic gas that is feparated by an
acid from alum, after having been heated with charcoal, is
no longer a decifive evidence of fulphuret of alumine, fince
the difcovery of the neceffity of potaffi to the very conftitu-
lion of common alum.

Upon the gaffeous fubftances alumine has not been ob-
ferved to produce any change, although Humboldt has
publifhed (Annales de Chimie, vol. xxix.) a long and plau-
fible memoir, to fnew that alumine abforbs the oxygen of
the atmofp'iere, and hence produces an important effeft in
the economy of vegetation. It is true, indeed, that many
natural clays will deoxygenate atmofpheric air ; but this is
folely owing to the carbonaceous matter and oxyd of iron
that they contain, it having been proved by accurate expe-
riments, inltituted for this purpofe by Theod. Sauflure and
others, that pure alumine has no effeft whatever on oxygen
gas or atmofpheric air,

foluble therein by the affiftance of barytes. In the dry
way, at about 150° Wedgewood, any mixtures of the two
earths in which the alumine preponderates remain pulveru-
lent ; but when the barytes is three or four times as much
as the alumine, the powder concretes into a hard mafs,
without, however, ihewing any figns of fufion. In order
to decompofe barytic alumine, diffialve the whole in mihiatic
acid, and add cauftic ammonia ; the alumine alone will be
precipitated.

Strontian produces the fame eff'eft on alumine as barytes,
but more feebly ; the aAion of thefe two fubftances in the
dry way, on each other, has not yet been the fubjeft of
experiment.

It appears highly probable that lime has a fimilar affinity
for alumine, as the reft of the alkaline earths poftefs ; the
only experiment, however, upon the fubjeft, is one of Mor-
veau's ; he mixed equal parts of muriat of alumine and mu-
riat of hme in folution, and immediately a precipitate took
place, which was infoluble by an excefs of acid ; this has
been fince repeated by Darracq, a pupil of Vauquelin,
without effeft, the liquor remaining perfectly limpid ; hence
it is probable that the alumine of Morveau was not quite

All the acids are capable, in particular cireumftances, of free from fulphuric acid, and that the infoluble precipitate

combining with alumine ; but thefe combinations are not
accompliftied with the fame eafe as thofe between the acids
and alkahne earths. The ftronger mineral acids will take up
alumine from clay by digeftion at a boihng heat, but the ve-
getable and other weaker acids will not readily effeft a folu-
tion, except the alumine is prefented to them recently preci-
pitated by an alkali from fulphuric, nitric, or muriatic acid,

was merely felenite. In the dry way lime and alumine m
any proportions are infufible, except by means of a blow-
pipe, charged with oxygen gas.

The aftion of magnefia on alumine is not yet fully afcer-
tained : it appears, however, from Mr. Chenevix's experi-
ments, that the ammoniaco-magnefian triple falts, are formed
with difficulty, when alumine is prefent, and that magnefia

All the aluminous falts are decompofed with precipitation of prevents, in a great meafure, the folubihty of alumine ia
the earth by the cauftic or carbonated alkalies, or alkaline the cauftic fixed alkalies. This combination of the two

earths

ALU

eartlis is, however, foluhle in muriatic or nitric acids, and
may thfn be decompofcd citlicr hy hydrofiilpluirct of foila
or of ammonia, which will pricipitatc thf ahimino and riLim
the magnclia in fohition, or by an alkaline pruHiat, which
will alio fcpai-atc the aluminc while the i)rnniatui magnelia
remains difTolved. In the dry way, aeeordinj; to Kirwan,
niagnefia and ahimine at 150° Wedgewood have no action
on each other in any proportions.

A confulerablc degree of afti.iity exifls between fdex and
aluinine, and the niifufpefted formation of tliis compound in
many analytical experiments on minerals ha,; often prodnced
a number of deceitful and en-.barr.ifiin<r appearances, wliich
have vitiated the refults of many a laboi-ious analyfis. Che-
niiftiy is, therefore, indebted to Klaproth for Ihewiiif;, that
when to a folution of pure fdex in caulUc potafh is added a
folution of alumine equally pure in the fan.t menllriium,
the liquor iminediately affumes a reddifli brown colour, and
after ilandir.g an hour or more, coagidales into a thick
opaque whitilh jelly. This jelly, by the addition of a little
warm water, is refolved into a fluid, and being then mixed
with muriatic acid, to the exac\ faturation ot the alkali, a
copious precipitate is depofited, confiAing of the two earths,
in a {late of combination ; if now a flight exccfs of acid is
dropped in, the filex as well as the alumine, will be per-
fetlly dilTolved. Carbonated potarti will again caufe the pre-
cipitate to appear, and this even when fcparated by filtnition
and dried, will be Hill entirely fohible in dilute fulplunic
acid, without the fmalleil dcpufition of iilex. If the fiil-
phuric fjlution is now ger.tly evaporated, cryftals of alum
will be depoiittd, and the remainder will affume the form of
a clear jelly, the furface of which, after a few days, will be
covered with cryftalline pyramids; and in order to 3iew that
it is really fdex mixed with alumine, which has tlms repeat-
edly been dilTolved in acids, nothing more is neccflary than
to mix this jelly with a large quantity of water, and digcil
it for fome while in a moderate heat, ilirring it repeatedly
at the fame time, when the liquor will become tin-bid and
pure fdex will be depofited. In the drv way, according
to Kirwan, equal pans of aluminc and filex at 160° Wedge-
.wood concrete together, but (hew no figns of fufion.

Alumine is as yet a pure chemical element, never having
been compofed or analyfed. From its affinity with colouring
matter, and its blackening in a low heat. Baron W£s of
opinion that it was of a metallic nature, and even Lavoifier
entertained the idea that it might be a metallic oxyd, whofe
component elements were united together by a very powerful
pffinity. Bcaume confiders the earth of alum as cffentially
the fame with filex, being led into this mlftake by fufing
rock cryllal repeatedly with potadi, and always obtaining
alumine ; this experiment of Beaumc's was repeated by
Scheele, v.'ho found indeed that it was true whenever an
earthenware crucible was made ufe of, but perceiving the
crucibles corroded internally after every proeefs, he fufjjcAed
that the aluminc was furnifhed by the action of the alkali
upon" them ; in proof of which he repeated the fufion of
fdex with potafh in an iron crucible, and as might be cx-
peAed, did not procure a particle of alumine.

The ufes of pure alumine are wholly confined to the la-
boratory ; it gives, however, their peculiar charafter to all
clays ; every thing, therefore, that depends on tlie cohefive-
refs and plafticity of thefe fubftances when freih, and their
hardnefs after being baked, may be fairly attributed to the
alumine which they contain ; hence, it is the bafis and ma-
terial of all the arts of potter}-, from the common brick to
tbe fined porcelain, and thefe include more of the comforts
and elegancies of life than are perhaps dependent on any
ether fubftance in nature.

ALU

Journal dcPhyfique, vol. lii.— Scheelc'i Eirays.-Kl.pmlli'.

Analytical liHTays — Kirwan'r. Mineralogy, vol. i Annalct

'!«■; /-'himie, voU. xxviii. x\ix. Jixxi. xl.— Macqutr't Chc-
mifeliea Wbrtcrbucli, vol. vi — lU^uint- Cliymic Expcrimcn-
tale, vol. i.

ALUMTA, in Botany, a name given by fomc of the
old I.atin writem to the plant, othcnvifc called lulum and
corniola, and by the Greeks cynuiir. It wan tl»c fame with
our gen'i/lrllit limioria, or dycra weed, and waj ufed by I he
dyers, and by the ladies to tinge their hair yellow, llit culuur
that was ellecmed moll beautiful in thofc limes.

ALUNGU, in A'uluml Ni/lory, is a word of the Mala-
bar language, and the name given by the Malabarianii to an
animal rcfcmbling a laige li/.ard, except as to head and tail,
which are both pointed. It is a German til ai.d ', long,
and its breadth is half an el). It is a fpecics of the mamis
of Linni-us, and belongs to the family of an T-<-ii/<-r/, wliich
have no teeth, but a long round tongue, with which ihey
catch the ants. Phil. Tranf. vol. Ix. N' 5. an. 1700.

AI.UN'KAN, or ARRouKAng, in Geoj^m/Jy, a town
of Pcifia, in the province of Zabulillan, 100 mile* fouth
of Candaliar.

ALUNTIUM, Alontium, or Haluntium, in yta-
acnl Geography, a town of Sicily, on a dee]) eminence, near
the month of the river Chydas. It is now in ruins ; but
from thefe arofe the hamlet St. Philadi ll'o, in the Val di
Demona. The injiabitants were c.->lkd ll.ilunlini.

ALVOR^ in Gengraphy, a fmall place with an earldom
in the province of Algarvc, between Villa Nova dc Portimao
and Lagos.

AL\'ORED0, an idand of South America, on the
coaft of Panignay, thiec leagues fouth of St. Catharine'l
ifland. S. lat. 27" 43'. W. long. 49° 16'.

ALVORNIN HA, or Alii uRNiN HA, a fmall town of Por-
tugal, in Ellremadura, containing about I500 inhabitants.

ALURNUS, in Enlomolo^, a genus of iiifci!:tii of the
onlerof CoLEOP TERA, with fdiform antenna-, fix very- fliort
palpi or feelers, and horny arched maxilla or jaw. There
are three fpecies, viz. 1. A. ^irofus, black, with crim-
fon thorax and yellow elytra-, found in South America
and India. 2. A. pmoralus, of a green reddilh colour,
with the hinder thighs and legs dentated, the tembrio fc-
moi-atus of Drury, and the tenebrio viridis of Sul/er, found
in India, with the antennie half the length of the body, and
the lall joints black. 3. \. lUnllprs, bTaek, with the iiindcr
thighs and legs dentated, found at the Cape of Good Hope.
ALUS, in ytncknt Gi^^ratihy, a village of Paledine, in
the vicinity of Nicopolis. Alfo an ancient town of Arabia
Petnea, where v.as the loth encampment of the Ifiitelitcs.

ALL^SMA Cnramanica, in B'Aany, a tenn ufed fome-
times to cxprefs a plant growing in Caraniania, and fomc-
timcs a preparation of that plant, or pigment made from it.
The word frequently occurs in the writings of Aviccnna and
Serapion.

ALUTA, in jindent Geography, a river of Dacia, novr
called ^h, or 0//,- which rifes at the foot of the Carpathian
mountains, and palTcs through the call and fouth regions of
Tnuifylvania into Walachia, dividing it into the callern and
wellern parts. It difcharges itfelf into the Ifter.

ALUTA, a fmall village of FaleRinc, placed by Jerome
near the river Chebron.

ALUT^-:, a people of Illyria.

ALUTRAENCES, a people of the Alps, according to
Pliny.

ALVUS, among y^nn/emf^/, is fometiines ufed ;o cxpref*
the lower belly, or veiilrr.
Alvus is more ufually taken among P/^tianx for the
5 K 2 <\ata

A L Y

ftatc and condition of the faces, or excrements, contained
xvittiin that cavity.

Thus, when a peifon is laxative, it is called alvus Viqv.ida ;
and when collive, alvus ajjlrula.

They who are of a loofe belly in their youth are gene-
rally coftlve in their old age ; and they who are bound in
Voi»th are often loofe when old. A laxer (late in youth,
and rather bound than loofe in old age, is mod defirable.

Binders of the belly are labour, fitting in a chair, fullers'
clay laid over the body, diminution of food, eating once a day
inllead of twice, little drinking, and tliat only after a full
meal, reft after meals. On the contrary, things which loofen
the belly are, walking and eating more than ufual, Rirring
after meat, intermixing draughts with eating, and it ought to
be obferved, that a vomit binds a loofe belly, and loofens a
bound one ; and that a vomit taken immediately after meat
binds the belly, but, delayed until a confiderable time after,
loofens the fame. CcHus.

ALWAIDII, a feifl of Mahometans, who hold tliat all
great crimes are unpardonable, and the criminals reprobated
to eternity. The alwaidii ftand in oppofition to the morgii.
They attribute lefs efScacy to the true belief in the falvation
of men than the reft of the Muffulmen.

ALWEIL, in Geography, a lake of Swiflerland, in the
canton of Bern, feven miles long, and one and a half wide,
feven miles fouth-eaft of Arau.

ALWEN, a river of North Wales, which runs into the
Dee, feven miles north-north-eaft of Bala, in Merionethshire.

ALWOS, a large and populous village of Hungary, on
the fide of the Danube, in the dillriCt of Comarro, and fa-
mous for an aqueduft made there in 1747.

AL.Y ATTIS fcp-jlrhmm, in AnUqmty, the tomb, or ra-
ther burial-place of Alyattis, the father of Croefiis, near
Sardis, which was fix iladia in circumference.

ALYBA, in Anaent Geography, a town on the eaftern
part of PoBtus, belonging to the Alybians, who Tnhabited
this coall: ; fujipofed to be the fame with the Chalybes,
whofe country furmlhed metals. — Alfo, a mountain of Af-
rica, the fame \s'ith Alyla.

ALYCU3, a towm of Peloponnefus which was either
Afine of Megaris, or near it.

ALYMNE', a town of Afia Minor, fituate towards the
confines of Phrygia, Caria, Lycia and Pifidia.

ALYMOHAU, in Geography, a town of Hindoftan, in
the country of Guzerat, and circar of Champaneer, 100 miles
north-eaft of Surat, and 32 eaft-fouth-eaft of Champaneer.

ALYPIAS, in the Materia Medica of the ancients, a
fpecies of turbeth, prefcribed for the purging of bile. Some
write the word alypon, and define it by white turbith. Galen
ufed alypum, aXvivoi, for a minorative, or a medicine that
gently purges.

ALYPIUS of Alexamlria, in Biography, a Platonic phi-
lofopher, was much celebrated for the acutenefs of his ge-
nius, and the fubtltty with which he lectured upon the ab-
ftrufe fpeculations of the Platonic fchool. Jambhchus, who
was his contemporary, and who wrote his hfe, commends
him highly on acco^ant of his exemplary virtue, as well as
his diilinguifhed talents. His llature was very diminutive,
fo that he was denominated a dwarf, but his mind was pro-
portionably capacious ar.d fuperior. He died at Alexandria
in an advanced age. Gen. Diet.

Alyp;us of AtiUoch, a geographer of the fourth century,
lived under the reign of Julian the apellate, and was fcnt
into Britain as deputy-governor, where, fays Mr. Gibbon,
Ids hu'.nanity was tem.pered by fevcre juilicc and manly for-
titude, and while he cxerciied his abilities in the civil adnii-
nillration of the countiy, he imitated, in his political coxnpo-
I

A L Y

fitions, the harmony and foftncfs of the odes of Sappho. To
Alypius, Julian entrulled the execution of his plan for re-
building the temple ot JernlV.lem. Ammianus Marcelliniis
informs us, that whilll Alypius, affifted by the governor of
Paleiline, urged, with vigour and diligence, the accomplifh-
ment of the work, horrible balls of fire breaking out near the
foundation, with frequent and reiterated attacks, rendered
the place, from time to time, inaccclhble to the feorched
and blafted workmen ; and the viiilorioiis clement continu-
ing in this manner obllinatcly and refolutely bent, as it were,
to drive them to a dillance, the undertaking was abandoned.
On this relation Mr. Gibbon, in his ufual manner, obferves,
that " Such authority (hould fatisfy a believing, and muft
alloniih an incredulous mind. Yet a philofopher may ftill
require the original evidence of impartial and intelligent fpecJ
tators. At this important crifis, any Angular accident of
nature would affume the appearance, and produce the ef-
fects of a real prodigy. This glorious deliverance would be
fpeediiy improved and magnified by the pious art of the
clergy of Jerufalem, and the active credulity of the Chriiliaii
world ; and, at the dillance of 20 years, a Roman hiflorian,
carelefs of theological difputes, might adorn his work with
the fpecious and fplendid miracle." The impartial enquirer
into the credibility of this event will derive greater fatisfac-
tion from the teltimonies for and againil it, cited bv Dr.
I,ardner, than from tlie farcaftic refletlions of this popular
hillorian, v.-hofe feeptieifm on the fubjedl of religion has
fometimes pei-verted his judgment with regard to hillorical
fafts. Julian's attempt for rebuilding the tem.ple, and the
defeat of it by divine intei-pofitlon, are mentioned by three
contemporary viTiters, vh. Gregory Nazianzen, Chi-yfoftom
and Ambrofe, bifhop of Milan, all Chriftians ; and alfo by
Ammianus MarccUinus, a learned heathen ; and afterwards
by Rufinus, Socrates, Sozomen, Theodoret, and Philoflor-
gius, as well as by later writers. Some Jcwifli writers, as
R. David Ganfius, and R. Geddalius, have alfo been al-
ledged as bearing teflimony to this event. The truth of the
hiftory, thus confirmed, has been maintained by Fabricius,
Witfius, bifhop Warburton, and others of high reputation
in the republic of letters. Bafnage has made fome objec-
tions to this hiftory, and Dr. Lardner, with his ufual mo-
defty, has fuggetted feveral reafons for doubting its authen-
ticity. He firft argues, that Juli;m's own writings lead
us to think that he never attempted to rebuild the temple
at Jerufalem ; it is alfo unhkely that he fhould give or-
ders for this purpofe, and allot money for it out of the
public treafury, when he was fetting out in his exps;'!-
tion againft the Periians ; and though great llrefs is laid
upon the teftimony of Ammianus Mareellinus, a heathen,
and an impartial hiftorian, yet he had his account from the
Chriftians, which he feems to have taken up without exa-
mination, and it fufhciently appears from other circumttances,
that he was credulous ; btfides, the hiftory of this event, as
it is related by Chrillian writers, is loaded with miracles, or
pretended miracles, which appear to be incredible : nor was
there at that time any occafion for fuch miraculous interpo-
iitions. And, lallly, there are feveral Chriftian writers, who
have faid notliing about this attair, but who were likely to
have mentioned it if any thing of this kind had been done ;
fucu are Jerome, Prudentins and Orofius.

"Whether Alypius was ever employed in rebuilding Hie
temple or not, it appears that towards the latter part of his
life, he was accuicd, with others, of practifing magic.
Hierocles, his fon, was condemned to death, and he himielf
fuffered confifcation and banifhment. They were charged
with adminiftering poifon ; but Ammianus rcprefcnts their
fuftering as unjuil. Alypius was the author of a treatiie

in

A L Y

•in geographr, of w'.ilch Julian >■ aks favourably j liut it is
probably lolt. Another trcai- puWifhcd by Godfrcv, in
Greek and L,...'r,i, under the (ik of •' A Defcrlplion of the
Old World," .a 4to. at Gci.eva, in 1628, was probably not
the work of Alypius, though fome have afciibed it to him,
becaufe the author fpcako of Britain from report, and not
from his own obfervation. Th's work is thought to have
been written in the reigns of the emperors Conllantiiis and
Conftans. Ammian. NIarc. 1. xxiii. c. 1. I. xxix, c. i.
Lardner's Works, vol. viii. p. 377—391. Gibbon's Hill."
vol. iv. p. 105 — 109. Svo.

Alvpius of T.JgaJla, a town of Africa, was the intimate
friend of Ausruftine, and baptized with liim at Milan, in 38S.
On his return from Palcftine, in 394, he was made bilhop of
his native place. Whilll Augullmc was engaged with the
Manichees, Alypius was induced to join them ; but he af-
terwards avowed liimfelf a zealous advocate for tiie catholic
faith. He made fuccefiivc attempts to convince the Dona-
tifts of their errors, and to recover them to an union with the
church ; particularly at the council of Carthage, in 403, and
-again in 411 : but neither his arguments, nor the penal de-
crees of the emperor Honorius were fufHcient to reclaim
them. Alypius was alfo deputed by the churches of Af-
rica about the year 419, to lionorius, in order to obtain fe-
vere decrees againft the Pelagians, and in this oiTice of per-
feeuting zeal he fo far fucceeded as to break up their af-
femblies and banilli their minilters. He died about the year
430, leis honoured in remembrance for his Chrillian charity
than his orthodoxy and zeal. Gen. Dift.

Alypius, iu Biography, one of the feven Greek writers
on mufic, that have been collefted and publidied with a
commentary and notes, in 1652, by Meibomius. It is dif-
ficult to afcertain the time of his exigence. Cafiiodorus
((/c nnifica) placed him before Euclid and Ptolemy, and has
ranged his tratt, 'E'ur-j.yuiyn fiio-ixjj', or Introduflion to Miific,
between that of Nichomachus and Gaudentius. The con-
tents of this work furnifli tiie moft ample nomenclature of
all the founds of the feveral fcales and nibdes of the ancient
Greek mufic, that has come down to us. The charafters
for lound ufed by the Greeks for their feveral modes in the
three genera, amounted to 1620. Thefe notes were formed
of the twenty-four letters of the Greek alphabet, entire,
mutilated, fingle, double, or lengthened ; fometimes turned
to the right, fometimes to the left, or lying horizontally,
fo that their corners or fides were turned upward:; ; and
laftly, fome v.'ere barred, and others dillmguithtd by the
grave and acute accents, which had likewife a place among
thele numerous diitriminatious.

This traft was firll publillied by Meurfius, 161 6, from the
MS. of Jofcph Scjliger, but not very correctly, according
to Fabricius. Kircher has given extrafls i^rom jllyf/ius in his
Mujwgm., 1650; pretending that he had tranflated the
whole into Latin ; but the table which he has inferted from
him of ancient mufical notation, is fo inaccurate, that Mei-
bomius, who confulted not onfy the Greek MS. of Scaliger,
bat that of Bolejanus, Barocius, Earberitti, and tjelden,
aTirms, that he found in it more than 200 errors.

It is from the indefatigable labour of the learned Mei-
bomius, in liis commentaries upon the ancient Greek mu-
ficians, particularly yjlypius, that we are able to decipher
thofe characters ; which, before his time, had been fo n.nch
altered, corrupted, disfigured, and confounded, by the ig-
norance or inattention of the tranfcribers of ancient MSS.
that they were rendered wholly unintelligible, bee Greek
Mrsic, and Notation.

AI.YPON Montis Cell, or white turbith, in Botany and
the Miilcru! Mulka. SeeCoNvoi,vui.us.

A L Y

ALYPUM, in Bolnny. See GtOBVLAlttA.
Alvpi'm, a n.iint given by fome rjihcin to a fpccie* of
fpurge, the lil!.yi,i:i/ut amygi'uloiilri na^'^lijuliu/, or nanow-
leaved almond fpnrgo of "I'ournefort.

Alypum is iikcwifr a naine civtn hv fome wn'trrs to a
fpucies of dog's bane, dilllnguilhcd by 'rournrfort by the
name of aporynum mor'it'imum f'eiulum J'.ili.u fotia Jlort pur-
pur:/), the purplt-fluwcrcd fca apucynum of Venice, with
willow-like ka\cs.

yVLY.SSOIDES, in Botany. See Alvsji-m.
ALYSSON. See Ai-yssum, CtvfLOLA, Draba,
Marruuu'm, Myagrl'm and VtROsicA.

ALYSSUM, formed from a>.v7<x^; to bf m.iif, maJtvirt,
in Botany, a genus of the telrnAynam'ia Jd'icuhfa clafu and or-
der, of tiic natural order of fiUqimf.t and irucifert of Julfi. u ;
its charaClers arc, tliat the calyx is a foiir-lcavcd, oblong pc-
rianthium, leaflets ovate-oblong, obtiifc, convergent, and de-
ciduous : the cai'Mii four-pctalied and cniciform, pctiila flat,
fliortcr than the calyx, very fpreading, claws of the length
of the calyx ; iht.- Jlamhin have lix filamenti, of the lenglli iif
the calyx, two oppolitc a little Ihorter, maiked with a tuolh-
let, anthers fiom ereit fpreading : the pifiillutn has a fubc-
vate germ, ftyle firnple, of the length ot the flamcns, longi t
than the germ, and lligma obtufe : x\\e prrLuirpium is a lub-
globofe, emarginate irlicle, or broad and (hort pod, with
a llyle of the length of the filicle, two-ceiled, the partitions
elliptic, valves elliptic and liemifi>herical ; ihe fn-Jt arc fixed
to filiform receptacles, ilfuing forth at the end of the filicle,
few and orbicular. Martyn reckons 17, and Gmelin 15
fpecies, which are diltributcd into the divifions of undtr-
fhrubs, herbaceous, and thofc with filiclcs inflated, Sc; to
the unilirj]iruls belong, I. A. Spinofiim, thorny niadwort,
with the old racemes thorny and naked. The woody branches
are about two feet high, and are armed with fmall fpiiies :
the leaves are hoar)- and lanceolate ; the flowers grow in
fmall chillers at the end of the branches ; the petals are
white and entire ; the filaments toothlefs. This fpccics
grows naturally in Italy, Spain, and the South of France.
2. A. Niilimi/o/ium, fweet }>l. t/.'/,i/f>i of Hcrm. Ludgb. with
ftems procumbent, perennial, leaves lanceolate hncar, acute
and quite entire. This fprcads on the ground, produce* at
the extremities of its branches pretty tufts of fmall white
flowers for fix or feven months fucceflTively ; is a native of
the fouthern countries of Europe, and was cultivated in the
Chelfea garden in 1722. 3. A. Saxiiti.'e, yellow M. with
ftems Ihrubby, panicled, leaves lanceolate, very foft, repand,
and petals entire. This is a low plant, rifing about a foot
high, and dividing into feveral fmaller branches ; the fluweii
are produced in loofe panicles at the end of every branch,
and are of a bright yellow colour, appearing at the end of
April, or beginning of May, and lalling, in a favourable fea-
fon, about three weeks ; it is vei7 luitable to embellilh
rock-work, as it is fmall, fliowy and hardy ; it often flowers
a fecond time in Autumn : it is a native of Candia and .'\uf-
tria, and cultivated here by Miller, in 1731. 4. A. j-l/pifjlrr,
Italian M. with ftems underfluubby, din"ufcd, leaves roundi(h
and hoary, calvxts coloured. Tlie leaves are vciy obtufe ;
the calyxes deciduous, and petals entire, and both yellow :
the ftamens have a little membrane at the bafe : it is pe-
rennial, and a native of the mountains of Provence, towards
Italy, mount Cenis, &c. It differs from the AlylTums in
having an ovate-acute filicle, not inflated. To the krrL:U!uut
divifion belong, 5. A. Hypcrlorcum, Northern M. with
leaves hoary toothed, and ilamens four-forked ; found in
North America. 6. A. Incamim, hoary, (omitted by Gnielu,)
with Hem crcit, leaves lanceolate, hoar)', quite eiitire, flower.^
iu cor)'mbs, and petals bilid. This grows to the height of

two

A L Y

two feet, with woody (lalks, dividing into fevcral branches ;
the flowers arc produced at tlie extremity of evc!7 (hoot in
round bunches, I'miill and white ; the lilicle is oval, and full
of brown feeds ; it grows naturally in the fouth of France,
Spain and Italy, Germany, Auilria, Sweden, &c. chiefly on
rocky or gravelly foils, is perennial, and was cultivated here
by Parkinfon in '1640. 7. A. Minimmn, Icall M. with ftems
diffufed, leaves linear, downy, and fihcles comprelfed. This
is annual, a:id grows wild in Spain : the petals are yellow
and fubmarginate. 8. A. Calycliium, calycine M.vvith ila-
mens all toothed, and permanent calyxes. It is annual,
and found wild in Aulhia, Carniola, France, Gei-many and
SwiiTerland. The petals are fmall and yellow, becoming
white with age: the filicle has two feeds in each cell, one of
which is commoiily abortive : it was cultivated by Miller in
1768. 9. A. Alotitanum, mountain M. with items diffufed,
leaves fublanceolate, dotted and echina/e. The branches
trail, the leaves hoar)-, rough and alternate, the flowers pro-
duced in fmall clullers at the ends of the branches, and of a
dark yellow colour ; it grows naturally upon rocks in Bur-
gundy, and fome other parts of France, about Bafil, in Ger-
many, Anftria, Carniola, &c. is perennial, and cultivated by
Miller in 1759. 10. A. Campejlre, field M. (omitted by
GraeUn) with llamens guarded by a pair of briftles, and
calvxes deciduous ; refembles the 8th in llem, leaves and
petals, is annual, and a native of France, Germany and Swif-
lerland, and cultivated by Miller in 1768. 1 1. A. Clypcati/m,
buckler-podded M. with ftem ereft, filicles fcffile, oval, com-
prelTed-flat, petals pointed and hnear. This is a biennial
(annual, Linn.) plant, and grows naturally in Spain and Por-
tugal, and it was found by Tournefort, on Mount Libanus ;
it was cultivated by Gerard in 1596. To the divifion ^\■ith
Jll'ides inJJated, or calvxes oblong and clofed, belong the follow-
ing fpecies. 12. A. Sinuatum, finuate-leaved M. with ftem
herbaceous, leaves lanceolate-deltoid, and fdicles inflated.
This is a low fpreading plant, which divides into fmall
branches, garniflied with hoary leaves through the year ;
the flowers produced at the ends of the branches are of a
bright yellow colour. It is annual, or triennial, and grows
wild in Spain by the way-fide, and in the iflands of the Ar-
chipelago, and fufficiently hardy to bear the open air in
England, in a dry foil and wann fituation ; it was cultivated
in the Kew garden in 1680. 13. A. Crelicum, Cretan M.
with ftem ftirubby, leaves lanceolate, a little toothed, downy,
fdicles inflated and globular. This fpecies fildom continues
longer than two years in England, and in a warm, diy iltua-
tion, will live in the open air. It is a native of Spain and
Candia, and was cidtivated by Miller in 1759. 14. A. Ge-
monenfe, gemona M. with ftem herbaceous, branches divarica-
ted, root -leaves obovate, rather down)-, and fdicles inflated.
This differs from the lail in having divaricated branches, ar.d
fmaller flowers of a deep yellow colour. The root is peren-
nial ; the ftem fpreads on the ground ; the leaves are rough-
ifh and afh-coloured, about five inches long, and fcarcely an
inch broad ; the perianthium is fpreading, yellow and hir-
fute ; the petals are twice the length of the calyx, obovate
and emarginate. This fpecies was difcovered by Arduini
in 1759, on the mountain Delia Fontana, near Gemona, in
the diftricl of ForU in Italy, in the clefts of rocks : it flowers
in May and June. 15. A. Utriculahim, bottle M.' with ftem
herbaceous, erect, leaves fmooth, lanceolate, quite entire, and
fihcles inflated. This has the flower of lunaria ; and re-
fembles it, except in its inflated filicles ; it was found by
Tournefort in the Levant, and grows in the vineyards of
Savoy : it is a hardy and beautiful perennial, flow-ering from
April to June, when it begins to form its curioufly inflated
pods : it is well adapted to the decoration of walls or rock-

A L Z

work ; it was cultivated in 1739 by Miller. 16. A. Vef carta,
bladder M. velicaria of Tournefort, with leaves linear, tooth-
ed, filicles inflated, angular and acute. This fpecies and the
next have trailing flalks, and produce their 'lowers towards
the extremities in loofe fpikes. 17. A. Deltoirlrum, deltoid-
leaved M. leucoium faxatile. Sec. of Bauhin, with ftems under-
fhrubby, proftrate, leaves lanceolate-deltoid, and filicles
fliaggy. The flowers of this refeirible thofc of the itock-gilli-
flower, and are of a purple coluur ; it was cultivated in 1 739
by Miller. This and the lail were found by Tournefort
in the Levant. The alxjiim fiithniin of Dr. Smith, with an
herbaceous ftalk, lanceolate and fagittated leaves, and obo-
vate inflated filicles, or gold of pkaiure, is a fpecies of mya-
GRi'M in the Linniean fyltem.

All the fpecies may be propagated by feed, and moll of
them by flips and cuttings. The feeds ihould be fown in a
border of light earth in April. Cuttings or flips fliould be
planted in April or May ; fhaded in the heat of the day,
and gently refreflied with water. In rich ground they fel-
dom live through the winter in England ; but in a dry, poor,
rubbifhy foU, or on old walls, they will endure the cold and
remain much longer. Maityn.

AlYSSUM. SeeCARDAMlNE,CLYPEOLA, DrABA, MyA-

GR V M, Pelt A RiA, St A CHYS,Su3L'LARiAand. Sisymbrium.

ALYTARCHA, in ylmlquily, a prieft of Antioch in Sy-
ria, whofe office was to lead up the maftigcphori, or Jlagelli-
phor'i, ofiicers with whips in their hands, who attended at the
games or combats of the alhlela, encouraged them to behave
ftoutly, and, on occafion, feived to preferve good order, and
keep off the crowd.

The officer who pvefided at the Olympic games was alfo
fometimes denominated alytarcha.

Some will have the alytarcha to be the fame with the lel-
lenod'icus, of which opinion are Faber and Prideaux.

Van Dale fhews them to be different offices ; not but that
the alytarchi might fometimes be fubftituted for the hdkno-
d'lci, to perform fome part of their function.

The alytarchi were the fame with what were called, in
fome other places, alyta.

ALYXIA, in Botany, See Gynopogon.

ALYZIA, in ylncier.t Geography, a town of Greece in
Acainania, about 15 ftadia from the fea, and near the port
of Hercules.

ALZA, in Geography, a river of Germany, which runs into
the Inn, fix miles eaft of New Oeting, in the circle of Bavaria,

ALZACHI, in the Materia Med'tca, the name given by
the Arabian Phyficiars, to that kind of gourd called in the
fliops the ciTRUL, and by the people of fome parts of Italy,
the anguria. It is an oblong, and ufually crooked gourc',
and contains in its cavity a tonfiderable quantity of water,
which is drank by people of the places where the phnt is
common, to quench thirlt. It contains feeds of an ublong
figure, flatted, and covered with a hard fl<in.

ALZAGIAT, a name given, by the Arabian writers,
to all the vitriolic minerals. It is alfo written zagi, or zegi.

ALZARAC, a name given to a kind of camphor,
which was coarfe, and of a brown colour. It feems to have
been the fame with our rough camphor, as imported from
the Indies, before being purified.

ALZATO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the ter-
ritory of Coma, in the Milanefe, four miles fouth of Coma.

ALZBACH, a town of Gei-many, iw the archduchy
of Auftria, four miles weft of Schwannallatt.

ALZEY. See Altzey.

ALZlRA. SeeALGEziRA.

ALZIZ, a name given by Serapio and Avicenna to
the roots of the tra/i. The word Ziz is the name of a

river

A M A

nver in Africa, according to Leo ; and the roots probably

had tins name from thtir bL-iiiff found in great plenty on tl>c
banks of that river, the Imji always growing in wet places.

ALZNIA, in Ger-gnshhy, a province of Afia, in Orcat
Armenia, towards the nver Tigris, coinprehendini; nine
very confiderabl: dillrias, which extend along the river to
Karamut or Diarbckir.

ALZON, a town of France, in the department of the
Card, and chief place of a canton, in the dilhia of Vigan,
15 miles north-north call of Lodcve.

Alzon, a river of trance, which runs into the Card,
about a lcaf;ue below Uzes.

ALZONNE, a town of France, in the department of
the Aude, 2 ! leagues weft of Cai-cafFonnc.

ALZUM, in Bohmy, a name given, by the ancients, to
the tree which produces the gum bdellium. It is alfo
written alrum and aUum, which laft fcems the proper way.
The gum of this tree was called, by the Amhiails, molrl, and
the fame word ws/r/isufed as the nameof a friiitof apalm-tree.

AM, in Geography, a famous city of Armenia, where
they formerly reckoned 100,000 horfcs, and about icoo
mofques. It was taken by the Tartars in 12 19, and is now
confiderably reduced. It is thought to be the prefent Ani.

AMA, in Ecdefiajl'ual Writers, denotes a vcfTel wherein
wine, water, or the like, were held, for the fcrvice of the
eucharift : in which fenfe, the word is alfo written amula ;
fometimes alfo hnma and hannila.

Ama is fometimes alfo ufed for a wine-meafure, as a call;,
pipe, or the like.

Ama, Ame, or rather Ames, au>ic, a fort of cake.
Ai-etaeus ufed this word to exprefs the quantity of hellebore
which is fufficient for a dofe in ftrong conftitulions, when
given in a •vertigo.

Ama, or Am an, in Geography, a town of Syria, once the
celebrated city of Apamea, now reduced to ruins.

AMA,orHAMA,a townof Germany, in the circle of Weft-
phalia, and bifliopric of Liege, 8 miles fouth-weft of Liege.

AMAAD, in Scripture Geography, a town of Palelline,
on the borders of the tribe of Azer.

AMABYR, or Amvabyr, q.d. in ancient F>riti(h, "the
price of virginity," in fome Ancient Cujloms, a fum of money
to be paid the lord upon mari-ying a maid of his manor. —
This cuftom is faid to have anciently obtained in Wales,
where amabyr was paid to the prince : alfo in the honour
of Clun belonging to the earl of Arundel, till earl Henry,
in the times of queen Mary, in confideration of fixty pounds,
relcafed it to all his tenants by the name of the cuilom of
amabyr and rhevage.

AMACACHES, in Geography, a people of South
America, in Brafil, inhabiting the vicinity of the territory
that extends from St. Sebaftian to Rio Janeiro.

AMACASTIS, in Ancient Geography, a town of India,
on this fide the Ganges, according to Ptolemy.

AMACCURA, a town of Africa.

AM AC I, a people of Spain, whofc capital, according
to Ptolemv, was Afturia Augufta.

AMACK, in Geography, an ifland of Denmark, joined
to Copenhas^en, and confequently to Seeland, by two bridges
over the channel that feparates them. It is about one and
©ne-half geographical mile in length, and above half a mile
in breadth. It is level and without woods ; the foil is uncom-
monly fertile, fo that it is confidered as the kitchen-garden
and ftore-houfe of the city ; and the inhabitants fupply it
twice every week with all forts of efculent vegetables, and
alfo with milk, butter and cheefe. The prefent inhabitants
occupied it in 1516, being invited hither by Chrillian II.
from the province of Water-land, in North Holland. The

AMA

whoJe ifland contnini about 800 families, and i« divided inf>
two paiiftica. The dialcA of the people is a iiitdlcy of ihc
low Dutch, German, and Danifli languages ( their mode
of drcfs, and of living is peculiar to thcmfclvcs. In the
Summer they drive their cattle forpaftiirc to a fmall neigh-
bouring ifland, calK-d Saltholm. There arc excellent quamci
of (lone for lime and building on this iHaiiJ.

AMACORE, orAMAcuRK, a livrr of foutb Amcrira,
wliicli waters the Caribana, and runs into the Northern fca»
near the mouth of the Oroonoko.

AMACOZOl'E, in Ornilh'ilogy, a name given by Fer-
nandez to a Mexican bird, fuppofed by Buffon to be a fpccict
of Charadrius or Plover. It is a iioify bird, the plumage
is mixed with white and black, and it has a double collar.
It is feen the whole year on the lake of Mexico, where it
lives on aquatic worms.

AMACUSA, in Geography, an iHand and province of Ja-
pan, with a town of the fame name, that boidrts upon that
of Oyanau, and h fouth-wtft of the idand i^f KiiMs. It i»
between 31" 30' and 32" N. hit. and E. long. 129" lij'

AMADABAD. See Ahmedadad.

AMjVDAN, or Hamadan, a town of Perfia, in the
province of Irac-Agcmi, between Bagdad and Ifpahan,
about So leagues from one and liic other. It is featcd at
the foot of a mountain, whence iffuc llreams that water the
country ; its extent is large, as it enclofes wafte and culti-
vated land, though it has but one tolerable llrcet formed of
houfcs, that are built of brick, hardened in the fun. The
adjacent country is fertile, and pruduifiive of com and rice ;
the air is falubrious, but in Winter the cold is intenfc. The
Armenians have a church in this town, and th • Jews have a
fynagogue, near which is a tomb, where, according to re-
port, Ellher and Mordecai were interred. This place i*
reforted to by feveral pilgrims from all parts of the Levant ;
and in its vicinity is a mountain called Nall'iina, aboundmg
with various herbs, and the fick repair hither to recover their
health by imbibing their falutary effluvia. Amadan is aa
ancient city ; and it is faid that it was dellroycd by Nebuchad-
nezzar, and rebuilt bv Darius. The kings of Petfia retired
to it on account of its dehghtful fituation, and hence it ob-
tiined the name of the " Royal City." It was reduced by
the Caliph Otliman, and was nearly dellroyed by Jenghis
Khan in 1220. Its callle and walls are now in ruins ; and
it is merely dillinguifhed by its gardens and fprings. N. lat.
35° '5'- E. long. 47' 39'. „ . r, .

AMADANAGEN, a town in the Hither Peninfula of
India, in the province of Decan. It was taken by the
Moguls in 1598. N. lat. iS° 10'. E. long. 74" 15'. See
Ahmednagur.

AMADEUS v., count of Savoy, in Biography and
Hijlory, fucceedcd to the fovereignty in 1285, and obtained
the furname of " The Great," by his wifdom and fuccelTcs.
His poneflions were muih enlarged by marriage, purchafe,
and donation. In defending Rhodes, againft the Turks, in
131 1, he gained dillinguiflied honour ; and in memory of
this fervice, he and his fuccelTors took for their device,
F. E. R. T. the initials of the Latin words " Fortitudo
ejus Rhodum tcnuit," /'. e. his valour preferved Rhodes.
The grand maftcr of the knights of St. John, to whom
Rhodes belonged, granted him a palace at Lyons, as a reward
of his cffeft ual fuccour. He died after a reign of 38 years,
in 1323, at Avignon, where he was folie-iling pope John
XX i I. to publilh a crufade in favour of Andionieus, em-
peror of the Eaft, who had married his daughter. He wr.»
much loved and honoured by all the foverelgns of Europe,
and was generally the mediator in all their dilfercuces. Mod.
Un. Hift. vol. xxxiv. p. 16.

Amadivs

A M A

A M A

Amadeus VIII., count of Savoy, facceedcd his father
Amadeus VII., in 1391, and acquired tlie titles of the
" Pacific," and " tlie Solomon of the Age." Savoy was
ereftcd by the emperor in 1416, into a ducliy ; but after
tiiis elevation, Amadeus formed the refolulion of retiring
from his throne and family into a religious lioufe at a place
called Ripaille. In this retreat, which he had fought accord-
ins to the opinion of the world from religious motives, he
devoted himfelf to every kind of pleafuie and luxuiy, fo
that/(7/>f repmlks became proverbial to fignify a life of cx-
qnilite gratification and indulgence. Heie he inftituted the
order of St. Maurice, or the Annunciata, confiding of a
number of hermits, who excluded women from their com-
munity, but in other rcfpefts maintained the charatter of
Epicureans and votaries of pleafure. In this retreat Ama-
deus afpired to the papacy, and employed large fums of
money at the coimcil of Bafil, to fecure the objeft of his
ambition. Accordingly, in 1439, this council, having de-
pofcd pope Eugenius IV., conferred the triple crown on
Amadeus, under the name of Felix V, though he had never
taken holy orders. A fchifm was the confequence of this
extraordinary election ; and Eugenius at length excommuni-
cated his rival. On his death Amadeus was perfuadcd to
abdicate, and a new pope was chofen in his room. But his
refignation was amply recompenfed by the dignities of car-
dinal, bifliop and apollolical legate, and by his being allowed
to retain moft of the pontifical infignia. He died at the age
of 69, in 1 49 1, at Laufanne, which, during the latter part
of his life, he had chofen for his refidence, and was fuc-
ceeded by his fon Lewis, to whom, in his life-time, A. D.
1433, he had refigned the title, but few or none of the reve-
nues of the dukedom. Mod. Un. Hiil. vol. xxxiv. p. 78.

Amadeus IX., count of Savoy, was furnamed the
" Happy," on account of his virtue and piety, his readinefs
to forgive thofe who offended, his love of juflice, and his
ftudy to promote the welfare of his fubjefts. He fucceeded
Lewis in 1464, and though his bodily infirmities prevented
his engaging in any great exploits, he acquired and main-
tained a very exemplaiy charafker. He was eminently dif-
tinguifhed by the benevolence of his difpofition. Being
once alked by a courtier, whether he kept hounds ; he
pointed to a great number of poor people, who were feated
at tables, eating and drinking, and replied : " thofe are my
hounds, with whom I go in chace of heaven." When he
was told that his alms would exhaufl his revenues : " take
the collar oi my order," he faid, " fell it, and relieve my
people." He married lolande of France, who concurred
with him in all his good deeds. His death, in 1472, at the age
of 37 years, and after a reign of feven, was ui'.iverfally re-
gretted. Mod. Un. Hill. vol. xxxiv. p. 82.

AM AD I A, in Geography, a fortified and trading town
of Afia, in the province of Kurdiltan,. fituate upon a high
mountain. Its environs produce tobacco and gall-nuts,
which furnifll means of commerce. It is the refidence of
a bey, who governs the whole country'. N. lat. 36"^ 25'.
E. long. 43° r.

AMADOCA, in j4ruierJ Geography, a town of European
Sarmatia, inhabited by the j'lnmdoci, and whofe habitations
were alfo on mountains of the fame name, between the Rox-
alanse and BHit;;rnfe.

ALMADIS, in Natural Hljlory, a fpecies of the Con u s,
in the Vermes Testacea, with a ihell dilutely browTi,
broad fafcia, and articulated bands above and below ; and
an acute, crowned fpire, fi-iely and tranfverfely ftriated.

AMADOW, a kind of black-match, tinder, or touch
wood, which comes from Germany. It is made of a fort
of large muduooms, or fpungy excrefcences, which com-

monly grow on old trees, efpecially oaks, afii, and firs. Thia
fubftance being boiled in common water, and afterwards dried
and well oealcn, is then put into 3 ftrong ley prepared with
falt-petre, after which it is again put to dry in an oven.
The druggifls fell this match wholefale in France, and fe-
veral hawkers retail it. See Agaric

Some give to the amadoiu the name oi pyrotechn'tcalfpunge,
becaufe of its aptnefs to take fire.

AMADOWRY, a kind of cotton which comes from
Alexandria, by way of Marfeilles.

AMiEA, or Amm^a, in Avcunt Geography, a town of
Lufitania, inhabited by the Ammienfes, between the Elvaa
and Tagus.

AMAGETOBRIA, now Broie, an ancient town of Gaul,
mentioned by Csfar, placed by M. d'Anville on the Arar,
to the fouth of Segobodium, and to the weft of Vefontio.

AMAGOR, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the
empire of Morocco, and province of Hea.

AMAGUANA, the name of one of the Lucayan or
Bahama iflands, called alfo Mayaguamt.

AMAIA, orAiviAGiA, formerly Vareg':a and Natr'icia,
a town of Spain, belonging to the Cantabri, on the confines
of Afliurias, about three leagues from Villa-Diego, at the
foot of a very high rock.

AMAILLOU, a town of France, in the department of
the Two Sevres, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrift
of Partenay, three leagues fouth-eafl of Breffuire.

ALMAIN, or Amavne, ^fia term, ufed by a man of
vi-ar, to his enemy ; and fignifyingjvVA/.

Hence, iojlrike amain, is, to lower, or let fall, the top-
fails. The word is alfo written amayne. — Waving ama'm, is
to make a fign to another veffel, by waving a bright fword,
or other thing, as a demand for ftriking its top-fails. — This
is commonly done either in the fore-top, or on the poop.
Amain is alfo a term ufed in letting down a thing, by a
tackle, into the hold, or elfewhere, in the lowering a yard,
or the like, to denote, that the failors are to let go that
part of the rope which they held before, and let down the
thing eafily, and by degrees. Amain is alfo ufed to denote
at once and inftantly ; as let go amain.

AMAK, called alfo Abulnagib al Bokari, in Bio-
grnphy, a celebrated Perfian poet, was a native of Bokhara,
and flouriihed towards the clofe of the nth century, under
the fovereigns of the Seljuk race. He was at the head of
an academy, confifiing of about 100 men of letters, with
handiome penfions, eftablifhed by Khedar Khan, who
reigned in the Tranfoxlan provinces, and who was a very
munificent patron of letters, and particularly of poetry.
This prince prefided in the academy, feated on a throne, at
the foot of which were four large bafons of gold and filver
coin, which were intended for the recompence of thofe poets
who obtained his approbation. Amak v.'as a dillinguiflied
favourite, lived by tlie bounty of his patron in great afflu-
ence, and kept a number of flaves, and thirty richly capari-
foned and trained horfes. Thus favoured, he became the objeft
of envy, and Ralchidi, whom he had recommended, endea-
voured to lupplanthim. Amak and Rafchidi were appointed
to contend for poetical vitlory in the fultan's prefence ; and
the latirlcal verles of the latter gained the prize, veiy much
to the mortification of the former. Amak lived nearly a
century. His principal work is the " Hiftory of the Loves
of Jofeph and Zoleiflcah," a romance, founded on the ac-
count of the patriarch Jofeph, in the Koran. He was moft
diltinguillied for his elegies. When fultan Sangiar was in-
confolable for the death of his fifter, and difregarded all the
elegiac verfcs of other poets, Amak was fent for to fool he
him ; and an elegy tranfmitted by him, when he was too

aired

A M A

A M A

o^cd »nd infirm for travcllinp;, obtained a decided preference. corpor.J nor
D'Hcrbcli)t. Gtn. Bio?. ainf (Iw Anf,

AMAL, Amalia, in Geogrnphy, a town of .Sweden, in
the province of 'I'lKiUand orDalland, featcd on llie A\'ener-
lake, which divides the town and ihe market place into tv»o
parts. The town was founded in 1640 ; it has a jrood har-
bour, and carries on a confidcrahle trade, particularly in
timber, deals and tar. It is the 89th town of thofe that
vote in the dit-t. N. lat. 58-' 50'. E. lonj;. 12" 40'.

AMALAEVA, a river of Siberia, which runs into tlio
Frozen Ocean. N. lat. 71° 10'. E. long. 12S'' 14'.

AMALAGO, in notmi)'. See Pin r.

AMALANCHIOR. See Mcspilus.

AMALARIC, or Amaury, in Biography and H'J}ory,
king of the Viliguths, was the fon of Alaric 11. ; but being
an infant of five y;ars, at liis father's death, in 506, the
throne was ufurped by Geiifalaic, the natural fon of Alaric.
Amalaric in the mean while retired into Spain ; and the
V figoths were governed by his grandfather, 'I'licodoric,
king of the Ollrogoths, who expelled Genfalaic from the
throne, till his death in 526, when Amalaric affiimed tlie
governineflt. This prince was zealoufly attached to the
Arian doctrine and canfe, and as he had married Clotilda,
the daughter ot C'lovis, who inherited the piety and ortho-
doxy 01 her mother, he ufed various means, and as the
Catlioiic hidorians fay, thofe of violence, to profclyte her
to his own 0])inion and party. In proccfs of time, after
patiently enduring the wrongs (lie fuifercd, flic eoirmuni-
catcd an account of them to her brothers, and tciUfjcd the
truth of her relation by accompanying it with a hanuktr-
chief ilained with blood. In confeqiience of this complaint,
her brother Chi'debert, king of France, marched with a
numerous army into the territories of Amalaric, defeated
him in an engagement, and forced him to take refuge on
board his fleet. But recollecting that his treafures were left
in the city of Narbonne, he went on fliore again, in order
to recover them ; but had no looner entered the city than
he was furprifed by the enemy ; and feeking fafcty in a church
belonging to the Catholics, a common foldier run him
through with a fpear, A.l). 531. Some fay, that he re-
tired to Barcelona, and was affafTinated by his own fuhjefls ;
but it is more probable, that the affaiTiu was either a Frank
or fome perfon cmpluved for this purpofe by Theudis, who
fucceeded him. Mod. Un. Flift. vol. xvi. p. 10.

AMAEASONTHA, regent and queen of Italy, was
the daughter of Theodoric tiie Great, king of the Ollrogoths,
by Audefleda, the fiiler of Clovis, and united in her perfon
the two mod; illuftrious famihes of the Barbarians. She
was born about the year 498, and in 515 was married to
Eutharic, the lail heir of the royal race of the An-.ali, whoiu
her father had fent from Spain, and dehgned for his fuc-
ceflbr ; as the fcx of his daughter excluded her from the
Gothic throne. Eutharic foon died and left an infant for.,
Athalaric, and Amalafontha alTumed the gnardianfliip of
her fon and of the kingdom of Italy. Her beauty was ani-
mated by manly fenfe, activity, and refolution. Education
and experience had cultivated her talents ; her philofophical
fludies were exempt from vanity ; and though (he cxpreifed
herfelf with great elegance and eafe in the Greek, the Latin,
and the Gothic tongues, {lie maintained in her counfels an
impenetrable filcnce. By a faithful imitation of the virtues
of Theodoric, flie revived the profperity of his reign ; and
ihe alfo llrove, with pious care, to expiate the faults, and
to obliterate thclefs favourable remembrance of his declining
age. The children of Boethius and SymmiKrhus were rc-
llored to their paternal hiheritaiice ; Ihe ir.fiidlcd neither

Vol. I.

corpord nor pecuniary penalties on her Rom.vi fuhjrA* ;
and (he defpifcd liie clamoui-s of the Goths, who, at the
end of 40 yeai-s, confidcrcd tlic pcojilc of Italy Uk their
Haves or their enemies. The mcafurei of lier nJmmill ration
were directed by the wifdoni, and alfo celebrated by the
eloquence, of CalTiodorius ; (he folicilcd and deferred tlic
fricndlhip of the empeior; and the kingdoms of Europe
refpected, both in peace and war, the majelty of the Gothic
throne. The education of liir fon engaged her particular
attention ; and flic employed three venerable Gollis to infld
into his mind the principles of honour and virtue, wliiKl he
w.-is diligently iiillruaed in all thofe arts and feirnees, which
might be either ufeful or oniamcnl.!) to a Itoman prince.
But the queen's folicitude for her fon's iinprovenicnt and
good conduft, produced a degree of vigilance and difciplinc,
againft which his untraCtable difpofilion recoiled, and which
his fubiee^s dif.ipproved. At length when the Goths witc
afTenibled on a public orcafion, in the palace of Ravenna,
the youtii eftai)ed from his mother's apartment, and com-
plained with tears of pride and anger of the chaftifemeut,
which his ilnbborn temper had induced her to inflifl. The in-
dignation of the Barbarians was roufed, and they accufed the
queen regent of coiifpiring againll the life and trown of her
Ion ; and proceeded to demand, that he (hould be refcucd
from his piefent tuition, and educated, like a valiant Goth,
in the fociety uf his equals. Amalafonlha was cumpcl'ed to
fubmit ; and the young prince became diflohilc and licen-
tious, defpifed his mother, ar.d eourtcrafted the falulary
meafnres which llie had been purfuing. In thefe circum-
flances flie entered into a negotiation with the emperor Juf-
tinian, and prepared for retiring from a feeiic of difcontent
and faftion. In the mean while (lie yielded to the impulfe
of ambition and revenge ; three of the mull dangerous male-
contents, who had been feparately remosed to the frontiers
of Italy, were anafTmated by her private emidarics ; and
this aft increafed the popular diffatisfattion and compbunt.
At this time the death of her fon, at the age of 16, in
confequence of premature intemperance, left Iter deditute
of any lirm fupport or legal authority. Inllead of fub-
milting to the laws of her ccuntiy, and retiring to a private
ftativiii, Ihe conceived the dclign of (baring, with one of her
coufins, the regal title, and of refei-ving in h.r own hands
the fubllance of fupreme power. The eloquent Cafliodorius 4
announced to the fenate and to the emperor, that Amala-
fontha and Theodatus had afcendcd the throne of Italy.
The ifTue of this feheme of ambition foon prbved difallroiis
and tatal. Inlligated bythe principal Goths,Theodatuscaufed
the queen to bcimprifoned in a fmall ifland, in the lake of
Bolfcna, where, after a (liort coniimment, ilie was flrangled
in tlie bath, (A.D. 53 j,) by the order, or with the connivance,
of the new king. Gibbon's Hift. vol. vii. p. 206 — 210.

AMALEK, in Scripture Hijlory, was the fon of Elipha/,
Efau's eldell fon, by his concubine Timna. Gen. xxxvi.
12 — 16. I Chron. i. ■56. He fucceeded Gatam, who was
one of the dukes in the land of Edom ; and was ti e father
of the Amalekites, wlio inhabited that part of Arabia
Petnea, which lay call of the Edomitcs, with Midian on the
north, Arabia Petrxa on the fouth, Arabia Deferta on
the call, and extended almoA as far north as the Dead Sea,
and fouthward to the Red Sea, or between Havilah and
Shur, 1 Sam. XV. 7. Thefe people had no conftant dwelling,
nor do they fcem to have had any cities ; but they changed
their abode, like the Arabs, and lived in tents or booths, as
they migrated from one part of the eountrj- to another, and
fometimes in fubterraneous caverns. It is not, therefore,
cafy to afccrtain the limits of their country. Mr. Reland
5 L place*

A M A

places them between the dcferts of Kadefh and thofc of
Engedi, though fomewhat nearer to the Mediterranean.
Jofephus, in one place, affirms, that they cxter.dtd from
Pelufium to the Red Sea, and in another place he fixes them
between Gabolitis and Petra. Antiq. lib. vi. c. 8. Ibid,
lib. iii. c. 2.

As foon as the Ifraelitcs had crofTcd the Red Sea, tlic
Amaleliites determined to cut them off; and with tliis view
they fell on their rear, as they were marching from Rephi-
dim to Mount Horcb, .nnd flew thofe who, through weak-
iiefs or fatigue, were left behind. But this unprovoked adanlt
was very juftly and fevcrely avenged upon themfclves by
Jothua, who defeated them with great {laughter, A. M. 2517,
B.C. 1487. Between the Amalekites and the liraclitcs,
there fecms to have fubfifted an irreconcileable enmity ; and
it has not been improbably traced to their progenitor's
having been deprived of his birth-right and bleffing by Jacob.
Under the Judges, they joined with the Midianitcs and Mca-
bites againll Ifrael, who were dehvered from the former by
Ehud, and from the latter by Gideon. Judges, vi. 3. II.
13. Saul, foon after he was advanced to the throne of
Ifrael, marched againll the Amalekites with a large army ;
advanced to their capital ; flew a great number of them,
and laid wafte their country ; but by referving to himfelf the
bell of the cattle and moveables, in violation of the divine
command, he laid the foundation of the calamities that
afterwards befell him, B.C. 1093. Some fugitives efcaped ;
and we find that fome years after this event a troop of Ama-
lekites pillaged Ziklag, which then belonged_to David ; but
be purfued and difperied them, and recovered the captives
and treafures which they had taken. 1 oam. xxx. The
Amalekites were thus gradually reduced ; and at laft, in the
days of Hezekiah, king of Judah, who began his reign,
B. C. 726, they were utterly deftroyed and fcattered by the
fons of Simeon, who took poffefTion of their country.
I Chron. iv. 40 — 43. Thus the declaration of Balaam, re-
corded Numb. xxiv. 20, was literally fulfilled ; " Amalek
was the firft of nations ; but his latter end fliaU be, that he
perifh for ever." According to the account of the Ara-
bians, Amalek was the fon of Ham, and grandfon of Noah ;
he was the father of Ad, and grandfather of Schedad.
Calmet inclines to this opinion ; for he fays, it is not eafy
to conceive how the Amalekites, if they were merely the
pofterity of the fou of Eliphaz and grandfon of Efau,
could be fo numerous and powerful as thefe people are re-
prefented to be when the Ifraelites departed out of Egypt.
Befides, when we call to mind the previous wars of the
Amalekites with Chcdoi'laomer (Gen. xiv. 7.) ; when we
coufider that Balaam calls them the firft, or beginning, of
nations ; when we refleft, that Mofes never ftyles them the
brethren of Ifrael or Edom ; that the latter never held any
confederacy or friendly correfpondence with them in all their
wars, but fuffered them to be invaded and butchered by
Saul, without affording them any affiilance ; and, laftly,
when we find them always mentioned with the Amorites,
Philiftines, and other Canaanitifh nations, and \v;th them
involved in the fame curfe, we can fcarcely forbear looking
upon them rather as a tribe of thofe nations, than as the
defcendants of Efau, who probably formed but a fmall
tribe, and not pennanently confpicuous. Of the Amalek,
deftroyed by Saul, the Arabians give the following account.
He was the fathi^r of an ancient tribe in Arabia, which
contained only the Arabians called pure, the remains of
whom were mingled with the pofterity of Jocktan and
Adnan, and fo became Mofarabes or Moftaarabes, /. e.
Arabians blended with foreigners. They believe, tiiat

A M A

Goliah, who A'Ss Overcome by David, was kirg of the
Amalekites, and that the giants who inhabited Paleilincr in
Jodiua's lime, were of the fame lace ; and tliat part of them
retired into Africa, W'hile Jofhua was hvlng, and fettled on
the coalls of Barbary. The fon of Amahk was Ad, a cele- t
brated prince among the Arabians, whom fome make the
fon of X}/., and grandfon of Aram, tiie fon of Shem. Calmet.
Sec Adites.

Amalek, in Geography, a monntain in the land of
Ephraim, on which the town of Pirathon v.ai filuiitcd,
where Abdon, fon of Hillel, judge of Ilrael, was buried,
A.M. 2H48, B.C. 1156. Judges xii. 14, 15.

AMALFI, or Amalpiii, an ancient fea-port town and
archiepifcopal city of Italy in the kingdom of Naples, and
Principato eitra, fituate on the weft coaft of the gulf of
Salerno. N. lat. 40° 35'. E. long. 15° 20'. The moft
generally received opinion of the origin of this city is, that
about the middle of the 4th centuiy a confidcrablc num-
ber of R(.n;an families, either with views of emolument or
by co'.npnlfoiy orders of the emperor, left Rome, and em-
barked for Conftantinople ; but meeting with adverfe ftorms,
they were call away on the ftiore of Salei-no ; and determin-
ed to form a fettlemcnt on the prefent fite of Amalfi. This
feeble and rifing colony was guarded by impervious moun-
tains and inaccelTible coafts, from the firft fury of the Lom-
bards, who feldom attempted the conquell of a maritiine
people. In the year 825 this fmall republic, under the
patronage of the eaftern emperor, attained a degree of wealth
and reputation which invited the attack of Sico, prince of
Salerno, who marched a body of troops by night, fuiprifed-
Amalfi, and carried off the greateft number of its inhabit-
ants to fupply the place of thofe, of whom Salerno had been
deprived by an epide:riical difordcr. The Amalfitaus tak-
ing advantage of the abfence of the chiefs of Salerno, in an
expedition againft the Beneventans, armed themfelves, and,-
after burning and plundering Salerno, marched back in
triumph to their native abodes. Being thus reftored to
their country, they formed a better conftitution and code of
laws, and adopted various meafures hkely to prevent inter-
nal difcord, and the affault of foreign enemies. Undei"
thefe new regulations Amalfi rofe to the fum.mit of its mili-
taiy and commercial glory. Pope Leo IV. found the _
Amalfitans an ufeful ally in his war with the infidels, and
conferred upon the commonvv'ealth the diftinguilhing title
of defender of the faith. The Neapolitans fought their
friendfhip, and the m.uffulmen courted alhance with them.
Their fituation was favourable for commerce ; and their at-
tention to naval affairs induced the emperor of Conftanti-
nople to eftablifti a court at Amalfi for the decifion of all
maritime difputes, and the code and reports of this court
obtained authority through this part of Europe. The mer-
chants of this tow-n engroffed the trade of the Levant, and
tranfafted the commercial bufinefs of the world in a lucra-
tive and exclufive manner. The importance of Amalfi, in
its various maritime and commercial connettions, led to the
eftabliftiment of the order of knighthood, under the patron-
age of St. John of Jerufalem, the members of which were
afterwards called knights of Rhodes, and fince of Malt3k
The charitable traders of this port obtained leave of the
muffulmen chief at the caliph's court, in 1020, to eredt
two fmall hofpitals and a chapel for the ufe of votaries com-
ing from the weftern parts of Europe. From Pafitano,
fays Mr. Swinburne, in the neighbourhood of Amalfi, was
derived the firft knowledge of the mariner's compass.

The flourifliing ftate of the Amaifitars expofcd them to

various affaults ; but they derived from the holy war tem-

3 Po«T

A M A

prti-ary refcue from th:r boflile attacks of their pnemies,
and thus were in foine degree rccompcnfcd for their chari-
table zeal on behalf of the pil~riris and fojourncrs in Palc-
iVuit. From tlie year i too, ■> I. n duke Rotjcr too.; pof-
fflFion of this ilate, and aboliih.ci even the ' ' .. ' its
rc'niblican conftitution, it has been cxpofod ks

of every power at variance with its now i-nail,-, ; i ' pil-
lage of it by the Pifans forms an interciii";; O'loclu! i'l its
hilloiy; for they carried away the Pandects, a copy of
the CouE which was formed by Juftinian the firft : a mer-
chant had brought it as a curiolity from Greece, but it had
obtaiaed no authority at Amalii, wliere the Theodofian
code was in force. Amalii, after the di:llruflion of its li-
berty, found that its commerce declined. Trade was en-
tirely loll to this coall in the reign of Joan the firll. The
nllenation of its lord'.hip to fcud;!l proprietors was without
doubt a circnmftance that luiRened its d Ifolution. The
lii-olher of pope Martin V. (Colonna) had the lirll grant of
Amahi ; the Sanfcvcrini the next ; tlien the Orfiiii acquir-
ed poflcffion ; and laiUy, Picolomini enjoyed it with the
title of duke.

Amalfi is now merely a (hadow of what it was in mag-
nitude, connections, and real importance, when it was in its
fl'juvilhirig ilate : when, from a narrow, though fertile, ex-
tent of land, by means of an aeceiTible and open fea, it
iupplied the wellern world with the manufatlures and pro-
ductions of the call ; when 50,000 citizens were numbered
within its walls : wiien it was more abundantly than any
other city provided with gold, filver, and the objects of
precious luxury; and when its fcttlements in Conftantiuople,
Antiorh, Jerufalem, and Alexandria, acquired the privileges
of independent colonies. Its buildings are not remarkable for
elegance and iize, and contain at moll 4000 inhabitants, who
fecm to be in a poor condition. It prefents few objefts
tliat can recall any idea of its ancient profperity. The ca-
thedral is not an agreeable building ; under the choir is the
chapel and tomb of the apolUe St. Andrew, in whole ho-
nour the edifice was dedicated, when cardinal Capuaiio, in
1208, brought his body from Conllantinople. Swinburne's
Travels, vol. iii. p. 220 — 236. Gibbon'sHift.vol. x. p. 280.

AMALGARI, ylmal^ame, Fr. — ylmr.lgama or i^ikkbrey.
Germ. — /Imalgnma, Ital.

The word amalgam, from a^a and •/a^m, conniibium, is a
■metaphorical term invented by the ancient chemilts, and re-
tained by the moderns to iignify any metallic alloy, of
which mercury forms an effential conilituent part. Hence,
as mercury remains fluid at the ufual atmofpherieal tempe-
rature, the theorj' and general phenomena of amalgamation
may be laid to be thofe of the folution of metals in
mercury.

All that is peculiar to the fevcral amalgams, fuch as the
method of preparing them, their charaCltriRic phyfical and
<;hemic->.l properties, and the ufes to which they are appli-
cable will be detailed hereafter in the article msrcury ; but
befides thefe there I'tmain to be dcferibed a nimiber of ge-
neral facts and appearances common to all amnlgams, wliich
may be treated of with more propriety here than clfe-
where.

The knowledge of the folvent power whicli mercury
exercifes over various metals, c(])eeially gold, was not only
known by the ancients, but, as we learn from Pliny, was ac-
tually employed by them in the feparation of gokl from
the bafer metals and in the gilding of fiiver. Velnfco and
Alonzo Barba, in the i6th century, applied the procefs of
amalgamation in the great way to the extraction of filver
from the ores of i'eru and Mexico ; but of the early the-

A M A

mlfts, Borrichius, Ofiander, Beechcr, and Slahl, are th«
only ones wlio iiave treattd of various amaleanui with the
view of comparing their refemblanccs, of notnig llieir pecu-
liarities, and thence deducing a few general axioni-s for the
benefit of feiencc. Rouelle and Fufchcl, foUovxinR tlie
ilcps of their predeceffor*, difeovcrcJ the cryllalll?.ability
ot metals from tlieir folutions in mercury, and Sji;e ha«
fmce cr.rielied this department of chemical jihilufophy with
a vail number of cunou3, concc\, and important obfcr»a-
tions.

f I . Melhodi of preparing Amal^ami,

The precautions required in the preparation of an amal-
gam depend confiderably on tiie degne of aflinity fubfilling
between tlic mercury and tlic metal made ufc of. Wliire
the ailinity is very powerful, as in the cafe with gold and
fiiver, the fluidity of the mercury without any f.ir'.lier con-
dition will effect a combination even at t!ic ufual atmofpha.
rieal temperature. Thus leaf-gold, by fimpic triluratioo
with mercuiy will form an amalgam in a few miiiutea ; ar.d
pieces of gold, lilver, or tin, even of confiderable tliiekntf.*,
by being immerfed in pure mcrcuiT will, in a f-'w days with-
out trituration, be wholly diffolved. Other metal* of
ftronger cohefion or weaker affinity require the aniftancc of
heat to make them amalgamate, fueh are zinc and antimony!
for this purpofe the zinc is melted in a craciblc, and being
then \\ithdrawn from the fire is allowed to cool till it it
upon the point of becoming folid, at tliis initant the mer-
cury, previoudy heated to boiling, is (lirred in, and the mix-
ture is kept fluid by a gentle heat till the combination ap-
pears to be perfect : it is of confequcnec to the fafcty of
the operator, and the fuecefs of the experiment, that the
mercury fliould be jirevioufly heated, otherwife the differ-
ence of temperature between the two metals at the time
of mixture will be very apt to produce an explofion. The
atlual fufion of the zinc or antimony is, however, by no
means abfolutely neccffaiy : the metal in fmall pieces being
put into a crucible, the ]>roper quantity of mercury is then
to be added ; the interlaces will thus be filled up, and the
niafs being then expofed to a heal a little lefs than ttunt re-
quired for tlie volatilization of mercury, the amalgamation
will in a flwrt time be completely effedttd. Thofe metals,
however, that require a full red lieat for their fufion, will
volatilize with explofion any mercur)- that is attempted to
be mixed with them while in this ilate, fuch, for example,
is copper. This is, therefore, bell amalgamated in the
moid way ; for which puipofe take a boiling hot faturated
folution of fulphat of copper, pour it into a glafs or Wedge-
wood ware mortar, and add mercury and iron filings ; the
iron will decompofc the fulphat of copper, and precipit.t»e
this latter metal in a finely divided (late, which by the heat
and moderate trituration will unite with the mercur)-, and
the combination may afterwards be perfe£ted by fufion at a
crentle heat in a crucible. Amalgams may be made either
folid or fluid, according to the proportion of mercury that
enters into their compofition ; the quantity of this laft,
however, that is required to give the amalgam a fluid (late,
is different for each metal, for the more powerful the aflinity
the lefs is tiie quantity of mercury required.

ij 2. Phcnonuiin ohfcrvnbh during Amalgamaiion.
All the appearances that happen during the combination
of metals with mercury indicate a real folution of one in the
otiier, owing to the chemical attraftion between the bodici
fo uniting. In proportion to the rcadinefs with which any
metal lends 10 amii.lgamalion is the force with which it ad-
5 L 2 here*

A M A

A M A

hfrts to mercury when applied to its furface ; aiid, vk'.icn a
pintc of this, fiifper.dcd to the arm of a balance, is brought
in contaCl with mercury, a greater or lefs cour.terpoifc will
be required to break, the adhefion, as the chemical affinity
between the two is flronger or weaker. (See Adhesion.)
Nor is this adhcfion an effee'l taking place merely at the
pline of contact, but an actual penetration or abforption of
the mercury is produced by the ether metal : thus, when a
plate of gold is placed in contact with mercury, not only the
lurface of adhellon is whitened by the mercury, but, after
remaining in this ftatc a few hours, the gold will become
brittle, and particles of mercury- may be obftrved through
its whole fubftance, having no doubt been drawn up through
its minutell porcs by the force of chemical attraftion.

During amalgamation, as is the cafe in all other inllances
of fir.iple folution, a confiderable quantity of caloric is ab-
forbed, producing the fenfation of cold, and lowering the
tliermonieter. This is rendered very fenfible to the touch,
by rubbing together in the palm of the hand equal parts of
an amalgam of bifmuth and an amalgam of lead ; the two
folids will almoft immediately become fluid, and a very con-
fiderable cold will be produced. The fa:ne may be (hewn
by the thei-momcler : if a quantity of mercury is heated to
about 80'' Fahr. and the bulb of a thermometer wrapped
round with tmtoil is then imrnerfed in it, a fpeedy folution
will take place, and at the fame time the mercury in the
thermometer will dcfcend a few degrees.

Another remarkable phenomenon of amalgamation is the
difpofiticn to oxydate which both metals exhibit while the fo-
lution is going on, and even after it is completed : it is im-
poffibie to combine biimuth, tin, or lead, with mercury,
without obferving as the proccfs advances the formation of a
quantity of black powder, which rifes to the furface of the
metals, and is a compoui:d oxyd of mercury and the other
metal. Upon this alfo depends Dr. Prieftley's fimple and
ingenious method of feparati.ig from mercury a large pro-
portion of the lead, &c. with which it is ufually contami-
nated ; for this purpofe nothing more is neccfiary than agi-
tation of the mercury in a bottle, with a little water, till it
ceafes to be dilcolourcd, or, in other words, tiU the amal-
gam is almoil wholly decompofed. Hence too is explained
the obfervation of Ifaac HoUandus, that gold and fiber may
be calcined in a reverbcratory furnace, if they have been
previoufly mixed with mercuiy.

§ 3. General Properties' of y^mafgams.

The fpecific gravity of amalgams, as of all other alloys,
is different from the mean fpecific gravity of their com-
ponent parts : fometmies it is greater, at other times lei's ;
and, according to Gellert, the amalgam of filver is of fupe-
rior fpecific gravity even to mercury, the weightiell; of the
two ingredients. This takes place, however, only at a low
tempei-ature ; for it was found by Sage that the amalgam of
■ filver, when heated, floats on the furface of mercury.

The more decidedly crj'ftalline form of amalgams, owing
to their foft or femi-fluid itate, at a moderately warm tempe-
rature, is a circumllancc that remarkably diftinguiflies them
from the pure metals. Any metal, when melted and cooled
very ilowly, will exhibit in its fracture a cryftalline ftrufture,
and the cryilals of which it is compofed may, by particular
management, be exhibited in a ftate of feparation from each
ether ; but fimilar appearances may be produced with much
greater eafe in amalgams. All amalgams are brittle, and
any of them, being broken, will exhibit a granular or lami-
nated texture, which, by the microfcope, will be found to
be owing to a multitude of minute cryllals, applied by the>r

furface.^ to each other, but not adhering with any tonfider-
able force. Induced by thefe appearances, M. Sage, after
many trials, fucceedcd in obtaining regular cryftals of inoi'k
of the amalgams by the following method. Having pre-
pared a very fluid amalgam, by adding four, five, or fi:t
times a greater quantity of mercury than of the other me-
tal, he put it into a retort, and proceeded to d'llillation in
a fand-bath, till a fourth, or even a third, of the mercury
had been driven off"; the refidue, being then allowed to cool
very gradually, was found regularly cryftaUized at the bot-
tom of the veffel. He thus obtained filver amalgam in the
form of articulated tetrahedrons and aluminiform octahe-
drons, refembling the native dendritic filver. In the fame
manner the amalgams of gold, bifmuth, tin, and zinc, af-
fumed the form of regular cryilals, but thofe of copper,
arfenic, and antimony, reiuled to cryflallizc.

Amalgams may be decompofed by heat, but the laft por-
tions of mercury are not driven off" without a much greater
heat tlian is required for the volatilization, of pure mercury.
Hence a large projioition of the volatile metals, fuch as
zinc and arfenic, unites with the mercury, and is carried
over with it, and even the more fixed ones, as gold and fil-
ver, arc thus rendered in part volatile.

As each metal has its peculiar affinity for mercury, it is
cbvious that an amalgam may be decompofed by the addi-
tion of a metal that has a flronger attraction to mercury
than that of which the amalgam is compofed : upon this
lub']ei£t, however, no accurate experiments have as yet been
made, which is the more to be regretted, as it would much
aflilt the inveiligation of the difficult but important fubjetl
of metallic alloys. One amalgam may even decompofe an-
other in a great meafure, as is the cafe with the amalgams
of lead and bifmuth : thefe being made feparately, with a
quantity of micrcury ce'^ual to the other ingredient, will be
folid and friable, but, upon mixture, will combine into a
fluid fcaicely to be diilinguifhed by its appearance from pure
mercury : by flanding fome days, however, in a temperature
not exceeding 40° Fahr. cubic cryllals will be oepofited of
almott pure bifmuth. For otlier particulars lee the feveral
amalgams under the word Mercury. Encycloped. me-
thod, art. Amalgame.

AMALGAMATION, in Metallurgy. See Silver
ores, extraSlon of.

AMALI, in Ancient Gcographv, a people comprehended
under the appellation of Getas.

AMALIA, in Entomology, a fpecies of papilio in the
Ihyinphales feftion, with indented wir.gs : upper fide brown,
underfide yellow with two ftreaks and fpots of blue, the lower
ones marked with black dots. Fabr. Ent. Syft. tom. iii.
p. I. p. 129. fp. 398. Obf. In addition to this fpecific
character Fabricius fays, above the brown colour of the
wings inclines to fulvous, and the pofl.erior pair is marked
with an obfolete row of fulvous fpots. Beneath, the apex
of the anterior wings has a black mark, and two blue fpots
with a black character in the middle of each ; the exterior
margin, two ftreaks, and feven fpots on the pofterior wings
are blue, the latter with black dots in the middle. Inha-
bits SieiTa Leon.

AMALLOBRIGA, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Spain, upon the Dwrius, to the fouth-eaft of Pallentia.

AMALRIC, AuGERi, in Biography, an ecclefiaftical
hiftorian of the 14th century, dedicated to pope Urban V.
a hiftory of the popes, under the title of " Chronicon Pon-
tificale," brought down to pope John XXII. and faid to be
collected from more than 200 writers.

AMALTHiEA, in Alytholo^x, the Cumxan Sibvl, who
6 ^' ii

A 1\I A

IS fiid to havf come from a far co\infry to Tarq»i:iii!» Rii.
J erbus. and to liavj oftci-td for fait iiiiii'' books of Sihylllue,
or prophetic onuks. Upon Tarqiiin's ivfiiial to pive her
the price fho aftcul, flic went away and burnt three of
t!iem. Returning foon after, {he demanded die fame price
for the remaining fix. Tlie king ridiculed her for lier folly,
upon which flie went and burnt other three ; and returning
Hiked the fame price for the three which remained. A.
Gclhus (I. 19.) fays, that the books were burnt in the
prcfence of the king. Tarquin, furpiiftd by this ftrange
condud, conlulted the augurs, who, regrettin"- the lofs of
the books which had been dt-ilroved, advifed the king to
give the price, wliich the woman required. Amalthxa, hav-
ing furrendend the books, with a defire that they might
be carefully kept, difappeared, and was never afterwards
fcen. Dionyf. iv. 62. Ladantius, i. 6. GtU. i. 19. Pliny
(xiii. 13. f. 27.) fays, that (lie burnt two books, and only
prefcrved one. See Sibyls.

AmaltH/'EA, the daughter of Meliffiis, king of Crete,
and nurfe of Jupiter, whom file is faid to have fed with

A M A

very ronrukrRble ucpiaintance witli tKe orimtal lar.f^uaprt,
^Vood (Alluii. Oxoii. n. 612.) fays, that about the ycur
161?, he vifitcd Oxford, refidtd in Kxettr college, ■iid
taught Hebrew in the uiiiverfuy- l^poii liis return to hif
native country, he wa» appointed proielfor of the Hcbicw
language in the univerlity of Fraiitker, where lie ronlinurd,
notwithllanding earnell folicitatloiu for his removal to
Leyden, in oiilcr to fucceed Erpenius, till lli^ death, whitli
happened in December 1620. Hi» firlt work was a crili-
cifm on the Vulgate tranllation of the Pentateuch, printed
in 4to. in 1620, at Franeker, and tntilled, " Crnfiira Vul-
gatx- I.atiiia- Editionis Pcntatcuchi." Tliis Wii-; part of a
plan wliich he had formed with a view to n *' (jcncral
Ccnfure of the Vulgate Verlion of the Scriptures," which
the council of Trent had declared authentic. But hi» at-
tention was diveitcd from the completion of Iii9 dcfign by
a collation of the Dutch veriion of tlic Scripiurcf, with
the originals, and the moll approved tranllations. 'I'he re-
fult of this collation was jiublifltcd in 1603, in the Dutch
language, under the title of " Hybelfche Confertiitir."

goal's milk and honey. According to others, Amalth?_-a Wliilft he was thus engaged, he received information that

was a goat winch nourldied Jupiter, and whom, in recom
jience for her attention, he trandatcd into the heavens, and
thus {he became the conllell.uion which bears this name.
It is added, that one of the horns of this goat was given to
the daughter of Melifl'us, as a reward for their kindntfs,
and that it had the [;cculiar property of funiilhing them
with wliatever they widied tor : and hence the Greeks for-
med of it their ronmcopia, or horn ot aluindance.

AMAl/l'HEO, mllio^riiphy, the name of a family of the
1 6th century, celebrated for literature originally from Porde-
none in Friuli, and branched out into fcveral places in that
province. In this family there were poets, phylicians, and
profcflors of belles Icttrcs. The molf dirtiiiguidied were the
tons of Fraiicefco Amaltheo, profclTor of belles Icttrcs in
Sacile ; viz. Girolamo, or Jerom, born in 1 507, at Oder-
•/.o in the Trevifan, who was iolicited by the queen of Po-
land to be her phyfician, but declined it. He taught me-
dicine at Padua, and praiftifed as a phyfician in feveral
towns of Friuli, till 1574, when he died at Oderzo highly
honoured by his townimen. He fo much excelled in La-
tin poetry, that he is placed by Muretus at the head of
all the Italians who cxercifed their talents in this way.
The famous epigram of " Aeon and Leonilla," is by this
author. Gimbat'tfia, or foi.n Bapujla, was born at Oder/.o
in 152c, educated at Padua, and at the age of 20, calltd to
Venice to inftrucl: the youth of the Lippomana family in
Dolite literature. His own ftudics comprehended, befidesthe
Greek, Eatin, and Ital-ian languages, philofophy, jurifpru-
dence, and theology. In 1554 he accompanied the Vene-
tian ambaffador, Michele, to England ; he was afterwards
fecretary to the republic of Ragufa, and accompanied the
cardinals deputed to the council of Trent, as firll fecretary
to pope Pius IV. He died at Rome in 1573, much la-
mented by the learned men of his time, by whom he was
highly ellecmed for Ills genius and erudition. FIls Latin
poems, firil printed in 155c, gave him a reputation equal to
that of his brother ; and he likewife wrote poems in his
own language that ar£ much valued. The Latin poems of
thefe two writers, and of another brother named Cnnirliiis,
who was a phyfician, are contained in the firft volume of the
" Delicia; Poet. Italor." and were publifhcd in a feparate
volume, at Venice in 1627, and at Amllerdam, in 1689.
Gen. Biog.

AMAMA, SixTiNus, an eminent biblical critic of
the 17th centui7, was born in Weft Friefland, educated un-
der Drufius in the uaiverfity of Franeker, and obtained a

father Mcrfennus, in vindication of the N'ulgate, had writ-
ten a refutation of his criticifm on the firft fix chapters of
Genefis, and he, therefore, refumed his original dcfign ;
and, in 1627, inibliflied a l-.tter to Merfennue, and in 1628
a work, entitled, " Arili-liaibanis Publicus ;" or contain-
ing a farther reply, tt)gether with a ccnfure of the Vulgate
on the hillorical hooks of the Old Tellament, on Job, tlic
Pfalms, and the books of Solomon, to which arc added,
differtations on particular fubje<its. This book was re-
printi<l at Franeker, in 410. in 1656, with a criticifm of
the Vulgate upon Ifaiah and Jeremiah. Amama alfo wrola
a learned ditfertation, " Oe Nomine Tetragrammato," which
was publilhed in Kvo. at Franeker in 1620. So lucctfsfiiUy
did he cxpofc the dcfeifts and errors of the Vulgate, and lo
earnelUy did he recommend the Ihidy of the r. ,ginal laii-
guages of the Bible, that it was decreed by fomc fynt-ds,
that tliofe only Ihould be admitted to the minillry, who
underlh'iod, at leaft in fomc degree, the Hebrew and Greek
texts of the Scripture. Amama alfo evinced his folicitude
for the lionBur of the univerfity at Franeker, by his at-
tempts to reform fome irregularities of conducft that pre-
vailed in it. He was fo much refpected by his countrymen,
that, after his death, they tellified their regard for his me-
mory bv tiieir liberality to his children. Gen. Diet.

AMAMASSIUS, in Andatt Gcopaphy, a town of the
ifle of Cyprus, in v/hich they worfliipped Apollo HyJalct.

AMAM-SAMA, a town of Judea, in the tribe of
Jud.ih.

AMAN, in Commerce, a fort of blue cotton cloth,
which conies from the Levant by the way of Aleppo.

A MAN, in yliicitnt Gco_^iaphy, a town of Palellinc, in the
fouthern part of the tribe of judah.

Am AN, ill Gecgraphf, a fea-port town of Africa, on the
Atlantic, between Cape Ger and Cape Cantin, in the king-
dom of Morocco.

A MAN, a ditlricl of Sumatra, about the centre of the
ifland.

AMANA.in /Inaenl Geography, ^ mountain of Palcftine,
on the other fide of Jordan, in the tribe of ManafTeh.
Amana, a town of Afia, in Media, according to Pto-

lemv.

.A.MANCE, in Grogrtiphy, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Mcurtc, and chief place of a canton in the
diftric^t of Nancv, three leagues fouth-wcft of Chatcau-Sa-
hus, and ij north-eall of Nancy.

Amance is alfo a town of France, in the department

of

444042

A r-,i A

of tkc Upper Saone, and chief place of a canton in the
diftrid of Juifcy, two lcii;4-.'.e3 call of Jiiffey.

AMAND, Mark Anthony Gerard, Sif.ur he
Saint, in Biography, a French poet of the 17th century,
was born at Rouen in Normandy in 1594. His father com-
manded a fquadron of ftiips in the fervice of qvieen EHzabeth
for 22 years, and his two brothers were killed in a battle
againll the Turks. As for hlmfelf, his whole life was fpjnt
in a fucceffion of travels in Europe, Africa, and America,
which, whatever might be the anudement or information he
derived from them, were injurious to his fortune. His
works iverc chiefly mifcellaneous poems, mod of wliich are
of the comic or burlefqne, and of the gallant or amorous
kind. Three volumes of his poems were publilhed in 4to,
at Paris ; the firll in 1627, the fecond in 1643, and ^^'^ '^''"''^
in 1649, under the title of " Les Qiuvres de St. Amand ;"
and they have pafled through feveral editions. His " Stan-
zas upon the Pregnancy of the Queen of Poland and Swe-
den" were printed in 1650; his " Mofes faved, a heroic
Idyllium," Paris, 1653, 4^°' ^'"^ 1660, l2mo : his " Stan-
»-,as to Monf. Corneille, upon his Imitation of Jefus Chrill,"
Pans, 1656, 4to ; and his " Rome ridicule," printed feveral
times in 4to and 1 2mo ; and when it was printed claudeftincly
at Paris in 1643, the printer was thrown into prifon. The
earlier part of Amand's life was licentious and debauched ;
but towards the clofe of it he was reformed, in confequcncc
of the penuiy and diilrefs of his circumftances. M. Broffete,
in his notes upon Boileau, fays, that he wrote a poem upon
" the Moon," in which he complimented Lewis XIV.
upon his flvill in fwimming, in which he was accuftomed to
exercife himfelf in the Seine ; but the king could not bear
to hear this poem read to him ; and this circumilance is faid
to have mortified the author to fuch a degree that he did not
long furvive. He died in 1661, at the age of 67 years.
He was admitted a member of the French Academy from
its firll foundation in 1633 ; and he was excufed from m.ik-
ing a fpeech upon his introduftion, on condition of liis
compihng the comic part of the Didlionai^ which the Aca-
demy had undertaken, and colledting the groteique and bnr-
lefque terms. Boileau reprefents the genius of St. Amand
as adapted to works of low humour and fatire ; but he adds,
that he fpoils all by the mean and trivial circumftances which
he introduces. Gei. Diit.

Amand, Pierre, born at Riez in Provence, about the
middle of the 17th centur}^ praftifed midwifery with
credit at Paris. In the year 1705 he publifhed " Nou-
velles Obfervations fur la Pratique des Accouchmens,"
in 8vo. of which a fecond edition appeared in the year
1715. He relates the cafes of feveral women who had extra-
uterine foetufes, and gives an account, accompanied with en-
gravings, of a kind of net he had invented for extracting the
heads of fcetufes, when left in the uterus, feparated from the
body. The invention is ingenious, but has long been laid
afide for the crotchet, by which the extraction is performed
with much greater eafe and certainty. Vide Eflais Hillo-
riques fur I'Art des Accouchmens, par M. Sue.

Amand, St. in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of Cher, feated on the river Cher, 20 miles fouth
of Bourges. N. lat. 46^ 45'. E. long. 2° 30'.

Amand, St. is alfo a town of France, in the department
of the North, in which was lately a celebrated abbey. When
the combined forces of Pruffia and Auilria invaded France
in 1792, it was taken by them, but evacuated afterwards in
their memorable retreat. It was given to France by the
treaty of Utrecht. It is feated on the river Scarpe, ieven
miles north of Valenciennes. N. lat. 50° 27'. E. long.
3." Z5''

A M A

Amand, St. a fmall town of Fiance, in the diocefe tif
Auxerre. — Alfo a fmall tov.-n in the diocefe of Clermont.

AMANDA, in Ancient Geography, a country' of India,
which, according to Piiay, contained various people, under
the denominations of Sauiarabrije, Sanibruceni, Bifambrili,
Ofii, Antixeni, and Taxill;*;.

AMANDAVA, in Ornithology, a fpecies of Fringilla
that inhabits Afia, and is coiicifely defcribed by Linusus, as
being of a brown and reddiili colour, fix)tted with wliite.
It is about the fize of a wren, or four inches in length :
the upper part of the plumage brown, with a mi>;ture of
dull red, the under part of the fame colours, but paler,
except the middle of the belly, which is darkeft. Every
feather in the upper wing-coverts, bread, and iides, has
a white fpot at the tip. The bill is dull red, tail black,
and legs pale yellow. The female has a mixture of white
on the throat and fore-part of the neck, and the belly is
pale yellow.

This fpecies is frequent in Bengal, and has been called
the Bengal finch (or Amaduvade). In allufion to this, Brii-
fon names it Bengalus puntlatus, and Buffon Bengale pi-
quete.

There is a variety of this fpecies, the Amandava /?.
of Linnseus, hitherto found only in Bengal, which is
faid to be entirely brown, and without ipots. This is
the Bengalus fufcus of Briffon, and Bengale Brun of Buf-
fon. PI. enl. 115. f. 2. but it feems this variety is not al-
ways immaculate. Some have a fmall white fpot at the tip
of each of the wing coveit feathers, and there is in general a
little white on the breaft alfo. The female ia brown, with-
out white fpots : the legs, as in the preceding, yellowilh.

AMANDRA, in Ancient Geography, a tovvn of Edii-
opia, placed by Suidas in the territories of king Cepheus.

AMANGO Cape, in Geography, lies on the fouth-eaft part
of the ifland of Corfica, and forms the limit of Bonifacio
bay. It is eafily known by a large caille, and two rocks,
which are fituated juft below the haven.

AMANGUCHI, a town of Japan, the capital of
the kingdom of Nagaro, and one of the richell towns
of Japan.

AMANIA, in Ancient Geography, a name given to Ara-
bia Felix, or to that part of it called Yemen.

AMANIBO, a town of South America, on the coaft of
Guiana, between Paramaribo and Cayenne.

AMANICyE, or Amanid.^, porta: or pyhn, in Ancietit
Geography, denote defiles in the mountain Amanus.

Amanita, in Botany. See Agaricus.

AMANNTA. See Ammannia and Peplis.

AMANOA, mBotany, a genus of the pentanelria monogynia
clafs and order. Its charafters arc, that the calyx is quinque.
partite ; no corolla ; the germen is triangular, the ftigma
trigonous, concave, and fimbriated. There is one fpecies,
vi%. A. guianen/ts, Aubl. pi. gui.

AMANOBII, in Ancient Geography, a people placed by
Ptolemy in Sarniatia, in the vicinity of tlie Roxolance.

AMANOIDES, a promontory ol Cilicia, between the
rivers Pyramus and Cidnus.

AMANTEA, a fea-port town and bifhop's fee of
the kingdom of Naples, on the well; coaft of Calabria
Citra, near the bay of Euphemia. N. lat. 39° 15'. E. long.
16° 21'.

AMANTHONTE, in Entomology, a fpecies of Papilio
in the feftion Danai Candidi, with rotund wings, white and
black at the tips. The margin of the poilerior wings on
the under fide is brown. Inhabits South America.

AMANTIA, in Ancient Geography, a town in that part
of Epirus called by Ptolemy Ortiiidcs, and fiiice denomi-
nated

A M A

iJ3f'-J New Epin-.s. It is placed by M. d'Anville in tJie in.
teiioi- of the couiUiy, on the river CtlydnuG. Tlic inliabi-
tanls were denomiuattd Amantcs, or y\niaiuini.

AMANUS, the name of a mountain, fituatc at the fad-
era extremity of tlie Mediterranean, near the gulf of KTus,
a id feparating Cillcia from Syria. 'I'he defile or pafs of this
111 )unt:iin, which forms a communication between tliefe
countries, is called Porliis yimanictis, or Pyl't Ci/icLr, the
Gates of Cilicia. Tlie Perfian army, under Darius, irarelied
tl'.rough this (bait, while that of Alexander was encamped
at Iffiis, after havinp; patTed the Strait of Mount Taurus,
culled alfo one of the Gates of Cilicia. This defile is alfo
famous for the victory gained by vSeptimiiis Severus over
Pelceiinius Niger. This mountain extends between the 37th
and 3!?th degree of latitude, and its direction is from tl\c
north-call to the fouth-wcft. Some geographers have made
it a branch of Mount Taurus. Stephanus Byz. Hiys, that it
took its name from the Greek word f^r.na, vian'u, becaufc
Oreftes was delivered here from the furies which agitated
him after the afiaffination of his mother.

Amanus, orOMANUs, in Mythology, the deity of the
ancient Porfians, \\ hich they believed to be the fun, or the
perpetual fire, which they adored as an image or emblem
of the fun. ^^

AMANZIRtFDIN, in Geography, a town of Arabia,
440 miles call of Mecca, and 5H4 north-eaft. of Mocha.
N. lat. 20° 25'. E. long. 67° 30'.

AMAPALLA, a fea-port town in the province of Gua-
timala, in North America, Htuate on a gulf of the fame
name, 220 miles fouth-ealt of the town of Guatimala. The
inhabitants of this town and its vicinity cany on a coniider-
able trade in cochineal, cocoa, hides, and indigo, and the other
commodities of the province. N. lat. 12"^ 30'. W. long.
86-^ 40'.

Amapalla Bay, or Cu^f, lies on the weflern coaft
of Mexico, in North America, iouth-eaft from Guatimala,
and north-weft from Realejo, in the direftion of the coaft.
The entrance into the bay is between two peninfulas, which
approach near each other, and defend the bay from the
ocean ; but within it is very fpacious, extending from north-
Wcft to fouth-caft. It forms the harbour of the town of
Amapalla, fometimes called Fonfeca or Penftca. The coaft,
within the limits of the gulf, and without the bay, is free
from rocks and flioals, and affords good anchorage ; on the
v.'eft lide of the bay there is a hill, called the Kill of Ama-
palla, with a port at the foot of it called Martin l>opes.
In the Gulf of Amapalla are two illands : one, called Man-
gera, is a high round land, encompafted by rocks, with a
fmall fandy creek on the north-eail iide ; and the other,
called Amapalla, and the largeft, is about the diilance of

A IM A

two miles. The pilf, though it nin» a great vnr brj-otid
this illand, ia not deep enuugli to receive fhipi ol burden.
Malham's Gaz.

AMARA, in jinciait Geography,
Felix.

a town of Arabia

Amara iNniCA, in Dolnny. Sec Momordica.

AMARACUS. Sec ORinANi-M.

AMARANTH, in G^'.-raph, a confidcnibic «nd pica-
fant town of Portugal, in the province of Eiitrc Minho, on
the river Tanuga, 13 miles fotilli-c.ift of Jlraga, and 3c c.ill-
north-eaft of Oporto. N. lat. 41" 19'. \V. long. 6- 52".
It contains about 4000 inhabitants, and is fituatcd in a very
delightful countr)',

AMARANTH, an order of knighthood, innitiitcd in
Sweden by Queen Cliriftina in 1653, at the clofe of an an-
nual feaft, celebrated in that country, 1

cha/t.

ry, and called H'irif-

This feaft was folcmnizcd with cntrrtaiiimciW'i, b:>ll»,
mafquerades, and tlie like diverfions, and held from evening
till the next morning. That princefs, thinking the name too
vulgar, changed it into that o{ lUc J'tq/l rf ih, x'-'/j, bee;!!/;-
each perfon here reprefented fome deity "according as it Idl
to his lot. The queen affumed the name o( ylmaronle, th:ii
IS, unfiuiing, or immorlnl. The young nobility, drefltd in
the habit of nymphs and fticpheids, fvrvtd the gods at the
table. At the end of the feaft, the queen threw off her
habit, which was covered with diamonds, leaving it to be
pulled in pieces by the mafques, and in memor)- of fo gallant
a feaft, founded a military order, called in Swidlfli g/fcil-
chafft, into which all that had been prefeiit at the feaft were
admitted, including fixteen lords, and as many ladies, bc-
fides the queen. Their device was the cypher of amaronit,
compofed of two A's, the one dircft, the other inverted, and
interwoven together on a jewel of gold adorned with dia-
monds ; the whole inclofed by a laurel crown, with this
motto, dalce iiella mcmoria. The jewel was woiri bv the
knights either in a gold chain, or a crimfon or blue ril/iion.
Bulllrode 'Wliitlnek, the Eiiglifli anibalfador from Cromwell
to the court of Svvtden, was made a knight of the order of
iimaroite. On which account it feems to be, that we fom.e-
times llnd him iiyl J Sir Bulftrode Wliitloek.

Amarani ii denotes a colour inchning to purple, derived
from the flower of this name.

Amaranth, Glohf, in Botany. See Gomphrena.

AMARANTHI SpJra. See Phrvma.

AMARANTHOyy^?/;/-. Sec Gomphrena and Illk-

CEURUM.

AMARANTHOIDES. SccCelosia, GoMPHRtsA
and Illecebrum.

END OF THE FIRST VOLUME.

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Kcw-Sneci Scjiiaie.

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